[RE]GROWING THE COAST: Rehabilitation of the Land & Mind
by
Jake Nogy
A thesis submitted to the Faculty of Graduate and Postdoctoral Affairs in partial fulfiment of the requirements for the Degree in
Master of Architecture
in
Azrieli School of Architecture & Urbanism
Carleton University Ottawa, Ontario
©2021 Jake Nogy This page intentionally left blank
II ABSTRACT
Designing for a time beyond our own, this thesis explores a narra- tive-based approach in response to today’s climatic issues, drawing from speculative visions and con- structing fictions with surrealist sensibilities. Humanity is current- ly faced with a crisis of climate while relationally confronted with a crisis of the imagination. The current ontological and epistemo- logical frameworks, along with the general priorities of today’s cul- ture, have limited the human imagi- nation in grasping and responding to such issues. Offering alterna- tive lifestyles through designs in- tegrated in the world of the future and its natural elements can reveal so much more of our earth than the myopic position our current society does not provide. Positioned in Central Thailand the work of this thesis explores how architectural thinking and working can contribute to providing sustainable alterna- tives to the foreseeable future po- sitioning its viewer into a produc- tive future.
III ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I would like to start by thanking my thesis adviser Zach Colbert for the insight and guidance you have pro- vided over this past year. Your adaptability to teach through the challenges presented in the past eight months and the wealth of knowledge that you have provided me has helped shape the development of my work to reach its full potential. I would also like to thank my parents Arnold and Tracy for the continual support and aid in my edu- cation throughout my life. I truly would not be where I am if it were not for the time and energy you have poured into helping me achieve my goals. To my brothers Max and Bron- son for being the best friends I could ever ask for. And to my four grandparents for always encouraging and inspiring me with your strong work ethic. Thank you to lifelong friends that I have made along the way and the wonderful memories you have gifted me with. And finally, I would like to thank my Lord and Savior for being a personal God, and all the blessings you have provided me.
IV CONTENTS
III ABSTRACT
IV ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
V CONTENTS
VII LIST OF FIGURES
1 1.0 INTRODUCTION PANDORA’S BOX THE AGRICULTURAL EXPANSION SIDE EFFECTS
7 2.0 SITE ANALYSIS THE KEY THAILAND CURRENT DEFENCE MANGROVE IMPACT THREATS TO MANGROVE
25 3.0 DESIGN APPROACH INTRODUCTION SURREALIST METHOD 31 MUSEUM OF THE FUTURE - TIMELINE EXHIBIT - MANGROVE EXHIBIT - FLORA EXHIBIT - BELOW SEA-LEVEL EXHIBIT
V 40 SPECULATIVE METHOD - THE BLUE REVOLUTION - THE RECONNECTION - A NEW FARM SYSTEM - COASTAL GROWTH
59 4.0 CONCLUSION CONCLUSION EPILOGUE
65 5.0 APPENDIX APPENDIX A APPENDIX B
73 6.0 BIBLIOGRAPHY
VI LIST OF FIGURES
Fig. 01 - Global Land Use Chart https://ourworldindata.org/land-use#:~:text=Half%20of%20all%20habitable%20land, roads%20and%20other%20human%20infrastructure. Fig. 02 - Farmland Grid https://community.snapwire.co/photo/detail/5a7231397bb6eb0001c01ed8
Fig. 03 - Cities at Risk of Sea Level Rise Americas Map Produced using esri GIS
Fig. 04 - Cities at Risk of Sea Level Rise Eurasia Map Produced using esri GIS
Fig. 05 - 2004 Tsunami https://www.dw.com/en/flooding-marked-the-year-2011-for-thailand/a-6689984 Fig. 06 - Weir & Locks - Hagestein, Netherlands https://siebeswart.photoshelter.com/gallery-image/Rivieren-de-Lek-river-Lek/ Fig. 07 - Mangrove Tree Benefits Figure Produced by Jake Nogy
Fig. 08 - Mangrove Sapling https://quest4action.org/mangrove-action-project-photography-awards-2020/
Fig. 09 - Thailand Central Coast Aquaculture Ponds Map Produced using esri GIS Fig. 10 - Thailand Central Coast Aquaculture Ponds Map Produced using esri GIS
Fig. 11 - Thailand Central Coastline Recession Map Produced using esri GIS
Fig. 12 - Thailand Central Coastline Recession Map Produced using esri GIS
Fig. 13 - Thailand Central Coastline Recession Map Produced using esri GIS
Fig. 14 - Museum of the Future - Timeline Exhibit Figure Produced by Jake Nogy
Fig. 15 - Museum of the Future - Mangrove Exhibit Figure Produced by Jake Nogy
Fig. 16 - Museum of the Future - Flora Exhibit Figure Produced by Jake Nogy
VII Fig. 17 - Museum of the Future - Below Sea-Level Exhibit Figure Produced by Jake Nogy
Fig. 18 - SalMar Offshore Fish Farm https://www.flickr.com/photos/haraldb/44230622811
Fig. 19 - The Reconnection Drawing 1 Figure Produced by Jake Nogy
Fig. 20 - The Reconnection Drawing 2 Figure Produced by Jake Nogy
Fig. 21 - A New Farming System Drawing 1 Figure Produced by Jake Nogy
Fig. 22 - A New Farming System Drawing 2 Figure Produced by Jake Nogy
Fig. 23 - Coastal Growth Drawing 1 Figure Produced by Jake Nogy
Fig. 24 - Coastal Growth Drawing 2 Figure Produced by Jake Nogy
Fig. 25 - Mangrove Life Cycle Figure Produced by Jake Nogy
Fig. 26 - Mangrove Flora Chart Figure Produced by Jake Nogy
Fig. 27 - Mangrove Family Tree Figure Produced by Jake Nogy
Fig. 28 - Coastal Thailand Ecosystem Locations Map Produced using esri GIS
VIII 1.0 INTRODUCTION
1 1.1 PANDORA’S BOX “Here even a child will begin a 1. Gosh, Amitav. ‘The story about his grandmother with the Great Derangement: Climate Change and words: ‘in those days the river the Unthinkable.’ wasn’t here, and the village was not (The University of where it is…’” 1 Chicago Press, 2016), 6.
2. Ritchie, Hannah. The terrestrial biosphere is forever ‘Half of the World’s changing, orchestrated and influ- Habitable Land Is enced by a complex array of crea- Used for Agricul- ture.’ (University of tures within natural ecosystems, but Oxford, 2019)Environ- perhaps none more prevalent than ments. (UCL Press, that of humanity. Since the begin- 2020), 6. ning of human existence, mankind has altered the land beneath their feet, utilizing the natural resources of their lived environment. The advent of agricultural systems revolution- ized humanity’s ability to shape the biosphere of earth. Transforming native ecosystems into cultivated fields, pastures, settlements, and engineered environments has opened a pandora’s box of transformative power for agricultural societies, fueling human population growth of unprecedented sizes and producing drastic societal developments. 2 This thesis examines potential climate futures through both speculative and surrealist lenses to explore how ar- chitectural thinking and working methods intersect with these ideas.
2 1.2 THE AGRICULTURAL EXPANSION
Propelled by a growing human demand, the agricultural industry has con- tinued to expand in terrestrial cov- erage and in production proficiency in forms of complex irrigation sys- tems, industrial manufactured fer- tilizers, and the widespread use of commercial pesticides. This agri- cultural expansion has both directly and indirectly affected ecosystems on a global scale in less than fa- vourable manors.3 The mass irriga- tion systems now required to meet the demand of the global production of agriculture necessitates 70 per- cent of the earth’s freshwater supply. Fertilizers struggle sus- tainably as foundational ingredi- 3. Rodriguez, Eliza- beth, Ryan Sultan, ents such as phosphorus is in limit- and Amy Hilliker. ed supply and nitrogen, also key in ‘Negative Effects of fertilizers’ makeup, requires a Agriculture on Our Environment.’ (The fossil fuel intensive process. Pes- Traprock, 2004), 31. ticides, through leaking into their surrounding areas of their applica- 4. Rodriguez, Eliza- beth, Ryan Sultan, tion, have decimated what natural and Amy Hilliker. environments are left surrounding ‘Negative Effects of 4 farmlands. . These risks faced by Agriculture on Our Environment.’ (The earth’s ecosystems are dwarfed by Traprock, 2004), agriculture’s growing demand for 28-32.
3 5. Ritchie, Hannah. land, diminishing what natural en- ‘Half of the World’s vironments remain on this planet Habitable Land Is with agricultural expansion in ser- Used for Agricul- ture.’ (University of vice of endless growth. Oxford, 2019) With a water to land ratio of greater than 3:1, earth’s overall Fig.01 Global Land solid terrain only makes up 29 per- Use Chart cent of the planet’s overall sur- face, ten percent of which is frozen beneath glaciers and ice, while an- other 19 percent is barren des- serts. This only leaves 71 percent of land on earth inhabitable to the wide majority of terrestrial based organisms including humans. Of this land half has been allocated for ag- riculture and continues to acquire more land to meet the demand of the 5 growing human population. The cur- rent trajectory of this industry is unsustainable both in ratio of demand to available land but also in consequences of elimination of eco- systems and species found within them.
EARTH’S SURFACE LAND OCEAN
EARTH’S SURFACE
29% LAND 2 71% OCEAN 149 million km 361 million km2
LAND SURFACE 71% HABITABLE LAND 10%ICE 19%BARREN 104 million km2 15 M km2 28 M km 2
HABITABLE LAND 1% FRESHWATER 1.5 million km 2 50% AGRICULTURAL2 37% FORESTED2 1% URBAN 51 million km 39 million km 1.5 million km 2
11% SHRUBS & GRASSLANDS 39 million km 2
4 Fig.02 Farmland Aerial view of farm- land and landscape near the city of Khon Kaen noeth east in Thailand.
5 1.3 SIDE EFFECTS
6. Ellis, Erle. ‘(An- The human population and their use thropogenic Taxono- of land has determined the changing mies) A Taxonomy of aspects of the terrestrial ecosys- the Human Biosphere.’ (Harvard Graduate tems on earth. Humanity has demon- School of Design, strated little foresight to the 2014), 169. scale of damage and the resulting 7. Anderson, Jason. planetary changes that would accel- ‘Climate Change and erate beyond their control, leading Natural Disasters: to an alarming imbalance to the Scientific Evidence 6 of a Possible Rela- earth’s ecosystems. Earth has seen tion between Recent a retreating of mass glacier forma- Natural Disasters and tions, shifting in once stable cli- Climate Change.’ (EP ENVIRONMENT COMMIT- matic weather patterns, and the TEE, 2006), 2. shifting in plant and animal ranges that a growing scientific consensus 8. Ellis, Erle. ‘(An- thropogenic Taxono- attributes to human decisions and mies) A Taxonomy of activity. Climate extremes, such as the Human Biosphere.’ droughts, floods and extreme tem- (Harvard Graduate School of Design, peratures have greatly increased in 2014), 180. recent history affecting popula- 7 tions of human and nonhuman alike. “In the Anthropocene, there is no possibility of removing human influ- ence from ecosystems: anthropogenic transformation of the terrestrial biosphere is essentially complete and permanent. What has not already been altered directly, we are now altering indirectly” 8
Pandora’s box has been opened and can not be closed again. Earth faces major issues in this new epoch that can only be solved by finding new solutions rather than trying to make everything as it once was.
6 2.0 SITE ANALYSIS
7 2.1 THE KEY
9. UNU-EHS. ‘The Today, over 160 countries face a World Risk Report high mortality risk for over a quar- 2013 - Health and ter of their population from one or Healthcare.’ (Alli- 9 ance Development more natural disasters. Southern Works, 2013), 1. Asia is home to a large number of these countries and experiences more 10. Kim, Sung Eun, Ho Miu David Li, and natural disasters than anywhere else Jonghyo Nam. ‘Over- on earth. The United Nations ESCAP view of Natural recorded an estimated 2 million Disasters and Their Impacts in Asia and deaths in Asia as a result of natu- the Pacific, ral disasters between 1970 and 2014 1970-2014.’ (United and over 6 billion people have been Nations ESCAP, 2015), 7. affected during this time. These numbers reflect 56.6 percent of the 11. Gosh, Amitav. fatalities globally and 87.6 percent ‘The Great Derange- ment: Climate Change of people affected by natural disas- and the Unthinkable.’ ters worldwide. Global warming is (The University of 10 having critical effects in Asia. Chicago Press, 2016), 90. From its technocratic causes to philosophical and historic implica- 12. Ibid., 90. tion and most importantly the possi- bility of a global response, Asia has and needs to play a part. The issue today is these implications are rarely addressed. Much of cli- mate matters and conversations around the Anthropocene are seeming- ly a Eurocentric issue. Yet both the victims and the major contributors to the climate crisis reside in Asia.11 “The brute fact is that no strategy can work globally unless it works in Asia and is adopted by large numbers 12 of Asians.”
8 Fig.03 Cities at Risk of Sea Level Rise Americas
CITIES WITH -NEW YORK URBON POPULATIONS AT RISK BY 2050s 1O MILLION + -LIMA -BUENOS AIRES 10 Million+ 5m-10m 1m-5m 0.1m-1m
9 Fig.04 Cities at Risk of Sea Level Rise Eurasia
CITIES WITH - LONDON - ISTANBUL - MUMBAI - BANGKOK 1O MILLION + - DAKAR - DAR ES SALAAM - CHENNAI - JAKARTA - LAGOS LUANDA - KARACHI - DHAKA - SHANGHAI
10 2.2 THAILAND
Thailand, found in Southeast Asia, is among the top ten countries worldwide most exposed to climate 13 change. Rising sea levels and in- creasing frequency of extreme weath- er events leaves the country highly vulnerable to natural disasters. Southeast Asia holds the greatest quantity of coastline at extreme risk of flooding across the devel- oped world and approximately ten percent of this coastline lies in Thailand thus significantly con- 13. Prakash, Amit. tributing to the country’s increas- “Boiling Point.” ing level of susceptibility to trop- (FINANCE & DEVELOP- MENT, 2018), 22. ical storms and severe flooding.14 Many of earth’s major Delta Cities 14. Ibid., 25-26. including New Orleans, Tokyo, Shang- 15 15. ‘Sinking Cities: hai and Bangkok are sinking. Bang- An Integrated kok, Thailand’s capital and largest Approach towards city, is increasingly putting their Solutions.’ (Deltares - Taskforce Subsid- 15 million residents (almost a quar- ence, 2013), 6-7. ter of Thailand’s population) in sever risk of natural disasters. 16. Bremard, Thanawat. ‘SINKING Thailand’s capital is descending BANGKOK: THE INTER- more than 1 cm per year which is 4 PLAY OF POLICY COALI- times faster than the predicted sea TIONS, DISCOURSES AND 16 UNCERTAINTIES.’ (Na- level rise. By the year 2030 Bang- tional University of kok could be below sea level. Singapore, 2020), 11.
11 17. Engkagul, Surap- The rapidly expanding city of ee. ‘Flooding Fea- Bangkok has seen much of the natural tures in Bangkok and landscape replaced with a concrete Vicinity: Geographi- cal Approach.’ (Geo- jungle of a growing mega city, with Journal, 1993), 335. surrounding land dedicated to a combination of agriculture and aquaculture. The land use policies made within the region have created an imbalance with the natural eco- system of Thailand, eliminating the land’s absorbent capabilities and ability to decrease the severity of natural disasters. The Thai had once lived in harmony with the cycles of wet and dry seasons, cele- brating floods as they would fer- tilize the land. Within today’s modern society, floods represent pain and hardship as Thailand’s cities have become severely suscep- tible and vulnerable to natural di- sasters.17
12 Fig.05 2004 Tsunami Aftermath of tsunami which devastated countless regions of back in 2004
13 2.3 CURRENT DEFENCE
18. Lohatepanont, A re-evaluation of flood management Ken, and Phanawat in Thailand and much of the world is Ayanaputra. ‘Sinking necessary. Current approaches of Cities.’ (Bangkok dikes, levees and floodwalls only Post, 2019) provide temporary relief from floods and sea level rise and result in detrimental side effects by cutting off natural marine ecosystems which once created vibrant coastal biomes with the formerly soft shorelines. These types of interventions simply deflect energy to nearby areas, and they are also prone to failure, which could lead to catastrophic 18 consequences. A naturalistic ap- proach might be the right step for- ward to start a restorative project. Natural ecosystems bring balance to the world with ancient designs more powerful than human made flood walls and side effects that improve the way of life rather than separating it.
14 Fig.06 Weir & Locks - Hagestein, Netherlands
15 2.4 MANGROVE IMPACT
Thailand is a littoral nation with a coastline that stretches 2,614 kilo- metres across the Andaman Sea and the Gulf of Thailand.19 The country’s coastal zone is native to one of earth’s most unique and vital for- ests, the mangrove which can be found fringed across 50 percent of this coast. To date these forests take up 167,582 hectares, 80 percent of which is located on the west coast of the Andaman Sea while the remaining 20 percent is on numerous points along the coastline of the Gulf of Thailand.20 Estimated to contain anywhere between 50 and 110 species, all man- 19. Siripong, Absorn- suda. ‘DETECT THE grove trees have the distinct abili- COASTLINE CHANGES IN ty to live in ocean and brackish THAILAND BY REMOTE waters as they are able to excrete SENSING.’ (Chulalong- korn University, salt through their leaves. Situated 2010), 992. between land and sea the mangrove provides an ideal nursery for a wide 20. Havanond, Dr Sonjai. ‘NATIONAL variety of marine species as the REPORT on Mangroves tangled root systems of the trees in South China provide protection for juvenile Sea-Thailand.’ (Unit- 21 ed Nations Environ- fish. The mangrove tree’s deep root ment Programme, system also helps limit erosion 2003), 1-2. along the coast while distributing nutrients to the surrounding seas. 21. Ibid., 6-7.
16 22. Sathirathai, Along with marine life, man- Suthawan, and Edward. grove forests also aid in the suc- B Barbier. ‘VALUING cess of terrestrial species, pro- MANGROVE CONSERVATION IN SOUTHERN THAI- viding a habitat for rodents and a LAND’. (WEAU, 2007), diverse assortment of tropical 109-110. birds. A healthy and diverse man- grove forest acts as a first line of defence against tidal storms that can bring in heavy waves and strong winds, protecting coastal communi- ties acting as a natural sea wall. Serving as a carbon sink with the ability to capture up to four times that of the rainforest, the man- grove is vital in large urban areas to mitigate the greenhouse effects put off by mega cities such as Bang- kok.22
17 Fig.07 Mangrove Tree Benefits
DIVERSE ECOSYSTEM
EROSION PREVENTION
COASTAL PROTECTION
CARBON STORAGE
WATER PURIFICATION
18 2.5 THREATS TO MANGROVE
More than 35 percent of the world's mangrove forests to date have been cleared from their native locations and in countries such as India, Vietnam and Thailand those percent- ages are reaching higher than 50 percent.23 Intensive aquaculture ex- pansion in coastal areas of Thailand 23. Alongi, Daniel M. is greatly responsible for the de- ‘Present State and crease of mangrove forests in the Future of the World’s country. The remaining mangrove Mangrove Forests.’ (Australian Institute flora that still resides in patches of Marine Science, of the coast of Thailand face loom- 2002), 331-332. ing threats both of the continual 24. Havanond, Dr expansion of aquaculture ponds and Sonjai. ‘NATIONAL rising seas levels which will impact REPORT on Mangroves the chemical and physical properties in South China 24 Sea-Thailand.’ (Unit- of the mangrove. ed Nations Environ- The unsustainable human ap- ment Programme, proaches to stewardship of mangrove 2003), 18-21. forests has not only felt the loss 25. Lugendo, B. R., of valuable attributes that mangrove I. Nagelkerken, G. forests offer but also greatly harms Van Der Velde, and Y. D. Mgaya. “Journal of the mudflats, seagrasses and reefs Fish Biology.” (Fs- that depend on the coastal forest. bi,2006), 1639-1641. With no trees to stop erosion in 26. Mangrove Action heavily deforested areas sediment Project. “Issues at levels are imbalanced and entire Hand.” (Accessed, ecosystems are affected.25 2020)
19 Fig.08 Mangrove Sap- ling in Deforested Coast
20 CONSEQUENCES OF MANGROVE LOSS
+ Fisheries Declines
+ Threats to Migratory Bird Species
+ Degradation of Clean Water Supplies
+ Salinization of Coastal Soils
+ Erosion and Land Subsidence
+ Release of Carbon Dioxide into the Atmosphere
+ Loss of coastal protection from storms and tsunamis
UNSUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENTAL THREATS
+ Shrimp Aquaculture
+ Charcoal Production and Logging
+ Oil Exploration and Extraction
+ Tourism
+ Urbanization and Urban Expansion
26 + Ports and Roads
21 Fig.09 Thailand Cen- tral Coast Aquacul- ture Ponds
22 Fig.10 Thailand Cen- tral Coast Aquacul- ture Ponds
23 001
002
001
2017 2007 1997 1987
0 1 2 3 4 5 km
002
2017 2007 1997 1987
0 1 2 3 4 5 km
Fig.11-13 Thailand Central Coastline Recession
24 3.0 DESIGN APPROACHES
25 3.1 INTRODUCTION
After the initial shock of the oc- currence of a natural disaster in an urban area anywhere in the world, people generally resume their lives as their daily attention is averted elsewhere. The pressing issues made visible by these natural disasters only capture fleeting attention and ultimately fail to capture coherent narratives for the deeply intercon- nected causes and consequences of these disasters. The current tech- niques and means of representation of climatic issues allows humanity to observe the starving polar bears and their diminishing habitats or the satellite images of hurricanes and floods that decimate our cities, but fail to create any cohesion or balance between people, habits and the world we live in.27 “we have become so enamored of our ability to describe large-scale and 27. Ghosn, Rania, and El Hadijazairy. ‘Geo- systemic environmental transforma- stories: Another tions that we create a false and ir- Architecture for the responsible separation between Environment.’ (Actar, 2018), 17-18. people and nature, inducing a kind 28 of pity for the living world.” 28. Ibid., 18.
26 29. Ghosn, Rania, and If the current methods of de- El Hadijazairy. ‘Geo- scribing the climatic issues facing stories: Another our planet are indigestible and un- Architecture for the Environment.’ (Actar, relatable then perhaps a shift in 2018), 17. perspective and representation is in order. Prevailing ontologies and epistemologies separate people and the earth in which we live, framing a vision of a world to be conquered and its resources exploited. We now find ourselves at a crisis in our story. Is this crisis the end of a tragic tale or the climax of one yet to have been completed? The next chapter in this tale needs to ensure that earth is an ‘integral’ rather than ‘incidental’ part of the nar- rative if humanity wishes to cor- rect this current trajectory.29 Hope needs to be provided by not only ex- pressing the issues that face our planet and inherently our species but also provide possible solutions to our damaged world. This thesis aims to use architectural thinking and methods to confront these issues drawing from a variety of perspectives and vantage points, and designing with speculative sen- sibilities, in order to explore al- ternative futures and vantage points on which we can view our world.
27 3.2 SURREALIST METHOD
28 3.21 SURREALIST METHOD “As we watch the sun go down, eve- ning after evening, through the smog across the poisoned waters of our native earth, we must ask ourselves seriously whether we really wish some future universal historian on another planet to say about us: ‘with all their genius and with all their skill, they ran out of fore- sight and air and food and water and ideas’, or ‘They went on playing politics until their world collapsed around them’” 30
This warning given by Burmese statesmen and secretary-general of the United Nations U Thant in 1971 paints a haunting image of outsiders looking in.31 Witnessing humanity’s misguided focus and self-inflicted downfall, these strangers look on with judgmental eyes at the demise of human civilization, our collapse seemingly so preventable from their perspective. It is often the case in one’s life that strategic decisions present themselves once the proper distance and time from the situation has occurred. 30. Gosh, Amitav. ‘The Great Derange- The climatic issues facing ment: Climate Change planet earth intrinsically fall into and the Unthinkable.’ this category as the scale and se- (The University of Chicago Press, 2016), verity of earth’s current state is 113. incomprehensible at the myopic posi- tion that people live their lives. 31. Ibid., 113.
29 “People observe daily weather 32. Ghosn, Rania, and changes but they do not perceive El Hadijazairy. ‘Geo- stories: Another climate… weather is experienced lo- Architecture for the cally, while understanding the Environment.’ (Actar, global effects of climate change 2018), 11. would require perceiving the world 33. Wango, Dr. Kamau. as a whole.” 32 ‘Drawing with My Students’ (Interna- tional Journal of What if U Thant’s future histo- Advanced Research, rians built a museum of our history? 2021), 3. What would these exhibits present? Would the isolated nature of museum displays that see objects removed from their context present new per- spectives of our current world? Could exhibiting the Central Gulf of Thailand in a range of scales and intricacies from the miniature to the gigantic allow for our eyes to focus and comprehend each individu- al character and its purpose until the assemblage of all these pieces can be understood as a whole? Using the tool of surrealist imagery, the following exhibits explore these questions creating spaces for the viewer to “escape external struc- tures, to peer into unconscious in- teriors and explore what’s hidden there.” 33
30 3.3 MUSEUM OF THE FUTURE
31 3.31 TIMELINE EXHIBIT
An exhibit derived in accordance with U Thant’s concerns for our plant, ‘Timeline’ displays coastal Thailand at pivotal stages in histo- ry. Walking down the catwalk one peers down into pits each frozen in time. The row to your right display- ing biomes largely uninhibited by human structures, rich in diversity and manner of life. To the left a display reflecting that of the right but in a time past the advent of the industrial revolution, a time where people rule the earth, claiming acreage for their cities and farms, early warning signs of misguided land use can be observed creeping from the sea. The following rows next to these display the current trajectory of many delta cities around the world, a future where storms rage and water cover our cities, a future past our saving.
32 Fig.14 Museum of the Future - Timeline Exhibit
33 3.32 MANGROVE EXHIBIT
Separated from the busy world of today, the following exhibit enclos- es its viewer in a room surrounded by select characters integral to the success of coastal ecosystems across the equator. Central in the room and to this story lies the sapling of a mangrove, its roots digging into soil covered in a layer of water while other arms reach to sediment past the height of the water level in the room. With nothing else to distract your attention you observe the shadows the young tree casts, the light from above that only par- tially penetrates through its leaves and patterns in the ground created due to the interaction of sediment, water and the roots of the young tree. The room draws your attention to a system and species greatly overlooked in human history but pos- sess the ability to bring hope to the coast.
34 Fig.15 Museum of the Future - Mangrove Exhibit
35 3.33 FLORA EXHIBIT
On a boat at sea looking towards the shore, or on a plane in the sky peering down at the ground below, a forest is observed as but a single entity, an object viewed as a whole. In contrast to this perspective, when surrounded by the flora, the likes of black mangrove, tropical ferns, and palm trees, are so unmis- takably their own individual enti- ties and separate from the world around them. Viewing the forest from either perspective reveals unique characteristics about its web-like structure and varying tendencies within its makeup. In an attempt to bring together such qualities under- stood from unique vantage points the following exhibit gives each species that contributes to the flora of the mangrove its own space within the room, learned from individually, yet understood within the web in which it is connected. (See Appendix A)
36 Fig.16 Museum of the Future - Flora Exhibit
37 3.34 BELOW SEA-LEVEL EXHIBIT
The sea is a barrier to much of the world where humanity lives, limiting our access and understanding of the biomes in its depths below. But what if water was not a barrier that sep- arated us from the ocean? What if we could walk past the blockade of the coastline? What could we learn of the connections between land and sea? Propelled into such a world, you walk along the mudflats, along the gulf of Thailand in this last exhibit, observing where land once met sea over your left shoulder and the swaying seagrass over your other. Fish swim across your path and disappear in the grass fields below sea-level while fishing boats float above your head ready to check the crab nets lowered in the water the day before. This perspective of sea life below provides a new aware- ness of the finite connections and balance that can be created between all manor of life. (See Appendix B)
38 Fig.17 Museum of the Future - Below Sea-Level Exhibit
39 3.4 SPECULATIVE METHOD
40 3.41 SPECULATIVE METHOD “nothing on Earth or anywhere else stands still. The images of our future and the environment we live in should consist of more than hold- ing on with white knuckles to what we have because, truly, this isn’t obtainable.” 34
The earth is in constant motion, ro- tating beneath our feet, shifting its tectonic plates below its crust, and altering the shape of its coast- lines with the rolling of tides. Nature is not static but constantly moving and evolving, making a clear view into the future a difficult task and designing for said future even greater of a challenge. But like an early explorer’s vessel guiding the way to unmapped territo- ry, meditated speculative designs can be used as a tool to “transform our own present into the determinate 34. Lally, Sean. ‘The past of something yet to come.” 35 Air from Other Plan- ets: A Brief History Providing design sensibilities for of Architecture to an imagined future, architecture can Come.’ (Lars Müller Publishers, 2014), influence the mindset of others 25. toward responsible and innovative future conduct, giving hope with the 35. Ibid., 10.
41 36. Lally, Sean. ‘The introduction of alternative fu- Air from Other Plan- tures. The purpose of this trans- ets: A Brief History formation is not simply to keep a of Architecture to Come.’ (Lars Müller vision of the future alive but also Publishers, 2014), to point out current issues and de- 23. velop plans so that these shortcom- ings do not ultimately hinder 37. Ghosn, Rania, and 36 El Hadijazairy. ‘Geo- future developments. stories: Another ‘Stories and ideas matter for Architecture for the Environment.’ (Actar, the Earth’ They can be used to un- 2018), 21. derstand earth’s intricacies, pro- vide alternative lifestyles and ways of seeing. Stories can be a means of ‘world making’ and specu- lative architecture can be the paper on which to write such as story. “In the face of gloomy eco- logical predictions for the Earth, speculative fiction might help us comprehend such new worldly condi- tions and reflect on reality with- out realism, without optimization, without determinism, and without fear of the cosmic scale.” 37
42 3.42 THE BLUE REVOLUTION
The human population has seen dras- tic growth since the advent of the industrial revolution. A planet with a human resident count of about 1 billion 200 years ago now in 2021 sees that number approach 8 billion.38 With a predicted trajectory of 11 billion people worldwide within the next 100 years, the global agricul- tural industry would need to in- crease production by an unmanageable percent over the next century to meet the demand of such a popula- tion.39 With today’s agricultural practices’ heavy reliance on land and freshwater, two resources in a 38. Roser, Max, limited supply, a production in- Hannah Ritchie, and crease of this magnitude is not fea- Esteban Ortiz-Ospina. sible to feed the populations pre- “World Population Growth.” (University dicted in our near future. of Oxford, 2019 There is one place on earth where the space and water required 39. Jones, Robert. ‘Towards a Blue Revo- to meet the agricultural demand of lution: Catalyzing the growing human population can be Private Investment in met, the deep ocean. Seventy percent Sustainable Aquacul- ture Production Sys- of earth’s surface is covered by tems.’ (The Nature ocean, half of which is classified Conservancy and as a biological desert (biological Encourage Capital, 2019), 24. productivity is completely absent).
43 40. Jones, Robert. Cultivating these empty spaces ‘Towards a Blue Revo- poses no threat to sea life as they lution: Catalyzing are located thousands of miles away Private Investment in Sustainable Aquacul- from the nearest marine ecosystems. ture Production Sys- Aquaculture in the deep ocean has tems.’ (The Nature the potential to feed upwards to 100 Conservancy and Encourage Capital, billion people with 300 million 2019), 24-25. square km of open sea to farm, al- lowing for a released burden of 41. Ibid., 67. land-based farms.40 But how do you operate and maintain something as labour intensive as a fish farm while it sits thousands of miles out to sea? The answer has always been ‘you simply can not.’ But with coun- tries, including the United States, Philippines, China and Norway, in- vested in finding answers to this question, the reality of deep ocean farming is on the horizon.41 The Blue Revolution is upon us, ostensibly providing solutions to many environmental matters that seemingly before such a reality had no answers. This in tern could pro- vide a stage for a yet unperceived future. What would a world having relocated farming and consequently shifted its reliance off the occu- pation of land and freshwater look like? How will land once dedicated to farming be redistributed? How will this affect the local small-scale farming industry if large agriculture production moves out to sea? Will we misuse such an
44 opportunity, once again failing to assign value to nature, or con- versely work towards creating a more sustainable future? Speculat- ing the effects of this next revolu- tion, this thesis situates itself within such a world, exploring design possibilities in a time where land is not monopolized by ag- riculture. What possibilities would present themselves within this future for a delta city such as Bangkok? What could become of the aquaculture fields that separates the city from the gulf of Thailand or the coastline once lined with mangrove forests and a diverse array of aquatic species?
45 Fig.18 SalMar Off- shore Fish Farm
46 3.43 THE RECONNECTION “It is a great testimony to the con- nectedness of life on earth that the fates of the largest and the tiniest life should be so closely dependent on each other.” 42
There is an unremitting interaction within the natural world that tran- spires between that of living organ- isms and the non-living elements on earth. These relations are founda- tional in the health and balance of ecosystems, each element of nature a piece of a puzzle that is not com- plete if these relationships are broken. The complexity of these con- nections, and the web of which they create, seemingly expand as myopic research in niche disciplines re- veals additional layers of integral relationships within nature. These networks can reach great distances, across ecosystems separated by siz- able geological space yet remain no less integral to the health and suc- 42. Johnson, Steven. 43 ‘The Ghost Map: The cess of said ecosystem. Story of London’s For centuries the marshes and Most Terrifying Epi- mudflats along the coast of Thailand demic and How It Changed Science, relied on such an interaction, de- Cities, and the pendent on the fluctuation of the Modern World.’ (Riv- rivers during the monsoon seasons to erhead Books, 2006), 96. carry sediment from the Chao Phraya river valley down to the coast. In- 43. Erik Jørgensen, tertidal sediment accumulations al- Sven. ‘Integration of Ecosystem Theories: A lowed seaside flora to cope with Pattern: A Pattern.’ tidal changes but the advent of ex- (Kluwer Academic pansive farmlands, dams, levees, and Publishers, 2002), 1.
47 44. Pumijumnong, the city sprawl all but cut off this Nathsuda. “Mangrove connection preventing the coast Forests in Thailand.” from adjusting to the rise of the (Springer Sci- ence+Business Media sea. The effects of this sever pro- New York, 2014), 63. duced major imbalance and loss spanning the urban to the rural, the terrestrial to the aquatic, clearly demonstrating the importance of these natural interactions by the effects of their absence.44 The sizable exodus of agricul- tural production in and around Bangkok provided a major opportuni- ty for a fundamental shift in the metropolitan configuration. Space once allocated to shrimp pods were given the ability to rest. The crowded city given an opportunity to introduce green veins of life, reconnecting ecosystems cut-off from one another, effectively rein- troducing old paths for water to flow that once ran into streets and homes of the people of Bangkok. The proximity and interaction of the natural and urban has provid- ed new conditions and ultimately new ways of observing and integrat- ing with the natural world, rein- troducing a dependence and appreci- ation for the ecosystems that pro- vide life for humanity. It must be remembered that humanity along with all other living things falls into this web of interaction ultimately connected to the natural world and affected and dependent on its bal- ance.
48 Fig.19 The Reconnec- tion Drawing 1
49 Fig.20 The Reconnec- tion Drawing 2
50 3.44 A NEW FARMING SYSTEM
The turn of the 21st century saw Thailand’s fishery industry climb to be among the world’s largest, pro- ducing and exporting aquacul- ture-based products at a rate un- matched in its time.45 As previously discussed, the age of the blue revo- lution greatly impacted and influ- enced the reshaping of the urban plane in Bangkok, but perhaps stimu- lated an even greater impact and certainly more direct changes in the development and formation of land-based aquaculture along the central coast of Thailand. The re- duction in demand of this coastal farming and subtraction of the pre- vious mandate on the land provided new opportunities for farmers to positively impact their agricultur- al practices. Although seemingly advantageous to local farmers, more sustainable and secure aquaculture systems such 45. Huitric, Miriam, Carl Folke, and Nils as ‘silvofisheries,’ that plant man- Kautsky. ‘Development grove trees alongside shrimp ponds, and Government Poli- received major reluctance from farm- cies of the Shrimp ing communities before the blue rev- Farming Industry in 46 Thailand in Relation olution. Even with government in- to Mangrove Ecosys- centives, establishing such struc- tems.’ (Ecological Economics, 2002), tures reduced the ponds’ potential 443. yield and with land in such high demand and a competitive market, 46. Takashima, Fumio. ‘Silvofishery: An such systems were not plausible for Aquaculture System many farmers. The emigration of Harmonized with the large-scale characters in the farm- Environment,’ (1994), ing market allowed local farmers to 13.
51 47. Takashima, Fumio. seriously consider and implement ‘Silvofishery: An silvofisheries or similar systems. Aquaculture System These systems’ ability to increase Harmonized with the Environment,’ (1994), biodiversity, reduce coastal ero- 13-14. sion, saltwater intrusion, and in- crease the success rate of shrimp 48. Ibid., 14-16. larva increasingly gained the favour of farmers and saw their implanta- tion along the coast.47 Even with the major industry shift from the shores of Thailand, coastal farmers still play a major role in the success of deep-sea aquaculture. The growing of juvenile shrimp, for example, are highly sus- ceptible to diseases that can wipe out an entire crop. But hatcheries closely resembling that of their natural environment have a much greater success rate than that of an artificial or foreign environment.48 For this reason, the deep-sea farm- ing corporations rely on community farmers like those in Thailand to provide them with juvenile aquatic species too fragile to grow during early stages of their life out at sea. With a healthy relationship with these corporations and the room to continue to grow food for their local communities, the farmers of Thailand’s coast have successfully adjusted with the changing of times, creating a more balanced and health- ier world around them.
52 Fig.21 A New Farming System Drawing 1
53 Fig.22 A New Farming System Drawing 2
54 3.45 COASTAL GROWTH
Located off the Gulf of southwest Florida, between Cape Romano and the mouth of the Lostmans River resides a chain of unorthodox islands and mangrove islets, formed not by sand bars or rock formations but rather the conglomerate of countless shell- fish. These oyster-bars-turned-is- lands reach heights and scales large enough to sustain plant life and have become the foundation on which mangrove trees along the gulf have dug their roots, expanding their ecosystem perceivably limited to a line that separates land and water.49 Natural developments such as the Ten Thousand Islands have pro- vided an organic blueprint for coastal redevelopment strategies, widening the boundary of rehabilita- tion potential. In sequence with the urban and rural developments in cen- tral Thailand, great strides were made along the coastal provinces of Samut Sakhon, Samut Prakan and Bang- kok to reinstate the diversity of plant and animal life that once lined the gulf. The lack of presence 49. Lara, Monica R., of a great deal of flora and fauna Jennifer Schull, native to these coastal regions in- David L. Jones, and hibited the opening strategies for Robert Allman. ‘Early Life History Stages the reinstitution of many species. of Goliath Grouper Requiring models much closer to the Epinephelus Itajara region of Thailand, the analysis of (Pisces: Epinepheli- dae) from Ten Thou- neighbouring countries with similar sand Islands, Flori- coastal conditions were studied to da.’ (Inter-Research, help imagine a productive gulf. The 2009), 224.
55 help imagine a productive gulf. The reintegration of the flora native to these coastal regions was a delicate process and without the involvement of the local communities surely would not have been possible. Teaching those directly affect- ed and familiar with the local ter- ritory of the ecology and biology to facilitate the natural regeneration of species like the red mangrove provided pride among local communi- ties as their efforts empowered their people and protected those throughout the country. Their toil, resulting in the regeneration and health of the forests, mudflats, seagrass beds and coral reef, bring new jobs and opportunities to their people. Neither this, nor either of the previously mentioned projects were results of quick acting designs, but required major shifts in the systems of power previously embedded and a mindset understanding the important benefits these interventions would provide, not in the time of their installation but for the future they could instill. Change is not always immediate but our actions to make change can last for generations.
56 Fig.23 Coastal Growth Drawing 1
57 Fig.24 Coastal Growth Drawing 2
58 4.0 CONCLUSION
59 4.0 CONCLUSION
The Narrative-based approaches ex- plored in this thesis design for a time beyond our own, develop a world opposing that which we live, invol- untarily draw from speculative pros- pects, and forge fictions of the imagination. The value of such sto- ries often lacks serious contempla- tion from its viewer as the societal understanding of such work situates it in categories absent of re- al-world application.50 Yet contrary to this understanding, narratives of this sort cannot help but incorpo- rate nonfiction facts into a world of speculation. The research and application of work from organizations such as the ‘Mangrove Action Project,’ that demonstrate the feasibility of coastal rehabilitation, or initia- tives like ‘Mangroves and Markets,’ that provide real alternative sus- tainable solutions for shrimp farm- ers in Vietnam and Thailand, provide tangible examples in practise today, grounding narratives such as those presented in this thesis. Truly, the largest obstacle that stands in the way of such speculative futures from 50. Lally, Sean. ‘The becoming a reality lies in the Air from Other Plan- limits of human imagination within ets: A Brief History of Architecture to current ontological and epistemo- Come.’ (Lars Müller logical frameworks and the general Publishers, 2014), priorities of today’s culture. 25.
60 “the climate crisis is also a crisis 51. Gosh, Amitav. of culture, and this of the imagina- ‘The Great Derange- ment: Climate Change tion” 51 and the Unthinkable.’ (The University of Chicago Press, 2016), People instinctively seek to posi- 9. tion themselves within the narra- 52. Da Cunha, Dilip. tive before them, checking its ‘The Invention of plausibility and where they may fit Rivers.’ Presented at into such a world. Architecture can the Daniel Urban Kiley Lecture, Har- be used to enrich these stories, vard GSD, (2019) provide a relatability and founda- tion for self-insertion. Offering alternative lifestyles through de- signs integrated in the world and its natural elements can reveal so much more of our earth than the myopic position our current society does not provide. The work of this thesis does not claim to provide a solution to climate change or the challenges that face Thailand, but rather seeks to display the possi- bility of change, the importance of including the natural world with ours, and to expand paradigms of ar- chitectural practice to unearth new productive territories. “There is no such thing as a natural disaster. Nature doesn’t make di- sasters we make disasters by not being able to design.” 52
61 4.1 EPILOGUE
Fundamentally grounded in research and realistic hypotheticals the in- terpretation of speculative futures presented in this thesis heavily relied on worlds created on innova- tive technology and design strate- gies with parameters that make them as relevant in the future as they are today. With a desire to present viable alternatives to many of to- day’s destructive systems, specula- tion was used to give such strate- gies a platform and chance to come to fruition through hypothetical fu- tures. Through the use of digestible methods, engaging visuals and the insertion of technology present in varying scales of application in to- day’s world, this design strategy intends to provide hope and present obtainable goals that can be enacted upon today. As discussed in chapters prior, the ‘crisis of the imagination’ stems in many cases beyond an in- ability to imagine viable solution but rather is rooted in the myopic position people live their lives, obstructed with metaphorical blind- ers preventing a full view of the world. In an attempt to remove these blinders, the museum exhibits within this thesis were developed around the surrealist sensibilities of jux- taposition, abstraction of
62 normality and a desire to activate the unconscious mind through imag- ery. Such exhibit designs corre- spondingly reacted to the current museum structure. Aiding in the mis- understanding of our world, museums present their objects in a hierar- chal fashion, isolating characters not truly understood in sterile dis- play cases or hanging from museum ceilings. Giving the characters un- derrepresented and lacking appreci- ation the space and views they re- quire along with unique displays of interaction, these exhibits desire to present new vantagepoints and characters to consider in hopes of widening the field of view of human- ity. These exhibits in coordination with the speculative stories first present new ways of observing our world and then ways in which we can improve it. The power of stories and those of fiction in particular resides in their ability to immerse its viewer into new worlds, allowing them to write their own sub chapters within these narratives, filling in details that only the reader has the knowl- edge to create. If truly immersive these worlds of fiction can provide the antidote to a society plagued with a crisis of the imagination, exploring new possibilities and ways
63 of seeing earth, encouraging those emersed within these stories to add to their complexity and diversity. The content and characters of the stories and worlds created within this thesis were finely tuned to ad- dress selected circumstances and climatic phenomena that transpire along the coastal shores of Thai- land. But the methods of representa- tion and stylistic choices presented in this work certainly have no bounds to the coast, Thailand or even Asia. This country is just one of many nations around the world that face looming environmental threats, and therefore our responses needs to be global, able to be ap- plied and adapted across cultures and nation lines. Narratives provide such a universal connection, not re- fined to one language, continent or race, able to be molded to address planetary and molecular issues while providing the framework for new views of the world, acting as an in- strument for the creation of ideas that can unite us in a cause to build a healthy future.
64 5.0 APPENDIX
65 APPENDIX A. MANGROVE FLORA In accordance with the United Na- 53. Havanond, Dr tions Environment Programme the Sonjai. ‘NATIONAL REPORT on Mangroves Global Environment Facility studied in South China the geographical distribution at the Sea-Thailand.’ (Unit- habitat level of the mangrove flora ed Nations Environ- ment Programme, in Thailand with major attention 2003), 3-4. aimed at the mangrove forests that remain in the Gulf of Thailand. The 54. Ibid., 2. national report recorded 71 species of both trees and shrubs that com- prise the mangrove forests of the gulf of Thailand. Of these species, 27 are classified as “true man- groves” (species that are bound to saline or brackish water) and 44 are classified as “mangrove associates” (species of littoral vegetation of the landward zone of mangrove for- ests).53 The distribution of these mangrove species forms in distinct zonal patterns, where a combination of species favors distinct environ- mental conditions. With little to no overlap of species competing for space, the flora of the coast works together to make a healthy and di- verse forest. This flora is at risk though as many of the species that are vital in the balance of the man- grove forest are at risk of extinc- tion and could greatly influence the success of the coasts of Thailand.54
66 Fig.25 Mangrove Life Cycle
01 MANGROVE TREES PRODUCE SMALL YELLOW FLOWERS USUALLY FROM FEBRUARY TO APRIL
02 THE FLOWER DOES NOT PRODUCE SEEDS LIKE MOST OTHER FLOWERS BUT INSTEAD PRODUCE YOUNG TREES CALLED PROPAGULES.
03 THE GERMINATED PROPAGULE CONTINUES TO GROW FROM THE FLOWER
04 AFTER ABOUT 12 MONTHS THE PROPAGULE HAS GROWN LARGE ENOUGH TO FALL OFF THE TREE
05 THE PROPAGULE MAY LAND IN THE MUD AND START GROWING IMMEDIATELY OR TRAVEL IN THE WATER FOR UP TO 24 MONTHS
06 AFTER THE PROPAGULE HAS LANDED IN SOIL IT WILL START GROWING ITS ROOTS, WITHIN 6-10 WEEKS LEAVES WILL START SHOOTING
67 CALOPHCYALLLOAPCHEYALEL A C E ACEO M B R ECTOAMCBRETAC ACEAE-ACEAE- EAE E AE URSER URSER FLORA SPECIES AE-B AE-B IACE IACE EB EB NON NON ENA ENA BIG BIG CEA CEA AE- AE- E E ACE ACE ONI ONI EG EG 32. Intsia bijuga B B ACANTHACEAE E E EU EU EA EA PH PH AC AC OR OR NI NI LC BI BI 01. Acanthus ebracteatus 33. Peltophorum pterocarpum EN EN LC LC AC AC IC IC LC LC EA EA AV AV E E LC LC
02. Acanthus ilicifolius GOODENIACEAE
E E NE NE EA EA LC LC 34. Scaevola taccada AC AC AMARANTHACEAE ER ER T T S S A A LC LC
03. Suaeda maritima LAMIACEAE
LC LC
APOCYNACEAE 35. Premna serratifolia
NE NE E E 36. Volkameria inermis A A 04. Cerbera manghas E E NT NT C C A A C C E E EN EN R R 05. Cerbera odollam A A 17 187 1189 219 2 16 16 0 0 5 5 21 21 F F 1 1 A A 22 22 B B 14 14 A A ARECACEAE C C 3 3 23 23 E E 1 1 A A E E 2 2 2 2 1 1 4 4 06. Daemonorops leptopus LC LC 2 2 CR CR 11 11 5 5
0 0 2 2 07. Nypa fruticans 1 1 6 6
E E A A 9 9 2 2 E E 0 0 7 7 08. Oncosperma tigillarium C C A A N N Y Y 8 8 2 2 C C 0 0 8 8 O O LC LC 09. Phoenix paludosa P P A A 2 2 7 7 9 9 0 0
E E ASTERACEAE A A
E E 3 3 C C LC LC 6 6 0 0 A A 0 0
H H 10. Pluchea indica T T N N 3 3 A A 5 5 1 1 R R 0 0
A A G G M M O O
AVICENNIACEAE A A O O NE NE
3 3 D D 4 4 E E 2 2 0 0 N N I I
11. Avicennia alba E E A A
A A C C 3 3 E E 3 3 E E
C C 3 3 A A LC LC 0 0 A A E E
H H 12. Avicennia marina T T
N N
A A 3 3 2 2 C C 4 4 A A 0 0 L L
13. Avicennia officinalis A A
LC LC M M
I I 3 3
1 1 A A
5 5 C C 0 0
E E BEGONIACEAE
A A
E E
50 50
40 3040 30 20 20 3 3
10 10
14. Begonia parvifolia 6 6
PLANTPLANT HEIGHT HEIGHT (M) (M)
3 3
7
BIGNONIACEAE 7
L L
E E
C
CONSERVATIONCONSERVATION STATUS STATUS C
Y Y
T
15. Dolichandrone spathacea T 3 3
H
LC NE LC NE H
8
VU NT VU NT 8 2 2 I
EW CR ENEW CR EN I
D D
7 7
A A
E E
C C
3 BURSERACEAE 3 A A
E E
E E
9 9
A A
1 1 C
C EN EN
E E
7 7 A A
I I
L
16. Santiria griffithii L
I I
4 4
T T
0 0
0 0
7 7
CALOPHYLLACEAE
VU VU
4 4
E E
1 1 A A
9 9
E E
6 6
C C
17. Calophyllum inophyllum A A
L L
D D
Y Y
4 4 N
N NE NE
T T
I I
2 2
H H 8 8
P P
R R
6 6
A A
A COMBRETACEAE A
S S
C C
4 4
E E
3 3
A A 7 7
E E
6 6
18. Laguncularia racemosa
E E
4 4
A A
E E
4 4
6 6
C C
6
CR CR 6 A A
19. Lumnitzera littorea
C C
4 4
I I
5 5
5 5
L L
6 6
A A
LC LC
S S
20. Terminalia catappa
4 4
6 6
4 4
6 6
M M
4 4
A A
7 7
E E 3
EBENACEAE 3
L L
6 6 A
A LC LC
V V
E E
A A
C C
C C 4 4
A A
8 8
E E
2 2
I I
6 6 A A
B B
21. Diospyros ferrea
E E
U U
4 4
1 1
R R
9 9
6 6
LC LC
5 5
0 0
0 0
6
22. Diospyros areolata 6
5 5
9 9
1 1
5 5
5 5
2 2
8 8
5 5
5 5
7 7
3 3
5 5
LC LC
5 5
4 4 6 6
5 5
5 5 5 5
EUPHORBIACEAE
23. Excoecaria agallocha
LC LC
M M
E E
L L
I I
A
24. Glochidion littorale A
C C
LC LC
E E
A A
E E
25. Sapium indicum
NT NT
FABACEAE
LC LC
M M
E E
L L
A A
E E
S S
A A
T T
E E
O O
C C
M
26. Cynometra iripa M A A
A A
R R
C C
O O
E E
H H
A
EW A P P
E E
O O
- -
Z Z
M
EXTINCT IN WILD M I I
O O
H H
R R
R R
A
27. Cynometra ramiflora LC LC A
C C
E CR E
EW
A A
LC LC E E
EXTINCT IN WILD -
CRITICALLY ENDANGERED -
M LC LC M
Y Y
CR CR
R R
CR I I
S S
T
EN CRITICALLY ENDANGERED T
28. Dendrolobium umbellatum
I I
C C
A
ENDANGERED A
C C
EN
E E
CR CR
A A
E
ENDANGERED E
- -
M
VU M
Y Y
VU
R R
T T
VU
A A
C C
VULNERABLE
E
29. Derris indica VULNERABLE E
A A
E E
- -
P P
A A
N N
D NT D
A A
N N
NT
A A
NEAR THREATENED
C C
E E
A A
E E
NEAR THREATENED
E E
A A
E E
LC C C
P P
A A
R R
D D
I I
I I
M M
R R
U U
E E L L T T A A P 30. Derris trifoliata P
C C
E E
A A
E E
LEAST-CONCERN
LC LEAST-CONCERNNE NOT EVALUATED 31. Hibiscus tiliaceus NE NOT EVALUATED
68 LOPHYLLLOAPCHEYALEL A C E ACEO M B R ECTOAMBRETA CEAE-CCAEAE-CA CEAE C EAE RSERA RSERA E-BU E-BU ACEA ACEA E E ONI ONI BEN BEN IGN IGN ACE ACE E-B E-B AE AE CEA CEA NIA NIA EN EN GO GO BE BE LECYTHIDACEAE MALVACEAE CR CR E E AE AE UP UP CE CE HO HO IA IA RB RB NN NN LC IA IA 37. Barringtonia asiatica 42. Heritiera littoralis CE CE LC LC CE CE VI VI AE AE A A LC LC
38. Barringtonia racemosa 43. Thespesia populnea EN EN E E EA EA LC LC AC AC ER ER LYTHRACEAE MELIACEAE T T S S A A
39. Pemphis acidula 44. Aglaia cucullata
NE NE
40. Sonneratia alba 45. Xylocarpus granatum
LC LC
E E A A 46. Xylocarpus moluccensis E E 41. Sonneratia caseolaris C C A A LC LC C C E E R R A A 17 187 1189 219 2 47. Xylocarpus rumphii 16 16 0 0 5 5 21 21 F F 1 1 A A 22 22 B B 14 14 A A NE NE C C MELASTOMACEAE 3 3 23 23 E E 1 1 A A E E 2 2 2 2 1 1 4 4 48. Melastoma villosa 2 2 11 11 5 5 NE NE
0 0 2 2 1 1 6 6 MORACEAE
E E A A 9 9 2 2 NE NE E E 0 0 7 7 C C 49. Ficus microcarpa A A N N Y Y 8 8 2 2 C C 0 0 8 8 O O LC LC P P MYRISTICACEAE A A 2 2 7 7 9 9 0 0
E E A A VU VU 50. Horsfieldia irya
E E 3 3 C C 6 6 0 0 A A 0 0
H H T T MYRTACEAE N N 3 3 A A 5 5 1 1 CR CR R R 0 0
A A G G M M O O
A A 51. Melaleuca cajuputi O O
3 3 D D 4 4 E E 2 2 0 0 N N I I
E E A A PANDANACEAE A A C C 3 3 E E 3 3 E E
C C 3 3 A A 0 0 A A NE NE E E
H H 52. Pandanus odoratissimus T T
N N
A A 3 3 2 2 C C 4 4 A A 0 0 L L
A A PRIMULACEAE
LC LC M M
I I 3 3
1 1 A A
5 5 C C 0 0
E E 53. Aegiceras corniculatum
A A
E E
3 3
NE NE
6 6 54. Ardisia elliptica
3 3
55. Rapanea porteriana
7 7
L L
E E
C LC LC C
Y Y
T
T PTERIDACEAE 3 3
H H
8 8
2 2
I I
D D
7 7
A A
E E C
C 56. Acrostichum aureum
3 3 A A
E E
E E
9
9 LC LC
A A
1 1
C C
E E
7 7 A A
I I
L
L 57. Acrostichum speciosum
I I
4 4
T T
0 0
0 0
7 7
LC LC
RHIZOPHORACEAE
4 4
E E
1 1 A A
9 9
E E
6 6
C C
58. Bruguiera cylindrica A A
L L
D D
Y Y
4 4 N N
T T
I I LC LC
2 2
H H 8 8
P P
R R
6 6
A
A 59. Bruguiera gymnorhiza
A A
S S
C C
4 4
E E
3 3
A A 7 7
E E
6 6
60. Bruguiera hainesii
LC LC
E E
4 4
A A
E E
4 4
6 6
C C
6 6
A A
61. Bruguiera sexangula
C C
4 4
I I
5 5
5 5
L L
6 6 A A
LC LC
S S
62. Ceriops decandra
4 4
6 6
4 4
6 6
M M
4 4
A
NE NE A
7 7
E E 3
3 63. Ceriops tagal
L L
6 6 A A
V V
E E
A A
C C
C C 4 4
A A
8 8
E E
2 2
I I
6 6 A A
B B
64. Kandelia candel
E E
U U
4 4
1 1
R R
9 9
6 6
5 5
0 0
0 0
6
6 65. Rhizophora apiculata
5 5
9 9
1 1
5 5
EN EN
5 5
2 2
8 8
5 5
5 5
7 7
3 3
5 5
LC LC
5 5
4 4 6 6
5 5 66. Rhizophora mucronata
5 5 5 5
RUBIACEAE
LC LC
M M
E E
L L
I I
A
A 67. Guettarda speciosa
C C
E E
A A
E E
NE NE
68. Scyphiphora hydrophylacea
NE NE
CR CR
SALICACEAE
M M
E E
L L
A A
E E
S S
A A
T T
E E
O
LC LC O
C C
M
M 69. Scolopia macrophylla
A A
A A
R R
C C
O O
E E
H H
A A
P P
E E
O O
- -
Z Z
M M
I I
O O
H H
R R
R
R LC LC NT NT A
A SAPINDACEAE
C C
E E
A A
LC LC E E
- -
M M
Y Y
R R
I I
S S
T
T 70. Allophylus cobbe
I I
C C
A A
C C
E E
A A
E E
- -
M VU M
Y Y
R R
T T
A A
C C
71. Pouteria obovata E E
EN EN A A
E E
- -
P P
A A
N N
D D
A A
N N
A A
C C
E E
A A
E E
E E
A A
E E
C C
P P
A A
R R
D D
I I
I I
M M
R R
U U
E E L L
T T A A P P C C TILIACEAE
E E
A A
E E
Fig.26 Mangrove Flora Chart 72. Brownlowia tersa
69 KINGDOM PHYLUM CLASS ORDER FAMILY GENUS SPECIES
1.R.APICULATA
RHIZOPHORA 2.R.MUCRONATA
3.C.TAGAL
CERIOPS 4.C.DECANDRA
PLANTAE TRACHEOPHYTES MAGNOLIOPSIDA MALPIGHIALES RHIZOPHORACEAE KANDELIA 5. K.CANDEL
BRUGUIERA 6.B.CYLINDRICA
7.B.GYMNORHIZA
8.B.HAINESII
9.B.SEXANGULA
1. RED MANGROVE 4. YELLOW MANGROVE 7. BURMESE MANGROVE 2. LOOP-ROOT MANGROVE 5. NARROW-LEAVED KANDELIA 8. RED MANGROVE HYBRID 3. SPURRED MANGROVE 6. WHITE BURMA MANGROVE 9. BLACK MANGROVE
Fig.27 Mangrove Family Tree
70 APPENDIX B. Mangrove + Mudflats + Seagrass Mudflats, seagrass beds and the 55. Foster, Natalie, coral reef all play a part in an in- Malcolm Hudson, Simon Bray, and Robert terconnected system with the man- Nicholls. ‘Intertidal grove flora to create arguably Mudflat and Saltmarsh earths most diverse and important Conservation and Sustainable Use in ecosystems. Mudflats, also known as the UK: A Review.’ intertidal zones, neighbour man- (University of South- grove forests in sheltered estuaries ampton, 2013), 96-97. and bays. Comprised of a buildup of 56. Nordlund, Lina sediment, mudflats are flooded at Mtwana, Emma L. Jack- high tide and provide a rich ecosys- son, Masahiro Nakao- ka, and Jimena tem for nesting and breeding birds, Samper-Villarreal. fish and crustaceans. Providing food ‘Marine Pollution and income for local populations, Bulletin: Seagrass Ecoystem Ser- mudflats also serves as a barrier vices-What’s Next?’ between land and sea for coastal (Elsevier Ltd, 2018), communities.55 145-146. Seagrass fields which can be found in shallow salty and brackish waters serve as the succeeding habi- tat in the life cycle of many marine species following life in mudflat beds and the mangrove forests. Pro- viding food and shelter for a wide verity of species ranging from large fish, turtles, marine mammals, birds and invertebrates seagrass beds are productive ecosystems heavily aiding in the success of coral reef construction.56
71 LEGEND MANGROVE AREA SEA GRASS AREA MUDFLAT AREA SHELLFISH AREA
Fig.28 Coastal Thai- land Ecosystem Loca- tions
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