BLACKWELL COMPANIONS TO THE ANCIENT WORLD

A COMPANION TO Women in the ancient World EDITED BY sharon l. James and Sheila Dillon

A COMPANION TO WOMEN IN THE ANCIENT WORLD BLACKWELL COMPANIONS TO THE ANCIENT WORLD

This series provides sophisticated and authoritative overviews of periods of ancient history, genres of classical literature, and the most important themes in ancient culture. Each volume comprises approximately twenty-five and forty concise essays written by individual scholars within their area of specialization. The essays are written in a clear, provocative, and lively manner, designed for an international audience of scholars, students, and general readers.

ANCIENT HISTORY A Companion to Greek Rhetoric Published Edited by Ian Worthington A Companion to Ancient Epic A Companion to the Roman Army Edited by John Miles Foley Edited by Paul Erdkamp A Companion to Greek Tragedy A Companion to the Roman Republic Edited by Justina Gregory Edited by Nathan Rosenstein and Robert Morstein-Marx A Companion to Latin Literature A Companion to the Roman Empire Edited by Stephen Harrison Edited by David S. Potter A Companion to Greek and Roman Political Thought A Companion to the Classical Greek World Edited by Ryan K. Balot Edited by Konrad H. Kinzl A Companion to Ovid A Companion to the Ancient Near East Edited by Peter E. Knox Edited by Daniel C. Snell A Companion to the Ancient A Companion to the Hellenistic World Edited by Egbert Bakker Edited by Andrew Erskine A Companion to Hellenistic Literature A Companion to Late Antiquity Edited by Martine Cuypers and James J. Clauss Edited by Philip Rousseau A Companion to Vergil’s Aeneid and its Tradition A Companion to Ancient History Edited by Joseph Farrell and Michael C. J. Putnam Edited by Andrew Erskine A Companion to Horace A Companion to Archaic Greece Edited by Gregson Davis Edited by Kurt A. Raaflaub and Hans van Wees A Companion to Families in the Greek and Roman Worlds A Companion to Julius Caesar Edited by Beryl Rawson Edited by Miriam Griffin A Companion to Greek Mythology A Companion to Byzantium Edited by Ken Dowden and Niall Livingstone Edited by Liz James A Companion to the Latin Language A Companion to Ancient Egypt Edited by James Clackson Edited by Alan B. Lloyd A Companion to Tacitus A Companion to Ancient Edited by Victoria Emma Pagan Edited by Joseph Roisman and Ian Worthington A Companion to Women in the Ancient World A Companion to the Punic Wars Edited by Sharon L. James and Sheila Dillon Edited by Dexter Hoyos A Companion to Sophocles A Companion to Augustine Edited by Kirk Ormand Edited by Mark Vessey A Companion to the Archaeology of the Ancient Near East A Companion to Marcus Aurelius Edited by Daniel Potts Edited by Marcel van Ackeren A Companion to Roman Love Elegy A Companion to Ancient Greek Government Edited by Barbara K. Gold Edited by Hans Beck A Companion to Greek Art A Companion to the Neronian Age Edited by Tyler Jo Smith and Dimitris Plantzos Edited by Emma Buckley and Martin T. Dinter A Companion to Persius and Juvenal A Companion to Greek Democracy and the Roman Republic Edited by Susanna Braund and Josiah Osgood Edited by Dean Hammer A Companion to the Archaeology of the Roman Republic A Companion to Livy Edited by Jane DeRose Evans Edited by Bernard Mineo A Companion to Terence A Companion to Ancient Thrace Edited by Antony Augoustakis and Ariana Traill Edited by Julia Valeva, Emil Nankov, and Denver Graninger A Companion to Roman Architecture Edited by Roger B. Ulrich and Caroline K. Quenemoen A Companion to Sport and Spectacle in Greek and Roman LITERATURE AND CULTURE Antiquity Published Edited by Paul Christesen and Donald G. Kyle A Companion to Classical Receptions A Companion to Edited by Lorna Hardwick and Christopher Stray Edited by Mark Beck A Companion to Greek and Roman Historiography A Companion to Greek and Roman Sexualities Edited by John Marincola Edited by Thomas K. Hubbard A Companion to Catullus A Companion to the Ancient Novel Edited by Marilyn B. Skinner Edited by Edmund P. Cueva and Shannon N. Byrne A Companion to Roman Religion A Companion to Ethnicity in the Ancient Mediterranean Edited by Jorg Rupke Edited by Jeremy McInerney A Companion to Greek Religion A Companion to Ancient Egyptian Art Edited by Daniel Ogden Edited by Melinda Hartwig A Companion to the Classical Tradition A Companion to Food in the Ancient World Edited by Craig W. Kallendorf Edited by John Wilkins and Robin Nadeau A Companion to Roman Rhetoric A Companion to Ancient Aesthetics Edited by William Dominik and Jon Hall Edited by Pierre Destree & Penelope Murray A COMPANION TO WOMEN IN THE ANCIENT WORLD

Edited by Sharon L. James and Sheila Dillon This paperback edition first published 2015 © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd

Edition history: Blackwell Publishing Ltd (hardback, 2012)

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data A companion to women in the ancient world / edited by Sharon L. James and Sheila Dillon. p. cm. – (Blackwell companions to the ancient world) Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 978-1-4051-9284-2 (hardback : alk. paper) ISBN 978-1-119-02554-2 (paperback) 1. Women–History–To 500. 2. Civilization, Ancient. I. James, Sharon L. II. Dillon, Sheila. HQ1127.C637 2012 305.4093–dc23 2011029133 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.

Cover image: Terracotta group of ‘knucklebone’ (astragalos) players, Hellenistic Greek, about 330-300 BC, said to be from Capua; made in either Campania or Puglia, southern Italy. © The Trustees of the British Museum.

Set in 10/12pt Galliard by SPi Publisher Services, Pondicherry, India

1 2015 Contents

List of Illustrations ix Notes on Contributors xvi Preface and Acknowledgments xxiii Abbreviations xxiv Maps xxvi

Introduction 1 PART I Women Outside and Rome 5

Case Study I: The Mother Goddess in Prehistory: Debates and Perspectives 7 Lauren Talalay

1 Women in Ancient Mesopotamia 11 Amy R. Gansell

2 Hidden Voices: Unveiling Women in Ancient Egypt 25 Kasia Szpakowska

3 Looking for Minoan and Mycenaean Women: Paths of Feminist Scholarship Towards the Aegean Bronze Age 38 Marianna Nikolaïdou

4 Women in Homer 54 Cristiana Franco

5 Etruscan Women: Towards a Reappraisal 66 Vedia Izzet vi Contents

PART II The Archaic and Classical Periods 79

Case Study II: Sex and the Single Girl: The Cologne Fragment of Archilochus 81 Sharon L. James 6 Woman, City, State: Theories, Ideologies, and Concepts in the Archaic and Classical Periods 84 Madeleine M. Henry and Sharon L. James

7 Women and Law 96 Barbara Levick

8 Women and Medicine 107 Holt Parker

9 Reading the Bones: Interpreting the Skeletal Evidence for Women’s Lives in 125 Maria A. Liston

10 Approaches to Reading Attic Vases 141 Kathryn Topper 11 Spartan Girls and the Athenian Gaze 153 Jenifer Neils 12 Interpreting Women in Archaic and Classical Greek Sculpture 167 A. A. Donohue 13 Dress and Adornment in Archaic and Classical Greece 179 Mireille M. Lee 14 Women and Religion in Greece 191 Eva Stehle 15 Women and Roman Religion 204 Lora L. Holland 16 Women in Magna Graecia 215 Gillian Shepherd

PART III Women in a Cosmopolitan World: The Hellenistic and Late Republican Periods 229

Case Study III: Hellenistic Tanagra Figurines 231 Sheila Dillon

Case Study IV: Domestic Female Slaves in Roman Comedy 235 Sharon L. James Contents vii

17 Female Patronage in the Greek Hellenistic and Roman Republican Periods 238 Anne Bielman

18 Women on Hellenistic Grave Stelai: Reading Images and Texts 249 Christina A. Salowey

19 Female Portraiture in the Hellenistic Period 263 Sheila Dillon

20 Women and Family in Menander 278 Cheryl A. Cox

21 Gender and Space, “Public” and “Private” 288 Monika Trümper

22 Oikos Keeping: Women and Monarchy in the Macedonian Tradition 304 Elizabeth D. Carney

23 The Women of Ptolemaic Egypt: The View from Papyrology 316 Maryline Parca

24 Jewish Women: Texts and Contexts 329 Laura S. Lieber

25 Women, Education, and Philosophy 343 Marguerite Deslauriers

26 Perceptions of Women’s Power in the Late Republic: Terentia, Fulvia, and the Generation of 63 BCE 354 T. Corey Brennan

PART IV The Beginnings of Empire 367

Case Study V: Vergil’s Dido 369 Sharon L. James

27 Women in Augustan Rome 372 Judith P. Hallett

28 Women in Augustan Literature 385 Alison Keith

29 Women on the Bay of Naples 400 Eve D’Ambra

30 Early Imperial Female Portraiture 414 Elizabeth Bartman viii Contents

31 Portraits, Prestige, Piety: Images of Women in Roman Egypt 423 Christina Riggs

PART V From Empire to Christianity 437

Case Study VI: Female Portraiture in Palmyra 439 Maura K. Heyn

32 Women in Imperial Roman Literature 442 Rhiannon Ash

33 Female Portraiture and Female Patronage in the High Imperial Period 453 Rachel Meyers

34 Women in Roman Britain 467 Lindsay Allason-Jones

35 Public Roles for Women in the Cities of the Latin West 478 Emily A. Hemelrijk

36 Rari exempli femina: Female Virtues on Roman Funerary Inscriptions 491 Werner Riess

37 Women in Late Antique Egypt 502 Jennifer Sheridan Moss

38 Representations of Women in Late Antiquity and Early Byzantium 513 Ioli Kalavrezou

39 Becoming Christian 524 Ross S. Kraemer

Appendix: Women in Late Antiquity (Apart from Egypt): A Bibliography 539 References 545 Index of Women 605 Subject Index 611 List of Illustrations

Maps

1 Place names mentioned in Part I: Women Outside Athens and Rome xxvi 2 Place names mentioned in Part II: The Archaic and Classical Periods xxviii 3 Place names mentioned in Part III: Women in a Cosmopolitan World: The Hellenistic and Late Republican Periods xxx 4 Place names mentioned in Part IV: The Beginnings of Empire and Part V: From Empire to Christianity xxxii

Figures

1.1 Plan of Royal Tomb 800 at Ur, third millennium BCE. Courtesy of the University of Pennsylvania Museum, negative no. S8-56378. 14 1.2 Adornment of Queen Puabi, Tomb 800 of the Royal Cemetery at Ur, third millennium BCE. Courtesy of the University of Pennsylvania Museum, negative no. 152100. 15 1.3 Drawing of the front and back of an ivory comb, Tomb 45 at Ashur, second millennium BCE. H. 4.7 cm. Vorderasiatische Museum, Staatliche Museen zu Berlin, VA Ass 1097 [Ass 14630 ax]. From Haller (1954), Figs. 163a–b. Drawing: Courtesy Deutsche Orient-Gesellschaft. 18 1.4 Detail of the queen from a relief showing King Ashurbanipal and his queen banqueting in the royal garden, the North Palace at Nineveh, first millennium BCE. British Museum, WA 124920. Photo: © Trustees of The British Museum. 21 1.5 Levantine ivory head of a woman wearing a diadem, the Burnt Palace at Nimrud, first millennium BCE. H. 4.19 cm. The Metropolitan Museum of Art, Rogers Fund, 1954, 54.117.8. Photo: © The Metropolitan Museum of Art. 22 x List of Illustrations

2.1 Limestone ostrakon of a woman suckling an infant. Note the shelter in which they sit, and the unusual hair and shoes. Below is another female (?) carrying a mirror and cosmetics. Photo: © Trustees of the British Museum. 29 2.2 Menna supervises agricultural work. Mural painting from the vestibule of the Tomb of Menna in Thebes, Egypt. Photo: © DeA Picture Library/ Art Resource, NY. 31 2.3 Wooden female figure, probably Middle Kingdom. Photo: Courtesy of Egypt Centre, Swansea University, Wales. 31 2.4 Elevated platform in a house in New Kingdom Deir el-Medina. Photo: Courtesy of Kenneth Griffin. 36 2.5 After Auguste Mariette (1869–1880). Abydos: Description des fouilles executees sur l’emplacement de cette ville. Ouvrage publie sous les auspices S. A. Ismail-Pacha (Paris) v. 2, pl. 60. 37 3.1 “Dancer” fresco from the “Queen’s Megaron,” Knossos palace. Late Minoan II—Mycenean, fifteenth century BCE. Crete, Herakleion Archaeological Museum. Photo: Nimatallah/Art Resource, NY. 41 3.2 ”Lady of Phylakopi,” terracotta figurine from Melos. Mycenean, fourteenth century BCE. Melos, Archaeological Museum of Plaka. Photo: Erich Lessing/Art Resource, NY. 43 3.3 Anthropomorphic terracotta vase (“Goddess ”) from Mochlos. Early Minoan III, late third millennium BCE. Crete, Herakleion Archaeological Museum. Photo: Nimatallah/Art Resource, NY. 45 3.4 Ivory female triad from Mycenae. Minoan craftsmanship; Late Minoan I, sixteenth century BCE. Athens, National Archaeological Museum. Photo: Vanni/Art Resource, NY. 49 3.5 Young girl (priestess?) with ritual vessel. Wall painting from the West House at Akrotiri, Thera, Late Cycladic I, seventeenth century BCE. Athens, National Archaeological Museum. Photo: Erich Lessing/Art Resource, NY. 51 5.1 “The Judgement of Paris.” Line drawing of an Etruscan mirror (in Figure 5.2). Fitzwilliam Museum, Cambridge, UK. Drawing: Courtesy of the Syndics of the Fitzwilliam Museum. 71 5.2 “The Judgement of Paris.” Etruscan mirror (fourth century BCE). Fitzwilliam Museum, Cambridge, UK. Photo: Courtesy of the Syndics of the Fitzwilliam Museum. 72 9.1 Os coxa (hip bone) of an adult female, twenty-five to thirty-five years old, showing the auricular surface and pubic symphysis, features used in determining the age of adults. M. H. Wiener Laboratory modern collection, American School of Classical Studies at Athens. Photo: author. 129 9.2 Maxilla of an adult female, forty-five to fifty-five years old. Arrows indicate linear enamel hypoplasias (LEH). Athenian , early . Photo: author. 132 9.3 Mandible and maxilla of an adult female, thirty to forty years old. Arrow indicates a groove on the maxillary central incisor probably caused by using the teeth in hand spinning. Liatovouni, Epirus, early Iron Age. Photo: author. 135 List of Illustrations xi

9.4 Sacroiliac joint (top) and thoracic vertebra (bottom) of an adult female, thirty-five to fifty years old. Arrows indicate lesions probably resulting from brucellosis infection. Liatovouni, Epirus, early Iron Age. Photo: author. 136 9.5 Superior surface of the eye orbits of a child, eight to ten years old. Arrows indicate areas of Cribra Orbitalia (CO). Athenian agora, second century BCE. Photo: author. 137 10.1 Red-figure epinetron, Painter. Athens, National Archaeological Museum 1629; ARV2 1250.34, 1688; Paralipomena 469; Beazley Addenda2 354. Photo: Eva-Maria Czakó, DAI-ATH-NM 5126. 142 10.2 Black-figure , showing women at a fountain house. London, British Museum B 329; ABV 334.1, 678; Paralipomena 147; Beazley Addenda2 91. Photo: © Trustees of the British Museum. 143 10.3 Red-figure with symposium scene. Attributed to the Ashby Painter. New York, Metropolitan Museum of Art 1993.11.5; ARV2 455.8; Beazley Addenda2 242. Photo: © The Metropolitan Museum of Art/Art Resource, NY. 145 10.4 Red-figure kylix, Briseis Painter; tondo with erotic scene. Tarquinia, Museo Nazionale; ARV2 408.36; Beazley Addenda2 232. Photo: Hermann Wagner, DAI-ATH-Diversa 133. 148 10.5 Attic red-figure , showing a woman drinking from a skyphos followed by a small maid. Date: 470–460 BCE. J. Paul Getty Museum, inv. no. 86. AE. 265. Photo: The J. Paul Getty Museum, Villa Collection, Malibu California. 149 11.1 Attic red-figure kylix near the Jena Painter, c. 400 BCE. Boston, Museum of Fine Arts 1900.354. Photograph © Museum of Fine Arts, Boston. 154 11.2 Attic red-figure kylix attributed to the Aberdeen Painter, c. 450–430 BCE. Boston, Museum of Fine Arts 03.820. Photograph © Museum of Fine Arts, Boston. 157 11.3 Attic red-figure kylix attributed to the Marlay Group, c. 430–420 BCE. Malibu, J. Paul Getty Museum 86.AE.297. Photo: The J. Paul Getty Museum, Villa Collection, Malibu, California. 159 11.4 Laconian bronze mirror handle of a caryatid mirror, c. 530 BCE. New York, Metropolitan Museum of Art, inv. no. 74.51.5680. Cesnola Collection. Photo: © The Metropolitan Museum of Art/Art Resource, NY. 162 11.5 Tondo of an Attic red-figure kylix attributed to the Painter of Bologna 417, c. 460 BCE. New York, Metropolitan Museum of Art Rogers Fund 1906.1021.67. Photo: © The Metropolitan Museum of Art/Art Resource, NY. 164 12.1 Ivory statuette from the Kerameikos cemetery, Athens, late eighth century BCE. Athens, National Museum 776. Photo: American School of Classical Studies at Athens, Archives, Alison Frantz Photographic Collection. 170 12.2 Marble figures L and M from the east pediment of the Parthenon, Athens, c. 438–432 BCE. London, British Museum 1816,0610.97, Sculpture 303. L and 303.M. Photo: © Trustees of the British Museum. 173 xii List of Illustrations

12.3 Lady of Auxerre, limestone figure probably from Crete, mid seventh century BCE. Paris, Louvre Ma 3098. Photo: American School of Classical Studies at Athens, Archives, Alison Frantz Photographic Collection. 174 12.4 Roman copy of the Aphrodite of Knidos by Praxiteles. Original c. 350–340 BCE; this version comes from the Villa of the Quintilii in Rome. Munich, Glyptothek, Staatliche Antikensammlung, inv. no. 258. Photo: Vanni/Art Resource, NY. 175 13.1 Diagram of the main types of Greek garments: (a) peplos, (b) chiton, (c) chiton with himation. Drawing by Glynnis Fawkes. 183 13.2 Statue that stood atop the grave of Phrasikleia; Parian marble statue made by Aristion of Chios, c. 550–540 BCE. Found at Merenda (ancient Myrrhinous), . Photo: Vanni/Art Resource, NY. 184 13.3 Marble votive relief to Artemis, found at Echinos in Thessaly, c. 300 BCE. Lamia Archaeological Museum, inv. AE 1041. Drawing by Glynnis Fawkes. 187 13.4 Lapith woman and centaur, west pediment, temple of Zeus at Olympia. Photo: D-DAI-ATH Olympia 3362, Hermann Wagner. 189 16.1 Limestone statue of a kourotrophos from the North Necropolis of Megara Hyblaea, mid-sixth century BCE. Syracuse, Museo Regionale Paolo Orsi. Photo: © Scala/Art Resource, NY. 216 16.2 Red-figure South Italian , attributed to the Darius- Underworld Circle; 340–300 BCE. London, British Museum inv. no. 1756,0101.485. Photo: © Trustees of the British Museum. 217 16.3 Italian fibulae types from Syracuse. Nos 1–3: Navicella fibulae; No. 4: Leech fibula; No. 5–6: Bone-and-amber fibulae. Similar types occur at Pithekoussai and other Greek sites in Italy and Sicily. Drawing by H. Buglass after Orsi (1895). 223 CSIII.1 Three terracotta “Tanagra” figurines. Paris, Musée de Louvre. Photo: Réunion des Musées Nationaux/Art Resource, NY. 232 18.1 Stele for Hediste. Volos, Athanasakeion Archaeological Museum inv. no. Λ1. Date: 200–150 BCE. Photo: author. 252 18.2 Stele for Archidike. Volos, Athanasakeion Archaeological Museum inv. no. Λ20. Date: 225–200 BCE. Photo: author. 256 18.3 Stele for Aline. Mykonos Archaeological Museum. Date: end of second century BCE. Photo: EFA/Emile Sérafis. 258 18.4 Stele for Isias. Mykonos Archaeological Museum. Date: second half of second century BCE. Photo: EFA/Emile Sérafis. 260 19.1 Portrait statue of Aristonoe from Rhamnous. Athens, National Museum inv. 232. Statue H. 1.62 meters. Photo: Meletzis, DAI Athens neg. NM 5211. 264 19.2 Statues of Kleopatra and Dioscurides, from the House of Kleopatra and Dioscurides on Delos. Delos Museum inv. A7763, A 7799, A 7997a. Statue H. 1.48 meters. Photo: G. Hellner, DAI Athens neg. 1970/886. 266 19.3 Cast of the portrait statue of Nikeso from Priene on its base. Statue H. 1.73 meters. Photo: Akademisches Kunstmuseum Bonn. 269 List of Illustrations xiii

19.4 Statue of Flavia Vibia Sabina, from in front of the Arch of Caracalla, Thasos. Istanbul Archaeological Museum inv. 375. Statue H. 2.11 meters. Photo: W. Schiele, DAI Istanbul neg. 78/291. 274 21.1 Black-figured hydria of the Priam Painter, last quarter of the sixth century BCE. Boston, Museum of Fine Arts inv. 61.195. Photo: Museum of Fine Arts, Boston. 289 21.2 Plan of House Avii4 at Olynthos. Drawing: M. Trumper after Robinson and Graham (1938: figure 99). 293 21.3 Plan of the Roman Forum in the Augustan period. Drawing: M. Trumper after Favro (1996), figure 8. 298 21.4 Plan of the Greek bath with separate bathing rooms at Krokodilopolis; plan of the Republican bath at Pompeii, with separate bathing sections. Drawing: M. Trumper after El-Khachab (1978) and Maiuri (1950: figure 1). 301 29.1 Plan of the Building of Eumachia. Drawing: after Dobbins AJA 98: 2008, figure 16. 401 29.2 Statue of Eumachia. Naples, Museo Archeologico Nazionale, inv. no. 6232. Photo: Anger/DAI-Rom 1989.0113. 404 29.3 Properties of Julia Felix, view of the garden. Photo: Christopher Parslow. 406 29.4 Inscription from the schola tomb of Aesquillia Polla, Porta di Nola Necropolis, Pompeii. Photo: Eisner/DAI-Rome 1963.1280. 411 30.1 Livia, composite of head in Oxford (Ashmolean AN 1941.808) and body in Narona. Photo: Hrvoje Manenica, Director of the Archaeological Museum Narona. 417 30.2 Silver bust of Livia from Herculaneum. Herculaneum deposit inv. 4205/79502. Photo: Soprintendente Archeologo Pompei. 418 30.3 Relief from the Sebasteion at Aphrodisias depicting Nero and Agrippina. Photo: New York University Excavations at Aphrodisias. 420 30.4 Statue of Agrippina in Egyptian greywacke, body from Centrale Montemartini (inv. MC 1882/S) and head from the Ny Carlsberg Glyptotek. Rome, Musei Capitolini, Centrale Montemartini. Photo: Archivio Fotografico dei Musei Capitolini. 421 31.1 Painted linen shroud for a woman, c. 100–125 CE, L 140.0 centimeters. Provenance unknown. New York, Metropolitan Museum of Art 26.5. Photo: © The Metropolitan Museum of Art/Art Resource, NY. 426 31.2 Portrait detail of the shroud in Figure 31.1 c. 100–125 CE. The Metropolitan Museum of Art, Gift of George D. Pratt, 1926 (26.5). Image © The Metropolitan Museum of Art. 427 31.3 Mask in place on the mummy of a woman named Artemidora, made of linen cartonnage with added plaster, painted and gilded, and inlaid with glass and stone. From Meir, late first century or early second century CE. L. 78.0 centimeters. New York, Metropolitan Museum of Art 11.155.5. Gift of J. Pierpont Morgan, 1911. Photo: © The Metropolitan Museum of Art/Art Resource, NY. 428 xiv List of Illustrations

31.4 Limestone funerary relief of a woman, c. 160 CE. Provenance unknown, possibly Oxyrhynchus. H. 68.0 centimeters. Harvard University Art Museums 1977.197. Photo: © The President and Fellows, Harvard College, Harvard University Art Museums. 430 31.5 Limestone funerary relief of a woman holding a , with traces of paint, late second or early third century CE. H. 142.5 centimeters. From Oxyrhynchus. Hannover, Museum August Kestner 1965.29. Photo: Courtesy of the Museum August Kestner. 432 31.6 Limestone funerary relief of a woman in the dress of an Isis cult initiate or priestess, late second or early third century CE. H. 115.0 centimeters. From Oxyrhynchus. Brussels, Musees Royaux d’Art et d’Histoire/Koninklijke Musea voor Kunst en Geschiedenis inv. E.8239. Photo: Courtesy of the Musees Royaux d’Art et d’Histoire/Koninklijke Musea voor Kunst en Geschiedenis. 433 CS VI.1 Unknown, Syrian, Roman: Funeral relief of No’om (?) wife of 3 5 5 Haira, son of Maliku, c. 150 CE, sandstone, 19 /4 15 /8 7 /8 inches (50.2 39.7 18.7 centimeters). Ackland Art Museum, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill. The William A. Whitaker Foundation Art Fund. 79.29.1. 440 CS VI.2 Palmyrene portrait bust. Fitzwilliam Museum, Cambridge, inv. GR.9.1888. Photo: courtesy Fitzwilliam Museum. 441 1 33.1 Statue of a Woman. Roman, second century CE. Marble. H 69 /4 inches (175.9 cm). Dallas Museum of Art, gift of Mr. and Mrs. Cecil H. Green. Photo: Courtesy Dallas Museum of Art. 455 33.2 Marciana, Boston, Museum of Fine Arts 1916.286. Photo: Museum of Fine Arts, Boston. 456 33.3 Portrait of woman with hairstyle similar to Matidia. Madrid, Museo del Prado inv. 356-E. Photo: DAI Madrid, neg. no. D-DAI-MAD- WIT-R-081-87-06, P. Witte. 456 33.4 Idealized portrait of Matidia. Luni marble. Rome, Palazzo dei Conservatori, Musei Capitolini. Photo: Vanni/Art Resource, NY. 457 33.5 Marble portrait of early Trajanic woman (perhaps Marciana). London, British Museum inv. no. 1879.0712.17. Photo: © Trustees of the British Museum. 458 34.1 Tombstone of Regina from South Shields (RIB 1065). Photo: courtesy CIAS, Newcastle University. 470 34.2 The Aemilia finger ring, from Corbridge, is decorated with the letters “Aemilia Zeses” (Amelia may you live) in the opus interrasile technique (RIB 2422.1). Photo: courtesy CIAS, Newcastle University. 471 34.3 Tombstone for Aurelia Aia, daughter of Titus and wife of Aurelius Marcus, a soldier in the century of Obsequens (RIB 1828). Photo: courtesy CIAS, Newcastle University. 476 35.1 Busts of Cassia Victoria and her husband, L. Laecanius Primitivus, on the tympanum of the sacellum of the Augustales at Misenum. Photo: courtesy of Paola Miniero, after figure 4a, The Sacellum of the Augustales at Miseno (Electa Napoli, 2000). 484 List of Illustrations xv

35.2 Portrait statue of Minia Procula from Bulla Regia, now in the Bardo Museum in Tunis. Photo: courtesy Joop Derksen. 486 35.3 Graph of inscriptions of civic benefactresses (total=354). 487 35.4 Graph of inscriptions of priestesses of the imperial cult (total=281). 488 38.1 Marble head of a female figure, c. 375–400 CE. New York, Metropolitan Museum of Art, Fletcher Fund 47.100.51. Photo: © The Metropolitan Museum of Art/Art Resource, NY. 515 38.2 Enthroned empress Ariadne (?), d. 515 CE, ivory. Kunsthistorisches Museum, Vienna, Austria. Photo: Erich Lessing/Art Resource, NY. 517 38.3 The Projecta Casket, fourth century, gilded silver. London, the British Museum, inv. 1866,1229.1. Photo: © Trustees of the British Museum. 518 38.4 Aphrodite receiving the golden apple from Paris, ivory pyxis. Baltimore, The Walters Art Museum, inv. no. 71–64. Photo: Walters Art Museum. 519 38.5 Ivory plaque of Adam and Eve at the forge, Byzantine eleventh–twelfth century CE. The Metropolitan Museum of Art, gift of J. Pierpont Morgan, 1917; inv. no. 17.190.139. Photo: © The Metropolitan Museum of Art/Art Resource, NY. 522 Notes on Contributors

Lindsay Allason-Jones was Director of the Centre for Interdisciplinary Artefact Studies and Reader in Roman Material Culture at Newcastle University until she retired in 2011. She was previously Director of Archaeological Museums for the University. An acknowl- edged authority on Hadrian’s Wall, Roman Britain, and Roman and Medieval Sudan, she is the author of thirteen books, including Women in Roman Britain (2005) and Daily Life in Roman Britain (2008). She is Trustee of many of the Hadrian’s Wall museums as well as the Hadrian’s Art Trust. Rhiannon Ash is Fellow and Tutor in Classical Literature at Merton College, Oxford University. She has broad interests in Latin Literature of the Roman Empire, but her particular research is in the sphere of Roman historiography, above all Tacitus. She has published various books and articles on Virgil, Plutarch, Pliny the Elder, Pliny the Younger, and Tacitus, including a commentary on Tacitus’ Histories 2 (2007). Her next project is a commentary on Tacitus’ Annals 15. Elizabeth Bartman is an independent scholar specializing in ancient Roman art and past President of the Archaeological Institute of America. She has written numerous articles and reviews as well as the books Ancient Sculptural Copies in Miniature (Brill 1992); Portraits of Livia: Imaging the Imperial Female in Augustan Rome (Cambridge 1999); and The Ince Blundell Collection of Classical Sculpture: The Ideal Sculpture (forthcoming). This latest project has opened up a range of interests related to the reception of the antique in the eighteenth century, especially Grand Tour collecting and the restoration and fakery of ancient marbles. Anne Bielman has been Professor of Ancient History at the University of Lausanne (Switzerland) since 2005. She received her doctorate from Lausanne in 1994 with a thesis on the release of prisoners in Ancient Greece. She has been a visiting scholar in Paris, Rome, and Oxford. Since 1998 her work has focused on the epigraphical evidence for female public activities in Hellenistic Greece and Republican Rome. T. Corey Brennan is Associate Professor of Classics at Rutgers University-New Brunswick; he has also taught at Bryn Mawr College. He was appointed Andrew Notes on Contributors xvii

W. Mellon Professor in the American Academy in Rome, 2009–2012. His books are The Praetorship in the Roman Republic (2000) and East and West: Papers in Ancient History Presented to Glen W. Bowersock (co-editor with Harriet I. Flower, 2009). He has written extensively on Roman history and culture. Elizabeth D. Carney is Professor of History and Carol K. Brown Scholar in the Humanities at Clemson University. She is the author of Women and Monarchy in Ancient Macedonia (2000) and Olympias, Mother of Alexander the Great (2006), Arsinoë of Egypt and Macedon: A Royal Life (Oxford University Press, 2013), and co-editor (with Daniel Ogden) of Philip II and Alexander the Great: Father and son, lives and afterlives (2010). She is currently at work on a monograph about Eurydice, mother of Philip II and grandmother of Alexander. Cheryl A. Cox is Associate Professor of Classics at the University of Memphis. She is the author of Household Interests (1998) and several articles on the family and household in ancient Athens. Eve D’Ambra is the Agnes Rindge Claflin Professor of Art History at Vassar College, where she teaches Greek and Roman art and archaeology. She has published Roman Art (1998) and Roman Women (2007) as well as articles on the commemorative art of Roman citizens of the lower social orders. Her current research focuses on the sculpted portraits of Roman women and beauty. Marguerite Deslauriers is Associate Professor in the Department of Philosophy and Director of the Institute for Gender, Sexuality, and Feminist Studies at McGill University. She is the author of Aristotle on Definition (2007), in Brill’s series Philosophia Antiqua. Sheila Dillon is Professor and Chair of the Department of Art, Art History & Visual Studies at Duke University, with a secondary appointment in the Department of Classical Studies. Her most recent book is The Female Portrait Statue in the Greek World (Cambridge University Press, 2010). She has extensive fieldwork experience in both Greece and Turkey, and was a member of New York University Excavations at Aphrodisias from 1992 until 2004. Her current project is a history of portrait statuary in Roman Athens, which explores the impact of Rome and Roman portrait styles on Attic portraiture and honorific practices. A. A. Donohue is the Rhys Carpenter Professor of Classical and Near Eastern Archaeology at Bryn Mawr College. Among her publications on the history and historiography of classical art are Xoana and the Origins of Classical Sculpture (1988), Greek Sculpture and the Problem of Description (2005), and a volume co-edited with M. D. Fullerton on Ancient Art and Its Historiography (2003). Cristiana Franco teaches at University for Foreigners in Siena. Her research focuses on the role played by cultural representations of animal species in the process of naturalization of gender ideology in ancient cultures. Besides many articles she has published a study on the connection between the dog and the female in ancient Greek literature and myth (Senza ritegno: Il cane e la donna nell’immaginario della Grecia antica, 2003, published in English by the University of California Press as Shameless. The Canine and the Feminine in Ancient Greece, 2014), and an essay on the myth of Circe (Il mito di Circe, 2010). xviii Notes on Contributors

Amy R. Gansell is Assistant Professor of Art History at St. John’s University in New York City, where she teaches courses on ancient and non-Western art. She received her PhD from Harvard University in 2008 and was a post-doctoral fellow at Emory University’s Bill and Carol Fox Center for Humanistic Inquiry. She is currently working on a book about feminine beauty and female imagery at the Neo-Assyrian Northwest Palace at Nimrud and has previously published on the Royal Tombs of Ur, Iron Age Levantine ivory sculptures of women, and ethno-archaeological interpretations of ancient Mesopotamian adornment. Judith P. Hallett is Professor of Classics at the University of Maryland at College Park, where she has been named a Distinguished Scholar-Teacher. She received her PhD from Harvard University in 1971, and has been a Mellon Fellow at Brandeis University and the Wellesley College Center for Research on Women as well as the Blegen Visiting Scholar at Vassar College. Her major research specializations are Latin language and literature; gender, sexuality, and the family in ancient Greek and Roman society; and the history of classical studies, and the reception of classical Greco-Roman literary texts, in the United States. In 2013 Routledge published Domina Illustris: Roman Literature, Gender and Reception (ed. Donald Lateiner, Barbara K. Gold and Judith Perkins), a volume of nineteen essays in her honor. Emily A. Hemelrijk is Professor of Ancient History at the University of Amsterdam. She has published numerous articles on Roman women. Her book, Matrona docta: Educated Women in the Roman Élite from Cornelia to Julia Domna, was published in 1999. She is currently working on a project called Hidden Lives – Public Personae: Women in the Urban Texture of the Roman Empire, for which she received a Vidi grant from the Netherlands Organization of Scientific Research (NWO). She is preparing a book on women’s public roles in the cities of the Latin West (outside Rome), that is entitled Hidden Lives – Public Personae: Women and Civic Life in Italy and the Latin West During the Roman Principate. Madeleine M. Henry is Professor of Classics and Head of the School of Languages and Cultures at Purdue University. Her main research interests are women’s life in ancient Greece, Greek comedy, and the history of encyclopedia literature and of literary criticism. Her recent publications include The Greek Prostitute in the Ancient Mediterranean (2011, co-edited with Allison Glazebrook). Current and future projects are Neaera: Writing a Prostitute’s Life (book), “Orphic themes in J. J. Phillips’ Mojo Hand,” and “Mythic dimensions of the city of dreams: New Orleans as a Hellenistic space” (essays). She teaches Latin, Greek, courses in translation, and sometimes Women’s Studies. Maura K. Heyn is Associate Professor in the Department of Classical Studies at the University of North Carolina at Greensboro. Her research focuses on the funerary sculpture of Palmyra, and she has recently published “Gesture and identity in the funerary art of Palmyra” in the American Journal of Archaeology. She has also written several papers on the mural decoration of the Temple of the Palmyrene Gods in Dura-Europos. Lora L. Holland is Associate Professor of Classics at the University of North Carolina at Asheville, and was recently Blegen Research Fellow at Vassar College and Visiting Scholar in Greek and Roman Religion at the Center for Hellenic Studies in Washington, DC. She is the author of Religion in the Roman Republic, forthcoming in Wiley-Blackwell’s Ancient Religions series, and of various articles on Greek and Roman religion and culture. Notes on Contributors xix

Vedia Izzet is Research Fellow in Archaeology at the University of Southampton, UK. She was formerly a fellow of Christ’s College, Cambridge, and a Rome Scholar at the British School at Rome. She has directed British excavations at the Sant’Antonio sanctuary in Cerveteri and magnetometry survey at Spina. She is the author of The Archaeology of Etruscan Society (2007), and is co-editor of Greece and Rome. Sharon L. James is Associate Professor of Classics at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill and has published numerous articles on women and gender in Latin literature, as well as Learned Girls and Male Persuasion: Gender and Reading in Roman Love Elegy (2003). She has recently completed a book manuscript on women in New Comedy. In 2012, she co-directed the NEH Summer Institute, “Roman Comedy in Performance.” Videotaped scenes are on-line at YouTube. Ioli Kalavrezou earned her PhD at the University of California Berkeley, and is now Dumbarton Oaks Professor of the History of Byzantine Art at Harvard University. She has also taught at the University of California Los Angeles and the University of Munich. Since 1989 she has been on the Board of Senior Fellows of Dumbarton Oaks and the Center for Byzantine Studies in Washington, DC. She has also served on the National Advisory Board on Research and Technology of Greece (2004–2010). Her research covers a range of topics: ivory carving, imperial art, manuscript illumination, the use of symbols and relics in the empire, the cult of the Virgin Mary, and the everyday world of the Byzantines, especially for women. Alison Keith is Professor and Chair of Classics at the University of Toronto. Her work focuses on Latin epic and elegy, and especially on the intersection of gender and genre in Latin literature. A past editor of Phoenix, she has written books on Ovid’s Metamorphoses, women in Latin epic, and Propertius, and edited volumes on Latin elegy and Hellenistic epigram, the European reception of the Metamorphoses (with S. Rupp), and Roman dress and society (with J. Edmondson). Ross S. Kraemer is Professor Emerita of Religious Studies and Judaic Studies at Brown University. She is the author of numerous studies on gender and women’s religions in the Greco-Roman Mediterranean, including Her Share of the Blessings: Women’s Religions among Pagans, Jews and Christians in the Greco-Roman World (1992) and Unreliable Witnesses: Religion, Gender and History in the Greco-Roman Mediterranean (2011). She holds a BA in religion from Smith College, and an MA and a PhD in religion from Princeton University. Mireille M. Lee is Assistant Professor in the Department of History of Art at , with a secondary appointment in Classical Studies; she is also an affiliated faculty member in Women’s and Gender Studies. She has published widely on various aspects of Greek dress and gender. Her first book, Body, Dress, and Identity in Ancient Greece (2015) uses contemporary dress theory to uncover the social meanings of ancient Greek dress. Her current research focuses on Greek bronze mirrors. Barbara Levick, Emeritus Fellow and Tutor in Literae Humaniores at St. Hilda’s College, Oxford, besides working on Asia Minor in ancient times, is the author of Tiberius the Politician (1976), Claudius (1990), Vespasian (1999), and Augustus, Image and Substance (2010). In the field of gender studies she has published Julia Domna, Syrian Empress (2007), and with Richard Hawley co-edited the collection Women in Antiquity: New xx Notes on Contributors

Assessments (1995). She is currently working on a study of the Antonine Empresses: Imperial Women of the Golden Age: Faustina I and II. Laura S. Lieber is Associate Professor of Late Ancient Judaism in the Religion Department at Duke University. She is the author of Yannai on Genesis: An Invitation to Piyyut (2010) and A Vocabulary of Desire: The Song of Songs in the Early Synagogue (forthcoming). She is also co-editor with Deborah Green of Scriptural Exegesis: Shapes of the Religious Imagi- nation, a Festschrift in Honour of Michael Fishbane (2009). Maria A. Liston is Associate Professor and Chair of the Anthropology Department at the University of Waterloo, and cross-appointed to the Classical Studies Department. She has studied cremation and inhumation burials from various sites in Crete and mainland Greece. In addition to the skeletons from wells in the Athenian Agora and the remains of the Theban Sacred Band from the Battle of Chaironeia (338 BC) she has recently begun working with the early Byzantine burials in the Sanctuary of Ismenion Apollo in Thebes. Rachel Meyers is Assistant Professor of Classical Studies at Iowa State University in Ames, Iowa. She earned her Ph.D. in Classical Studies at Duke University in 2006. She is currently working on a book on the dynastic commemoration of the Antonine imperial family and has previously published on the topics of female benefactors and Roman numismatics. Jennifer Sheridan Moss is an Associate Professor of Classics and former Director of Women’s Studies at Wayne State University. Her primary research interest is documentary papyrology from the late Antique period. Her work includes studies of taxation, women’s legal rights, and women’s literacy. She is currently writing an article on the ongoing misuse of Plutarch’s description of Cleopatra. Jenifer Neils is Elsie B. Smith Professor in the Liberal Arts at Case Western Reserve University. She is the author of The Parthenon Frieze (2001) and has published two major exhibition catalogues, Coming of Age in Ancient Greece (2003) and Goddess and : The Panathenaic Festival in Ancient Athens (1992). Her most recent book is entitled Women in the Ancient World, published in 2011 by the British Museum and the J. Paul Getty Museum. Marianna Nikolaıdou is a Research Associate at the Cotsen Institute of Archaeology, UCLA, and has taught archaeology and anthropology at UCLA Extension and the California State University, Los Angeles. Her fieldwork and publications focus on the Neolithic and Bronze Age cultures of the Aegean and the Levant. The co-author of the first book on gender in Aegean prehistory in 1993, she has been publishing extensively on gender archaeology and politics in the Aegean. Other research interests include symbolism and ritual, iconography, ceramics, adornment, and technology, with a co-edited volume on prehistoric shell technologies (2011). Current projects include the ceramic technologies at Tell Mozan, Syria, the prehistoric pottery from Ancient Methone, Northern Greece, and the iconography of religious symbols on Minoan pottery from Crete. Maryline Parca teaches in the History Department of the University of San Diego. She has edited Latin inscriptions, published Greek literary and documentary papyri, and co-edited a volume of essays on the religious lives of ancient women. She is currently at work on wet nursing contracts and is acting as co-editor of the special issue “Gender, East and West in the Ancient World” for Classical World. Notes on Contributors xxi

Holt Parker received his PhD from Yale and is Professor of Classics at the University of Cincinnati. He has been awarded the Rome Prize, the Women’s Classical Caucus Prize for Scholarship (twice), a Loeb Library Foundation Grant, and a Fellowship from the National Endowment for the Humanities. He has published on Sappho, Sulpicia, sexuality, slavery, sadism, and spectacles. His book Olympia Morata: The Complete Writings of an Italian Heretic (2003) won the Josephine Roberts Award from the Society for the Study of Early Modern Women. Censorinus: The Birthday Book (2007) is the first complete English translation of that curious piece of learning. With William A. Johnson he has edited Ancient Literacies: The Culture of Reading in Greece and Rome (2009). His translation of The Hermaphrodite by Antonio Beccadelli is part of the I Tatti Renaissance Library. Werner Riess holds a PhD in Ancient History from the University of Heidelberg, Germany and is currently Professor of Ancient History at the University of Hamburg, Germany. He is the author of Apuleius und die Rauber: Ein Beitrag zur historischen Kriminalitatsforschung (2001) and Performing Interpersonal Violence: Court, Curse, and Comedy in Fourth- Century BCE Athens (2011). Christina Riggs is a Senior Lecturer in the School of Art, Media and American Studies at the University of East Anglia in Norwich, UK. Her books include Unwrapping Ancient Egypt (2014), Ancient Egyptian Art: A Very Short Introduction (2014), and The Beautiful Burial in Roman Egypt: Art, Identity and Funerary Religion (2005); she has also edited the Oxford Handbook of Roman Egypt (2012) and published many articles on art, archae- ology, and the body in ancient Egypt. Christina A. Salowey is Professor of Classical Studies at Hollins University in Roanoke, Virginia. She has served twice as the Gertrude Smith Professor at the American School of Classical Studies at Athens. Her interests are burial monuments of the Archaic, Classical, and Hellenistic periods and the cults of Herakles. She has published on Herakles as a cult figure, Archaic funerary korai, and the use of math and science in the teaching of ancient art. Gillian Shepherd is Director of the A.D. Trendall Research Centre for Ancient Mediter- ranean Studies and Lecturer in Ancient Mediterranean Studies at La Trobe University, Australia. Her research interests are in the ancient Greek settlement of Sicily and South Italy, especially burial and votive practices, and interaction between different cultural groups, as well as childhood in antiquity. She has published on ancient Greek burial practices and sanctuaries in Sicily and is co-editor of the forthcoming Oxford Handbook of the Archaeology of Childhood. Eva Stehle is Professor Emerita of Classics at the University of Maryland, College Park. She has published in a number of areas, often focusing on the implications of performance for understanding the reception of ancient texts in their original context and on the gendered origin of the speaking voice, whether as performer’s voice or as textual voice. Her book Performance and Gender in Ancient Greece: Nondramatic Poetry in its Context appeared in 1997. She is completing a book on Greek women’s religious ritual and its influence on the development of new religious forms in Classical Greece. Kasia Szpakowska is Associate Professor of Egyptology at Swansea University, Wales, a Fellow of the Society of Antiquaries, London, and Director of the Ancient Egyptian Demonology Project: Second Millennium BC. She publishes and lectures on Ancient Egyptian private religious practices, dreams, and gender. Her monographs include Behind Closed Eyes: Dreams and Nightmares in Ancient Egypt (2003) and Daily Life in Ancient xxii Notes on Contributors

Egypt: Recreating Lahun (2008), which uses the life a young girl as a model for recon- structing a snapshot in time. She is currently researching Clay Cobras and the Fiery Goddesses of Ancient Egypt. Lauren Talalay is Curator Emerita and Research Associate at the Kelsey Museum of Archaeology, University of Michigan. Her research focuses on gender and figurines in Mediterranean prehistory as well as archaeology and popular culture. She has written numerous articles and is the author or co-editor of several books, including Deities, Dolls, and Devices: Neolithic Figurines from Franchthi Cave, Greece (1993), What these Ithakas Mean: Readings in Cavafy (2002), Prehistorians Round the Pond: Reflections on Prehistory as a Discipline (2005), and In the Field: the Archaeological Expeditions of the Kelsey Museum (2006). Kathryn Topper is Associate Professor of Classics at the University of Washington. Her research focuses on Greek painting, gender and ethnicity in antiquity, ancient banquets, and word and image studies. Her publications include The Imagery of the Athenian Symposium (Cambridge UP, 2012), as well as articles on a variety of topics in Greek and South Italian vase painting. Her current project is a study of the Hellenistic banquet. Monika Trumper is Professor of Classical Archaeology at the Freie Universitat Berlin. She has written two books and a number of articles on various monuments on Delos (domestic architecture, urban development, clubhouses of associations, shops, synago- gues, and Agora of the Italians), and a book on Graeco-Roman slave markets. She is co- editor of the book Greek Baths and Bathing Culture: New Discoveries and Approaches (2013) and has published a number of articles on Greek bathing culture, which is the topic of her current fieldwork and research. Preface and Acknowledgments

Our collaborative work on women in antiquity began ten years ago, when we first started to plan a graduate course on the subject, to be held jointly between our two universities. We had taught the course twice when we were invited to edit this Companion, which is shaped by our experience of bringing together and learning to integrate our very different backgrounds and specialties. We hope that the volume’s interdisciplinary contents will be useful to readers from all fields. Naturally, we have incurred debts and obligations, which we gladly acknowledge here. First thanks go to Cecil Wooten, chair of Classics at the University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, for departmental support of this project, and to Serena Witzke, Anna Haldeman Ruddle, and Hannah Rich for assistance with the bibliography and illustrations. We want to thank also Daria Lanzuolo of the Deutsches Archaologisches Institut (DAI) in Rome, Dr. Joachim Heiden of the DAI in Athens, Anja Slawisch of the DAI in Istanbul, Dr. Michael Kunst of the DAI in Madrid, and Dr. Ulrich Mania at the Rheinische Friedrich- Wilhelms-Universitat Bonn for their generosity with illustrations. Special thanks are owed to Corry Arnold and Donald Haggis. We would like particularly to acknowledge Amy Gansell, who stepped in with virtually no notice when the article arranged for women in Mesopotamia fell through very late in the process of our editing. Amy rapidly produced, with great professionalism, the elegant essay found herein, and we are both extremely grateful to her and proud to open the volume with her contribution.

Sharon L. James and Sheila Dillon Carrboro, North Carolina April 18, 2011 Abbreviations

List of Abbreviations not in L’Annee Philologique

ABV Beazley, J. D. 1956. Attic Black-Figure Vase-Painters. Oxford: Clarendon Press. AfO Archiv fur Orientforschung AJPA American Journal of Physical Anthropology ARIM Annual Review of the Royal Inscriptions of Mesopotamia ARV2 Beazely, J. D. 1963. Attic Red-Figure Vase-Painters.2nd edition. Oxford: Clarendon Press. BA Biblical Archaeologist BASOR Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research BCSMS Canadian Society for Mesopotamian Studies, Bulletin ÉtTrav Études et travaux. Studia i prace. Travaux du Centre d’archeologie mediterraneenne de l’Academie polonaise CAJ Cambridge Archaeological Journal DaM Damaszener Mitteilungen FuB Forschungen und Berichte. Staatliche Museen zu Berlin. JAOS Journal of the American Oriental Society JCMNS Canadian Society of Mesopotamian Studies Journal JESHO Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient JNES Journal of Near Eastern Studies MDOG Mitteilungen der Deutschen Orient-Gesellschaft zu Berlin NIN Journal of Gender Studies in Antiquity SAAB State Archives of Assyria Bulletin SAAS State Archives of Assyria Studies WVDOG Wissenschaftliche Veroffentlichungen der Deutschen Orient-Gesellschaft Abbreviations xxv Abbreviations for Collected Inscriptions

AE L’Annee epigraphique, Paris 1888–. CIL Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum, Berlin 1863–. IAM Inscriptions antiques du Maroc 2. Inscriptions latines, Paris 1982. ICUR Inscriptiones Christianae Urbis Romae, Rome 1922–. IG Inscriptiones Graecae, Berlin 1873–. ILAlg Inscriptions latines d’Algerie, Paris 1922–. ILCV Inscriptiones Latinae Christianae Veteres, Berlin 1924–. ILLRP Degrassi, A. Inscriptiones Latinae Liberae rei publicae, Florence, 1957–1963. ILS Inscriptiones Latinae Selectae, ed. H. Dessau, Berlin 1892–1916. OGIS Dittenberger, W. (ed.) 1960. Orientis Graeci inscriptiones selectae,I (Hildesheim, repr. of 1903 edition). RIT Alfoldy, G. 1975. Die romischen Inschriften von Tarraco [Madrider Forschungen 10]. Berlin.

Abbreviations for Collected Papyri

P. Athen. Petropoulos, G. A. (ed.) 1939. Papyri Societatis Archaeologicae Athe- niensis. Nos. 1–70 [Pragmateiai tes Akademias Athenôn 10]. Athens. P. Berl. BGU (Aegyptische Urkunden aus den Koniglichen Museen zu Berlin, Griechische Urkunden. Volumes 1 and 5. Berlin.) P. Cairo Zen. Edgar, C. C. (ed.) 1925 (Vol. I) and 1928 (Vol. 3). Zenon Papyri, Catalogue general des Antiquites Égyptiennes du Musee du Caire. Cairo. P. Col. Zen. Westermann, W. L. and Hasenoehrl, E. S. (eds.) 1934. Columbia Papyri III, Zenon Papyri: Business Papers of the Third Century B.C. dealing with Palestine and Egypt I. New York. P. Elephantine Rubensohn, O. (ed.) 1907. Aegyptische Urkunden aus den Koniglichen Museen in Berlin: Griechische Urkunden, Sonderheft. Elephantine- Papyri. Berlin. P. Giessen Eger, O., Kornemann, E., and Meyer, P. M. (eds.) 1910. Griechische Papyri im Museum des Oberhessischen Geschichtsvereins zu Giessen. Pt. I, nos. 1–35. Leipzig and Berlin. P. Munch. Hagedorn, U., Hagedorn, D., Hubner, R., and Shelton, J. C. (eds.) 1986. Griechische Urkundenpapyri der Bayerischen Staatsbibliothek Munchen, vol. 3, Part I. Stuttgart. P. Oxy. Oxyrhynchus Papyrus. 1898–. P. Tebtunis Grenfell, B. P., Hunt, A. S., and Smyly, J. G. (eds.) 1902. The Tebtunis Papyri, I [University of California Publications, Graeco-Roman Ar- chaeology I; Egypt Exploration Society, Graeco-Roman Memoirs 4]. London.

Introduction

Sharon L. James and Sheila Dillon

Ever since the groundbreaking work of Pomeroy (1975), which brought forth a new era of study in the subject, “Women in Antiquity” has become a standard and expanding field of scholarship in Classics, Ancient History, Archaeology, and Art History, and an increasingly popular course offering in colleges and universities. These fields, however, have historically been split between textual and material evidence, a divide that poses special problems for the study of women. The ancient materials on women pose further interpretive challenges because of unexamined biases in both the sources themselves and in traditional scholarship on the subject, inherited from the nineteenth century. Methodology thus becomes a primary issue in the study of these materials: inherent biases in the materials mean that what we read and see cannot be taken at face value. For example, how literally should we take sexual invective by the likes of Archilochus and Juvenal? By the same token, how should we read sexualized images of women on Attic vases? Do these sources represent historical or literal truths, as they have sometimes been taken to do? Specialists in a given field know not to treat their evidence naively, but do not necessarily recognize the gender biases in other materials. The ancient sources on women seem so starkly self-evident, and are so visually striking, that they themselves tempt readers and viewers to understand them as unmediated reality. With this Companion, therefore, we have chosen to draw together, in a methodolog- ically self-conscious way, the advances in scholarship since Pomeroy. We hope thereby to have produced a volume that will be of use to a wide range of readers, from advanced undergraduates to established scholars. We present here an integrated, interdisciplinary focus that brings material and visual evidence together with textual evidence, and applies articulated methodologies. We do so in the firm belief that to study women in antiquity on the basis of exclusively or even primarily one form of evidence—textual or material—is more than merely impoverished. It is inadequate. While we would not insist that a literary scholar suddenly include a specialist’s examination of the material remains of portraiture (not that we would forbid such a venture, of course), we do insist that textual and material

A Companion to Women in the Ancient World, First Edition. Edited by Sharon L. James and Sheila Dillon. © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Published 2015 by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. 2 Introduction scholars benefit from being in conversation with each other, and we hope that this Companion offers not only opportunity for, but examples of, such conversation. We asked our contributors to foreground the problems of interpreting the evidence, and they have done so with a wide range of approaches, demonstrating the diversity of methods available for studying women in antiquity. The essays here that study textual evidence offer treatments theoretical, historical, literary, epigraphical, and papyrological, on a broad scale of subjects. We also asked those contributors who were treating material culture to focus on a limited range of examples, rather than providing a survey of the available evidence. These essays therefore often include focused case studies of selected pieces; we include separate short case studies as well. The purpose of the focused studies is to offer models for examining a broader range of examples from the same period or medium. Some of the essays here reach skeptical conclusions about whether a given body of evidence can in fact reveal any realities about women in antiquity: thus, for example, A. A. Donohue’s essay, “Interpreting Women in Archaic and Classical Greek Sculpture” (Chapter 12), inter- rogates all its categories—“women,”“archaic,”“classical,”“Greek,” and “sculpture”— to conclude that even such familiar terms and concepts, basic to the study of Greek antiquity, are not unproblematic and that they do not offer straightforward evidence about women. More than a few essays undermine received interpretations of very well-known materials. While such conclusions may seem to eliminate what has been considered invaluable and reliable evidence, they instead point forward, as do other essays, to new directions for future research. In this respect, the essays here do more than review the current state of research on women in antiquity: they look ahead in productive ways and they challenge classicists and non-classicists alike not to rely on comfortably familiar notions and interpretations. Finally, a number of the essays examine the same material—some of the same historical, literary, and visual evidence recurs, as do certain women, throughout. For example, Lucretia and the Etruscan princesses are treated by Vedia Izzet in “Etruscan Women: Towards a Reappraisal” (Chapter 5), Madeleine M. Henry and Sharon L. James in “Woman, City, State: Theories, Ideologies, and Concepts in the Archaic and Classical Periods” (Chapter 6); Judith P. Hallett in “Women in Augustan Rome” (Chapter 27); and Alison Keith in “Women in Augustan Literature” (Chapter 28). Similarly, Eumachia is discussed by Anne Bielman in “Female Patronage in the Greek Hellenistic and Roman Republican Periods” (Chapter 17); Eve D’Ambra in “Women on the Bay of Naples” (Chapter 29); and Elizabeth Bartman in “Early Imperial Female Portraiture” (Chapter 30). Such overlap is inevitable, and is in our view a strength because it exemplifies the diversity of approaches to the ancient materials on women. No single study, or collection of studies, can accomplish everything. We cannot cover each subject in each historical period, nor for every geographical region. Thus, for example, the study of Greek women’s dress and adornment looks at the Archaic and Classical periods only, and there is no twin study on Roman women’s dress and adornment. In the brief introductions to the individual parts of the Companion, which are ordered chronologically, we provide references to scholarship for subjects not covered in the chapters. In addition, two of the planned essays could not be completed: those on women in classical Attic drama and on women in late antiquity; in the introductions to Parts III and VI, we have provided similar resources. A further result of our editorial choices is that the focus here on methodology and approach, on problems with the evidence, means that this volume follows the ancient evidence. Since those materials overwhelmingly represent the citizen, even elite, classes and omit the large populations of lower-class citizens, slaves, and foreigners, the con- tributions here largely also focus on citizens and often on elite women. Even editorial Introduction 3 choices involve losses, and this is a loss we feel keenly: our decision to focus on genres of evidence means that we have had, for the most part, to overlook the great majority of women in antiquity, who are little represented in the ancient sources. A growing body of scholarship on slaves, prostitutes, and non-elite citizens is, however, widely available, and in the brief introductions to the parts in this Companion we refer readers to those studies. Here we specifically recommend Scheidel (1995, 1996) as covering the widest chrono- logical and geographical range on the subject of rural women in antiquity. By offering a unified chronological structure with theme-based chapters, this Compan- ion seeks to avoid a structure typical of books on the ancient world, in which the Greeks are placed before the Romans. We also hope to avoid a suspect dichotomy inherited from antiquity that locates women in the private sphere and sees them as separate from other aspects of ancient culture. Finally, we aim to avoid a common Atheno-centrism that focuses on the Classical period of Athens to the exclusion of other regions and periods. We have sought to include here aspects of women in antiquity that are normally overlooked, such as Jewish women and women in the near East, and have included essays on women in Egypt throughout the temporal spread of this Companion. Our contributors include both established and younger scholars from North America, the UK, Europe, and Australia. We provide for each chronological part a methodological introduction and one or two brief and focused case studies relevant to the evidence from the period. These short case studies focus on a specific piece of evidence. We do not represent each topic in each chronological part; quite a few of the essays here overflow their temporal boundaries, but had to be located somewhere. That is, for example, the essays studying women’s religion, by Eva Stehle (“Women and Religion in Greece,” Chapter 14) and Lora L. Holland (“Women and Roman Religion,” Chapter 15), are placed in Part III, on the Archaic and Classical periods, but reach forward to later eras as well. The table of contents lays out our basic organization: Part I surveys women outside Athens and Rome, before the Classical-period polis culture of Greece, and offers a case study of Mother Goddess theory. The broad geographical and chronological scope exemplifies the diversity of evidence and approach that characterizes this Companion. In Part II, we bring together the Archaic and Classical periods in both Greece and Italy. Some chapters are unified between Greek and Roman women (e.g., Barbara Levick’s “Women and Law,” Chapter 7) while others provide separate treatments for the distinctive and significant bodies of evidence available in this period, such as the visual materials from Athens. Part III attends to the greater evidence, in the Hellenistic and Late Republican period, for women in the public eye and sphere. As with the previous part, several of these chapters integrate Greek and Roman materials. Because the evidence for this period allows the broadest geographical study, we have included studies here on women in Egypt, and Jewish women. Part IV considers the short but pivotal period that saw the establishment of the Roman empire (31 BCE–98 CE). Imperial women play a prominent role in the visual and historical evidence of this period, while the literary sources often focus on non-elite women. As elsewhere, we aimed in this part to include women outside the capital city and to chart these women’s changing representations. Part V tracks the changes throughout the developing Roman empire, up to its transition to Christianity. Evidence from this period demonstrates both a re-emergence of local traditions and a new hybridizing of cultures throughout the Roman empire. These essays particularly address the increasing prominence of women in the provinces, and the issues of understand- ing the conversion of women in early Christianity.

PART I Women Outside Athens and Rome

This section brings together the earliest evidence for women, across a very wide chrono- logical and geographical range. We begin with an issue that is foundational to the modern study of women in the ancient world, namely the Mother Goddess. As Lauren Talalay demonstrates in Case Study I (“The Mother Goddess in Prehistory: Debates and Perspec- tives”), there was a desire among scholars, particularly in the 1960s and 1970s, to locate a period in the distant past in which women were not secondary, when female power was celebrated, and when an overarching Mother Goddess was the primary divinity. This myth continues to have great appeal, as witnessed in “goddess-tourism” in the Mediterranean even today. While it is no longer an active scholarly theory, the issue of the Mother Goddess continues to be an exemplar for the problems of studying women in antiquity: mysterious images disembodied from their contexts, multiple scholarly biases and motivations, and conflicting interpretations of the scanty and fragmentary evidence. A common aim of these chapters is to use the mostly, though not exclusively, visual materials to explore the social and political place of women in the earliest periods of the ancient world. Much of the evidence focuses on elite women, as is the case throughout the volume, but the large population of laboring women, both free and enslaved, is broadly perceptible, as Cristiana Franco and Marianna Nikolaıdou demonstrate. In “Hidden Voices: Unveiling Women in Ancient Egypt” (Chapter 2), Kasia Szpakowska analyzes ancient physical evidence, noting throughout that unexamined assumptions and biases in scholarship have led to unsupportable, sometimes illogical, conclusions; she particularly urges us to defamiliarize ourselves from Egyptian artistic evidence, which is easily recognized but not so easily understood. In “Women in Homer” (Chapter 4), Cristiana Franco draws on approaches from anthropology to reader-response literary theory. In “Women in Ancient Mesopotamia” (Chapter 1), Amy R. Gansell studies mortuary evidence from elite funerary contexts to pursue what can be understood from such materials, particularly about the social and public roles of women in this class; she reminds us that much remains to be excavated, and that our understanding will be modified in the future. In “Looking for Minoan and Mycenaean Women: Paths of Feminist Scholarship Towards the Aegean Bronze Age” (Chapter 3), Marianna Nikolaıdou considers how women participated in the continuous technological developments of Minoan and Mycenaean society. In “Etruscan Women: Towards a Reappraisal” (Chapter 5), Vedia