UNITED NATIONS ENVIRONMENT PROGRAMME EAST ASIAN SEAS REGIONAL COORDINATING UNIT
NATIONAL REPORT OF CAMBODIA
on the
Formulation of a Transboundary Diagnostic Analysis and Preliminary Framework of a Strategic Action Programme for the South China Sea TABLE OF CONTENTS
1. INTRODUCTION...... 1
1.1 AIM OF THE NATIONAL REPORT ...... 1 1.2 MAJOR WATER-RELATED ENVIRONMENT PROBLEMS...... 1 1.3 COUNTRY BACKGROUND...... 1 1.4 GEOGRAPHIC DIVISIONS USED IN THE ANALYSIS...... 2 2. DETAILED ANALYSIS OF THE MAJOR WATER-RELATED CONCERNS AND PRINCIPAL ISSUES ...... 3
2.1 POLLUTION ...... 3 2.1.1 Sources of pollution...... 3 2.1.2 Pollution hot spots ...... 19 2.1.3 High risk and sensitive areas ...... 19 2.1.4 Transboundary effects of pollution...... 21 2.2 FRESHWATER SHORTAGE AND DEGRADATION OF ITS QUALITY...... 21 2.2.1 Surface water...... 21 2.2.2 Groundwater...... 25 2.3 EXPLOITATION OF LIVING AQUATIC RESOURCES...... 30 2.3.1 Living freshwater resources ...... 30 2.3.2 Living marine resources...... 39 2.4 MODIFICATION OF AQUATIC HABITATS...... 43 2.4.1 Freshwater aquatic habitats ...... 43 2.4.2 Marine and coastal habitats ...... 53 3. ANALYSIS OF SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC COSTS OF THE IDENTIFIED WATER- RELATED PRINCIPAL ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES ...... 59
3.1 WATER RESOURCES...... 59 3.2 FRESHWATER LIVING RESOURCES...... 62 3.3 MARINE LIVING AQUATIC RESOURCES...... 62 3.4 AQUATIC HABITATS...... 62 3.4.1 Economic loss owing the reduction in habitats...... 62 3.4.2 Destructive exploitation of the aquatic resources of wetlands ...... 63 4. ANALYSIS OF THE ROOT CAUSES OF THE IDENTIFIED WATER-RELATED ISSUES ...... 63
4.1 ROOT CAUSES OF POLLUTION ...... 63 4.2 ROOT CAUSES OF SURFACE WATER SHORTAGES AND QUALITY DEGRADATION...... 64 4.3 ROOT CAUSE OF GROUNDWATER SHORTAGES AND QUALITY DEGRADATION ...... 65 4.4 ROOT CAUSES OF FISH STOCK DECLINE ...... 66 4.5 ROOT CAUSES OF HABITAT LOSS...... 67 5. CONSTRAINTS TO ACTION...... 70
5.1 INFORMATION, SCIENTIFIC UNCERTAINTIES AND PUBLIC AWARENESS...... 70 5.2 FINANCIAL AND ECONOMIC...... 71 5.3 LEGAL, INSTITUTIONAL AND MANAGERIAL ...... 71 6. ONGOING AND PLANNED ACTIVITIES RELEVANT TO THE IDENTIFIED ISSUES ...... 76
6.1 WATER POLLUTION PREVENTION...... 77 6.2 SURFACE WATER CONSERVATION...... 78 6.3 GROUNDWATER CONSERVATION ...... 79 6.4 AQUATIC LIVING RESOURCES MANAGEMENT AND CONSERVATION ...... 80 6.5 AQUATIC HABITATS CONSERVATION...... 80 7. SPECIFIC ACTION PROPOSED FOR EACH IDENTIFIED ISSUE...... 81
7.1 POLLUTION ...... 81 7.2 FRESHWATER SHORTAGE ...... 82 7.2.1 Surface water...... 82 7.2.2 Groundwater...... 82 7.3 LIVING AQUATIC RESOURCES...... 83 7.4 HABITAT MANAGEMENT AND CONSERVATION ...... 83 8. IMPLICATIONS OF THE PROPOSED ACTION BY SECTOR...... 83
8.1 FINANCIAL ASPECT AND POLICY DEVELOPMENT ...... 83 8.2 ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT ...... 84 8.3 AGRICULTURAL DEVELOPMENT ...... 84 8.3.1 Crop harvesting...... 84 8.3.2 Fishery ...... 85 8.3.3 Aquaculture...... 85 8.3.4 Coral mining and conservation ...... 86 8.3.5 Seagrass beds...... 86 8.3.6 Mangrove forest conservation...... 86 8.3.7 Forestry / Watershed management...... 86 8.4 MANUFACTURING...... 87 8.5 MINING...... 87
ANNEXES Annex I Analysis of causes of the identified water-related principal environmental issues in Cambodia Annex II Area statistics - 1973 /76 Cambodia land Cover (area in km2)
LIST OF TABLES
Table 2.1 The main characteristics of the 10 big rivers in the Mekong River system
Table 2.2 The main characteristics of the rivers in the Tonle Sap River system
Table 2.3 The main characteristics of the seven big rivers in the coastal river system
Table 2.4 Estimates of population living in the rural areas of coastal provinces
Table 2.5 Population density in the coastal area
Table 2.6 Population growth estimates in the coastal provinces, 1968 - 1997
Table 2.7 Amount of sewage discharged from urban centres in the coastal zone
Table 2.8 Amount of sewage discharged from urban centres in the central area
Table 2.9 Solid waste in major urban centres
Table 2.10 Number of factories in main urban centres and coastal provinces
Table 2.11 Industrial growth from 1993 to June 1998 Table 2.12 Activities of Sihanouk Ville Port
Table 2.13 Number of wells constructed by UNICEF and non-governmental organizations
Table 2.14 Number of wells drilled by UNICEF and non-governmental organizations in each province, 1983-1996
Table 2.15 Flooded forest areas and trends
Table 2.16 Total inland fish catch in Cambodia, 1982-1995
Table 2.17 Projected demand for fish, 1995-2005
Table 2.18 Grade of fish species in the inland capture fisheries in Cambodia
Table 2.19 Number of boats and catch per boat, 1982-1995
Table 2.20 Total annual marine fishery harvests, 1980-1995
Table 2.21 Number of coastal fishing boats, 1983-1993
Table 2.22 Changes in rice ecosystems, 1973-1993
Table 2.23 Trends in flooded forest extent and quality
Table 2.24 Hard coral reef species identified in the exclusive economic zone of Cambodia
Table 2.25 Soft coral reef species identified in the exclusive economic zone of Cambodia
Table 2.26 Mangroves in Cambodia
Table 3.1 Phnom Penh water supply investment requirements, 1996-2000
Table 3.2 Phnom Penh sanitation/ drainage investment requirements, 1996-2000
Table 3.3 Provincial water supply investment requirements, 1996-2000
Table 3.4 Rural water supply investment requirements, 1996-2000
Table 5.1 Cambodian key economic indicators LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 2.1 River systems and their catchments Figure 2.2 Coastal city and population density Figure 2.3 Population growth in the coastal area Figure 2.4 Oil and gas exploration zones in the coastal area of Cambodia Figure 2.5 Cities with population more than 100,000 Figure 2.6 Industrial growth Figure 2.7 Shrimp farm in the Koh Kong province Figure 2.8 Sensitive and high risk areas in Cambodia Figure 2.9 Rainfall patterns in Cambodia Figure 2.10 River water quality monitoring network Figure 2.11 Trend of TSS in the Mekong River system Figure 2.12 Trend of D.O in the Tonle Sap River system Figure 2.13 Surface water shortage areas and polluted river segments Figure 2.14 Groundwater shortage and low quality areas Figure 2.15 Cambodia Land Cover, 1973-76 Figure 2.16 Cambodia Land Cover, 1985-87 Figure 2.17 Cambodia Land Cover, 1992-93 Figure 2.18 Protected area system of Cambodia Figure 2.19 Wetland of Cambodia NATIONAL STUDY TEAM
I. Ministry of Environment
1. National Coordinator Mr Long Rithirak
2. Department of Environmental Pollution Control Mr Chea Sina Mr Son Dara Mr Chap Youthy Ms Phoung Sothy
3. Department of Natural Conservation and Protection Mr Pich Sam Ang Mr Kay Pheng Mr Pich Sameth
4. Department of Natural Resources Assessment and Environmental Data Management / GIS Mr Moa Socheat Mr Lim Sovannra
5. Technical Coordination Unit for Tonle Sap Dr Neou Bonheur
II. Ministry of Agriculture Fishery and Forestry
General Directorate of Irrigation, Meteorology and Hydrology Ms Koung Vutheary
III. Ministry of Industry Mines and Energy
Department of Planning Mr Puth Keath
IV. Ministry of Planning Dr Souv Sisovanna
V. National Mekong Secretariat Mr Chin Samuth Mr Chrin Sokha UNEP SCS/National Report Cambodia Page 1
1. INTRODUCTION
1.1 AIM OF THE NATIONAL REPORT
This report is the collective work of different national institutions. It seeks to analyse water- related problems in terms of environmental issues that accrue from pollution, freshwater shortage, and sedimentation from deforestation in catchment areas of Tonle Sap Great Lake and the Mekong river, over exploitation of aquatic resources, and habitat modification. The purpose of this National Report is to provide background data, information and understanding on the environmental problems and issues for the Regional Transboundary Diagnostic Analysis organized by the United Nation Environmental Programme (UNEP). This effort is an inter agency initiative of the national government organizations under the coordination of the Ministry of Environment (MoE).
The inputs of the report have been prepared to meet the requirements of contract NO. CON/85/45 of the 2 July 1998 between ESCAP/UNEP and the Ministry of Environment.
1.2 MAJOR WATER-RELATED ENVIRONMENT PROBLEMS
Freshwater · Contamination in water quality due to domestic and non-point source pollution, from sedimentation. · Over fishing, decline in fishstock. · Deforestation of flooded forests, used as breeding grounds and nurseries. · Flooding, urban areas along the Mekong River and Phnom Penh city.
Marine and Coastal areas · Degradation in water quality due to domestic and non-point source pollution. · Over fishing, and destruction of fishstock by using dynamite. · Reclamation of mangrove into shrimp culture ponds. · High demand for mangrove charcoal production. · Destruction of coral reef and seagrass beds. · Erosion caused by deforestation.
1.3 COUNTRY BACKGROUND
Cambodia is a country covering an area of 181,535 km2. It is situated in South-East Asia, forming part of the southwestern portion of the Indochinese peninsula between latitudes 10o and 15o north and longitudes 102o and 108o east. The country's maximum extent is about 580 km from east to west and 450 km from north to south. Cambodia shares its 2,438 km border with Thailand (in the west and north), Laos (in the north) and Viet Nam (in the east and southeast). In the southwest Cambodia is bordered by the Gulf of Thailand. Cambodia has a 435km coastline on the Gulf of Thailand, three provinces occupy this coastline: Koh Kong, Sihanouk Ville, and Kompot. The Cambodian coastal zone is located in the southwest part of the country, and the coastal watershed lying outside the Tonle Sap Lake, comprises an area of approximately 18,300 sq. Km.
There has been no population census since 1962, and the profound but imprecisely recorded changes in population trends that have occurred as a result of war, internal displacement and international migration, render population estimates subject to a significant degree of error. This imprecision has potentially serious implications for national development and strategic planning, UNEP SCS/National Report Cambodia Page 2 although a population survey was planned for 1996 and a census for 1998. However, while current population estimates tend to differ, the population is officially estimated to have been some 10.2 million in 1995 and to be increasing at about 2.8 percent a year, implying a total population of around 11.7 million by the year 2000. Approximately 47 percent of the population is under five years of age, indicating a high dependency ratio, and some 53 percent of the population is female, rising to 58 percent among those groups over forty years of age.
Cambodia's population is unevenly distributed, with relatively high densities in the provinces of the central plains and low densities in the provinces of the surrounding highlands. Thus, Phnom Penh and seven provinces (Kompong Cham, Prey Veng, Kandal, Takeo, Battambang, Siem Reap and Kompong Thom) contain some 69 per cent of the national population and 36 per cent of the total land area; Sihanouk Ville and a further seven provinces (Kampot, Kompong Speu, Svay Rieng, Banteay Meanchey, Kompong Chhang, Pursat and Kratie) contain 28 per cent of the population and 30 per cent of the land area; while five provinces (Preah Vihear, Rattanakiri, Stung Treng, Koh Kong and Mondolkiri) contain 3 per cent of the population and 34 per cent of the land area.
1.4 GEOGRAPHIC DIVISIONS USED IN THE ANALYSIS
Geographic divisions used in the analysis are as follows:
(a) The catchment area of the Mekong River system; (b) The catchment area of the Tonle Sap River system; (c) The catchment area of the coastline.
The Mekong River, 4,200 kilometres in length, is the longest in South-East Asia and the twelfth longest river in the world. Starting from the snow melts of the Himalayan Mountains in China it passes through Myanmar, the Lao People’s Democratic Republic, Thailand, Cambodia and Viet Nam before discharging into the South China Sea. In Cambodia, the river runs for 486 kilometres. It enters Cambodia from the Lao People’s Democratic Republic in the north-east and flows southward until it is deflected westward by the basalt of the terre rouge area (red land hills). It passes through this basalt before continuing south-westward to Phnom Penh where it divides into two main downriver branches, the Bassac River and Mekong River. Both rivers form the wide Mekong delta starting in south-east Cambodia and enlarging further in Viet Nam.
The Tonle Sap Basin includes the Tonle Sap Great Lake, which is the largest permanent freshwater lake in South-East Asia. The Tonle Sap Lake is connected to the Mekong River at Phnom Penh by the 120 kilometres long channel-like Tonle Sap River. The confluence of Mekong Bassac and Tonle Sap River is called Chaktomuk Quatre Bras.
The central plain is surrounded by savanna and gradually changes into more densely forested and sparsely populated highlands and mountains. The exception is in the south-east, where these plains run all the way to the Vietnamese border enclosing the downriver branches of the Mekong River.
The coastal zone of Cambodia is unique to the rest of the country and requires special attention. Currently, the coastal watershed boasts approximately 10 per cent of the total population. However, second to the capital city Phnom Penh, it has the highest growth rate largely because of immigration. Because of the natural resource base and beaches, the area is considered a prime area for foreign and domestic tourism investments.
However, non-sustainable use of natural resources and mismanagement of wastes are damaging the environment in the coastal area. Previously pristine mangrove forests are now degraded UNEP SCS/National Report Cambodia Page 3 and the fish catch is reported to be decreasing. The causes for the degradation of the environment are multifaceted and stem from both human and naturally occurring activities. At the present time, there are no management guidelines that account for the integrated nature of these activities. In addition, as the population increases, so do pressures on the environment. The current rapid development without an integrative approach may destroy the environment and as a consequence the economic development and well-being of the people. Development should take into account the inter- dependence of different sectors. Development has to be viewed within the context of the overall system including production, distribution, and consumption subsystems, which in turn are influenced by the performance of other sectors as well as the socio-cultural and political systems. A plan recognizing the needs and priorities for the development of the country while considering the environment should help minimize adverse environmental effects and provide for a growth strategy that will enable future generations to have a higher standard of living.
2. DETAILED ANALYSIS OF THE MAJOR WATER-RELATED CONCERNS AND PRINCIPAL ISSUES
2.1 POLLUTION
2.1.1 Sources of pollution
2.1.1.1 Rivers
Cambodia is a country covering an area of 181,535 square kilometres. According to the topography of the country, the rivers in Cambodia are divided into three systems (figure 2.1):
(a) The Mekong River system, located in the eastern catchment of the central plains of the country; (b) The Tonle Sap River system, located in the central plains of the country; (c) The coastal river system, located in the south-west of the country, along the country 's coastal zone of the Gulf of Thailand.
· The Mekong River system
The biggest river in the system is the Mekong River, which enters Cambodia from the Lao People’s Democratic Republic in the north-east and flows southward to Phnom Penh where it divides into two main downstream river branches, the Bassac River and the Mekong River. Both rivers form the wide Mekong delta starting in south-eastern Cambodia and enlarging further in Viet Nam.
In the Mekong River system, there are 10 tributaries of the Mekong River that have a catchment area of more than 1,000 square kilometres (table 2.1). The total basin of the river system is about 70,060 square kilometres, about 39 per cent of the country. UNEP SCS/National Report Cambodia Page 4
Table 2.1 The main characteristics of the 10 big rivers in the Mekong River system
No Name of river Catchment Rainfall Rainfall Annual Annual discharged area high volume average water volume ( km2 ) ( mm ) (x106 .m3 ) discharge ( x106 .m3 ) ( m3 / s ) 1 Mekong 23,736 1,499 35,580.26 458 14,455.22 2 Se Kong 5,514 2,203 12,147.34 1,221 38,480.00 3 Se San 7,773 2,023 15,724.78 641 20,214.00 4 Sre Pok 12,762 2,129 27,170.30 1,177 37,134.72 5 Prek Preah 1,499 1,952 2,926.05 50 1,579.94 6 Prek Krieng 2,392 1,879 4,494.57 74 2,348.94 7 Prek Kompi 1,133 1,674 1,896.64 28 884.87 8 Prek Te 4,303 1,822 7,840.06 126 3,984.58 9 Prek Chhlong 5,689 1,763 10,029.70 157 4,938.05 10 Prek Thnot 5,606 1,586 8,891.11 114 3,585.20 11 Stung Slakou 1,653 1,540 2,545.62 25 778.80
Sources: Irrigation Rehabilitation Study in Cambodia, June 1994; Mekong Secretariat, 1993.
· The Tonle Sap River system
The Tonle Sap River basin includes the Tonle Sap Great Lake which is the largest permanent freshwater lake in South-East Asia. The Tonle Sap Lake is connected to the Mekong River at Phnom Penh by the 100 kilometre channel-like Tonle Sap River.
The flow of the Tonle Sap River reverses during the rainy season (from June to October), bringing the Mekong water to the Great Lake which acts as a natural reservoir for the flooding river. During the dry season (from November to June), the Tonle Sap River is the only outlet for the Great Lake which empties gradually into the Mekong River.
In the Tonle Sap River system, the Great Lake covers an area of 10,500 square kilometres (FAO 1994) or nearly 6 per cent of the total area of the country. Sixteen tributaries of the Great Lake and the Tonle Sap River have a catchment area of more than 800 square kilometres (table 2.2). The total drainage basin of the Tonle Sap River system is about 67,600 square kilometres (Mekong Secretariat 1993), about 37 per cent of the country. UNEP SCS/National Report Cambodia Page 5
Table 2.2 The main characteristics of the rivers in the Tonle Sap River system
No Name of river Catchment Rainfall Rainfall Annual Annual area high volume average discharged water ( km2 ) ( mm ) (x106 .m3 ) discharge volume ( m3 / s ) ( x106.m3 ) 1 Tonle Sap & Lake 17,412 1,464 25,491.16 317 10,011.90 2 Stung Boribo 827 1,691 1,398.45 21 659.95 3 Stung Chinit 4,504 1,358 6,116.43 67 2,121.38 4 Stung Taingkrasin 1,145 1,358 1,554.91 17 538.15 5 Stung Sen 13,653 1,131 15,441.54 107 3,385.95 6 Stung Pursat 4,505 1,684 7,586.42 113 3,558.95 7 Stung Dountri 819 1,376 1,126.94 13 400.49 8 Stung Sangker 3,225 1,565 5,047.12 69 2,173.65 9 Stung Mongkol 3,156 1,612 7,163.72 101 3,199.68 Borey 10 Stung Sisophon 2,388 1,484 6,445.01 82 2,579.74 11 Stung Svay Chak 1,249 1,304 2,743.61 28 879.47 12 Stung Praneth Preah 1,387 1,395 1,934.86 22 703.21 13 Stung Sreng 9,471 1,369 12,965.80 145 4,565.02 14 Stung Siem Reap 842 1,403 1,181.32 14 433.63 15 Stung Roluos 889 1,324 1,177.32 `12 389.33 16 Stung Chikreng 1,871 1,146 1,144.16 16 492.07 17 Stung Stoung 2,012 1,058 2,128.69 11 354.11 Sources: Irrigation Rehabilitation Study in Cambodia, June 1994; Mekong Secretariat, 1993.
· The coastal river system
Along the country's coastal line of 435 kilometres on the Gulf of Thailand, the rivers drain westwards from the Cardamon Mountains, and have relatively limited catchments (approximately 15 per cent of Cambodia's land area), their flows reflecting the local and higher rainfall pattern. Highly coordinated drainage systems characterize the southerly fall of the coastal ranges except on the lowland around the Bay of Sihanouk Ville which generally features smaller and simpler drainage systems.
The rivers that flow into the Gulf of Thailand are relatively small with water levels increasing and decreasing significantly with the volume of rainfall. The rivers in the coastal area are generally short and have their sources in hills of about 500 to 600 metres altitude. They meander between hills and fall in cascades before reaching the plain located 15 to 20 kilometres from the sea. In the delta areas, the rivers divide into many estuaries where the level of turbidity is usually high and where there are several marsh areas covered by mangrove forests.
There are many streams located in the coastal area which usually dry up in the dry season. Most of the rivers in the coastal zone are also influenced by the sea. In the dry season, the low-lying rivers are filled with seawater.
In the coastal river system there are only seven big rivers with a catchment area of more than 1,000 square kilometres (table 2.3). They are from north to south: Stung Metoek, Stung Russei Chrum, Stung Sala Munthun, Stung Chhay Areng, Prek Piphot, Prek Kompong Som and Prek Toeuk Chhou. UNEP SCS/National Report Cambodia Page 6
Apart from these rivers, there are several small streams that in the rainy season carry organic and other materials into the sea.
Table 2.3 The main characteristics of the seven big rivers in the coastal river system
No Name of river Catchment Rainfall Rainfall Annual Annual area high volume average discharged ( km2 ) ( mm ) (x106 .m3 ) discharge water volume ( m3 / s ) ( x106.m3 )
1 Stung Metoek 1,135 3,305 3,751.17 86 2,703.57 2 Stung Russei 2,726 2,665 7,264.79 152 4,781.40 Chrum 3 Stung Sala 1,568 2,783 4,363.74 93 2,932.16 Munthun 4 Stung Chhay 2,107 2,873 6,053.41 131 4,127.61 Areng 5 Prek Piphot 1,164 3,032 3,529.25 78 1,354.90 6 Prek Kompong 2,645 2,214 5,856.03 110 3,467.59 Som 7 Prek Toeuk 2,061 2,077 4,280.69 77 2,425.80 Chhou
Sources: Irrigation Rehabilitation Study in Cambodia, June 1994; Coastal Zone Management in Cambodia, February 1996.
2.1.1.2 Coastal cities and coastal population
The Cambodian coastal zone is located in the south-west of the country between 8 and 12 degrees north of the equator. The coastal watershed comprises an area of approximately 18,300 square kilometres and consists primarily of three provinces: Koh Kong, Sihanouk Ville, and Kampot (figure 2.2). The total length of the Cambodian coastline is approximately 435 kilometres.
In 1997, the total population in the three coastal provinces was estimated to be 7.3 per cent (840,000 people) of the total Cambodian population of about 11.5 million (Ministry of Planning 1997). Similar to the country as a whole, the majority of the people in the coastal provinces of Cambodia live in the rural areas. In 1995 the following estimates of people living in rural areas of the coastal provinces were made by the Mekong Secretariat, as shown in the table 2.4 . UNEP SCS/National Report Cambodia Page 7
Table 2.4 Estimates of population living in the rural areas of the coastal provinces
Coastal Estimated provinces population Estimated population living
in 1997 in rural areas in urban areas (persons) Percentage Persons Percentage Persons Koh Kong 105,000 77 per cent 80, 850 23 per cent 24,150 Sihanoukville 132,000 58 per cent 76,560 42 per cent 55,440 Kampot 603,000 95 per cent 572,850 5 per cent 30,150 Total Average Total Average Total 840.000 77 per cent 730,260 23 per cent 109,740 Sources: Coastal Zone Management in Cambodia, February 1996; Mekong Secretariat, 1995.
The population densities of the coastal provinces vary from 9 to 152 persons per square kilometre. The coastal provinces, except Koh Kong, are the most densely populated areas in the country, and Sihanouk Ville is the most densely populated province in the coastal area, as shown in table 2.5.
Table 2.5 Population density in the coastal area
Coastal Area Estimated Estimated Population provinces ( km2 ) coastline population in density length 1997 ( people / km2 ) ( km )
Koh Kong 11,160 260 105,000 9 Sihanouk Ville 868 100 132,000 152 Kampot 5,209 75 603,000 115 average Total 17,237 435 840,000 92 Sources: Provincial Office of Planning Report, Koh Kong, Sihanoukville, and Kampot, 1995; Ministry of Planning, 1997.
Population growth in the Cambodian coastal provinces has been increasing steadily since the war, as shown in table 2.6 and figure 2.3. UNEP SCS/National Report Cambodia Page 8
Table 2.6 Population growth estimates in the coastal provinces, 1968 - 1997
Coastal Population ( 1,000 persons )
provinces 1968 1980 1987 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 Koh Kong 95 25 30 70 74 71 79 102 105 Sihanouk Ville 15 51 61 107 114 121 120 128 132 Kampot 414 348 412 454 482 481 476 559 603
TOTAL 474 424 503 631 670 673 675 789 840
Sources: 1968, 1980 and 1987 data extracted from the Economic and Demographic Statistical Assessment Mission to Cambodia, UNDP, March 1991; 1992, 1993 and 1994 data from the Ministry of Planning Department of Statistics, 1994; 1995 data from provincial offices of planning, 1995; 1996 data from the National Institute of Research, 1996; 1997 data from the Ministry of Planning, 1997.
Figure 2.3 Population growth in the coastal area (from 1968 to 1997 ) UNEP SCS/National Report Cambodia Page 9
2.1.1.3 Industrial pollution from coastal installations
In Cambodia, industrial development in the coastal area is on a small scale. According to data from the Ministry of Industry, Mines and Energy, there are some factories and handicrafts such as: garments and shoes, seafood processing, animal feed, ice factories, fish souse, sawmills, beer brewery, plywood, oil and gas storage facilities, silica factory, cement plant, salt industry, phosphate fertilizer factory, power plant, and voa romeat (khmer language) factory. Voa romeat is reportedly a medicinal herb and a potentially harmful waste is produced during the manufacturing of the medicine. At present, there are 32 factories operating in Sihanouk Ville, 106 factories in Kampot, and 6 factories in Koh Kong (see table 2.10).
In order to improve the country's economy the Government plans to develop the industrial sector in some areas of the country, particularly in Sihanouk Ville. To achieve this goal the Government has set up a policy to encourage investment in agro-industrial enterprises and the production of fertilizer, petroleum, heavy construction and mechanical equipment. The Government has announced plans to establish an industrial zone with an area of 900 hectares and an export processing zone with an area of 260 hectares in Sihanouk Ville.
Most of the wastewater of all factories and handicrafts on the coast has been discharged directly or indirectly into nearby waterways and then to the sea without any treatment. The data on quality and quantity of the wastewater discharged from the factories located in the coastal zone are not available because there has not been any survey on this matter yet.
Oil and gas : Recent results from offshore and onshore exploratory drilling suggest that Cambodia has a high potential for natural gas and a modest potential for oil. Several areas in the coastal zone have been explored in the past and continue to be explored for oil and gas supplies. Currently, there are no production wells, only exploration activities. The zones of oil and gas exploration in the coastal area are presented in figure 2.4.
The Government has already entered into contracts permitting companies to conduct offshore exploration for gas and oil. The contracts contain a clause prohibiting waste disposal into the sea. These companies have demanded that the Government provide environmental inspectors to evaluate and control environmental problems.
Cambodia's claimed production block and exploration results are briefly summarized below:
· Offshore Blocks:
1 . Block I ( approximately 4,700 km2 ) - Awarded in October 1991 to Enterprise Oil Exploration Ltd. And Company Europe Des Petrols - Seismic studies conducted in 1992 - Total and British Gas joined in May 1993 2 . Block II ( approximately 4,900 km2 ) - Awarded in October 1991 to Enterprise Oil jointly with Block I - Geophysical surveys conducted in 1992 - Total and British Gas joined in 1993 - Angror - 1 well drilled in January 1994 (170 km south-west of Sihanouk Ville in 70 m of water) - Testing operation of four zones completed in April 1994 - Gas and condensate flows from tests UNEP SCS/National Report Cambodia Page 10
3 . Block III ( approximately 3,669 km2 ) - Awarded in December 1991 to Campex - Agreement for exploration and production between MIME and Japan Petroleum Exploration Co. Ltd. (JAPEX) - Apsara -1 well drilled in late 1993 (small quantities of oil and gas during testing) - Deveda -1 well drilled in early 1994 (not tested, plugged and abandoned as a dry well) 4 . Block IV (approximately 4,595km2 ) - Awarded in November 1991 to a consortium led by Premier Oil Pacific Ltd. - Geophysical studies conducted in 1993 and 1994 (oil and gas flowed during testing ) 5 . Blocks V, VI and VII (average size 4,000 km2 each) - Bids have been received and are being evaluated
· Onshore Blocks: 1 . 19 Blocks (average size 5,000 km2 ) - None have been awarded - Block 10 has been offered for tender - Bids have been received and are being evaluated
2.1.1.4 Discharge from upland and lowland activities
In Cambodia, almost all cities, towns and factories are built close to the main waterways in both the central and coastal areas as it is easy to use the water for domestic and other purposes and to discharge all kinds of waste into the waterways. Most of the wastewater coming from the factories and cities or towns has been discharged through the drainage system into surrounding ponds or reservoirs, and then to the rivers or to the coastal waters without treatment. Meanwhile, the solid waste generated in the cities and towns is disposed in an improper way in open burning landfills or illegal dumps into water bodies.
The major discharge from upland and lowland activities into waterways includes: domestic sewage, municipal solid waste and soil erosion from the high plateau surrounding the waterways. Land-based discharge into the river systems and coastal waters consists of industrial waste, agricultural waste, mining waste and oil waste.
· Domestic sewage
The sewage management in large cities and towns is extremely poor. All large urban centres are partly served by combined sewage and storm drainage systems that consist of conventional flush toilets, sometimes draining into a septic tank. Almost all the sewerage systems have not been maintained over the past three decades and now are in a state of disrepair with 80 per cent of the pipes being damaged. The sewage is not discharged to treatment systems, but to waterways or water bodies, such as the Mekong and Tonle Sap Rivers, which are directly used for drinking water, bathing, swimming and irrigation. As a consequence of the improper discharge of sewage, waterborne diseases, such as cholera, typhoid and enteritis, are common throughout the country. Nearly two thirds of all deaths of children under five are associated with waterborne diseases.
To date, the sewage from the three population centres of the coastal zone has been discharged through the drainage system to open canals or rivers and then to coastal waters without treatment. The estimated amount of sewage discharged from the coastal cities and towns is shown in table 2.7. UNEP SCS/National Report Cambodia Page 11
Table 2.7 Amount of sewage discharged from urban centres in the coastal zone
Cities and Receiving source Population Daily amount Content of Towns of sewage pollution ( m3 / day ) ( T / day )
Koh Kong Sea 24,150 2,173 BOD: 1.21 Town TSS : 2.65 Total N: 0.22 Total P: 0.06
Sihanouk Ville Sea 55,440 5,544 BOD: 2.77 TSS : 6.10 Total N: 0.50 Total P: 0.14
Kampot Town Sea 30,150 2,713 BOD: 1.50 TSS : 3.32 Total N: 0.27 Total P : 0.08
Total 109,740 10,430 BOD: 5.48 TSS : 12.07 Total N: 0.99 TOTAL P: 0.28
Source: Ministry of Environment, Department of Pollution Control, 1997.
In the central area, there are six major urban centres with a population of more than 100,000 located along the Mekong, Tonle Sap and Bassac Rivers, as presented in figure 2.5. The estimated amount of domestic sewage discharged from the main cities and towns into waterways is shown in table 2.8.
There is only one sewage treatment system in Battambang Province, but it has not functioned since 1996 because of financial and technical problems. To date, there has not been a real plan to build a sewage treatment system in the cities or towns located in the central area. UNEP SCS/National Report Cambodia Page 12
Table 2.8 Amount of sewage discharged from urban centres in the central area
Cities and towns Receiving Population Daily amount Content of source of sewage pollutant ( m3 / day ) ( T/ day )
Phnom Penh City Bassac River 1,100,000 110,000 BOD: 55.00 Tonle Sap R. TSS : 121.00 Total N: 9.00 Total P: 2.75
Kampong Chham Mekong River 272,000 24,300 BOD: 13.60 Town TSS : 30.00 Total N: 2.45 Total P: 0.70
Kandal Town Bassac River 173,000 15,570 BOD: 8.65 TSS : 19.03 Total N: 1.56 Total P: 0.43
Battambang Town Tonle Sap Lake 128,000 11,520 BOD: 6.40 TSS : 14.08 Total N: 1.15 Total P: 0.32
Siem Reap Town Tonle Sap Lake 102,000 9,180 BOD: 5.10 TSS : 11.22 Total N: 0.92 Total P: 0.26
Kompong Thom Tonle Sap Lake 100,000 9,000 BOD: 5.00 Town TSS : 11.00 Total N: 0.90 Total P: 0.25
Total 1,875,000 179,570 BOD: 93.75 TSS: 206.33 Total N: 15.98 TOTAL P: 4.71
Source: Ministry of Environment, Department of Pollution Control, 1997. UNEP SCS/National Report Cambodia Page 13
· Solid waste
(i) Waste generation by selected types of waste
The Government recognizes that the management of solid waste in urban centres is a major urban environmental problem. Although Cambodia does not have high consumption or high waste generation, almost all urban areas have significant waste disposal problems that are continuing to grow in the absence of environmentally sound management policies and actions. Unsightly piles of rubbish along the streets are common. Within and without the collection areas, all kinds of wastes are disposed of in open areas, roads, rivers, streams, lakes, borrow pits and private properties. This contributes to unsanitary conditions in urban centres such as unpleasant smells, blockage of drains resulting in flooding, and rainwater run-off from refuse causing surface water pollution.
The estimated amount of solid waste generated, collected, uncollected, and disposed of into waterways in major urban centres of the central and coastal areas is shown in table 2.9.
Table 2.9 Solid waste in major urban centres
Cities and towns Population Estimated Collected Uncollected Disposed solid waste solid solid waste solid waste amount waste (T/day) into water (T/day) (T/day) system (T/day)
Phnom Penh City 1,100,000 650.0 396.0 264.0 158.40 Kampong Chham 272,000 136.0 81.6 54.4 32.64 Town Kandal Town 173,000 86.5 51.9 34.6 20.76 Battambang Town 128,000 64.0 38.4 25.6 15.36 Siem Reap Town 102,000 51.0 30.6 20.4 12.24 Kompong Thom Town 100,000 50.0 30.0 20.0 12.00 Koh Kong Town 24,150 12.1 7.3 4.8 2.90 Sihanouk Ville City 55,440 27.7 16.6 11.1 6.64 Kampot Town 30,150 15.1 9.1 6.0 3.60
Total 1,984,740 1,102.4 661.5 440,9 264.50
Sources: Ministry of Environment, Department of Pollution Control, 1997; Municipal and town authorities of these cities and provinces, 1996.
(ii) Collection
All provincial towns have limited collection services. Most of the other towns have collection services operated either by the Department of Public Works and Transport (DPWT) or the Provincial Administration. The problem in all towns is the service ability of vehicles. All are old and subject to frequent breakdowns. UNEP SCS/National Report Cambodia Page 14
In Phnom Penh, the solid waste collection service of the municipality is also served by a private company. Between 100 and 115 truck loads of waste are delivered to the open dump each day. This amounts to approximately 1300 m3 or 500 to 650 tons per day. Reportedly, all the urban population receives a solid waste collection service, but in reality it is estimated that only about 60 per cent of the waste is collected. Uncollected waste is evident along the streets and in the drains and watercourses throughout Phnom Penh.
With further urban development, the problem with the present collection system in Phnom Penh and urban centres including the coastal cities and towns will increase. This problem will result in serious water pollution in some public water areas in the future.
(iii) Disposal
Almost all urban centres have a very significant solid waste disposal problem. In general, people in urban centres like to use waterways as convenient disposal sites. Solid waste generated in major cities consists mostly of organic matter from residential, commercial and industrial sources and from medical facilities. About 60 per cent of the total amount of solid waste generated in main cities and town is collected.
Generally, the collected solid waste in urban centres is transported to open burned dump sites without soil cover. This affects the quality of the waterways by leaking the water from the decay of waste and run-off during the rainy season. The remainder, about 50-60 per cent, of uncollected waste is illegally dumped into vacant lots, swamps, the sewerage system or directly into the public water areas. One of the major risks associated with open dumps is the spread of disease pathogens and chemical contaminants in closed waterways through leaking water and water run-off resulting in major public health problems and water contamination.
· Soil erosion
In Cambodia, the major root causes of soil erosion are deforestation, poor agricultural activities and gemstone mining activity in the border areas between Cambodia and Thailand. High soil erosion has taken place in the north-east mountain ranges and high plateau along the main tributaries of the Mekong River, and in the north-west high plateau from where sediment flows into the Tonle Sap Lake.
The soil erosion in the north-west highlands, where illegal deforestation and gemstone mining illegal activities have continued, is the major root cause of sedimentation in some rivers, especially in the Tonle Sap Great Lake, directly impacting the overall environment of the lake, particularly fish production. The sedimentation of the lake has reportedly increased dramatically in the last two decades. In the 1960s sedimentation rates of 2 cm a year were recorded (FAO 1991). Increased sedimentation rates in the lake are attributed to a number of factors including: deforestation in the upper reaches of the Tonle Sap watershed and the flooded forest, gemstone mining in Paylin City, and increased Mekong silt load owing to deforestation in other parts of the Mekong basin. This sedimentation flows downstream the Mekong delta to southern Viet Nam and discharges into the South China Sea.
In addition to the sedimentation problem of the lake, soil erosion in the mountain ranges also causes some estuaries to become shallower from year to year. However, the sedimentation survey in the rivers of the coastal area has not yet been conducted. UNEP SCS/National Report Cambodia Page 15
Table 2.10 Number of factories in main urban centers and coastal provinces
Manufacturing Provinces Mining Food Textile & Wood & Paper & Chemicals Non- Basic Fabricated Electricity & & beverages wearing wood Paper rubber & metallic metals metal Total gas & Total cities quarrying & apparel products products plastic mineral products water tobacco products products Phnom Penh 0 68 128 12 10 33 53 6 37 347 1 348 City Kampong Cham 1 19 1 6 0 1 15 0 0 43 2 45 Kandal 1 24 11 9 2 5 54 0 2 108 0 108 Battambang 0 16 2 0 0 0 15 0 2 35 2 37 Siem Reap 0 8 0 0 0 0 15 0 1 24 2 26 Kampong Thom 0 5 0 1 0 0 20 0 0 26 0 26 Koh Kong 1 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 4 2 6 Sihanouk Ville 0 12 6 7 1 1 3 0 0 30 2 32 Kompot 96 3 0 1 0 0 4 0 0 104 2 106 Total 99 156 148 37 13 40 180 6 42 721 13 734 Source: Ministry of Industry Mines and Energy, Department of Planning, June 1998 UNEP SCS/National Report Cambodia Page 16
· Industrial wastes
Cambodia is not a heavily industrialized country. Light industry predominates, such as: food, beverages, tobacco, textiles, wearing apparel and non-metallic mineral products (table 2.10).
The rapid growth of factories (table 2.11 and figure 2.6) in urban areas of the country can cause a problem of water pollution because almost all factories have been improperly built and lack waste management facilities. Industrial solid waste is disposed at the open burning dump sites intended for domestic waste. In addition, wastewater from the factories is discharged into public sewers or directly into water bodies in both the central and coastal zones without any treatment.
To date, the data on the amount and pollutant content of industrial waste have not been available because the industrial monitoring and surveillance has not been carried out.
Table 2.11 Industrial growth from 1993 to June 1998
Type of industry 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 06/1998
Mining and quarrying 99 101 101 102 102 102 Food, beverages & tobacco 77 146 164 189 198 204 Textiles & wearing apparel 10 26 39 55 111 149 Wood and wood products 19 21 51 62 68 70 Paper and paper products 3 8 8 11 13 13 Chemical, rubber and plastic 12 22 26 34 39 40 products Non-metallic mineral products 55 179 188 191 201 202 Manufacture of basic metals 3 5 5 6 6 6 Fabricated metal products 7 24 27 35 41 42 Other manufacturing industries 0 1 1 2 2 2 Electricity, gas and water 23 25 25 25 25 25 Total 308 558 635 712 806 855
Source: Ministry of Industry, Mines and Energy, Department Planning, June 1998.
UNEP SCS/National Report Cambodia Page 17
Figure 2.6 Industrial growth from 1993-June, 1998 in Cambodia
· Agricultural wastes
In Cambodia, agricultural wastes include residues of pesticides and fertilizers used for cultivation activities, and waste from aquaculture activities especially in the coastal area.
The total cultivated area in Cambodia is about 1.9 million hectares (World Bank 1994). In order to increase production yields, Cambodian farmers were encouraged to use chemical fertilizers and pesticides. The upward trend of indiscriminate use of these chemical compounds is of increasing concern as residues of these substances are carried by surface run-off from cultivated areas to water bodies, thus causing water pollution. This problem is taking place in some provinces in the Mekong and Tonle Sap catchment areas, such as Kompong Chham, Battambang, Siem Reap, Prey Veng and Takeo provinces.
To date, information on the use of pesticides and fertilizers, such as type and amount, is not available because there has not yet been any monitoring or research on the use of these substances. In addition there are no regulations on the management of pesticide and fertilizer use.
The main aquaculture activity discharging high amounts of toxic waste into water bodies is shrimp farming which was introduced to the coastal provinces of Cambodia in the latter half of the 1980s, primarily in Koh Kong near and inside the mangrove forests. In 1994 there were 840 hectares of shrimp farming in Koh Kong province, as presented in figure 2.7. The shrimp farms in Koh Kong are creating serious negative side effects, such as shrimp disease and self-pollution. Furthermore, the shrimp culture mostly generates toxic effluent, discharging directly into the adjacent areas and the sea without treatment. It is likely that sites in Sihanouk Ville and Kampot will be developed for shrimp farms in the near future. UNEP SCS/National Report Cambodia Page 18
Two types of shrimp farming are practised in Cambodia: extensive and intensive shrimp farming. Extensive farms are primarily found in Kampot province where the natural tidal cycle is used to catch shrimp fry for growth in ponds in the remaining mangrove forest. This type of farming has low productivity, but does not have major impacts on the environment. Intensive shrimp farming is primarily located in Koh Kong province where the mangroves are cleared to make way for ponds to raise shrimp. This type of farming involves large capital investments in infrastructure, seed, feed, chemicals and antibiotics, but it can also lead to enormous profits in the short term. As has happened in all other areas where this sort of aquaculture has been developed without an adequate understanding of the local ecosystem, many of the farms (70–80 per cent) are now unproductive and have been abandoned. The environmental impacts of intensive shrimp farming involve decline in water quality, development of acid sulphate soils and indirect losses to fisheries because of the destruction of mangroves.
· Oil waste
In Cambodia, oil waste in water bodies mainly comes from navigation activities, boat washing and repairing, and daily operations related to fuel use. Another major source of oil pollution in water is the disposal of vehicle oil.
The risk of oil spills in the South China Sea potentially affecting Cambodia’s exclusive economic zone ( EEZ ) primarily stems from three sources:
(a) Accidental spills and leaks from the petroleum storage facility during the transfer of product in Sihanouk Ville; (b) Spills, leaks and improper waste management from petroleum exploration and exploitation activities; (c) Spills and leaks from vessels transporting petroleum products en route to Thailand or Japan.
2.1.1.5 Ports and harbours- Maritime transport
In the coastal area, there are eight minor harbours of which four are located in Koh Kong province, two in the estuary of Sihanouk Ville, and two in Kampot province. They are used for transit or shipping goods among the coastal provinces and for the docking of fishing boats. Some of the habours can accommodate vessels loaded up to 15 tons. The provincial authorities have expressed a desire to deepen some harbours so that up to 30-ton ships can access the harbours.
In the coastal area there is only one international port located at Sihanouk Ville, Cambodia's only deep-water maritime port, which was built in 1956 with a total capacity of 1.2 million tons a year. It handles oil and shipment in bulk. Four 1,000-ton vessels can be accommodated, but they are restricted to 7.6 metre draft plus the height of the tide on the east of the pier and 9.5 metre draft on the west side. There are various other berths available for smaller vessels. A plan for expansion was prepared in 1965, but never executed after the political settlement (1993). The port plays a key role in handing the import of goods for the reconstruction and development of the country so that new wharves have been built and access channels are being deepened.
At present, it has modern equipment to lift, load and unload containers. In 1994 imported goods totalled 439,738 tons, and exported goods 107,574 tons, a total import and export of 547,312 tons. It is expected that growth in imports and exports at Sihanouk Ville port will reach 1,200,000 tons in the year 2000 (see table 2.12).
UNEP SCS/National Report Cambodia Page 19
Table 2.12 Activities of Sihanouk Ville Port
Year Amount of imported goods Amount of exported Total (ton) goods (ton) (ton)
1992 201,530 77,370 278,900 1993 299,080 152,120 451,200 1994 439,738 107,574 547,312 1995 480,500 119,500 600,000 1996 532,650 187,350 720,000 2000 - - 1,200,000
Source: Ministry of Public Works and Transportation, Port Authority, 1997.
The environmental issues are mainly related to the risks of transporting hazardous goods in which oil and chemical substances are the most important.
2.1.1.6 Seabed exploration and exploitation
In addition to offshore exploration of oil and gas, there is some small-scale coral reef exploitation in some areas off Sihanouk Ville. There is no information on other activities relating to seabed exploration and exploitation.
2.1.1.7 Marine dumping
Currently, information on marine dumping is not available in Cambodia.
2.1.1.8 Atmospheric inputs to the aquatic environment
There has not yet been any information or reports about atmospheric inputs to the marine and coastal systems of Cambodia.
2.1.2 Pollution hot spots
In Cambodia, the pollution hot spots are not in freshwater or seawater areas because economic development is still low compared with neighbouring countries, especially in the industrial sector. However, economic development is likely to increase in the near future and that will create pollution hot spots in some areas of the country.
2.1.3 High risk and sensitive areas
(a) High risk areas
In Cambodia, the high risk areas are Phnom Penh City and Sihanouk Ville, as presented in figure 2.8.
· Phnom Penh City : Phnom Penh is the capital of the country with a population of about 1,100,000 (1997). There are 181 factories including moderate and small size ones, and about 1,200 handicrafts. It is expected that this city will have a high potential for development in all sectors in the near future. UNEP SCS/National Report Cambodia Page 20
The capital is located along the banks of the Tonle Sap River and Bassac River, where there is a small international port accessible to vessels from the South China Sea. Less than half of the port's total capacity (450,000 tons a year) is currently being used.
The solid waste generated in Phnom Penh City is estimated to be about 650 tons a day, of which about 264 tons is uncollected. About 50-60 per cent of the uncollected waste is disposed into the sewerage system or directly into the water bodies. Meanwhile, large amounts of pollutants contained in the city’s sewage are discharged into the Tonle Sap River and Bassac River, as follows:
BOD: 20,075 tons / year TSS: 44,165 tons / year COD: 34,130 tons / year Total N: 3,285 tons / year Total P: 1,000 tons / year
· Sihanouk Ville: This is the biggest city in the country’s coastal zone. The urban population is about 55,440 (1997) with a high population density of 152 persons per square kilometre. There are 20 factories and about 180 handicraft businesses. It is expected that this urban centre will have a high potential for industrial development in the near future.
The city has a port with a capacity of 1,200,000 tons, activity in imports and exports reaching full port capacity (1,200,000 tons ) in the year 2000. There are also two harbours, one for serving fishery activities and the other for commercial trading activities among the coastal provinces and between Cambodia and Thailand.
The urban area of Sihanouk Ville generates household solid waste of about 30 tons per day, of which about 9 tons per day is uncollected. In addition, the coastal waters off Sihanouk Ville receive a significant amount of pollutants caused by the direct discharge of sewage into the seawater, as listed below:
BOD : 1,011 tons / year COD : 1,720 tons / year TSS : 2,226 tons / year
(b) Sensitive areas
In Cambodia, the sensitive areas are found in the urban centres located around Tonle Sap Lake such as: Kompong Chhnang, Pursat, Battambang, Siem Reap and Kompong Thom province, as presented in figure 2.8.
All the towns of these provinces are located close to the tributaries of the Tonle Sap Lake whose water, and that of its tributaries, is contaminated by the discharge of sewage and the disposal of solid wastes into the water. The water quality degradation of these water bodies takes place during the last three months of the dry season when the water bodies become shallow and the dilution level of the water bodies is low. UNEP SCS/National Report Cambodia Page 21
2.1.4 Transboundary effects of pollution
2.1.4.1 Biodiversity
It is clear that the sewage from cities, urban areas and floating houses is a major source of pollution in some rivers. However, industrial wastes remain low and do not impose serious effects on biodiversity. There might be some impacts on spawning/nursery grounds. Unfortunately, there have not been any systematic studies and research on the effects of these issues.
2.1.4.2 Habitats
The effects of pollution can cause some damage to aquatic habitats, such as mangroves, coral reefs, seagrasses, as they can make their natural growing processes impossible.
Despite the absence of research, it can be confirmed that there is a low level of negative impacts from pollution because the sources of pollution are small scale.
2.1.4.3 Public health
The effects of pollution on people’s health could be significant. However, studies and research have not been conducted so far in critical places such as populated areas.
The discharges of untreated human and animal wastes are the main source of the spread of waterborne diseases in Cambodia, such as typhoid and cholera. A report of the World Health Organization (WHO) in 1996 showed that nearly two thirds of deaths among children under five are associated with waterborne diseases.
We need comprehensive studies and monitoring of public health in order to understand the effects of pollution.
2.2 FRESHWATER SHORTAGE AND DEGRADATION OF ITS QUALITY
2.2.1 Surface water
2.2.1.1 Sources of surface water and current status
· Sources of surface water
In Cambodia there are two major sources of surface water. The first one is rainfall which is considered as a local source. The second one comes from the Mekong River which enters Cambodia from the Lao People’s Democratic Republic and which is important for the central region of the country.
The average annual rainfall varies across the country from between 1,000 to 2,500mm. Rainfall in the central area covering the Tonle Sap River system and the Lower Mekong River system averages 1,200 to 1,900 mm. annually. East of the Upper Mekong River system, rainfall is generally between 1,800 and 3,000 mm (figure 2.9). The heaviest rainfall, over 3,000mm a year, occurs along the coastal lowland in the west. UNEP SCS/National Report Cambodia Page 22
The estimated total volume of rainfall in Cambodia is about of 426 billion m3 per year, of which only 212.5 billion m3 (49.9 per cent) flows into water bodies. The remainder is subject to evaporation and evaportranspiration, recharging groundwater. It is used for other supplies, but data on the amount are not well estimated (Irrigation Rehabilitation Study in Cambodia, June 1994).
Apart from rainfall, surface water comes from the Mekong River which originates in the Sino-Tibetan plateau. The Mekong River's average annual discharge entering Cambodia is more than 300 billion m3 and it is estimated that with the contributions of the downstream tributaries, about 500 billion m3 discharge to the South China Sea annually (FAO 1994).
· Current status of surface water
According to the rainfall and hydrology data mentioned above, the quantity of surface water in the three subregions of the country may be enough for agriculture and urban centre supplies.
Concerning the monitoring of surface water quality, the Mekong Secretariat has been monitoring water quality in the mainstream and major tributaries of the Mekong River system and the Tonle Sap River system since August 1993. Water samples have been taken monthly. The nine sampling points located in the mainstream of the Mekong, Bassac and Tonle Sap Rivers and Tonle Sap Lake are shown in figure 2.10.
So far, no data have been available on the tributaries of those rivers and on the rivers in the coastal area. Moreover, the BOD, heavy metals, PCBs and pesticides have not yet been measured.
Based on the results of the river water quality analysis made by the Mekong Secretariat, it could be seen that the total suspended solids at five sampling points in the Mekong River system was high during August and September with its average varying from 400 to 450 mg/l, as presented in figure 2.11. In 1996, the maximum level of TSS reached 685 mg/l. Apart from the suspended sediment load, the water quality of the Mekong River system is regarded as satisfactory for aquatic life with an average of dissolved oxygen varying from 6 to 7.5 mg/l . Eutrophication of the surface water in the lower Mekong Basin is not considered to be a problem at present (Mekong Secretariat 1995).
The water quality analysis showed that the water quality of some segments of the Tonle Sap River system was considered to be a slight problem with dissolved oxygen lower than 2 mg/l during March and May 1997, as shown in figure 2.12. According to a visual survey over the last three years, it was found that the Tonle Sap Lake had a moderate eutrophication problem during the last dry season, from April to May, when the lake's water was shallow.
2.2.1.2 Demand for its use (by sector)
The surface water is used for different sectors as follows:
(a) Agricultural sector: The demand for surface water use in this sector is the highest compared with other supplies. Rice farming is the largest water user, while other crops are the second largest water demander in this sector. Apart from rice and crop irrigation, water is also used for aquaculture farming;
(b) Domestic sector: At present, the domestic need for water is on a small scale. However, it will grow rapidly as the development rate increases, especially in the major urban centres such as: Phnom Penh, Sihanouk Ville, Siem Reap and Battambang towns;
UNEP SCS/National Report Cambodia Page 23
(c) Industrial sector: In Cambodia, the industrial development is still weak, therefore this sector is a smaller user than the domestic sector.
The data on surface water use by sector is not available.
2.2.1.3 Impact areas for shortage or low quality surface water
· Surface water shortage
In general, although Cambodia's surface water source has much potential as already mentioned in section 2.1.1.1, water shortages for agricultural irrigation and water supply in urban and rural areas have taken place in some cities and provinces (see figure 2.13).
Shortages of surface water for irrigation and domestic water supply take place almost every year in Takeo and Kompong Speu provinces. The main problem of water shortage in these provinces is caused by low rainfall, small and less numerous surface water sources and a lack of an irrigation system for storing water. Moreover, most of remote rural areas in these provinces are now facing a surface water shortage for domestic supply in the dry season.
Apart from these provinces, surface water shortages for agricultural irrigation has occurred in some provinces located in the catchment areas of the Mekong and Tonle Sap River systems, such as: Prey Veng, Svay Rieng, Komppong Cham and Battambang where the rainfall varies from 1,500 to 2,500.mm. As already mentioned, the problem of water shortage in the central catchment area is caused by the lack of management of stored basin and irrigation systems.
The surface water shortage for water supply has also occurred in some urban centres of the three coastal provinces in the dry season. The reason for the shortage is the lack of basins or reservoirs for surface water storage and shallow existing lakes or reservoirs because of soil erosion.
· Low quality surface water
In general, the degradation of surface water quality in Cambodia has occurred in the downstream part of some urban centres during the dry season (from March to June).
According to a surface water quality analysis result carried out by the laboratory of the Mekong Secretariat in Phnom Penh, low quality surface water with low dissolved oxygen has been found in the Tonle Sap River system in the dry season, for example downstream Tonle Sap River, upstream Bassac River, the lower courses of Stung Sangker, Stung Siem Reap and some parts of the Tonle Sap Lake (see figure 2.13).
Quality degradation of these surface waters is caused by the discharge of sewage and industrial wastewater directly into streams without treatment, and the disposal of all kinds of solid waste, which causes dissolved oxygen to fall (down to 1 mg/l), and the presence of more disease agents (fecal coliform bacteria of more than 1 million /1).
The shortage and quality degradation of surface water has affected the development of the national economy, the people’s health and the ecosystem, causing serious poverty.
UNEP SCS/National Report Cambodia Page 24
2.2.1.4 Causes of issues and problems
· Causes of surface water shortage
In Cambodia, the problem of surface water shortage for agricultural irrigation and domestic water supply purposes has been caused by several factors, as follows:
(a) There is no national policy for the sustainable management of surface water; (b) Deforestation increases annually in the high plateau surrounding the central plains, causing serious soil erosion that makes water bodies shallow. Moreover, deforestation also causes low rainfall; (c) A lack of reservoirs or lakes for storing surface water for use in the dry season; (d) A lack of or poor irrigation systems in the country; (e) The use of surface water for irrigation as well as for water supply in urban centres is uneconomical and irresponsible ; (f) A lack of laws and other regulations on surface water management and protection; existing laws and regulations do not stipulate clearly about the control of surface use; (g) Overlap and gaps of responsibility for the management of surface water use among government agencies, leading to uncoordinated and conflicting duties; (h) Governmental staff capacity in the management of water use is still low; ( i) Financial constraints for developing and rehabilitating reservoir and irrigation systems.
· Causes of the quality degradation of surface water
In general, the degradation of the quality of surface water occurs downstream in the major urban centres. It is caused by the following factors:
(a) Poor solid waste management with uncontrolled disposals, and lack of treatment systems and facilities for collection and transportation; (b) The disposal of about 30 per cent of uncollected solid waste into water bodies; moreover, almost all dump sites are open-burning without a system protecting against leaked water; (c) The direct discharge of sewage and untreated industrial wastewater into water bodies; (d) Lack of wastewater treatment systems and sewerage systems that have not been reconstructed and restored; (e) Lack of control and poor management of wastewater discharge; (f) Lack of facility for monitoring the surface water quality such as laboratory equipment and permanent monitoring stations; (g) No laws and regulations relating to solid waste management and wastewater control; (h) Low capacity by government staff to control and monitor solid waste disposal and wastewater discharges; ( i) Lack of finance to build wastewater treatment plants and maintain the sewerage system in urban areas.
2.2.1.5 Impacts of global change
There has been no scientific research on the effects of climate change on the surface water in Cambodia. However, it has been noted that in the last two years there have been some changes in climate such as:
- The temperature of the air has increased, especially in the last dry season of 1998 (March, April, May ) when it reached 40.5 0C during the day;
UNEP SCS/National Report Cambodia Page 25
- The cold season (December to February ) was lost last year;
- The amount of rainfall has decreased in the rainy season of the last two years throughout the country and the duration of the rainy season has been shorter than in the past.
It would appear from this that the surface water resources in Cambodia have been slightly impacted by global change. Therefore, scientific research on the effect of global climate change on the surface water resources should be carried out.
2.2.1.6 Proposed interventions and sustainable rates of extraction
The proposed intervention and sustainable rates of extraction of surface water use are as follows:
(a) Setting up an effective national policy on water sources and surface water resources protection and management; (b) Developing laws and regulations on water and water resources management; (c) Setting up water quality standards and effluent standards; (d) Establishing and implementing a master plan to integrate management in various uses such as irrigation, watershed control, domestic water supply and flood control; (e) Developing a surface water quality monitoring system; (f) Improving the control of wastewater discharges into public water areas; (g) Prohibiting all kinds of water and water resources uses without permission except for household use; (h) Insisting that all projects affecting the quantity and quality of water and water resources submit an environmental impact assessment report to the Government; (i) Strengthening the capacity-building of the government staff in the field of water resources management and water pollution control; (j) Improving public awareness on water and water resources protection and conservation.
2.2.2 Groundwater
2.2.2.1 Groundwater aquifers and current status
Groundwater may be an important resource for the economic development of the country. But its utilization is still limited to rural and urban domestic supplies, for small industry and minor irrigation, mostly in the dry season.
As far as the groundwater aquifers are concerned, there is insufficient information on this natural resource because there has not yet been a comprehensive investigation.
Some studies of groundwater aquifers were conducted, as follows:
· In 1958, the United States geological survey group carried out the first study of Cambodian groundwater in the central area (Kompong Cham and Battambang provinces), and coastal area (Kampot province). The results of the study showed that moderate supplies up to 22.7 m3/hr could probably be obtained in a number of the study areas.
Based on first study result, USAID developed a drilling programme from 1960 to 1963. Its purpose was to describe and evaluate the availability of groundwater. The programme uses information from a total of over 1,000 drilled and hydro-jetted holes, covering the whole country UNEP SCS/National Report Cambodia Page 26 except the north-eastern provinces. The depth ranged from 2 to 209 metres, with an average depth of 23.2 metres. The yields from productive wells ranged from 0.066 to 178.32 m3 / hr. The programme came to the following important conclusions on groundwater aquifers:
(a) Groundwater can provide an important dry season supplement to surface water sources; (b) Groundwater can be a principal source for small industry, minor irrigation, and domestic and rural needs; (c) More than half the country remains to be explored by drilling; (d) Large capacity wells will be possible but rare, and will obtain most of their water from nearby sources of induced recharge, such as streams or lakes; (e) In general, because of the heavy jungle, the presence of laterite soils and the prevalence of silt and clay in the alluvium, infiltration rates are low; (f) Because of the coarseness of the sand and sandstone, storage coefficients and transmissivity are commonly low; (g) However, indications are that there is sufficient groundwater storage to provide sustained water yields during the dry season; (h) Potential recharge during the wet season is more than adequate in most of Cambodia ; ( i) Production capacity of groundwater can be about 17,600 million m3 a year.
· In 1992, a second study was conducted in Kompong Thom province located in central Cambodia. The study result showed that there were aquifers in study area of 432 square kilometres. One is a porous lateritic layer immediately under the top soil, and the other is composed of sandy and gravely alluvium in the low land below elevations of 20 metres above mean sea level. The specific yield of the aquifers is small, approximately 15m3/day (lateritic strata ) and 50m3/day (sandy layer) assuming that the draw-down is 5 metres and the influence radius is 300 metres. The aquifers have high electric conductivity: 90-1,050 (at 80oC) micro-ohm/m which correspond to salt contents around 0.00014 – 0.61 per cent. The water is generally easily accessible. It lies only 1-2 metres below ground in the rainy season. Farmers dig shallow wells and fully utilize the water for domestic purposes.
· In 1994, a third study was conducted in the coastal provinces (Sihanouk Ville and Kampot ). The study result showed that drawdown tests indicated a pumping rate for individual production wells of not more than 20m3/hr to avoid over-pumping of the wells. Although not all wells have been sampled and analysed, salinity concentrations too high for drinking purposes were measured in 9 of the 87 wells in Sihanouk Ville and in 5 of the nearly 1,000 wells in Kampot.
2.2.2.2 Demand for its use ( by sector )
In Cambodia, groundwater is used for urban and rural domestic water supplies, for agricultural irrigation and for industrial purposes. Currently, the demand for groundwater use for urban and rural water supply is ever-increasing because the surface water supplies in these areas are not available or because the surface water quality has deteriorated.
Since 1983, the United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF) has had a drilling programme to construct wells for urban and rural water supplies in cooperation with the Ministry of Health, and then in 1993 with the Ministry of Rural Development. The number of wells drilled by UNCEF and non- governmental organizations in each year from 1983 to 1996 and in each province are presented in tables 2.14 and 2.15 respectively.
UNEP SCS/National Report Cambodia Page 27
Table 2.13 Number of wells constructed by UNICEF and non-governmental organizations, 1983-1996
Year Number of wells
1983 10 1984 24 1985 88 1986 352 1987 804 1988 1,367 1989 1,025 1990 826 1991 1,097 1992 1,833 1993 1,745 1994 1,687 1995 1,303 1996 224 Total 12,385 Source: Ministry of Rural Development, 1997.
The total number of wells and the total volume of groundwater exploited for urban and rural water supplies in the whole country is not available because the exploitation of groundwater has not been registered yet in Cambodia.
The use of groundwater for agricultural irrigation especially for rice paddy has been introduced since 1993 in Takeo province where the surface water is inadequate for rice paddy irrigation. In the last three years, the use of groundwater for rice paddy has become widespread in Prey Veng, Svay Rieng and Kompong Cham provinces.
The demand for groundwater use for the industrial sector is the smallest. Groundwater has only been used in some factories and handicraft establishments where surface water supply is inadequate or of low quality.
UNEP SCS/National Report Cambodia Page 28
Table 2.14 Number of wells drilled by UNICEF and non-governmental organizations in each province, 1983 -1996
Name of province Number of wells
Phnom Penh 1,243 Kandal 2,237 Kompong Speu 1,306 Takeo 1,671 Kampot 674 Kompong Chhang 1,040 Kompong Cham 1,212 Pre Veng 1,121 Pursat 194 Sihanoukville 87 Battambang 664 Banteay Meanchey 91 Siem Reap 292 Preah Vihear 30 Kompong Thom 32 Koh Kong 5 Ratanakiri 18 Kratie 46 Svay Rieng 422
Total 12,385
Source: Ministry of Rural Development, 1997.
2.2.2.3 Impact areas of shortage or low quality groundwater
· Groundwater shortage
Owing to the abundance of surface water, which plays an important role in recharging the groundwater, the use of groundwater by sector is on a small scale compared with other countries. Therefore, groundwater shortages occur in only a few areas of the country, such as the central part of the border between Battambang and Pursat provinces, the north-west part of Kompong Speu province, and the northern part of Kompong Thom (see figure 2.14).
The report of the drilling programme conducted by UNICEF and the Ministry of Rural Development shows that the groundwater aquifers of these areas are too deep to exploit (deeper than 150 metres). It is believed that people in these areas use the small streams, lakes and ponds for domestic water supply and for their animals. This is causing an epidemic disease problem in these areas. UNEP SCS/National Report Cambodia Page 29
· Low quality groundwater
A scientific study of groundwater quality has not yet been carried out. Therefore, detailed information on the areas where the quality of groundwater has deteriorated is not available. However, based on the report from UNICEF's drilling programme, it can be seen that the quality of the groundwater in most areas of the country is generally satisfactory although high iron concentration and increased salinity levels have been encountered in the following provinces: Svay Rieng, Prey Veng, Kandal, Banteay Meanchey, Battambang, Kompong Speu and Takeo.
2.2.2.4 Causes of issues and problems
The causes of groundwater shortage and quality deterioration include:
(a) Over-exploitation of groundwater: Groundwater levels may be lowered by over pumping. Pumping from deeper rock aquifers such as limestone or sandstone may cause springs to dry up in the dry season. This may affect base flows in streams and rivers with subsequent effects on small-scale irrigation that relies on these flows for supplementary water. In addition this may cause saline intrusion, particularly in the coastal area.
(b) Lack of a national policy for groundwater management: The groundwater source has been paid little attention. Groundwater use is free and has not yet been required to have permission or licence.
(c) Deforestation: This may affect the process of groundwater recharge as the top soil becomes tight and hard and the rainfall decreases.
(d) Lack of laws and regulations relating to groundwater quality protection: Household solid waste is disposed at dumping sites without facilities protecting against contaminated water leaking into groundwater. Furthermore, industrial waste containing hazardous substances and trace elements is disposed at the dumping sites without pre-treatment. This can lead to pollution of the groundwater.
(e) Lack of groundwater quality control: Groundwater quality has not been analysed yet because of a lack of laboratory equipment and financial constraints.
2.2.2.5 Impacts of global climate change
Information on the effects of global climate change on groundwater is not available because of a lack of scientific research and investigation.
2.2.2.6 Proposed interventions for sustainable rates of extraction
In order to have a sustainable management of groundwater use, the following interventions have been proposed:
(a) To set up a policy and master plan for managing groundwater exploitation in a sustainable manner; (b) To develop laws and regulations relating to groundwater exploitation management and groundwater quality protection; (c) To establish a monitoring network for the survey and control of groundwater quality as well as quantity; UNEP SCS/National Report Cambodia Page 30
(d) To treat industrial waste before disposal; (e) To have an environment impact assessment for all projects that may affect the quantity and quality of groundwater; (f) To strengthen the capacity-building of government staff in the groundwater management sector; (g) To improve public awareness on groundwater protection and conservation.
Finally, in order to enable the wise use of groundwater and to protect this resource from pollution and overuse, preventive development of water resources guided by sensible groundwater law and policies, implemented by a body clearly mandated to regulate and allocate the use of groundwater is needed.
2.3 EXPLOITATION OF LIVING AQUATIC RESOURCES
Living aquatic resources can be defined as resources living in water for all their life cycle, or spending their life frequently in water. The term living aquatic resources could be seen as an alternative to living wetlands resources. Another term known as wetland flora and fauna or the shorter one, wetland biodiversity, could also be considered.
This report will focus on the exploitation of two kinds of living aquatic resources, according to geographical location and characteristics of water, or alternatively speaking, the two main types of wetlands as follows:
(a) Living freshwater resources; (b) Living marine resources.
2.3.1 Living freshwater resources
Some important flora and fauna on and in freshwater wetlands, called living freshwater resources, are as follows:
· Flora: flooded forest, aquatic plants, weeds etc. · Fauna: fishes, shellfish, invertebrates, reptiles, small mammals and waterbirds.
The exploitation of living freshwater resources in Cambodia has been more intensive in recent years, leading to what is called unsustainable use, as a result of human pressure through various improper practices.
2.3.1.1 Status of exploitation of flooded forest, aquatic plants and weeds
Cambodian freshwater wetlands have been renowned as one of the world's most productive ecosystems because of the great abundance of flooded forest, aquatic plants and weeds that constitute the habitats for a wide variety of wildlife species, mainly fishes, shellfish, invertebrates, small mammals, reptiles, waterbirds and others.
(a) Productivity
The capacity of flooded forest, aquatic plants and weeds in producing yields (for example, per hectare, per year) of fishes, shellfish and other water or wetland related resources is not known because of a lack of systematic or scientific studies conducted specifically for such valuable ecosystems. The same constraint holds good when trying to estimate the amounts (in m3 or in tons) of UNEP SCS/National Report Cambodia Page 31 timbers and charcoals and other materials yielded annually from the flooded forest throughout the country. For this reason, aquatic plants (for example, reeds, sedges and weeds) are not discussed in this report.
(b) Areas and extent of flooded forest
The Cambodian Land Cover Atlas prepared by the Mekong Secretariat in1994 for an FAO project (CMB/92/005) could be an important basis for the required data on flooded forest extents, as well as for those of important/selected wetlands and other land cover or land uses. The atlas covers three significant periods: 1973-1976, 1985-1987 and 1992-1993.
According to this atlas, the areas of Cambodian flooded forest are as follows:
Table 2.15 Flooded forest areas and trends
Period Area of first class Area of secondary Percentage from total ( km2 ) class ( km2 ) country area
1973-1976 9,379 - 5.16 1985-1987 7,954 262 4.52 1992-1993 33,707 2,596 3.47
From total land area : 181,535 km2 100 per cent
Source: Cambodia Land Cover Atlas,1994.
The areas mentioned above only refer to the flooded forest around Tonle Sap Great Lake, as stated in the introduction of the atlas.
Around Tonle Sap Great Lake, flooded forest presents a huge belt varying in size from 25 kilometres at the south-eastern edge of the lake to 60 kilometres at the western edge of the lake in Battanbang province. The location of flooded forest along with other ecosystems / land use of Cambodia can be seen in figures 2.15, 2.16 and 2.17.
Some activities that are considered a disturbance or threat to the flooded forest and that sometimes cause serious degradation and loss of vital ecosystems, are as follows:
· Cutting for firewood and charcoal (cooking energy generation); · Cutting for construction / housing and fishing materials; · Reclaiming agricultural lands / clearing for croplands; · Burning to catch reptiles, snakes, turtles etc.
(c) Species diversity
There is a large diversity of trees species in the flooded forest, some of the important ones are as follows: Barringtonia acutangula , Xanthrophyllum glaucum, Diospyros Cambodiana, Hymenocardia wallichii, Cococeras anisopodum, Unearia, Homomalla , Caparir micrantha, Streptegyne parvifolia, Bridelia Cambodiana, Cudrania Cambodiana, Grewia Sinuata wall, UNEP SCS/National Report Cambodia Page 32
Phylantus taxodiifolius, Homallium brevidans, Terminalia chebula , Amelia asiatica, Hydrocarpus anthelmintica.
Apart from these important trees, there are many species of shrubs, aquatic plants, herbs and weeds. In general, the main aquatic plants can be grouped into:
· Rooted-emerged plants, inundated sometimes for 6-7 months or almost year round (for example, flooded forest trees ); · Rooted-floating leaves: Trapa natans, Nymphaea sp.; · Non-rooted submerged plants: Utriculario species; · Non-rooted floating plants: water hyacinth (Eichhornia crappies) is a dominant species. The others are: Pistia stratiotes, Salvinia.
There has been very little information on these aquatic plants, especially their productive capacity. No exact data can be found for these ecosystems, other than that they are important habitats for wildlife, particularly fish and other aquatic animals, and vital sources of food and materials for people.
(d) Management and conservation status
At the moment, we face many threats and constraints in the management and conservation of flooded forest and aquatic plants because of the increasing survival needs of the people and the fast growing development processes, mainly economic and socio-economic. The fund shortages and lack of policy and legislation for specific ecosystems constitute additional crucial constraints in the sustainable use and management of aquatic resources. Important national measures or initiatives taken for the protection, management and conservation of flooded forest and valuable wetland resources are:
· Designation of some important wetlands, such as Tonle Sap, Dong Peng and Samlot, as multiple-use areas among the 23 protected areas of Cambodia (by Royal Decree of 1 November 1993). Please refer to figure 2.18 for Cambodia's protected areas system; · Law on Environment Protection (November 1997); · National Wetland Action Plan; · Accession to the Convention on Wetlands of International Importance (Ramsar Convention), Biodiversity Convention.
2.3.1.2 Status of fishery: exploitation, management and conservation
Cambodia is endowed with very abundant freshwater resources from rainfall averaging 1200- 1800mm/year and flood water from the Upper Mekong River basin of many billions of cubic metres a year. The major water bodies of Cambodia are: · Mekong River and its tributaries and associated floodplain lakes; · Tonle Sap Great lake, the first main tributary of the Mekong River, and tributaries and related lake systems; · Bassac River, the second main tributary of the Mekong River.
These ecosystems are among the most productive in the region, as well as in the world, because of the great range of biodiversity, mainly fishes. The fishery production from these waters contributes to the health of people as well as to the national economy. UNEP SCS/National Report Cambodia Page 33
(a) Productivity
Cambodian waters (both inland and coastal) have a highly rich biodiversity, including fish, shellfish, reptiles and many other aquatic resources. There are, according to some international estimates, 850 species of fish in the major freshwater bodies of Cambodia, mainly in the Mekong River and Tonle Sap Lake and associated flooded plains (Directory of Asian Wetlands, Scott 1989). However, the most recent studies on freshwater capture fishery in Cambodia (Danida funded project, completed in 1997) found some 215 species of fish in Cambodian freshwater bodies. This figure was also suggested by Kottelat in 1986. Many species are still unknown and need to be identified.
(b) Exploitation status · Catch levels in the past
There are different figures on fish catches from Cambodian freshwater bodies: 1. 120,000 mt (metric tons), from which 50,000mt was from Tonle Sap Lake (Chevey and Le Poulin 1940); 2. Total catch level of 120,000t-130,000t, in the period 1962-1963, of which 50,000t were from Tonle Sap Great Lake 55 per cent representing family and small-scale fisheries (Fily and d'Aubenton 1965); 3. Total catch of 147,000t in1939 and 130,000t in 1957 (Badach 1969); 4. 125,000 - 160,000 t/year for total freshwater fishery, of which 50,000 –80,000t from the Tonle Sap River alone (University of Michingan 1975).
· Recent catches
The figures of the Fishery Department (Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fishery) could be useful references, although reportedly under-evaluated. Table 2.16 shows the levels of fish catches through the period 1980- 1995, and the comparison of fish catches in Tonle Sap and the total catches of inland fishes in Cambodia:
Table 2.16 Total inland fish catch in Cambodia, 1982-1995
Year Total inland Tonle Sap Tonle Sap catch as a catch (tons) catch (tons) percentage of total catch 1982 65,700 40,070 61.0 1983 58,717 40,065 68.2 1984 55,093 53,392 64.2 1985 56,400 30,250 53.6 1986 64,181 31,063 48.4 1987 62,154 37,355 60.1 1988 61,200 32,585 53.2 1989 50,500 31,905 63.2 1990 65,100 36,790 56.5 1991 74,700 41,200 55.2 1992 68,900 40,568 58.9 1993 67,900 39,500 58.9 1994 65,000 38,550 59.3 1995 72,500 39,269 54.2 Source: Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries, 1996. UNEP SCS/National Report Cambodia Page 34
Based on these figures, it is clear that Tonle Sap Great Lake can provide more than half of the inland fishery production of Cambodia (table 2.17), and it remains one of the major sources of animal protein for the Cambodian people. The important species, including some commercial fishes, that are considered as grade one, are shown in table 2.18.
Table 2.17 Projected demand for fish, 1995-2005
Year Estimated population Demand at current Demand at minimum (millions) consumption rate nutritional (10.6kg/capita/year ) requirement (21.5kg/capita/year)
1995 10.0 106,000 215,000 2000 11.4 120,000 245,000 2005 12.9 137,000 277,000
Source: Ministry of Environment.
Table 2.18 Grade of fish species in the inland capture fisheries in Cambodia
Common name Scientific name Spotted leatherback Notopterus chitala Grey leatherback Notopterus notopterus Black tipped silver shark Balantiocheilus melanopterus Greater black shark Morulius chrysophekadion Solider river barb Cyclocheilichthys enoplos Smith barb Puntioplites proctozysron Red tail trifoil barb Puntius altus Schwanenfelds trifoil barb Puntius schwanenfeldi Great bony lipped barb Osteocheilus melanoptera Common silver barb Puntius pierrei Small scale mud carp Cirrhina microlepis Hoeven's slender carp Leptobarbus hoeveni Striped catfish Pangasius sutchi Yellow mystus Mystus nemurus Twisted jaw sheatfish Belodontichthy dinema Common sheatfish Kryptopterus apogon Siamese river abramine Cultrops siamensis Black-ear catfish Pangasius larnaudi Giant snakehead Channa micropeltes
Source: Csavas and others, 1994.
The number of boats and catch per boat during the period 1982-1995 is presented in table 2.19. UNEP SCS/National Report Cambodia Page 35
Table 2.19 Number of boats and catch per boat, 1982-1995
Year Total inland catch Number of Catch / Boat (tons) boats (tons) (tons)
1982 65,700 24,742 2.7 1983 58,717 26,611 2.2 1984 55,093 28,794 1.9 1985 56,400 32,593 1.7 1986 64,181 31,090 2.1 1987 62,154 31,841 2.0 1988 61,200 35,712 1.7 1989 50,500 35,942 1.4 1990 65,100 36,173 1.8 1991 74,700 34,859 2.1 1992 68,900 46,219 1.5 1993 67,900 18,489 3.7 1994 65,000 26,555 2.4 1995 72,500 27,101 2.7
Source: Department of Fisheries, 1993.
(c) Threats to living aquatic resources
There are increasing threats to living aquatic resources, both freshwater and marine. The main threats are human activities that create disturbance, reclamation, pollution, over-exploitation and degradation.
· Disturbance This includes general disturbance from human settlement, encroachment for property, the dredging of rivers and lakes for construction, land fill impoundment for flood control, channeling and straightening of rivers in addition to disturbances caused by tourism and recreation activities.
· Reclamation This includes reclamation for urban and industrial development, conversion to agriculture or croplands, and construction of infrastructure (roads, bridges, waterways).
· Pollution The major sources of pollution to waters are mainly domestic wastes and municipal and town sewage. Please refer to section 2.2 for more detail.
· Over-exploitation Over-exploitation of the fishery resources is becoming very intensive and leading to declines in fish stock.
· Degradation This consists of human activities that reduce and alter the living aquatic resources. UNEP SCS/National Report Cambodia Page 36
2.3.1.3 Endangered / transboundary / migratory / species
Destructive practices, together with some illegal activities and inappropriate development as described above, have incontestably caused dramatic damage to most biodiversity components, mainly fishes, reptiles, waterbirds and aquatic vegetation, in recent years. Many of them have become increasingly threatened and endangered, some are now rare and even extinct.
According to some international studies, the endangered and rare species have been primarily identified as follows:
· Mammals - Small-claved otter (Aonyx cinerea) - Smooth-coated otter (Lutra perspicillata ) - Irrawaddy dolphin (Orcaella brevirostris) · Birds - Sarus crane (Grus antigone) - Spot-billed pelican (Pelecanus philipensis) - Oriental darter (Anhinga melanogaster) - Asian-openbill (stork) (Anastomus oscitans) - Black-necked stork (Ephippiorhychus asiaticus) - Greater adjutant (Leptaplilos dubius) - Lesser adjutant (Leptoplilos javanica) - White winged wood-duck (Cairina scutalata ) - Painted stork (Mycteria leucocephala) - Milky stork (Mycteria cinerea) - Giant Ibis (Pseudibis davisoni) - Wooly-necked stork (Ciconia episcopus) - Pallas's fish eagle (Haliacetus leucorypha) - Bar-bellied pita (Pitta ellioti) - Black-headed-Ibis (Threskionis melanocephala) - Comb duck (Sarkidionis melanotus) - Glossy Ibis (Plegodis falcinellus) · Reptiles - Siamese crocodile (Crocodylus siamensis) - Indian python (Python indicus) - Giant Asian-pond turtle (Heosemys / gcoemida grandis) - Yellow-headed temple turtle (Hieremys annandalei) - Asian giant-soft-shell turtle (Pelochelys biberoni) · Fish - Giant catfish (of Mekong ) (Pangasianodon gigas) - Seven-line barb (Probabus jullieni) - Giant barb (Catlocapio siamensis)
Among these threatened, endangered and rare species are some that are transboundary or migratory, such as Sarus cranes, pelicans, ibises. These have been observed to be migratory birds (coming and going from neighbouring countries, Viet Nam, the Lao People’s Democractic Republic and Thailand and probably also from other countries in the Asia region). Irrawaddy dolphins are important fishes (or mammals) migrating between Cambodia and the Lao People’s Democratic Republic.
There have been no exact and comprehensive identifications of migratory species of wildlife because of a lack of systematic scientific research. UNEP SCS/National Report Cambodia Page 37
2.3.1.4 Major problems and issues
The major problems and issues can be identified as the following:
· Decline in biodiversity: Fish, waterbirds, mammals, reptiles, invertebrates etc. · Degradation and loss of natural habitats/ breeding, feeding and nursery grounds for fish and waterbirds in the potentially important ecosystems of the Mekong River and related floodplains and the Tonle Sap Great Lake, along with associated tributaries and lakes. · Declining water quality, caused by the long-lasting and increasing pollution or contamination from urban and domestic wastes, direct discharge of sewage etc.
Consequently, natural disasters are often encountered:
- Increased sedimentation and siltation; - Erosion, destruction of soil structure, landslides, mudslides; - More frequent floods and droughts; - Lack of food from aquatic sources.
2.3.1.5 Economic losses because of over-exploitation
It is evident that the over-exploitation of living aquatic resources can cause economic losses, in addition to serious impacts on the environment and many socio-economic problems, such as ecosystem deterioration, decline in biodiversity, habitat loss, difficult income generation, and damage to people’s health and food shortages. The decrease of national revenue/GDP can be another example of the consequences of over-exploitation.
As no study or economic valuation of wetland ecosystems has been carried out so far, there are no certain figures on the economic losses caused by over-exploitation. However, in reality economic losses must be enormous.
2.3.1.6 Fish supply and demand
Fishery resources can be a vital source for economic development. Freshwater fishes constitute the major food of the people, providing about 40 - 60 per cent of the protein intake (Csavas and others 1994). The supply and demand of fish are as follows:
· Supply: Please refer to table 2.16 for fish production in Cambodia. · Demand: Average per capita consumption during the period 1987-1994 was 10.6kg/year (Ministry of Environment).
This consumption rate is much lower than that prior to the internal conflict period of 1974-79 which was in the range of 20-25 kg per year (Lagter 1976). The apparent consumption of fish and fishery products in Cambodia in 1991-93 was estimated to be about 10.3 kg/year (FAO 1997).
The minimum nutritional requirements could be satisfied with a higher consumption rate of 21.5 kg/year. The projected demand for food fish would then be in the range of 120,000 to 245,000 metric tons by the year 2000 and 137,000 to 277,000 metric tons by 2005. In conclusion, inland fisheries instead of marine fisheries play a very important role in the food security of the country and currently supply about 70 per cent of the total fish production, which averaged 113,450mt. annually in the period 1990-92. UNEP SCS/National Report Cambodia Page 38
As the over-exploitation of fishery resources has increased continuously over the last decade, the scarcity of such a valuable asset is becoming one of the most important national concerns. Thus, the projected figures mentioned above might not be met.
2.3.1.7 Causes including sectoral demand and failures and internal and external market demands
· Causes for increased demand for fish
Some factors that have been suggested are:
- Fast growth of population leading to increasing needs; - Poverty and inadequate knowledge and understanding about the wise use of natural resources and the environment; - Political will versus the current global concept of sustainable development (no strict control on activities that damage wetlands and aquatic resources); - Abuse/ambition of foreigners (fishermen and investors); - Improper management of fishery resources (illegal and destructive fishing practices); - Failures of fishery management; - Impossibility of controlling illegal and destructive fishing practices; - Inappropriate fishing concessions, no limitation on the expansion of fishing lots, very intensive catches; - Lack of a better understanding of the impacts from improper aquaculture; - Failure in maintaining fishery resource richness and diversity of species, no wise use or unsustainable management leading to dramatic declines in fish stock and increasing numbers of threatened and endangered species of fishes, mammals and reptiles; - Habitat degradation for fishing purposes; - Failure to increase the national budget from fishery, much under-evaluated yield; - No exact figures on fish capture during the last decade.
· Internal and external market demands
Freshwater fishery production for internal market demands is larger than that for external market demands. It has been estimated that about 90 per cent of freshwater fish caught in Cambodia is for internal consumption. Some commercial fish in a small quantity (about 10 per cent) have been exported to neighbouring countries, mainly Thailand and Viet Nam. These are freshwater lobsters, elephant fish, striped catfish and others. Most of them are transported in the form of frozen or iced fish. No study or record provides the precise level of internal and external market demands at the current time.
2.3.1.8 Impacts of global climate change
The main global change facing Cambodia and all countries in the region, as well as in the world, is the greenhouse effect, causing global warning. The consequences could be:
- Irregular rainfall; - Prolonged drought negatively affecting agricultural production; - Other El Nino effects. UNEP SCS/National Report Cambodia Page 39
2.3.1.9 Proposed interventions
The urgent needs are:
- The development and enforcement of laws and policies; - Capacity-building and expertise improvement; - Efforts in systematic / scientific research on living aquatic resources; - The development of comprehensive conservation programmes/ strategies, management plans and master plans; - National, regional and international database establishment and appropriate management; - Living aquatic resources regional networking and collaborative efforts towards a regional action plan.
2.3.2 Living marine resources
Living marine resources include: mangroves, coral reefs, seagrasses, all vital habitats and nursery grounds for fish and shellfish. However, we would like to leave coral reefs, mangroves and seagrasses for further discussion in marine habitats in sections 2.4.2.2, 2.4.2.3 and 2.4.2.4.
2.3.2.1 Status of marine fishery productivity and fish catches
There has been little information on marine fishery in Cambodia. However, some figures of marine fish production during the period 1980-1995 are presented in table 2.20 and the number of coastal fishing boats in the period 1983-1993 is shown in table 2.21.
Table 2.20 Total annual marine fishery harvests, 1980-1995
Year Total catch (in tons) Year Total catch (in tons)
1980 1,200 1988 21,000 1981 814 1989 26,050 1982 3,015 1990 39,900 1983 9,444 1991 36,400 1984 7,721 1992 33,700 1985 11,178 1993 31,100 1986 7,247 1994 30,000 1987 17,417 1995 30,500
Source: Department of Fisheries, 1996.
In 1994, there were 6,173 vessels in the marine sector with engines less than 10hp. (Fishery Department Registration). As there are no systematic studies or scientific research on marine fish and other marine aquatic organisms, information and data on their productivity and ecology is very poor. There is no exact indication of the total number of marine fishes. However, Cambodian coastal waters are among the richest areas in biodiversity, including significant aquatic resources and marine endangered species, such as the dugong, green turtle, dolphins and sharks. UNEP SCS/National Report Cambodia Page 40
Table 2.21 Number of coastal fishing boats, 1983-1993
YEAR Boats <5 t Boats >5 t Motorboat 11-30 HP Vessels >30 HP
1983 553 n.a 446 408 1984 1801 n.a 539 416 1985 2,449 n.a 550 422 1986 2,453 n.a 553 461 1987 2,801 n.a 482 617 1988 2,807 n.a 531 722 1989 1,869 n.a 341 615 1990 1,179 263 489 844 1991 1,000 809 718 408 1992 945 502 1,162 367 1993 882 350 1377 436
Source: Tana 1994.
Fishing pressures
In recent years there have been intensive fish harvests and various fishing methods and techniques, including the larger scale fishery industry, that have practically replaced the traditional sustainable uses of the past. Fishing practices that are considered the main threats to marine fishes and are believed to be inappropriate and unsustainable are:
· Illegal fishing (in closed seasons, by prohibited fishing materials/gear, such as very small mesh-nets); · Destructive fishing techniques (for example, dynamite fishing, electric shocks, electrofishing, push netting, large-scale trawling by large vessels of foreign fishermen); · Increased aquaculture /shrimp farming; · Indiscriminate catch of fishes /collection of shellfish, molluscs; · Destruction of breeding and feeding grounds / habitats (for example, coral reefs, seagrass beds, tidal vegetation /mangroves); · Over-fishing and increased by-catch for fish culture purposes.
2.3.2.2 Endangered, transboundary and migratory species
There is little data available for marine endangered species and transboundary or migratory species in Cambodia. Therefore, it is thought that green turtle, dugong, dolphins, sharks and others are endangered. Many other species could be considered migratory in the Gulf of Thailand and probably in the South China Sea. Efforts to establish scientific taxonomic research in the region for a comprehensive database must be encouraged.
2.3.2.3 Major problems and issues
The major problems and issues for marine fishery management are expected to be the impacts of over-exploitation on living aquatic resources: UNEP SCS/National Report Cambodia Page 41
(a) Environment issues
· Dramatic decline in marine fish stock because of illegal, destructive fishing practices and unsustainable uses such as dynamite fishing, electric shocks, push-netting, big-scale trawling and purse-seining, the use of very small-mesh nets, electrofishing, encroachment of large-scale fishing by foreign fishmen in the offshore areas, and the indiscriminate catches and collection of fish and shellfish. The increased by-catches are leading to long- term depletion of the marine fish population;
· Subsequent decline of other marine biodiversity components depending on fish for their subsistence such as waterbirds, shorebirds, and marine mammals;
· Coastal waters are becoming more turbid because of intensive fishing activities, and as a result, the beaches have become degraded (for example, Kep Beach in Kampot province);
· Habitat degradation and losses, damaging the feeding, breeding and nursery grounds of fish, invertebrates and waterbirds;
· No ecological balance;
· Food-chain accidents.
(b) Socio-economic problems
· Reduced goods and services or limited employment for local people;
· Falling incomes or family economy problems, causing subsequently lower living standards, followed by poverty, shortages of food and other nutritional needs;
· Conflicts between users (fishermen, woodcutters and local people) and conservationists, or between the private sector, including businessmen and investors, and the public sector or government agencies;
· Loss of national budget from marine and coastal living resources sectors;
· Decreased income from tourism and recreation activities;
· Lack of significant historic sites and important species for research and education.
2.3.2.4 Economic losses because of over-exploitation
There are economic losses at some levels because of the over-exploitation of living marine aquatic resources. This can be seen in the lower living standards and the decreased national revenue from such sources. But the exact amount is not known because of a lack of systematic economic valuation. The lack of political will, the lack of funds and the security problem are seen to be the reasons for an absence of studies. UNEP SCS/National Report Cambodia Page 42
2.3.2.5 Causes and demands of over-exploitation
(a) Causes
The root cause for the over-exploitation of living marine resources is the fast growth of population in the coastal zone. This has resulted from the on-site growth of native people (or residents) and the increasing migrants, temporarily inhabiting the coastal areas while looking for new jobs, additional and supplementary to the old ones in their homelands. Some foreign migrants, mainly Thai and Vietnamese, could also be aggravating the situation of the marine and coastal environment.
Increasing poverty and falling income from crop harvesting and fishing are other competing causes for the over-exploitation of living marine resources, particularly marine fish, coral reefs, mangroves and seagrass destruction.
Coral and charcoal made from mangroves have often been exported by Thai people from Cambodian territory (adapted from provincial environmental offices). The same practices occur for fish, shrimp and timber from Cambodian coastal areas.
Therefore, it is possible to conclude that apart from the root causes (fast growth of population, poverty and income generation), there are immediate causes such as the need to seek alternative livelihoods, to improve living standards, to satisfy increasing needs for food, and to export by foreigners (transboundary needs).
(b) Demands
It is incontestable that the primary demands are for food security (demands for fish food) or subsistence/survival needs. Many other needs could be mentioned as secondary demands such as home or habitat security, health demands, clothing demands and development needs.
The important food for Cambodian people as well as for people in other Asian countries is rice. Some other crops (maize, bean, potatoes) are temporarily alternatives. The increasing demands for foodhave led to conflicting efforts in some areas: agricultural lands/croplands, fishing lot concessions/expansions, transport and navigation, mining, tourism, and recreation development, protected areas and habitats development. All of these seem to be increasing demands for economic and environment/conservation developments.
Demands for food (marine food) can not be completely described. It seems there has been no specific valuation of the demands for marine fish food. But there have been some estimates as to fish consumption and the projected demands for fish in general for the period 2000 and 2005. Please refer to the previous section 2.3.1.6 for the figures.
(c) Failures in living marine resource management
These consist of the following:
- Lack of strict control on fishing activities and illegal practices by foreign fishermen, and the occurrence of some destructive practices (push-netting, dynamite fishing, electrofishing, very large-scale fishery industry, use of very small mesh-nets, indiscriminate catches and collection of fish and shellfish/molluscs); - No effective protection measures or strategy for reducing and banning all these illegal and destructive fishing practices and for conserving marine endangered living resources, including significant commercial fish; UNEP SCS/National Report Cambodia Page 43
- Absence a comprehensive conservation programme, action plan/ management plan for living marine resources; - Improper development of coastal aquaculture / intensive shrimp farming, allowing the contamination of adjacent coastal waters; - Increased export of charcoal made from mangroves and the intensive destruction of vital coastal habitats for marine lives; - Excessive expansion of salt fields, causing drastic losses of mangroves and rear mangroves; - Growing initiatives for some other inappropriate investments and developments in the coastal zone that could lead to destruction instead of conservation.
(d) Internal and external market demands
Information on internal and external market demands remains poor because of the absence of systematic studies. This needs to be developed and updated in the future.
2.3.2.6 Impacts of global climate change
The main impacts of global change are the effects of global warming, resulting in:
(a) Drought, very high temperatures of around 40 0 C (maximum temperature in the dry season) that make for very fast evaporation of surface water and difficult growing conditions for plants and animals; (b) Bad conditions for people’s health; (c) Irregular rainfall / short rainy season; (d) Sea level rise.
2.3.2.7 Proposed interventions
(a) Collaborative research on living marine resources in the Gulf of Thailand; (b) Systematic studies/ research on the endangered, rare and migratory species of living marine resources; (c) Networking, establishment and management of databases on living marine resources; (d) Strict control and banning of illegal and destructive activities in the coastal zone; (e) Improved public awareness on the importance of living marine resources; (f) Zoning and mapping for living marine resources; (g) Creation of living marine resources reserves and protected areas; (h) Formulation of law and policies, guidelines and regulations for the sustainable management and development of living marine resources.
2.4 MODIFICATION OF AQUATIC HABITATS
It is necessary to consider two distinctive aquatic habitats: · Freshwater; · Marine and coastal.
2.4.1 Freshwater aquatic habitats
The main components of freshwater habitats are: · Freshwater vegetated wetlands, constituted by flora communities: Flooded forests and other aquatic plants and weeds (Palustrine system); · Water bodies, open surface waters: lakes and rivers (lacustrine and riverine systems). UNEP SCS/National Report Cambodia Page 44
2.4.1.1 Freshwater vegetated wetlands Cambodia has large tracts of freshwater wetlands that are vital habitats for a wide variety of species. Wetland habitats are very productive ecosystems as they contain many significant species of flora and fauna and provide several goods and services to the people. According to some international estimates, Cambodia possesses at least 3.65 million hectares of wetlands of international significance. These are distributed in four potential areas in Cambodia as follows:
· Mekong River, together with its associated lakes, tributaries and floodplains; · Tonle Sap Great Lake and its related tributaries and associated lakes and flooded areas; · High floodplain of Stung Sen (the longest tributary of Tonle Sap Lake); · A system of rivers with mangroves swamps in Koh Kong province (see the location of internationally important wetlands in Cambodia in figure 2.19 extracted from the Directory of Asian Wetlands, Scott 1989).
There is no specific area for each of these four potentially important sites, but it could be estimated at almost 2 million hectares for the potential system of the Mekong River and more than 1.65 million hectares for the remaining three sites. However, as Cambodia is endowed with extremely rich freshwater systems comprising the Mekong River, the Tonle Sap Great Lake, Tonle Bassac and many tributaries and associated inundated plains and lakes systems, it could contain internationally important wetlands at a greater percentage (more than 20 per cent) of the total country (181,535 km2 ), and at 5 per cent of Asian wetlands.
Indeed, most of Cambodia's land is seasonally flooded for some months during the wet season (from May to October). Therefore, it is believed that Cambodian freshwater wetlands cover a relatively large area in comparison to those at the coast.
Freshwater wetlands can be classified mainly as: · Natural and artificial or man-made; · Permanent and seasonal or temporary; · The major systems are: riverine, lacustrine palustrine and marine estuarine. This is made according to the commonly known Ramsar definition and based on the International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN) classification. However, there has been little information and data on the specific types of freshwater wetlands and marine and coastal wetlands. We would like, therefore, to discuss only the well-known types of freshwater wetlands and habitats and leave many others as accidental gaps, to be completed later. However, some selected wetlands could be identified and considered as a preliminary step. These are: rice fields (rainfed and recession), flooded forest, flooded grasslands, swamps, and marshland open waters (lakes, rivers and sea). As the areas of each of these ecosystems can be identified clearly on the Cambodia Land Cover Maps prepared in 1994 by the Mekong River Commission Secretariat and other maps, their changes or modifications over the two last decades can be depicted. Please refer to figures 2.16 and 2.17 in section 2.3.1.1 and table 2.15 for the location and extent of each of these habitats. UNEP SCS/National Report Cambodia Page 45
A. Rice fields (i) Change in area of rice field ecosystems There have been some changes in the extent of rice fields (rainfed and receding rice) as presented in table 2.22 below:
Table 2.22 Changes in rice ecosystems, 1973-1993
Period Rainfed rice ( Km2 ) Receding rice ( Km2 ) Total ( Km2 ) 1973-1976 25,290 - 25,290 1992-1993 26,097 293 26,390 Increase 807 293 1,100
Source: Cambodia Land Cover Atlas, 1994.
The main causes for changes in rice ecosystems are from some basic factors: warfare, population growth, poverty, security problems and development trends. Economic development, mainly in the agricultural sectors, has intensified during the last decade, controversially sometimes as to its effects on sustainable development (for example: rice field expansion, over-fishing, over- grazing). Natural forested lands have been cleared for agricultural lands, rice fields and other croplands. This can lead to the dramatic degradation and loss of vital habitats for wildlife, especially the loss of significant species of flora and fauna. Subsequently great economic loss can be expected. Unfortunately, the exact figures in this regard are not available because of a lack of studies and research. According to table 2.22 (adapted from the Cambodia Land Cover Atlas, 1994) the areas for rice paddy are as follows: - 26,097 km2 for rainfed rice and 293 km2 for recession rice in 1992-1993; - 25,290 km2 for rainfed rice in 1973-1976. These figures reveal a negligible area of recession rice during the period 1973-1976 and a relatively small area of rainfed rice, if compared with that in 1992-1993. Accordingly there has been a total increase of 1,100 square kilometres, distributed as 807 square kilometres for rainfed rice and another 293 square kilometres for receding rice in that period. Change is expected as a result of the destruction of flooded forest and vegetated wetland for conversion to another freshwater habitat, rice fields. For species composition change, there exists very poor information and data. No estimates on the number of rice species in the past or at the present time exist. One can only assume that many traditional planted or native rice species have been replaced by some newly introduced species (for example, IR 42, IR 36). (ii) Conflicting uses
There have been conflicting uses of rice fields because of various development practices:
- Agricultural developments: Traditional rice and other crops versus the newly initiated rice field-fish farming; - Industrial development: many rice fields have been filled for the construction of factories, manufacturing and handicraft establishments, petroleum stations and others; UNEP SCS/National Report Cambodia Page 46
- Housing / settlement (urban expansion); - Other buildings and infrastructure.
However, these competing development processes are actually detrimental for ecological resources, in particular for fish, shellfish, invertebrates, reptiles and other aquatic organisms. It is possible to conclude that Cambodia has been facing in recent years unsustainable agricultural production despite the absence of studies of the conversion of flooded forest to rice fields and agricultural lands to other systems as mentioned above.
(iii) Causes of habitat change
These include production increases and some other purposes such as the expansion of plantation areas, decrease of soil fertility, natural disasters and erosion from run-off.
(iv) Impacts of global change
Some of the impacts of global change are: - Low yields because of irregular rainfall and pronounced drought or increased evaporation; - Rice disease frequency.
(v) Economic losses owing to habitat modification
There could be serious losses, but no comprehensive estimates have been undertaken. Therefore, this has been left for further studies and research.
(vi) Major areas of impact
The major areas of impact are observed in the central plains of Cambodia, around Tonle Sap Great Lake and some other localities (please see figures 2.15 and 2.18 for important locations).
(vii) Proposed interventions
- Comprehensive studies and research on rice ecosystems; - Ecologically sound management of rice field habitats; - Efforts for sustainability in agricultural production (pesticide use control); - Land use policy and law development and enforcement; - Limitation on industrial developments and other improper development practices.
B. Modification of flooded forest habitats
Flooded forest is the second most important freshwater habitat after rice fields. It plays a crucial role as life support for a number of people and wildlife species in and around the areas of flooded forest.
Flooded forest in Cambodia can be found abundantly around the Tonle Sap Great Lake and in some other locations along the Mekong River and its associated floodplain lake systems (see the location of flooded forest in figures 2.15 and 2.18 in the previous subsection). The areas of flooded forest, along with the change in area are available from the Cambodia Land Cover Atlas 1994, prepared by the Mekong Secretariat. UNEP SCS/National Report Cambodia Page 47
The characteristics of flooded forest are:
- The creation of a broad belt, 25-60 kilometres wide, around Tonle Sap Lake; - Filtering layers for sediments and silts discharged from upland catchment run-offs; - Feeding, breeding and nursery grounds for fishes and water birds.
(i) Changes in the extent and quality of flooded forest
Cambodia possesses large tracts of freshwater swamp forest, principally in a broad belt around the Great Lake and at certain localities along the lower Mekong and its related tributaries and associated floodplain systems. There have been various interpretations of the extent and quality of flooded forest (or swamp forest) in Cambodia’s freshwater areas.
However, the estimates in 1970 provided the figure for the total area of flooded forest as 680,000 hectares. Recent estimates have suggested that only 564,000 hectares remain (Directory of Asian Wetlands).
However, according to the Mekong Secretariat (from landsite imagery made during 1973- 1993), some slight differences in this regard can be found. Please see table 2.15 in section 2.3.1.1 for the categorized areas, together with the percentage of flooded forest from the total land area of Cambodia.
The Cambodia Land Cover map (figures 2.15, 2.16 and 2.17) in 1973 classified 9,379 square kilometres of flooded forest in the pristine stage and as evergreen. Since then, the traditional practices of local communities have contributed to the misuse or unsustainable utilization of flooded forest, and subsequently, the wildlife as well. These uses are: cutting for firewood and charcoal production, cutting for fishing materials and traps, fishing areas (fishing lots) expansion, clearing for agricultural lands (rice fields and other croplands), burning to catch animals (snakes, turtles, frogs), and burning to get honey. As a result some 5,672 square kilometres of flooded forest of the best quality had been lost by 1993, and only 3,707 square kilometres remain, with 2,596 square kilometres left as relatively bad or in the secondary class. This has clearly revealed the continuing change in the quality of flooded forest and the loss of some 3,076 square kilometres of the total area over 20 years. The trends over the last two decades could be presented as follows:
Table 2.23 Trends in flooded forest extent and quality
Period Extent Total area Percentage of best (in km2) (in km2) quality of Pristine Secondary Flood forest 1973-1976 9,379* - 9,379 100* 1991-1993 3,707* 2,596 6,303 39.5* Over 20 years ( - ) 3,076 or 32.7 per cent
Source: Cambodia Land Cover Atlas, 1994.
Note: ( * ) Estimated as the extent and percentages of flooded forest in the pristine stage (or of best quality) in the periods 1973-1976 and 1992-1993; ( - ) Decrease in area of flooded forest and percentage from the total area of flooded forest in 1992-1993. UNEP SCS/National Report Cambodia Page 48
(ii) Change in species composition
This can be seen when conducting surveys or visiting some important wetland sites, such as the Tonle Sap Great Lake, the Mekong River and floodplain lakes. The people living on and around these areas have traditionally used flooded trees, mainly the tall/big species for energy generation (for cooking, baking and refining energy).
Among the important trees previously mentioned (in section 2.3.1.1), we have observed that some are preferred for the above purposes: Barringtonia acutangula, Homallium brevidans, Hydrocarpus antelmentica and some others. These species have been intensively used and might become scarcer and scarcer.
It seems hard at the moment to seek exact data on the rates for the destruction and the losses of these species in particular, and of the flooded forest of the whole country in general. This is because of the absence of comprehensive studies and research in such areas.
(iii) Conflicting uses
The uses of flooded forest around Tonle Sap Great Lake, as well as in other localities of Cambodia, along with other freshwater habitats throughout the country, are facing increasing conflicts among users. The natural resources and biodiversity, for which the flooded forest is a crucial component, have been used for diverse purposes by different sectors. They have been intensively exploited mainly by the agricultural sector, comprising local farmers and fishermen. The Fishery Department has had a regulating and managing role in the fishery and flooded forest management and development.
The Tonle Sap Great Lake is the most concentrated area and the biggest centre for aquatic flora and fauna, probably the most famous habitat in Cambodia and perhaps in the region because of very abundant and diverse species of flooded forest.
However, the traditional uses by local people, together with the recent management style, have likely aggravated the situation of flooded forest at Tonle Sap Great Lake. These vital habitats have been increasingly affected by ignorant communities and the ambitious practices of fishing lot concessionaires, backed by high ranking officers or the military.
(iv) Causes of habitat change
The main causes for changes in the extent and quality of flooded forest are: · Population growth and food security needs; · Income generation and alternative livelihood / living standard improvement; · Economic developments, mainly enhancement of agricultural production.
These are considered the root causes for habitat/ flooded forest change. The other causes are discussed in much more detail in chapter 4.
(v) Impacts of global change
It is expected that some effects of global change, especially global warming, could influence the natural processes of vegetation growth because of higher air temperatures as well as water shortages, drought and irregular rainfall.
(vi) Economic losses owing to modifications of flooded forest UNEP SCS/National Report Cambodia Page 49
The economic losses from the modification of flooded forest could be of great concern and could reach a remarkable level. But, at present there exist no exact figures for the economic losses. Therefore, the economic valuation of such aquatic habitats is very necessary for our further efforts in this regard.
(vii) Proposed interventions
There have been some national measures and initiatives in terms of sustainable management and conservation of wetland resources and biodiversity, including flooded forest. The most important measures or initiatives taken are: the designation of three multiple-use areas among the 23 sites in the protected areas system of Cambodia (by Royal Decree of 1 November 1993). The location of these sites is given in figure 2.18.
In view of the continuing intensive threats to flooded forest around Tonle Sap Lake and other lakes, additional legal frameworks and tools for the most effective management and sustainable utilization of flooded forest are urgently needed.
The proposed intervention should be focused on: · Law enforcement and policy development; · Strict control on all developments and activities; · Comprehensive systematic studies and research for the management of Tonle Sap as a multiple-use area in a sustainable and ecologically-sound way; · Master plan development and strategy for the flooded forest of Tonle Sap Lake; · Limitation of fishing lots and restriction of size.
2.4.1.2 Lakes, rivers and other water bodies
Lakes and rivers are very important water bodies, providing several goods and services for people and supporting life for a great variety of animals, particularly fish, shellfish, invertebrates, amphibians, cetaceans and many other aquatic organisms.
The major inland lake of Cambodia is the Tonle Sap Great Lake, the biggest lake in Cambodia and probably in the South-East Asian region as well. Cambodia possesses numerous other freshwater lakes throughout the country dependant or associated with the Great Lake and with the Mekong River, the "Mother" for all other water bodies as indicated in its name “Mekong: Water- Mother”.
We would like to consider some important inland lakes, such as Tonle Sap Great Lake and its associated lake Boeng Chhmar, and two others: Boeng Veal Samnap and Boeng Prasat Tayo in Kandal province, and the delta lakes of the Mekong River. Many others have been left out of the discussion as there have been no studies and surveys conducted on them.
A. Tonle Sap Great Lake habitat modification
(i) Characteristics of the Tonle Sap Great Lake · Maximum length: 125 km in the wet season · Minimum length: 250 km in the dry season · Maximum width: 70 km in the wet season · Maximum surface: 13,000 km2 in the wet season UNEP SCS/National Report Cambodia Page 50
· Minimum surface: 3,000 km2 in the dry season · Maximum depth: around 10m in the wet season · Minimum depth: 0.8 m-1.0 m in the dry season · Volumes: 73 billion.m3 · Discharge (annual average): 317 m3 / s · Inflows and outflows following Mekong floods varying with the seasons (with the north- east and south-west monsoons).
(ii) Change of area of lake inundation and species composition This refers to natural change following the hydrological regime, influenced basically by the floods on the Mekong River. In the wet season, the great lake swallows flooding waters from the Mekong through the Tonle Sap River. It reaches its maximum inundated area of about 15,000 square kilometres at peak flooding time. In the dry season the lake area reduces to some 2,500 square kilometres. During that time the lake water flows out, changing direction southwards across the Tonle Sap River to the Mekong River.
(iii) Species diversity in Tonle Sap Lake · Fauna : no exact figures, but it is believed there are a remarkable number of species; · Flora expected in a remarkable amount; · Fishes, evaluated at 850 species by most international experts, but only some 215 species have been so far identified, more than half remain unnamed; · Other living aquatic resources : invertebrates, mammals, crustacean, and amphibian; · Micro organisms: plankton (phytoplanktons zooplanktons); · Other organisms remain unknown.
(iv) Conflicting use of areas The conflicting uses of Tonle Sap Great Lake and other lakes in the different sectors are as follows: · Agriculture: rice and some other crops; · Fishery production by fishing lot concessions, subsistence (family fishing); · Transport; · Natural conservation/protected areas. (v) Impacts of global change The life cycle of lake biodiversity could be affected by global warming (for example, this can disturb the natural growing processes of plants and fishes) and the irregular weather (higher temperature, poorer rainfall). Drought could be caused, making the lake water warmer, and so creating difficult conditions for all life in the lake. (vi) Economic losses owing to habitat modification A systematic economic valuation of flooded forest, aquatic plants, fishes and water birds, and other products and services, provided by the lakes in the past and at present is needed. As this has not yet been done, precise figures on economic losses because of habitat modification are not available. However, the lakes are extremely valuable assets for humans and biodiversity. (vii) Major impacted areas UNEP SCS/National Report Cambodia Page 51
The major areas of impact are the Tonle Sap Great Lake and many others in Cambodia. These lakes have been seriously impacted over recent years by agricultural production practices, the fast growing population and development.
(viii) Proposed interventions
Lakes, particularly the Tonle Sap Great Lake, have been and might be very important subjects for exploitation as well as for management and conservation.
The interventions should concentrate on: · Strict controls and monitoring on all developments and activities on the lakes; · Limitation of fishing lots and reduction of size; · Law enforcement; · Ecologically-sound management, conservation and development; · Capacity-building for responsible staff; · Financial support for the Tonle Sap multiple-use area management plan.
B. River habitat modification
Cambodia has a very abundant system of rivers and waterways that are important in many ways, socially, economically and ecologically. The most important rivers are the Mekong River and its two main tributaries, the Tonle Sap and Bassac Rivers, and many other tributaries.
Tonle Sap River itself has a huge catchment area which plays a very important role in Cambodian social, economic and environmental development.
The Mekong River in Cambodia flows for a distance of 486 kilometres from the northern border with the Lao People’s Democratic Republic, southwards to the South China Sea, and finally crossing the Vietnamese delta. It is extremely significant in terms of human and wildlife support. It is classified among the world's longest rivers (ranked twelfth in terms of length and twenty-first in terms of annual mean discharge).
(i) Change in areas of rivers
It is hard to know the surfaces of all rivers throughout Cambodia. What is possible, is that we can check their lengths and catchment areas:
· Length of Mekong River in Cambodia: 486 kilometres; · Catchment area for the Mekong River in Cambodia: 155,000 square kilometres (18 per cent from total Mekong River basin and 86 per cent from Cambodia's land); · Average discharge: 15,000 m3 /s.
Changes in the area of the Mekong River and other rivers throughout the country are not known because of an absence of studies and research.
(ii) Habitat losses on the rivers
There has been long-lasting, traditional destruction of forest resources along rivers and on their floodplains and watersheds causing much damage to biodiversity and reducing benefits to the people. UNEP SCS/National Report Cambodia Page 52
(iii) Conflicting uses of rivers Conflicting uses are as follows: · Water supply for agriculture, domestic needs, industrial and other processes; · Fishing; · Transport, navigation; · Conservation, water management; · Settlement / floating houses; · Tourism; · Nature conservation (Ramsar site). (iv) Causes of habitat change
The main causes are: · Firewood and charcoal collection; · Illegal logging / deforestation; · Inappropriate fishing practices; · Improper forest investments and concessions; · Low capacity and expertise among government staff; · No control and monitoring. (v) Impacts of global change It is expected that global warming will cause some changes in climatic patterns, such as temperature and rainfall, that will impose difficult conditions for the health and growing processes of people, animals and plants. As the river waters become warmer, life will become more difficult for the fish. (vi) Economic losses owing to habitat modification Quantifying the habitats of all rivers is difficult and estimating economic losses from habitat modification is no simple thing. This work requires expertise and financial resources for inventory, assessment and research.
(vii) Major impacted areas · Mekong River and its tributaries and on associated floodplain systems; · Tonle Sap River and its tributaries; · Tonle Bassac and its tributaries; · Coastal watersheds. (viii) Proposed interventions
The following interventions have been proposed:
· Comprehensive studies and research on river ecosystems; · Economic valuation of rivers and habitats modification; · Strict control and ban on deforestation in river catchment areas; · A ban on destructive fishing practices that damage river habitats; · Capacity-building for effective and successful management, controls and research; · Application of EIA for mainstream developments, particularly hydropower; · Rational and sustainable use of the water resources of rivers; · Campaign for public awareness enhancement on wise-use and sustainable management of habitats. UNEP SCS/National Report Cambodia Page 53
2.4.2 Marine and coastal habitats For this, we would like to include:
· Estuaries and embayments; · Coral reefs; · Mangroves; · Seagrass beds. 2.4.2.1 Estuaries and embayments There is little information on estuaries and embayments because of a lack of studies and research. However, problems with coastal habitats have to be addressed and considered. Because of the absence of available information, the change in areas and species composition of estuaries and embayment is very little known. It is expected that changes have occurred.
(i) Conflicting uses of areas · Settlement and urbanization; · Fishing (intensive and destructive ) practices; · Collection of firewood and charcoal production; · Transportation and navigation; · Industrialization; · Nature conservation; · Others developments: tourism and recreation. (ii) Causes of habitat change
· Poverty of local people, growing numbers of fishermen; · Generation of income for living standard improvement, growing survival needs; · Improper management and development, and misuse of habitats; · No strict controls and monitoring; · Low capacity and lack of experience and skills among staff; · Lack of policy and law, no law enforcement; · Inappropriate land use / land encroachment.
(iii) Impacts of global change
Global warming could have some effects such as: · Sea level rise (remaining uncertain at the moment); · Temperature of waters becoming higher; · Difficult conditions for residents in and around the area / health problems and diseases.
(iv) Economic losses owing to habitat modification
Owing to a lack of systematic valuation, the exact figures on economic losses caused by habitat modification remain unavailable. The economic losses could be remarkable. These might be one of the important concerns to be further considered and dealt with. UNEP SCS/National Report Cambodia Page 54
(v) Major impacted areas The following areas should be considered: · Prek Kompong Bay estuary, in Kampot province; · Prek Kompong Smach, in Kampot; · Kep Bay- in Kampot; · Prek Toek Sap estuary, in Sihanouk Ville; · Kompong Saom bay, in Koh Kong province; · Koh Kong bay, in Koh Kong province; · Prek Koh Poa and Stung Kep estuaries in Koh Kong. (vi) Proposed interventions · Strict controls on illegal and destructive fishing practices and development; · Enhancement of understanding and awareness of local people on wise-use concepts and sustainable management of marine habitats; · Capacity-building for staff on inventory, assessment techniques, comprehensive research; · Appropriate land-use promotion, mapping and zoning; · Policy and law formulation and enforcement; · Management plan and strategy setting for estuaries, embayments and other marine habitats. 2.4.2.2 Coral reefs Coral reefs are vital marine and coastal habitats, but very little is known about such ecosystems because of a lack of research. (i) Change in areas and species composition The sites of coral reefs are not completely identified. But based on some short surveys by responsible staff, coral reefs have been observed to occur in many localities in Cambodian coastal waters, generally around the inshore islands and on some rocky beds. The areas of coral reefs have not been identified yet, but the species composition has been preliminarily identified and is presented in table 2.24. Table 2.24 Hard coral reef species identified in the exclusive economic zone of Cambodia
No Species name No Species name 1 Posillopora cydouxi 13 A. danai 2 P. verrucosa 14 A. digitifera 3 Seriatoposa lystrix 15 A. echinata 4 Montipora confusa 16 A. formosa 5 M. danae 17 A. grandis 6 M. digitata 18 A. horrida 7 M. stellata 19 A. nobilis 8 Anacropora forbesi 20 A. palifera 9 A. puertogalerae 21 Acropora specie 10 Acropora cerealis 22 Porites nigrescens 11 A. elseyi 23 Alveopora specie 12 A. humilis 24 Coeloseris mayeri Source: Coastal Zone Management, Ministry of Environment, 1997. UNEP SCS/National Report Cambodia Page 55
Soft coral and sea fans Identification of these resources has been made through fishermen interviews and available samples during the study period. The species composition of the coral reefs is presented in table 2.25. Table 2.25 Soft coral reef species identified in the exclusive economic zone of Cambodia
No Species name No Species name
1 Soft coral (Lobophyton sp.) 8 Gorgonian fan (Melithaeidae) 2 Soft coral (Sarcophyton sp.) 9 Gorgonian fan (Plumigorgiaschuboti) 3 Soft coral (Sinularia sp.) 10 Soft coral (Dendronepgthya sp.) 4 Gorgonian fan (Subergorgia molis) 11 Soft coral (Euplexaura sp.) 5 Sea fan (Solenocaulon sp.) 12 Sea fan (Paracis sp.) 6 Red whip coral (Ctenocella) 13 Sea fan (Plexauridae) 7 Red whip coral (Ellisella sp.) 14 Yellow whip coral (Ellisalla sp.)
Source: Coastal Zone Management, Ministry of Environment, 1997.
(ii) Conflicting uses of areas · Coral mining for exportation; · Fishing (dynamite); · Coastal development and urbanization; · Transportation and navigation; · Tourism / recreation; · Nature conservation and research. (ii) Causes of habitat change · Population, poverty, income generation; · Illegal and destructive practices in fishing (for example, dynamite fishing); · Inappropriate development and investment; · Lack of awareness of local people on the importance and benefits of coral reefs; · No policy and law, lack of law enforcement. Impacts of global change · Slow natural growing process because of possibly difficult conditions imposed by increased water temperature and changed tidal patterns; · Rising sea level (possible but uncertain level); · Irregular climatic regime, modified rainfall. (v) Economic losses owing to habitat modification This is not available because no studies or research has been specifically carried out yet. (vi) Major impacted areas · Around islands, in the coastal waters; · Reefs flats, rocky shores / inshore areas; · Some localities (unknown in subtidal areas) generally in the coastal zone: Kampot, Sihanouk Ville and Koh Kong. UNEP SCS/National Report Cambodia Page 56
(vii) Proposed interventions As in section 2.4.2.1 for estuaries and embayments. 2.4.2.3 Mangroves Mangroves are crucial habitats in the intertidal areas along the Cambodian coastline. They can be found in the estuaries, along the muddy seashore and on the swamps and river systems and some coastal areas. (i) Change in areas and species composition The comparison of mangrove areas could be presented as below in table 2.26. According to table 2.26, we can see an increase of 10,200 hectares of mangroves over 20 years, distributed as 4,100 hectares in Kampot province and 6,100 hectares in Sihanouk Ville. However, there is a considerably decreased area of 19,700 hectares in Koh Kong province. This makes a total decrease in mangrove area of 9,400 hectares. Table 2.26 Mangroves in Cambodia
Period Area in coastal provinces ( ha ) Total area ( ha ) Kampot Sihanouk Ville Koh Kong 1973 -1976 3,800 7,400 83,400 94,500 1992 - 1993 7,900 13,500 63,700 85,100 Trend over (+) 4,100 (+) 6,100 20 years (+) 10,200 (-) 19,700 (-) 9,500 Source : Cambodia Land Cover Atlas, 1994, prepared by the Mekong Secretariat. Note: (+) increase, (-) decrease
It seems there is no clear reason for the increase and decrease of mangrove area in Cambodia over the last 20 years. (ii) Conflicting uses of areas Mangroves have been intensively used by diverse sectors, for different purposes: · Firewood and charcoal production; · Fishing and construction materials; · Intensive shrimp farming; · Salt production; · Conservation of habitats, education and research. (iii) Causes of habitat change The change in mangrove habitat is observed from: · Growing survival needs (of local poor people); · Misuse and unsustainable practices; · Low understanding and awareness of local people on the importance and benefit of mangroves; · Low capacity among responsible staff; · Lack of funds for research, controls and monitoring; · Inappropriate developments: aquaculture, salt production; · Illegal trade / exportation. UNEP SCS/National Report Cambodia Page 57
(iv) Impacts of global change The main impacts expected from global warming are higher temperatures in the coastal zone making the water warmer. Mangroves can be affected by smaller and irregular rainfall, as an additional effect, and by some changes in hydrographic patterns (tides, current, waves and water level). But these impacts are relatively small when compared with human impacts.
(v) Economic losses owing to habitat modification The modification of mangrove habitat has resulted in remarkable economic losses. But, as no study has been carried out, the precise amount is not known.
(vi) Major impacted areas The major areas of impact are: mangrove swamp systems in Koh Kong province, and the mangroves in estuaries and river systems in Sihanouk Ville and Kampot Province. Mangroves in Koh Kong are the most degraded.
(vii) Proposed interventions The proposed interventions should concentrate on:
· Strict controls and banning of illegal and destructive activities and development such as: - Illegal export of charcoals; - Improper shrimp culture; - Excessive salt production; - Collection for firewood and charcoal production; - Fishing and housing material from mangroves. · Capacity-building for responsible staff; · Surveys and research for mangrove conservation; · Public awareness enhancement; · Formulation of policy, law, regulations and guidelines.
2.4.2.4 Seagrass beds Seagrasses are one of the vital habitats in the shallow coastal waters. They are very important for many fish, invertebrates and other marine organisms. There has been a problem with seagrasses as they have become increasingly threatened in recent years. (i) Change in areas and species composition The change in area of seagrass beds, together with species composition, is not well known because of a lack of comprehensive systematic research. However, seagrasses can be found in most shallow waters in the coastal zone, namely in Kampot province, Sihanouk Ville and Koh Kong province. Kampot province has been seen as the most concentrated area in terms of diverse seagrasses species, while Koh Kong is an important point for at least one endemic species. Based on some small surveys conducted recently, there are many localities in Kampot and some in Sihanouk Ville and Koh Kong that are important seagrass habitats, but the change in areas of seagrass beds or the composition of seagrass species can be not ascertained as they have not been studied and researched comprehensively. UNEP SCS/National Report Cambodia Page 58
(ii) Seagrasses species
Important species of seagrasses identified from some short surveys are: · Enhalus acoroides (dominant species); · Cymodocea seradata ; · Syringodium isoctifolium; · Halodule pinifolia .
It is expected that there are 11-12 species of seagrasses in Cambodian coastal waters. At present, few species can be identified.
(iii) Conflicting uses of areas
· Fishing (by destructive gear, push nets, trawl nets); · Transport; · Conservation of species, education, research, reserves for endangered mammals.
(iv) Causes of habitat change
· Misuse, unsustainable management, (for example, fishing by push-nets, trawling, very intensive fishing activities); · Intensive transport (waterborne) and navigation, making strong waves.
(v) Impacts of global change
This will be the same as for coral reefs (please refer to section 2.4.2.2).
(vi) Economic losses owing to habitat modification
As little is known about seagrass habitat, and no estimates on economic losses can be made, it is impossible to go into detail.
(vi) Major impacted areas
· Kep bay in Kampot province; · Estuary of Perk Kampong bay and adjacent areas (in Kampot province); · Kampong Saom bay (Koh Kong); · Koh Kong bay (Koh Kong).
(vii) Proposed interventions
· Comprehensive studies and research on seagrasses; · Strict controls on destructive fishing practices; · Capacity-building for seagrass management; · Formulation of policy and law, regulations and guidelines for seagrass conservation; · Public awareness enhancement on seagrass benefits; · Promotion of community involvement. UNEP SCS/National Report Cambodia Page 59
3. ANALYSIS OF SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC COSTS OF THE IDENTIFIED WATER- RELATED PRINCIPAL ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES
3.1 WATER RESOURCES
Social costs relating to poor health and reduced fish production may eventually lead to the marginalization of the poor in Cambodia, particularly in the coastal area. Health costs from diseases, such as diarrhoea, caused by the ingestion of poor quality water affected by pollutants have not been fully studied.
In the meantime, the freshwater shortage is one of the impacts on the social costs and health of the people. While precise, comprehensive data on access to water supply are not available, it is estimated that only some 3.2 million people (32 per cent of the population) have access to clean drinking water, about 65 per cent of the urban population (mostly in Phnom Penh) and 26 per cent of the rural population. This bleak situation implies that a total of about 6.9 million people do not currently have access to clean water, some 6.4 million of them in the rural areas. Moreover, coverage by province varies widely, from 5-6 per cent in Koh Kong and Kompong Thom, for example, to 41- 42 per cent in Pursat and Kandal. The expected population growth over the next five years implies that potable water facilities will need to be provided for an additional 1.5 million people before the 6.9 figure can be reduced.
Likewise, precise comprehensive data on the provision of environmental sanitation are not available. Access to it is even more limited than to clean water, with only an estimated 1.6 million people (16 per cent of the population) having such access: about 74 per cent of the urban population (again mostly in Phnom Penh) and 6 per cent of the rural population. In total, there are over 8.5 million people without access to environmental sanitation, roughly 8.2 million of them living in the rural areas.
(a) Phnom Penh water supply and sanitation
The Government's long-term objective for Phnom Penh City is that the Phnom Penh Water Supply Authority (PPWSA) should become a self-sustaining financial entity which will supply water meeting WHO (World Health Organization) drinking water standards to the population at an affordable rate, as shown in table 3.1. Plans and targets set by the PPWSA for water supplies to Phnom Penh City during the plan period 1996-2000 are to:
· Rehabilitate the existing water supply system, which should provide an adequate supply of potable water for about 640,000 people in the urban core of Phnom Penh as a first step;
· Increase the supply of potable water to some 220,000 m3 /day (sufficient for a population of 916,000 ) in the urban core of Phnom Penh;
· Develop internal and external ongoing training with the goal of transferring technical and administrative and operational skills to the personnel of the PPWSA and the operators of the treatment and distribution systems to improve the efficiency of operation and maintenance;
· Coordinate with the external community in the development of plans, studies, projects and financing to avoid unnecessary duplication of efforts and wastage of time and resources;
· Work with the external community to obtain and develop the resources necessary to rehabilitate and extend the water supply systems until such time as the PPWSA is able to sustain future development and maintenance of the system. UNEP SCS/National Report Cambodia Page 60
Table 3.1 Phnom Penh water supply investment requirements, 1996-2000 (US$000)
Item 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 Total Rehabilitation ------Water treatment 12,200 13,900 - - - 26,100 Distribution 2,250 2,300 550 - - 5,100 Extension ------Water treatment 7,000 14,350 7,350 - - 28,700 Distribution 1,000 9,000 4,000 4,000 2,000 20,000 Training 1,650 1,650 - - - 3,300 Total 24,100 41,200 11,900 4,000 2,000 83,200
Source: First socio-economic development plan, 1996-2000.
The Government's long-term objectives for Phnom Penh's sanitation is the creation of a sanitary city through the provision of sanitation and drainage systems which will:
(a) Collect sewage from all areas of the city; (b) Provide primary and secondary treatment to all sewage prior to discharge into the environment; (c) Collect surface run-off from low-lying areas; (d) Provide primary treatment to surface run-off prior to discharge into the environment; (e) Be affordable to the city and based on a means of charging to be determined (possibly revolving around property tax or a surcharge on water bills). The aim of the municipality of Phnom Penh for the sanitation and drainage subsector is to reduce flooding in the low-lying parts of the city and to increase the retention time in the drainage basins. The installation of 12 new pumping units is planned together with their associated civil engineering works. Included in the scheme is the dressing of Boeng Trabek retention basin and other rehabilitation work. This would cost an estimated US$ 12.4 million over the plan period, as presented in table 3.2. In addition, a study currently being implemented has a component to identify sewerage schemes that would benefit areas inhabited by the urban poor.
Table 3.2 Phnom Penh sanitation/drainage investment requirements, 1996-2000 (US$000)
ITEM 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 Total
Rehabilitation/extensions ------Sewers / drains 2,829 2,833 1,897 - - 7,559 Pumps / treatment 3,471 567 803 - - 4,841 Total 6,300 3,400 2,700 - - 12,400
Source : First socio-economic development plan, 1996-2000. (b) Rural water supply UNEP SCS/National Report Cambodia Page 61
The Ministry of Rural Development (MRD) is responsible for rural water and sanitation, with the Ministry of Health (MoH ) responsible for health education. Some 6.4 million rural people have no access to clean water and only 500,000 of them have access to environmental sanitation facilities. In order that human development can occur in Cambodia, a substantial improvement will be required in these basic services.
The Socio-economic Survey, 1993-94 indicates that nearly two thirds of rural households derive water from dug wells, while about one third obtain it from surface water. Moreover, as already noted, carrying water over long distances leads to considerable negative externalities for social and economic development, and the poor quality of available supplies has major health implications. An estimate of investment requirements for provincial water supply for the year 2000 is shown in table 3.3.
Table 3.3 Provincial water supply investment requirements, 1996-2000 (US$000)
Town 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 Total Siem Reap 600 700 700 - - 2,000 Sihanouk Ville 2,000 700 - - - 27,00 Takhmao 100 - - - - 100 Svay Rieng 100 - - - - 100 Prey Veng 100 - - - - 100 Kompot - - - - - 100 Kompong Cham - - - - - 100 Kompong Speu 400 800 800 - - 2,000 Kompong Thom 200 500 500 - - 12,00 Takeo - 1,000 1,500 1,500 - 4,000 Extend Kompong Cham 1,000 1,500 1,000 - - 35,00 Kep - - - 1,000 500 1,500 Sisophon - - - 1,500 1,500 3,000 Kompong Chhang - - - 2,500 2,500 5,000
Total 4,700 5,200 4,500 6,500 4,500 25,400
Source: First socio-economic development plan, 1996-2000.
The Government is committed to achieving universal coverage of access to environmental sanitation by the entire rural population in the foreseeable future.
Over 8.2 million people in rural areas would benefit from access to environmental sanitation between 1996 and 2000. Even with a combination of the most cost-effective technologies, universal coverage in environmental sanitation would cost an estimated US$ 42.5 million in capital expenditure over the next five years. Resources of this magnitude are unlikely to be available, and the country's human and institutional capacity is insufficient to successfully implement an investment programme of this scale.
The broad magnitude of the costs of providing a safe water supply to 60 per cent of the rural population by the year 2000 is shown in table 3.4. UNEP SCS/National Report Cambodia Page 62
Table 3.4 Rural water supply investment requirements, 1996-2000 (US$000)
Technology 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 Total Hand-dug well 900 900 1,050 1,050 1,050 4,950 Dug / drilled well 1,182 1,125 1,310 1,310 1,310 6,187 Hand pump shallow well 1,688 2,250 2,250 2,250 2,250 10,688 Hand pump deep well 1,330 1,425 2,090 2,090 2,090 9,025 Total 5,100 5,700 6,700 6,700 6,700 30,900
Source: First socio-economic development plan, 1996-2000.
3.2 FRESHWATER LIVING RESOURCES
Freshwater living resources are very important for Cambodia in terms of socio-economic and environmental development. However, the loss of freshwater living resources has caused great concern to people and serious socio-economic and environmental problems. The lack of a lowland policy has been instrumental in this decline.
3.3 MARINE LIVING AQUATIC RESOURCES
Marine living resources are the second most important issue after freshwater living resources. Because of a lack of law enforcement and policy together with the continuing over-exploitation of marine living resources, serious social and economic costs have to be faced.
The encroachment of foreign fishermen is another factor causing the decline of marine fish stock because of their destructive practices, such as the use of large-scale vessels equipped with modern fishing gear - push-nets, purse-seine and trawl nets. Dynamite fishing is one of the illegal fishing activities.
3.4 AQUATIC HABITATS
The aquatic habitats, both freshwater and marine, have been dramatically lost because of improper activities. The traditional cutting for firewood and charcoal by local people causes serious degradation and loss of aquatic habitats, mainly flooded forest and mangroves that are vital feeding and nursery grounds for many species of fishes, reptiles and waterbirds. Unfortunately, there has been no study project or research on this loss that could be used for the socio-economic valuation.
3.4.1 Economic loss owing the reduction in habitats
The loss of flooded forest area is caused by various illegal and destructive practices, especially in agricultural sectors such as conversion to rice fields (recession) and other croplands, and the expansion of fishing lots. Collection for firewood is another increasing cause for this loss.
There has also been continuous collection of some aquatic plants and weeds as vegetables that are traditionally preferred by most Cambodian people. These include various species, but especially the white and red lotus young roots ( locally called Kra-Ao Chhuk ), water hyacine flowers (Slab Changvar, Kandieng and Chrach ), and morning glory, (Kanh Chhet). UNEP SCS/National Report Cambodia Page 63
The mangroves in the coastal areas of Cambodia have been lost continuously and increasingly because of many practices, which are significant factors in habitat loss. These include the clearance for intensive shrimp farming, charcoal production, and settlement and urban area expansion. Coral reefs and seagrass beds are additional coastal habitats that have been dramatically lost, for almost the same reasons. Unfortunately, an economic valuation of habitat loss has not been made.
3.4.2 Destructive exploitation of the aquatic resources of wetlands The exploitation of the aquatic resources of wetlands has been increasingly practised by local communities. All activities, whether for income generation, alternative livelihood, or improved living standards, are becoming more destructive rather than useful or protective of wetland aquatic habitats. Over-fishing, along with other practices such as dynamite fishing, the use of electric shocks, and the use of very small mesh-nets, cause, to a large extent, increased by-catches which are reportedly used for feeding cultured fishes (Panganius species and giant snake-head fishes). All of these factors have caused a dramatic decline in fish stock, which has led to socio- economic losses. Apart from fishing, some other destructive practices have occurred to the reptiles, especially snakes (pythons for example), turtles and frogs. Sometimes flooded forest has been burned in order to catch turtles and frogs. Some practices in agricultural production (clearing flooded forest for receding rice and other crop harvesting, and expansion of fishing lots) could be additional factors, causing the loss of shelters, and feeding and nursery grounds for many species of fish, shellfish, invertebrates and reptiles. The loss of these extremely valuable living resources has led to an insufficient nutritional regime for the Cambodian people. The current estimates suggest a decline in fish stock of over 50 per cent. Thus, the loss of habitats and aquatic living resources, particularly fishes, must be given high priority and effective measures for their wise use and sustainable management must be properly and urgently undertaken.
4. ANALYSIS OF THE ROOT CAUSES OF THE IDENTIFIED WATER-RELATED ISSUES 4.1 ROOT CAUSES OF POLLUTION At present, the status of water pollution is at a moderate level in Cambodia if compared with other countries. However, the trend of this pollution has increased from year to year because of a lack of management policies, pollution source control, law and law enforcement, and finance. The root causes of water pollution in Cambodia are as follows:
(a) Sewage: Sewage and wastewater management in Phnom Penh and other large municipalities is extremely poor. Almost all cities and towns are located close to surface water sources or the coastal area. Sewage and other wastewater has been discharged directly into public water without any treatment, except in Phnom Penh city where about 75 per cent of the total sewage and other wastewater is discharged through reservoirs as natural treatment and than into the Tonle Sap River. There has only been one wastewater treatment facility in Battambang province (waste stabilization pond model), but now it out of use because of financial and technical problems. Moreover, the law and other regulations related to the wastewater control and effluent standards are still in the drafting stage. UNEP SCS/National Report Cambodia Page 64
(b) Solid waste: Most of the urban areas, such as Phnom Penh City, Battambang, Kompong Cham, Kondal, and the coastal provinces already have very significant waste disposal problems which can be expected to worsen as the population increases and the industrial sector grows. Management of solid waste is on the whole poorly managed and piles of rubbish in open spaces are common. These contribute to unsanitary conditions through the blockage of drains, water pollution, scavenging, and rodent and insect breeding.
In general, solid waste management is very poor in Cambodia. About 60 per cent of daily solid waste generated in most urban centres is collected and disposed in open burned dumpsites without sanitary or leaked-water protected facilities. Uncollected solid waste is burnt or directly dumped in public water areas.
The insufficient coverage of solid waste collection, inadequate management and uncontrolled disposal contribute to the problem of water pollution in Cambodia. The problem is compounded by inadequate financial support, lack of planning for management, and shortfalls in public awareness and education.
(c) Sedimentation: The intensive deforestation, poor agricultural practices, and gemstone mining are the major root causes of soil erosion which has led to heavy sedimentation in the central low-lying land, especially in Tonle Sap lake, rivers and coastal areas. Natural soil erosion and surface run-off are the second major sources of sedimentation in Cambodia.
The sedimentation of Tonle Sap Lake and some estuaries of the coastal delta has increased dramatically in the last two decades. However this conclusion is the result of a visual survey, not a scientific study.
Currently, the implementation of the government regulation banning illegal logging activities is still weak because of an inadequate and inefficient management. Other measures of preventing soil erosion have not yet been set up in Cambodia owing to lack of capacity and financial constraints.
(d) Agricultural waste:
· Chemical fertilizer and pesticide residues: The use of these substances for agricultural purposes has increased. The upward trend of indiscriminate use of these substances can cause water pollution problems as residues of these compounds are carried by surface run-off from cultivated areas to water bodies.
However, information on the area of use and the type and amount of these substances is not available because there has been no research or study of these issues in Cambodia.
· Shrimp farm waste: Toxic waste from shrimp farm aquaculture in Koh Kong province is discharged directly into the estuaries of the coastal area without treatment at all. It is believed that the shrimp farm waste has caused the water quality of coastal areas to decline, but there has been no project study of this problem.
4.2 ROOT CAUSES OF SURFACE WATER SHORTAGES AND QUALITY DEGRADATION
In Cambodia, surface water is a very important resource because it gives life support to the people, to all other living resources and to economic development. Multiple use has caused surface water shortages and quality degradation in some areas of the country. UNEP SCS/National Report Cambodia Page 65
· Surface water shortages: For several years the problem of surface water shortage has often happened in some locations situated far from the major water bodies or sources. These areas are southern Kompong Chhnang, Takeo, Kompong Speu, Prey Veng, Svay Rieng and eastern Kampot provinces.
The root causes of the shortage are: (a) Large population / populated areas; (b) Temporary scarce rainfall; (c) Financial constraints; (d) Fast growing economic development; (e) Lack of irrigation and water storage systems.
The intermediate causes are as follows: (a) Increasing need for water supply and agricultural irrigation; (b) Lack of appropriate water management policies; (c) Intensive deforestation.
· Surface water quality degradation: The degradation of surface water quality is primarily caused by the direct discharge of sewage and other wastewater from factories and hospitals into public water areas without treatment. The second cause of surface water contamination is the disposal of solid waste into water bodies and insufficient sanitary dumpsites for urban and municipal waste disposal.
According to the results of a surface water quality analysis made by the Mekong River Commission, the low quality of surface water (low dissolved oxygen, down to 1 mg/l) has taken place in some segments of the Tonle Sap River, upstream of the Bassac River, and in some parts of Stung Sanker, Stung Siem Reap and Tonle Sap Lake. Unfortunately, the information or data on surface water pollution caused by heavy metals, pesticides, PCBs and other chemical compounds are not available because the surface water analysis of these substances has not been measured yet because of lack of capacity.
The root causes of surface water quality decline are as follows: (a) Rapid population growth / populated areas: This causes the degradation and pollution of surface water by excessive and uncontrolled sewage discharge and solid waste disposal; (b) Lack of funds for the clean-up programme, treatment plants and other facilities; (c) Lack of expertise among responsible staff at all levels; (d) Lack of regulations regarding waste management and effluent standards for all kind of water pollution sources; (e) Lack of understanding and public awareness about the impacts of water pollution caused by careless waste disposal and sewage discharge into the water bodies.
4.3 ROOT CAUSE OF GROUNDWATER SHORTAGES AND QUALITY DEGRADATION
· Groundwater shortages: In Cambodia, the use of groundwater is still on a small scale for rural and urban domestic supplies and occurs mostly in the dry season. According to the report of a drilling programme made by UNICEF, groundwater shortage has taken place in a few areas of the country such as the central part of the country between Battambang and Pursat provinces, north- western Kompong Speu and northern Kompong Thom provinces. The root cause of the shortage is a natural feature of these areas where the groundwater aquifers are covered by hard stone and too deep for exploitation. UNEP SCS/National Report Cambodia Page 66
· Groundwater quality degradation: There is no data on the quality of groundwater in Cambodia. However, the UNICEF drilling programme showed that high iron concentration and increased salinity levels have been encountered in some provinces such as Takeo, Svay Rieng, Prey Veng, Kandal, Banteay Meanchey, Battambang, Kompong Speu, and the three coastal provinces. The root cause of the low groundwater quality results from the natural features of these areas. Groundwater quality monitoring for the whole country is needed in order to conduct a scientific analysis, which could then be used to formulate policy guidelines for groundwater management.
4.4 ROOT CAUSES OF FISH STOCK DECLINE
In recent years Cambodia has faced a serious problem of fish stock decline in all major fishing areas, both freshwater and marine and coastal waters.
The root causes of the fishing decline include: (a) Population growth; (b) Poverty; (c) Survival needs/ income generation; (d) Fund shortages; (e) Lack of capacity/ expertise; (f) Foreign investment and encroachment.
It is necessary to know much more about the detailed effects and influences of these factors.
· Population growth can result in growing threats to the natural resources (fish, in our case) in various aspects, such as: disturbance, over-fishing, pollution and degradation. A great number of fishermen, with different types fishing boats and fishing gear, have been competing through the use of illegal activities and destructive practices.
· The poverty of the local people could be another root cause of fish stock decline. All people strive to avoid poverty, trying to find a job to earn money. Fishing is a very important activity for Cambodian people, after crop harvesting. This can also lead to over-fishing and result in fish stock decline.
· Survival needs or income generation are important root causes of fish stock decline for the majority of rural people are generally poor. As their primary needs are for survival, efforts to generate income from different sources are of the first priority. Subsequently, the need for food security (fish food) is becoming excessive and leads to over-fishing.
· Fund shortages are another constraint on the wise use or sustainable management of fishery resources. Effective measures to control illegal and destructive fishing practices or inappropriate development are limited by lack of funds.
· Lack of capacity or expertise: There is an urgent need to improve human resources to enable effective and successful planning, surveys and research on fishing resources, solutions for the sustainable development and conservation of such vital resources. At present fish stock declines occur partly because of the low capacity of responsible staff.
· Foreign investment and encroachment are additional root causes for fish stock decline in Cambodia. Foreign investment has encouraged excessive catch and increased by-catch on the site (mainly in offshore areas), but almost all of the catch has been for export and not for in-country consumption. In addition, the fish food supply in the country has faced harmful activities from foreign fishermen. UNEP SCS/National Report Cambodia Page 67
The intensive shrimp culture in Koh Kong province has been practised by Thai businessmen. But the yields from farmed shrimps have reportedly declined from year to year, and the natural shrimp in the adjacent areas have become scarce. Pollution from shrimp farms is often discharged directly into coastal waters. This causes a scarcity of marine fish stock.
Some negative effects are expected to come from the fish culture in many localities on and around the freshwater wetland areas of Cambodia.
Both coastal and inland aquaculture contribute to unsustainable development and they have to be dealt with.
4.5 ROOT CAUSES OF HABITAT LOSS
A. Flooded forest losses
Flooded forest has been dramatically degraded and lost as the result of destructive practices and factors. The root causes of this habitat loss are as follows:
(a) Population growth; (b) Poverty; (c) Financial constraints; (d) Lack of law enforcement; (e) Lack of capacity; (f) Low awareness of the local people.
Population growth is one of the problems which has various consequences. Because of higher population density on the central plain, including the Tonle Sap areas and the lower Mekong flood plains, the disturbance, encroachment and degradation of aquatic habitats has intensified over recent years.
Population growth can result in increases in many needs, particularly food security. Most people are farmers so they need more agricultural land to increase crop production, mainly rice. As a result, some 3,076 square kilometres of flooded forest have been lost between 1973 and 1993, while rice fields have increased from 25,210 square kilometres in 1973 to 26,097 square kilometres in 1993. The destruction of flooded forest has continued and even intensified. A large amount is cut and cleared every year for conversion to rice fields and other cropland.
The poverty of local people is seen as one of the important causes for flooded forest losses at Tonle Sap Lake and other localities. Poverty causes people to seek other means of income generation, to strive to improve their living standards, and to expand fishing areas. All of these factors cause the continuous loss of flooded forest habitat.
Financial constraints contribute to the loss of flooded forest habitat because the management, control and conservation of areas becomes impossible without funding. Plans and activities in such areas have often been delayed or even cancelled because of fund shortages.
Lack of law enforcement has been considered a root cause of habitat loss. It has allowed illegal and destructive activities to take place at an unprecedented speed. Since there is no respect for the laws and regulations, over-exploitation has become irresistible in the whole Tonle Sap area. As the result, some flooded forest area has been lost. UNEP SCS/National Report Cambodia Page 68
Lack of capacity, especially among responsible staff, is also a factor contributing to inefficiency and eventual failure in strategic planning and management of the freshwater wetlands.
Low awareness and inadequate understanding on the part of the local people in particular, and of the public in general, about the importance and benefits of sustainable development is another root cause of degradation. This has been reflected in the fact that people perform destructive activities without thinking of the negative consequences because they are unfamiliar with the new concepts of sustainability. Therefore, the destruction of flooded forest continues apace.
B. Mangrove losses
The following are considered the root causes of mangrove loss:
(a) Population growth; (b) Poverty of the local people; (c) Financial constraints; (d) Lack of policy and law, no enforcement; (e) Lack of understanding and awareness; (f) Abuse and encroachment by foreigners; (g) Lack of capacity.
Population growth in the country from year to year creates complicated problems that are difficult to resolve. Increasing needs for food and other requirements, such as the generation of bigger incomes, and the improvement and expansion of settlement and croplands, become competing problems leading to the exploitation of mangroves. Step by step, coastal habitats have been lost because of these causes.
The poverty of the local people is among the root causes aggravating the state of mangrove management and conservation. This is reflected in some activities of the people as they look for a job and attempt to supplement the family income. Such activities seriously affect the natural resources. Because they are poor, they cannot buy modern materials or instruments for use (for example, electricity or gas for cooking). Their houses are constructed on water near the mangroves and partly from mangrove trees.
So this habitat is destroyed as mangrove firewood is used for cooking, for refining sugar, for protecting cattle from mosquitoes and for producing charcoal for export.
Financial constraints are always a problem for the achievement and implementation of all policies, even for family planning. It is impossible to control the destructive activities on site if there are no funds. The management, conservation and development of mangrove habitat cannot be successful when there are budget shortages.
Lack of policy and law specific for the sustainable management and conservation of mangroves, along with the lack of enforcement, have contributed to the failure to prevent illegal and destructive activities from happening throughout the country. The lack of strict control on mangroves has led to their destruction.
Lack of understanding and awareness must be mentioned as one of the root causes for mangrove habitat loss. Local people remain, at present, unaware of the importance of mangroves in supporting many lives, in providing them with many goods (for example, timber, firewood, fish, crabs, shellfish) and in providing other services for people living near and around the sites. UNEP SCS/National Report Cambodia Page 69
Abuse and encroachment by foreigners is often illegal and destructive for mangroves. In Cambodian coastal areas some thousands of hectares of mangroves have been cleared by investors or businessmen from Thailand over the last decade for intensive shrimp farming. Currently, national investors or shrimp farmers have followed suit. Almost all the total yield has been exported to Thailand and Viet Nam. In addition to shrimp farming, mangroves have been cleared for salt production and charcoal. All of these factors have extensively damaged the mangrove habitat in the coastal zone.
C. Coral reefs losses
As no systematic study has been carried out, information on this habitat is poor. However, the loss of coral reefs from coastal waters is expected to come from:
(a) Population growth; (b) Poverty; (c) Lack of awareness of the local people ; (d) Lack of policy and law; (e) No strict control or monitoring.
Population growth complicates the protection, management and conservation of natural resources. Coral reefs, one of the vital habitats for many marine species, have been exploited in a destructive way. As increasing numbers of people compete to earn money in any way they can, they discover that coral mining is able to generate extra income for their families. Consequently, corals are increasingly exported abroad, mainly to Thailand.
The poverty of people aggravates the situation of coral reefs in many ways. Poor people, for their survival needs, do not hesitate to exploit as much as possible the resource on hand. To avoid poverty they are forced to go fishing, to mine coral for sale, and to undertake other jobs to make money.
Lack of awareness by the local people is also an important factor in their lack of involvement and participation in the sustainable management and conservation of coral reefs. Because people do not know clearly the benefits that coral reefs can provide, they exploit and sell them to businessmen to earn money.
Lack of policy and law causes some negative results. There are no effective measures for the protection of coral reefs. Allowing illegal and destructive practices, such as coral mining and exportation, to happen freely has led to a massive loss of this vital habitat. Therefore, policy and law and enforcement must be specifically developed and promoted to avoid further damage to coral reefs.
No strict control and monitoring of illegal and destructive activities means that any activity can be practised, even if it decimates the coral reefs. No strict control on coral mining not only damages the habitat itself, but also causes a decline in marine fishes because of the loss of spawning, feeding and nursery grounds. Strict control is, therefore, very necessary.
D. Seagrass bed losses
The root causes of the loss of seagrass beds are the same as for mangroves and coral reefs. Therefore, we would like summarize the description of these as follows:
The growth and poverty of local people can accelerate the loss of seagrass beds because of many destructive and illegal practices in fishing such as push netting, trawling and trapping. UNEP SCS/National Report Cambodia Page 70
Lack of awareness by the local people on the impact of unsustainable fishing contributes to the continuing destruction of seagrass beds.
Lack of policy and law and monitoring, together with the lack of specific enforcement, have allowed harmful practices to seagrass beds to take place freely without limitation.
Lack of strict control and monitoring of seagrass beds has allowed this vital habitat to be destroyed for various purposes. This can result in the loss of feeding grounds for some endangered mammals, such as Green Turtle and dugongs, together with many other marine species. Strict control and monitoring might help protect and conserve seagrass beds for many marine species.
Annex I presents the causes of the identified water-related principal issues in Cambodia in tabular form.
5. CONSTRAINTS TO ACTION
Cambodia is a developing country that has mostly been isolated from the rest of the world for the last two decades. During this time, much has changed in the understanding of the environment, its biological and physical systems, and the interaction with those systems.
The Ministry of Environment was established in 1993 after the first election. Therefore, the Government faced many problems regarding environmental management and natural resource conservation, such as lack of communication and information in general, financial constraints, inadequate law and enforcement, and no clear mandates for agencies in management.
5.1 INFORMATION, SCIENTIFIC UNCERTAINTIES AND PUBLIC AWARENESS
(a) Information
- In general the information relating to water resource conservation and management is very sparse; - Existing information is too old, not up-to-date, and not clear; - There is no exchange information among government agencies; - There is limited data and information on management.
(b) Scientific research and study
So far we have very few scientists, therefore, research and study on the status of pollution and water resource degradation was not conducted.
(c ) Public awareness
- Environmental education is new for the Cambodian people ; - Low level of training in natural resource management in tertiary institutions; - Lack of qualified teaching staff; - Lack of technical language skills; - Limited funds to support educational activities; - Limited access to research facilities; - Lack of public awareness; - The mass media on environmental issues is low. UNEP SCS/National Report Cambodia Page 71
5.2 FINANCIAL AND ECONOMIC Cambodia has demonstrated its commitment to environmental management through the establishment of a Ministry of Environment in 1993. The first national environmental action plan is being prepared and the recently published first five-year development plan refers especially to natural resources management and coastal zone management strategy, recognizing the importance of the coastal areas to the economic development of the country. In comparison with most neighbouring countries, a large part of Cambodia’s coastal resource base is still relatively intact. Although these resources can and should continue to be exploited for the economic benefit of the country, effective government planning, regulation and monitoring is necessary in order to ensure that the resources are not irreversibly depleted as has been the experience in several other South-East Asian countries. Although there has been a downturn in economic growth in the last year, associated with the general malaise in all Asian economies and exacerbated by recent political events, Cambodia's economy will undoubtedly continue to grow, albeit at a slightly reduced pace, in the coming years. This growth will continue to exert pressures on the natural resources base, particularly in the coastal zone. Efforts are being made to adopt a more integrated approach to natural resource management. Most planning has and continues to operate along sectoral lines and priority efforts are aimed at national reconstruction and development. Accelerated development along the coast and in Tonle Sap's catchment areas without due consideration to the negative impacts and sustainability continues to be a serious problem.
· Gross Domestic Product (GDP) Cambodia for the past twenty years has been ranked as one of the poorest countries in the world. In 1990, the GDP per capita was only US$167. During the 1990s this has grown considerably. Table 5.1 lists some key economic indicators. Table 5.1 Cambodian key economic indicators ITEM 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 GDP per capita (US$) 167 216 222 241 252 - - Real GDP growth (%) 1.2 `7.6 7.0 5.7 4.0 7.6 7.0 Agriculture (%) 1.2 6.7 1.9 -1.0 0.1 6.4 4.9 Industry (%) -2.2 8.9 15.6 13.0 7.7 9.5 10.8 Services (%) 2.7 8.5 11.2 7.2 7.4 8.2 7.6 Source: 1990 - 1994 Asian Development Bank; 1995 - 1996 Public Investment Programme, Government of Cambodia.
Owing to financial constraints most government agencies and many projects have failed in management and implementation.
5.3 LEGAL, INSTITUTIONAL AND MANAGERIAL
A. Legal
(i) Legal development since 1993
The Constitution of Cambodia was adopted in September 1993. This established a judiciary separate and independent from the executive and legislative branches of government. UNEP SCS/National Report Cambodia Page 72
The new Government, elected in 1993, is rewriting Cambodia's legislative and regulatory infrastructure. The new laws and regulations are based on legal principles from common law, combined with aspects of the pre-1975 French civil code. Cambodia has recently been told it could be accepted into the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN), and attempts will be made to ensure that its laws parallel those of other member countries. Over two dozen laws have been adopted since 1993, including the Land Management, Urbanization and Construction Law, and the laws establishing the rights and responsibilities of various ministries. There are many other laws that are still awaiting execution by Parliament. (ii) Legal structure and processes Most major ministries prepare legislation. Prior to its reading in Parliament, it must be approved by the Council of Ministers. Both these requirements have caused delays in the adoption of legislation over the past few years as the Council of Ministers or the Parliament fail to sit and consider draft decrees. (iii) Major issues to consider Apart from the instability and the destruction of the legal system in the past two decades, two other factors have hampered the improvement of the legal framework. The first is the significant lack of resources in financial (for example, salaries), physical (for example, courtrooms, equipment, supplies) or human (for example, trained and qualified personnel) terms. Second, the present imperfections in the political system often adversely impact on the programme of legislative reform. The sharing of executive power by two opposing parties generates obstacles and a politicized senior bureaucracy, resulting in a lack of coordinated legislation programmes. The legal environment of investment and land related activities is deficient. Only a few relevant laws have been passed, the majority having been under discussion in draft form for some years. These gaps serve to discourage potential entrepreneurs and investors. For existing laws, transparent implementation regulations are scare and difficult to access. This results in most regulations being "negotiable". (iv) Council of Jurists In 1996, the Government created a Council of Jurists with a mandate to research, examine and advise the Council of Ministers on existing and draft laws and regulations. The Council assesses, drafts, coordinates and defines new laws and regulations. Importantly, it is tasked with monitoring implementation, establishing compliance procedures, and ensuring that these are followed. (v) Environment Law It is the stated policy of the Government in relation to the environment law:
· To promote economic development that conserves and rationally uses natural resources, and protects and enhances environmental quality in order that the nation achieves sustainable development - development that enables Cambodian society to satisfy its current needs without compromising the ability of future generations.
· To integrate development planning and decision-making processes with environmental information, concerns and considerations at the earliest possible stages, so that adverse environmental impacts are avoided and that this integration be achieved through implementation of an environmental impact assessment (EIA) process. UNEP SCS/National Report Cambodia Page 73
· That the people of Cambodia are a valuable source of environmental knowledge, and that their concerns should be considered in the decision-making process through public participation and information dissemination processes. (vi) Existing legislation relating to environmental management The development of environmental legislation is one of the national priorities and, at present, the law on environmental protection and natural resources management can be considered the framework for subsequent sectional laws, decrees, sub-decrees, and regulations for environmental protection and natural resources management. The legislation is believed to cover most important sectors that have been addressed or that are being addressed to date. It is separated into pre-1993 (when the new Government was formed) and post-1993. Pre-1993 Laws:
o · Law for the management of fishery areas: This law (state council N 33) passed circa 1987 defines fishing areas.
o · Law for the management of the forest area: This law (State Council N 35) passed in June 1988 defines the types of forests and states that forests are divided into classified and protected forests, the delimitation of forest boundaries and forest uses to be determined by sub-decree and regulations. The law further states that all sectors of society are obligated to protect forests; the exploitation of forest products without a permit is prohibited; logging operations are subject to government tax; the hunting of all species of animals is prohibited, with enforcement by the Department of Wildlife. Any person violating the law shall be fined or imprisoned according to the seriousness of the violation. Post–1993 Laws: · Law of Land Management of Urbanization and Construction: This law, passed by the National Assembly soon after its formation, elaborates the law's intent in matters directly impacting the natural environment.
· Law on Investment: This Law was passed by the National Assembly on 15 December 1993. Foreign investment in Cambodia is a simple, fairly open process. Cambodia does not differentiate between investment projects undertaken by foreigners or residents, as the investment law of 1993 governs both. Some sectors are restricted to nationals including import - export, and some transport, construction, accounting and law related activities. The Cambodian Investment Board (CIB), operating within the Council for the Development of Cambodia is the government agency responsible for granting investment incentives and approving projects. Under the Investment Law, the Council for the Development of Cambodia is the sole and one-stop service organization responsible for investment activities. The Investment Law guarantees equal treatment, with no nationalization adversely affecting property; no price controls; unlimited remittances of foreign currencies; and a 45-day decision limit on applications. The law also guarantees a maximum level of incentives, including 9 per cent corporate income tax; eight-year exemption from income tax; five-year loss/carry forward; 100 per cent exemption from import duties for selected projects; tax-free profit repatriation; tax-free profit and dividend distribution; and selected employment of non-Cambodian nationals. These incentives have to be applied for with each application. UNEP SCS/National Report Cambodia Page 74
Overall the law frees up the market for good, competitive, and transparent investment. The result is a strong emerging market place. However, with current political events, investor confidence may wane because of concerns as to whether the law is effective in the face of armed conflict.
· Law on Environmental Protection and Natural Resource Management. This law was passed by the National Assembly on 18 November 1996 and promulgated by the King on 24 December 1996. The law is divided into eleven chapters concerning distinct aspects of environmental protection and natural resource management.
Each chapter contains one or more articles that set out in broad terms the powers and responsibilities of the Ministry of Environment and other agencies of the Government in the areas of environmental protection and natural resource management. These provisions taken as a whole provide an overarching framework to guide the Ministry and the Government in developing a precise environmental management plan and thereby advance the mandated principles of environmental protection and natural resource conservation written into the Constitution.
· Sub-Decree on Construction Permission: This Sub-Decree was passed by the National Assembly in 1997 for the proper management of land use and natural resources.
· Royal Decree on the Creation and Designation of Protected Areas: This Decree was approved on 1 November 1993. It defines the Ministry of Environment as the responsible entity for supervising the planning and development of the national protected area system including the protection of terrestrial, wetland and coastal environments. The national protected area system includes national parks, wildlife sanctuaries, protected landscapes and multiple use management areas.
· National Protected Areas System Sub–Decree: This decree describes the authorities and mechanisms for planning and developing a national protected areas system. It has been submitted to the Council of Ministers and has been under review since November 1993.
Ratification of International Conventions
Cambodia is a party to the following international conventions:
(a) International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships 1973 and Protocol 1978 (MARPOL) and its annexes I to V ; (b) International Convention on Civil Liability for Oil Pollution Damage (CLC), 1969; (c) Ramsar Convention 1971; (d) World Heritage (Paris 1972); (e) Climate Change (Rio de Janeiro 1992); (f) Biodiversity Convention; (g) Agreement on the cooperation for the sustainable development of the Mekong Basin.
The Government of Cambodia should establish legal instruments and mandate responsible institutions to implement these international conventions and agreements, but there is a lack of appropriately qualified personnel to analyse these conventions.
Basel Convention : The Basel Convention is new to Cambodia. Cambodia will be a party to this convention but it needs more information on the scope of the convention and its relevance to Cambodia. UNEP SCS/National Report Cambodia Page 75
Legislation planned
The following pieces of legislation have been drafted or are being considered for drafting by the Government:
· Forestry Law
This was adopted by the Government and reviewed by the specialized commission of the National Assembly before being sent to be voted upon by the plenary session of the Parliament.
· Mining Law, Petroleum Exploration Law and Factories Law
These laws were submitted to the Council of Ministers for review and will be adopted by the Government in the coming year before being submitted to the National Assembly.
The draft mining law stipulates the responsibilities of the government agency issuing mining permits and controlling mining exploration activities. All of the mining activities covered under the draft law will be subject to environmental protection requirements including the preparation of an environment protection plan prior to mining activities and implementation of the plan during operations.
In addition to the Mining Law, the Ministry of Industry, Mines and Energy has produced the following draft laws: Law on petroleum exploration and Factories law. These laws are being reviewed by the Council of Ministers.
· Sub - Decree on Environmental Impact Assessment
The draft Sub-Decree specifies an environmental review process which includes screening, initial environmental impact assessment, and full-scale environmental impact assessment, as specified in the Environmental Law. This review process applies to both proposed projects (for example, a proposal to build a road, erect a new factory or construct a large irrigation system) and existing ongoing activities (for example, a factory which is already in operation or existing palm-oil plantation).
· Sub - Decree on Water Pollution Control
The Draft Sub-Decree on Water Pollution Control has been finalized and is being revised by the Ministry of Environment. The purpose of this Sub-Decree is the control of effluent discharge and the setting of water quality and effluent standards.
· Sub - Decree on Protected Area Management
The purpose of this Sub-decree is to implement the Law on Environmental Protection and Natural Resource Management and especially to implement the Royal Decree of 1 November 1993. At present the Ministry of Environment faces problems in preventing violations in the protected areas and problems in the management process of protected areas. UNEP SCS/National Report Cambodia Page 76
· Sub-Decree on Agrochemical Use and Management
This Sub-Decree was prepared by the Ministry of Agriculture in cooperation with the Ministry of Environment. It focuses on the provision of pesticide fertilizer and other agrochemical substances. Currently it is waiting for approval from the Council of Ministers.
· Sub-Decree on Solid Waste Management
This Sub-Decree was prepared by the Ministry of Environment with technical legal support from the European Commission. It has focused mainly on transboundary waste movement, but it is also related to domestic solid waste management including collection transportation and disposal. It has been submitted to the Council of Ministers for approval within the current year.
B. Institutional agency
The government agencies responsible for water resource management are as follows: 1. Ministry Agriculture, Fishery and Forestry: Department of Hydrology, Department of Fishery, Department of Forestry and Wildlife. 2. Ministry of Industry, Mines and Energy: Department of Provincial Water Supply. 3. Ministry of Rural Development: Department of Clean Water Programme. 4. Ministry of Environment: Department of Natural Resources Conservation, Department of Environmental Pollution Control, Department of Environmental Data Management, Department of Environmental Impact Assessment Review. 5. Ministry of Public Works and Transportation: Department of Transport and Navigation, Department of Sanitation. 6. Ministry of Health: Department of Hygiene. 7. Ministry of Interior: Phnom Penh Water Supply Authority. 8. Council for Cambodia Development: Department of Investment.
There are also provincial and municipal departments of environment with district and local levels responsible for water resources management. However, we still have constraints on these matters, as follows:
(a) Lack of definition of the roles and responsibilities of institutions and the relationships between them; (b) Lack of physical capacity and resources for enforcement; (c) Low appreciation of and understanding of the national need for management and conservation measures; (d) Weak capacity for policy formulation and strategic planning; (e) Flow and use of existing data and information, among both the administrative levels and among government departments.
6. ONGOING AND PLANNED ACTIVITIES RELEVANT TO THE IDENTIFIED ISSUES
In Cambodia, general environmental issues have been a priority for the new government elected in 1993. Therefore, some activities related to water pollution prevention and water resources management have just been started. Some activities have been planned to develop in the future.
Some programmes and projects activities concerning water resources management have been conducted by government agencies, and some in cooperation with donor agencies, non-governmental organizations and international agencies. UNEP SCS/National Report Cambodia Page 77
6.1 WATER POLLUTION PREVENTION Ongoing activities · Capacity-building: Long-term and short-term training courses for government staff responsible for water pollution control and water resources management have been conducted successively in the country as well as abroad. This activity is considered the first priority in measures to reduce water pollution. Most of the training programmes have been supported by international agencies such as: the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), the World Health Organization (WHO), the European Union (EU), USAID, the International Maritime Organization (IMO), the United Nations Environmental Programme (UNEP), the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO).
· Law and legislation development: There are some existing laws relating to water pollution prevention, such as the law on land management of urbanization and construction, the law on investment, the sub-degree on construction permission and the law on environmental protection and natural resources management. The law on environmental protection was passed by the National Assembly in November 1996. But its implementation has faced some problems because it did not state clearly the monitoring process in any pollution sources or the legislative instruments for water quality protection, such as the polluter pays principle and duty reduction for pollution control equipment. Therefore, in order to enforce the law some sub-decrees have recently been developed, such as: Water Pollution Control, Solid Waste Management, Protected Area and Environmental Impact Assessments. These have been sent to the Council of Ministers to wait for adoption. Meanwhile , effluent standards for all pollution sources have already been set up.
· Environmental protection contract: Although the sub-decree on environmental impact assessment has not yet been passed, in order to protect the environment from pollution the Ministry of Environment has required that all new development projects have an environmental protection contract stipulating the responsibility of project owners to contribute in reducing the pollution load in their waste before discharge into the environment. The contract form will be issued until the sub- degree comes into force.
· Pollution source monitoring: Monitoring pollution sources has been conducted by the Ministry of Environment in cooperation with the concerned ministries. However, the effectiveness of this monitoring is very limited because of the lack of capacity and control equipment.
· Sewage rehabilitation: This activity has developed only in Phnom Penh City under the municipality programme which is aimed at rehabilitating the damaged sewage pippins and sewage reservoirs in the City as the sewers become rapidly clogged in the rainy season. Planned activities · Sewage management policy: In order to prevent water pollution, the sewage management policy will be developed by the Ministry of Environment in cooperation with concerned agencies. In the policy, the following actions will be taken:
(a) To rehabilitate and build sewerage systems in the densely polluted urban centres of Phnom Penh and Sihanouk Ville; (b) To conduct a feasibility study of the central sewage treatment of construction in the two high risk areas, Phnom Penh and Sihanouk Ville; UNEP SCS/National Report Cambodia Page 78
(c) To enforce the implementation of laws, sub-decrees and effluent standards relating to water pollution prevention as they come into force; (d) To improve public awareness on environmental protection in formal and informal education programmes; (e) To set up the polluter pays principal as an important legislative instrument for water pollution prevention.
· Implementation of the urban waste management action plan (1998-2002): (a) Upgrading open dumps in Phnom Penh to reduce the risk of adverse public health and environment impacts; (b) Improving solid waste collection capability through privatization in urban centres, especially in Phnom Penh City and Sihanouk Ville; (c) Constructing a sanitary landfill with at least a 10-year capacity, together with a pilot low-cost composting facility in Phnom Penh; (d) Constructing a medical waste treatment facility in Phnom Penh; (e) Training municipal staff in solid waste management and hospital staff in medical waste management; (f) Launching a public information campaign on appropriate waste disposal in Phnom Penh, Siem Reap and Sihanouk Ville.
6.2 SURFACE WATER CONSERVATION
Ongoing activities
· Strengthening the capacity of government staff through long-term and short-term training courses, workshops and field visit studies in terms of water resources management.
· Cooperating closely with the Mekong River Commission and other involved organizations to solve the problems related to water resource use in the Mekong River basin.
· Monitoring the water quality along the Mekong River and Tonle Sap River with nine sampling points.
· Evaluating and reporting the status of river water quality as a base for scientific research and study.
· Rehabilitating and constructing reservoirs and irrigation systems in rural areas where there are problems of surface water shortage for water supply and irrigation purposes.
· Developing a watershed management programme in both central and coastal areas. The programme aims to prevent flooded forest and reduce sediment and pollution loads downstream and at the coastline. It also focuses on land use management, especially appropriate management of agricultural areas to reduce siltation and toxic chemical residues, which are carried by runoff into rivers and sea.
Planned activities · Develop the draft water law and water quality standards by sectional use, such as: drinking purposes, agricultural use, recreation and navigation purposes, and water quality standards for public health protection and for living aquatic resource conservation. UNEP SCS/National Report Cambodia Page 79
· Increase a number of sampling point along the Mekong River and Tonle Sap Rivers, and set up many other new sampling points in the Tonle Sap Lake and other water bodies located close to the major urban centres in both central and coastal areas.
· Set up an appropriate policy guideline for surface water management. · Control and monitor the water resource use for hydro-dams including environmental impact assessments, and the impact on navigation and living aquatic resources.
· Improve the existing laboratory capability for analysing parameters, which have not been measured yet such as BOD, heavy metals, PCBs, agrochemical substances and bacterial coliform.
6.3 GROUNDWATER CONSERVATION Ongoing activities In Cambodia, the use of groundwater for water supply and for irrigation is still small scale, mostly in the dry season. Meanwhile, there is insufficient information, knowledge or understanding of the groundwater resources of Cambodia for this valuable resource to be managed responsibly. In particular, much more information is needed on the size and safe yields of the aquifers and the recharge mechanisms. To address this issue, the Department of Hydrology in cooperation with the National Mekong River Commission and non-governmental organizations started a data collection and interpretation capability project in 1996. The project was implemented consisting of five components: · Development of a standard drilling log to be used by all agencies involved in drilling operations for rural water supply and for small irrigation, and to be forwarded to the Department of Hydrology at regular intervals;
· Training of drillers in the use of the log; · Collection of data available in the provincial offices of external support agencies and the Department of Hydrology;
· The setting up of a national data collection "infrastructure", a proposal which will include the establishment of a nationwide well numbering system;
· Establishment of data storage and processing capacity at the Department of Hydrology. This entails evaluating available computer software, recommending standard systems to be adopted, expanding capacity and training staff. Planned activities
In order to enable the wise use of groundwater, and to protect this resource from pollution and overuse, the Department of Hydrology has some planned activities as follows:
· Setting up the policy and guidelines for the allocation and sustainable use of groundwater resources;
· Establishing a groundwater quality monitoring network in the whole country as a base for evaluating the status of groundwater quality as well as quantity; UNEP SCS/National Report Cambodia Page 80
· Making a clear allocation of responsibilities among the governmental agencies such as Agriculture, Health, Rural Development, Environment, Industry and municipal authorities in the field of planning and management of groundwater resources. 6.4 AQUATIC LIVING RESOURCES MANAGEMENT AND CONSERVATION Ongoing activities · Inventory and management of Cambodian wetlands phase I (DANIDA / Mekong River Commission Project ): completion time in February 1999;
· Classification of wetlands in Cambodia (Ministry of Environment, Department of Nature Conservation);
· Identification of important wetlands of Cambodia, selection of wetlands for inclusion into the Ramsar list of internationally important wetlands (Ministry of Environment);
· Surveys and researches on wetlands to identify the status of flora and fauna for sustainable management and conservation (Ministry of Environment);
· Capacity-building at the provincial level in coastal zone management (DANIDA Project with the Ministry of Environment);
· National wetland action plan, draft finalization (Ministry of Environment and some other involved agencies);
· Coastal resources studies (Ministry of Environment); · Coastal zone management database for Cambodia (IDRC and Ministry of Environment);
· Environment impacts assessment (ADB-TA 2723-CAM). Planned activities · Inventory and management of Cambodian wetlands phase II (DANIDA /Mekong River Commission project) planned to be started in 1999;
· Technical assistance to Cambodia, Viet Nam and China for coastal and marine environmental management (Asian Development Bank Project for three years);
· Survey and research on marine and coastal resource management and conservation (Department of Nature Convention and Protection);
· Public awareness campaign for wetlands resources and biodiversity for wise use and sustainable management (Department of Nature Convention and Protection);
· Capacity-building for the department staff on wetland and water-related management and conservation (Ministry of Environment). 6.5 AQUATIC HABITATS CONSERVATION Ongoing activities · Flooded forest research on sustainable management and conservation (on Ramsar site, Boeng Chhmar, and some others around Tonle Sap lake); UNEP SCS/National Report Cambodia Page 81
· Research on the management of mangroves, seagrasses and coral reefs (Ministry of Environment).
Planned activities · Campaign for public awareness on the benefits of wetland and resources and on biodiversity conservation needs;
· Scientific comprehensive research/studies on resources and biodiversity sustainable management and conservation on designated multiple use areas ( by Royal Decree of 1 November 1993);
· Flooded forest replantation project (proposed by the Department of Nature Conservation and Protection);
· Mangrove replantation project (proposed by the Department of Nature Conservation and Protection); · Conservation of coral reefs and seagrasses (proposed by the Department of Nature Conservation and Protection);
· Management and conservation of habitats in the national park at Sihanouk Ville; · Creation of marine protected areas in Koh Kong province (by the Department of Nature Conservation and Protection);
· Research for economic valuation of wetland habitats (Flooded forest, mangrove, seagrasses and coral reefs), and biodiversity (waterbirds, fishes, shellfishes, reptiles and mammals);
· Development of management plans for Ramsar sites; · Regional networking for information and data on living aquatic resources, particularly for aquatic habitats;
· Wetland restoration.
7. SPECIFIC ACTION PROPOSED FOR EACH IDENTIFIED ISSUE
7.1 POLLUTION (a) Strengthen governmental institutions on environmental capacity-building at all levels. (b) Improve legal institutional frameworks regarding environmental protection from pollution. (c) Make a master plan for development areas such as industrial zones. (d) Develop policy guidelines on waste management and pollution control. (e) Set up effluent standards for all kinds of disposal and waste discharge. (f) Improve sewerage systems and construct wastewater treatment plants in high risk and sensitive areas. UNEP SCS/National Report Cambodia Page 82
(g) Set up the polluter pays principle. (h) Require environmental impact assessment reports for all development projects. (i) Take action on the enforcement of legislation and law regarding pollution protection. (j) Improve public awareness and public participation.
7.2 FRESHWATER SHORTAGE
7.2.1 Surface water (a) Improve the capacity-building of the government staff on surface water resource management. (b) Develop laws and regulations regarding water and water resources management. (c) Set up water quality standards for all kinds of use. (d) Require environmental impact assessments for all development projects that could have an impact on the quantity and quality of water resources. (e) Improve irrigation systems and stock reservoirs. (f) Make a national policy on surface water use and management. (g) Establish and implement a master plan on integrated management in various uses, such as irrigation, watershed control, domestic water supply, and flood control. (h) Increase a number of water quality monitoring stations. (i) Update information and data related to the hydrology of surface water. (j) Enhance laboratory services for water quality analysis. (k) Improve public awareness and participation.
7.2.2 Groundwater (a) Strengthen capacity-building in groundwater management. (b) Set up a policy and master plan for groundwater exploitation management and sustainable exploitation. (c) Develop laws and regulations relating to groundwater use and groundwater quality protection. (d) Require an environmental impact assessment for all projects using groundwater. (e) Establish a monitoring network for the survey and control of groundwater quality as well as quantity. (f) Improve public awareness on groundwater protection and management. UNEP SCS/National Report Cambodia Page 83
7.3 LIVING AQUATIC RESOURCES
(a) Develop comprehensive conservation programmes for living aquatic resources. (b) Conduct systematic and scientific studies and research on living aquatic resources. (c) Campaign for public awareness enhancement. (d) Promote community involvement and active participation in LAR conservation. (e) Enforce strict controls and monitoring on illegal and destructive activities to LAR. (f) Formulate policy and law enforcement. (g) Develop a master plan for sustainable use. 7.4 HABITAT MANAGEMENT AND CONSERVATION
(a) Conduct studies and research.
(b) Enforce the law and develop policy.
(c) Enhance public awareness.
(d) Enforce strict control and monitoring.
(e) Conduct inventories.
(f) Develop master plans / management plans.
(g) Cooperate with local people and involved agencies.
(h) Network at regional and international levels.
8. IMPLICATIONS OF THE PROPOSED ACTION BY SECTOR
8.1 FINANCIAL ASPECT AND POLICY DEVELOPMENT
The operational and strategic policy for the proposed actions should be based on the nationwide implementation scheme in anticipation of the environmental conditions that might be changed within the next five-year socio-economic development plan (1996-2000). The most significant investment is expected in two areas, in sewerage services and freshwater supply. The projected investment needed to improve the water supply and sanitation/drainage comes to US$ 160 million. This does not include the administering departments / authorities annual running costs or the recurrent costs related to production and maintenance. The level of achievement during the plan period will depend on the national capacities at all levels of government, the private sector and communities. Until such capacities are strengthened, a high decree of reliance on international agencies and non-governmental organizations will continue. UNEP SCS/National Report Cambodia Page 84
8.2 ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT
The basic approach needed over the long term, in virtually every sector related to land and water resources, consists of institutional strengthening and inter-agency cooperation for concerted efforts in better resources management. Comprehensive coastal zone planning and local zoning and development plans should be prepared for the coastal region. The Government has encouraged foreign and private investment projects, but they are required to either prepare or be responsible for the preparation of an environmental impact assessment report. This will bring the projects into compliance with acceptable environmental standards.
8.3 AGRICULTURAL DEVELOPMENT
Cambodia's economy is based principally on agricultural production, such as:
· Crop harvesting: rice and other crops; · Fisheries and aquaculture; · Forestry and watershed management.
The effective and successful development of the agricultural sector could be met only on the condition that fundamental requirements are properly completed, such as the establishment of an innovative and available information and database system, the formulation and development of necessary policies and legal framework, together with preventive and protective measures and initiatives. In addition to these, stricter controls and monitoring must be regularly undertaken.
8.3.1 Crop harvesting
Crop harvesting, mainly rice production, has priority as the majority of Cambodians (about 85 per cent) are farmers. It is the primary source of food security and the predominant agricultural product in Cambodia.
Unfortunately, food security or self-sufficiency in rice production has not been reached since the last decade because of frequent natural disasters, such as drought, floods, diseases, decreased soil fertility, and increased pests/ rodents. The main causes for these seem to be the unsustainable use of natural resources, soil, forest, water and others, and the destruction of useful animals. The frequent use of pesticides could be an additional harmful factor, not only for humans but also for wildlife and soil and water.
Sustainability in crop harvesting, as well as for all other agricultural production, requires that the Government and the people work together. Action should be focused on:
(a) Conducting comprehensive conservation and production programmes; (b) Developing appropriate land use policies; (c) Developing training programmes in sustainable crop harvesting/ sustainable agriculture; including the appropriate use of pesticides, insecticides, rodenticides and fungicides; (d) Developing public education programmes on the importance of forests for people and wildlife; (e) Banning the importation of pesticides and limiting their free sale; (f) Restoring wetland habitats, together with reforestation of degraded watershed and upland forests; (g) Improving intersectoral coordination and cooperation toward sustainable agriculture; (h) Encouraging the development and use of natural fertilizers/ compost fertilizers. UNEP SCS/National Report Cambodia Page 85
8.3.2 Fishery
Fishery is the second main source of income generation and national revenue/GDP contributor. It is also the second most important agricultural activity after rice production.
The current fishery management in Cambodia is failing and as a result there has been a dramatic decline of fish stock in recent years. Currently, most Cambodian people complain about the smaller fishery capture, and subsequently, the increase in fish prices. Fishermen complain about the small income from fishing. It could be that fishery will no longer be a significant national source of revenue.
The sustainable use and management of fishery resources will absolutely require:
· Political will on the part of the Government; · Coordination and cooperation of all responsible and involved agencies in policy-making and the participation of the local people in planning and conservation of fish resources as these are vital sources of food/protein intake for the people, as well as for waterbirds and other animals; · Capacity-building/expertise upgrading for the sustainable management and conservation of fishery resources; · Strict controls on illegal and destructive fishing activities, such as: - Fishing in closed seasons; - Fishing by dynamite, electric shock; push-net fishing, tree-branch traps; - Very large-scale fishery industry by foreign fishermen; - Use of old tires; · Limitation on the number and size of fishing lots and reorganization of fishing concessions; · Comprehensive programme and master plan for sustainable fishery; · Campaign for public awareness on the wise use and sustainable management of fishery resources.
8.3.3 Aquaculture
In Cambodia, aquaculture has been increasingly practised by people living on, near and around water bodies, in particular the Tonle Sap Great Lake, the Mekong River and other associated floodplain lakes, and at some localities in coastal areas.
The impacts of freshwater fish culture are as follows:
(a) Increased by-catches for feeding cultured fishes (for example, Striped Catfish, Black- ear catfish, Giant Snake-head fish); (b) Degraded/lost natural wetlands, habitats and other resources; (c) Subsequent decline of natural/wild fishes; (d) Some pollution/water contamination from excessive feedings.
Further activities to be undertaken for preventing and reducing these impacts should include:
· The development of consistent legislation, regulations and guidelines for sustainable aquaculture; · A limit to the expansion of aquaculture; · Strict controls on destructive fishing causing the increased by-catches. UNEP SCS/National Report Cambodia Page 86
At the same time, some measures should be considered in order to eliminate and prevent the harmful effects of coastal aquaculture and intensive shrimp farming. These are as follows:
· Stopping the expansion of shrimp farms that are presently more destructive and aggressive to valuable coastal habitats; · Constructing a treatment system for every shrimp farm so that polluted water will not be released into coastal waters; · Applying appropriate technology for sustainable shrimp farming; · Enhancing the awareness of the impacts of aquaculture.
8.3.4 Coral mining and conservation
The impacts from such activities might be prevented and reduced by undertaking the following measures: · Banning and strict control on illegal coral mining and exportation; · Education and awareness improvement on the importance and benefits of coral reefs; · Prevention and removal of some pollutants (oil, nutrient and sediment) from the coral reefs/ better pollution management.
8.3.5 Seagrass beds · Strict control on destructive fishing practices, such as push-netting, purse-seining, trawling; · Promotion of public awareness on the significance of seagrasses and active participation of people in conserving them; · Prevention and cleaning-up of water pollution in the areas that can negatively affect seagrasses.
8.3.6 Mangrove forest conservation · Improving the understanding and awareness of local people on the benefits of mangroves; · Banning the destruction of mangroves to make charcoal for export and the expansion of salt fields, intensive shrimp farming and other developments; · Stopping the use of mangroves for fencing, housing and settlement expansion.
8.3.7 Forestry / Watershed management · Definitive banning of illegal commercial logging and the stopping of intensive deforestation; · Regular and strict controls on destructive activities; · Improvement of public awareness on the importance and benefits of forests; · Effective policies and law enforcement; · Master plan and comprehensive inventory of forest resources; · An updated information system and database establishment; · Guidelines and regulations for the sustainable use of forests; · Promotion of political will; · Financial support mobilization and promotion of international cooperation; · Reviews and limits on forest concessions and other inappropriate development in forests and watershed areas; UNEP SCS/National Report Cambodia Page 87
8.4 MANUFACTURING
Although at present industrial development in Cambodia is on a small scale, particularly in the coastal area, the Government plans to develop the industrial sector in the coastal area in the near future in order to improve the economy of the country.
The Government recognizes that industrial development will cause an adverse effect on both water quality and water resources. Consequently in order to achieve the plan while considering sustainable water resources, the Government has decided:
· To train government staff and support adequate equipment for monitoring industrial effluent discharge; · To require an environmental impact assessment for any existing and new industrial projects; · To establish industrial zones away from any public water areas, and to require new factories or existing factories to move if necessary; · To develop regulations and laws relating to industrial wastewater control and to set up effluent standards and to make sure that waste meets the standards; · To promote an education programme in both the formal and informal sector on water resources protection; · To develop and effectively implement a polluter pays principle for all factories that discharge a large volume of wastewater.
8.5 MINING
Currently there are active mining operations for gemstones in certain border areas between Cambodia and Thailand, for construction materials (sand, gravel, crushed stone, granite) and certain industrial minerals ( phosphate, limestone, marble, and ceramic clays). The current mining operations cause adverse effects on water resources as well as on water quality. In order to deal with this issue, the Government has taken the following measures:
· To request and, where possible, collect and analyse all existing contracts for mining operations; to renegotiate old contracts on a new standardized basis incorporating specific regulations on efficient / provincial government revenue sharing where necessary; · To develop the mine and mineral law with strong environmental protection; · To require an environmental impact assessment for any significant mining project; · To establish a national inventory of all existing pits and quarries; · To stop any illegal mining causing contaminated water quality and to stop the mining of living coral reef. UNEP SCS/National Report Cambodia Page 88
References
Asian Development Bank and Ministry of Environment, 1998. T.A. Project No 2723 - CAM , May 1998. Bernstein, Janis D., 1993. Alternative Approaches to Pollution Control and Waste Management in the Kingdom of Cambodia (UNDP / UNCHS / World Bank, Urban Management Programme). Cambodia Wetlands, April 1996. Ornithological Survey. Cointreau-Levine, Sandra. 1996. Preparation Mission to Cambodia. Community Participation in Wetland Management: Lessons from the Field. October 1995. Department of Environmental Impact Assessment Review, Ministry of Environment, 1997. Environmental Planning and Impact Assessment in Cambodia . Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific, 1995. Protection of Water Resources, Water Quality and Aquatic Ecosystems in Asia and the Pacific (United Nations, New York). Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific, 1998. Sources and Nature of Water Quality Problems in Asia and the Pacific (United Nations, New York). Economopoulos, A.P., 1993. Assessment of Sources of Air, Water, and Land Pollution, Parts one and two (World Health Organization, Geneva). Environmental Consultants Ltd. Vancouver, Canada and the Asian Development Bank, 1996. Coastal and Marine Environmental Management in South China Sea in Coastal and Marine Environmental Management for the Kingdom of Cambodia (RETA 5552). Government of Cambodia, 1997. First Five-year Socio-economic Development Plan 1996-2000. Guheridge Haskins and Davey Pty Ltd. 1997. Cambodia Urban Environmental Improvement Project, ADB T.A – 2689 CAM, Interim Report, vols. 1,2,3. Institute of Hydrology, Wallingford Oxon. UK. 1982. Lower Mekong Basin: Water Balance Study, Phase I Report. International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN) Species Survival Commission, 1996. Biological and Socio-economic Aspects of Waterbird Exploitation and Natural Resource Utilization at Prek Toal, Tonle Sap Lake, Cambodia. Inventory and Management of Cambodian Wetlands, Appraisal Report, June 1994. Koe, Lawrance C. and M.A. Aziz, 1995. Regional Programme for Action on Land-based Activities Affecting Coastal and Marine Areas in the East Asian Sea (UNEP, Bangkok). Mcdonald, Andrew and V. Sam, July 1996. Participatory Natural Resource Management in the Tonle Sap Region: Floristic Reconnaissance of Prek Sramaoch lake and vicinity, Tonle Sap (GCP/CMB//002/BEL). Mekong Development Research Network, 1995. The Great Lake / Tonle Sap Ecosystem, (Phase II). Mekong River Commission, July 1993. Development Plan for Tonle Sap and Chakdomuk, Phase I. Mekong River Commission, Annual Report 1997. Towards Sustainable Development 1997. Mekong River Commission, July 1997. Inventory and Management of Wetlands in the Lower Mekong Basin . Mekong River Commission, August 1997. Inventory and Management of Wetlands in The Lower Mekong Basin , Phase II. Mekong River Commission, January 1998. First Consultative Meeting on Project Development Inventory and Management of Cambodian Wetlands. Mekong River Commission/DANIDA, January 1998. Inventory and Management of Cambodian Wetlands. UNEP SCS/National Report Cambodia Page 89
Mekong River Commission/United Nations Development Programme, February 1998. Natural Resources-based Development. Strategy for the Tonle Sap Area, Cambodia, Sectoral Studies: Environment in the Tonle Sap Area (CMB/95/003). Mekong River Commission/United Nations Environment Programme, 1997. Greater Mekong Sub- Region State of Environment Report (MKG/R 97013). Mekong Secretariat Project. Cambodia, Land Cover Atlas 1985/87 – 1992/93 (CMB / 92 / 005, UNDP – FAO). Mekong Secretariat, 1997. Mekong River Basin Diagnostic Studies. Ministry of Environment, Government of Cambodia, 1994. First State of the Environment Report 1994 (in association with the United Nations Development Programme and other cooperating organizations). Ministry of Environment, 1997. Capacity-building in coastal zone management in Cambodia , Project Document. Ministry of Environment/DNC/CMB, April 1995. Baset Integrated Conservation and Development. Mokokazu, Ando, 1995. Directory of Water-related International Cooperation, (International Lake Environment Committee Foundation). Opdam, J. Hans, 1997. A Strategic Development Plan for the Tonle Sap Area in National Resources- based Development Strategy for the Tonle Sap Area (CMB/95/003). Sam, Thary, October 1995-1996. Wetland Notebook Economic. Sanyu Consultants Inc. October 1996. The Agricultural Development Study of the Mekong Flooded Area in Cambodia, Progress Report II. Sir William Halcrow and Partners Ltd. in association with Mandala Agriculture Development Corporation, 1993. Irrigation Rehabilitation Study in Cambodia (UNDP 3.3.37 / 92 / UNEP, B / L 21). Specht, Judith, 1996. Pesticides in Cambodia (Integrated Rural Development Project, Kandal / Takeo). Technical Coordination Unit for Tonle Sap, Ministry of Environment, 1996. Strategy and Action Plan for the Protection of Tonle Sap. Technical Coordination Unit for Tonle Sap, Ministry of Environment, 1996. Report of the Tonle Sap Forum on Provincial Level Planning. Technical Coordination Unit for Tonle Sap, Ministry of Environment, 1996. Tonle Sap Watershed. The Coastal Environmental Profile of Sihanouk Ville , Cambodia, March 1996. United Nations Environment Programme, 1998. South China Sea Project Case Study, vol. 1-B, as part of the Environment Assessment Programme for Asia and the Pacific (Bangkok). Vanhonsebrouck, Edmond. GCP/CMB/001/BEL, 1995 Participatory Natural Resources Management in Tonle Sap Region (GCP/CMB/001/BEL). UNEP SCS/National Report Cambodia Page 90
ANNEX I ANALYSIS OF CAUSES OF THE IDENTIFIED WATER-RELATED PRINCIPAL ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES IN CAMBODIA Major Location Source Causal Chain Socio-Economic Action Issues Impact Immediate Intermediate Root cause Sewage - Phnom Penh Sewage ( 3 ) Uncontrolled Lack of sewage Financial Affected human Build sewage systems discharges systems/ treatment constraints health Build treatment - Sihanouk Ville Industry ( 2 ) facilities facility Lack of capacity Contaminated water - Battambang Hospital ( 1 ) Lack of laws and Capacity building effluent standards, Lack of public Reduce of fish and enforcement awareness about production Set up policy and impact of water regulations regarding Lack of control pollution Migration of some sewage management and monitoring spices Set up effluent Extinction some standard biodiversity Improve awareness
Enforcement of law and standard Solid waste - Phnom Penh Domestic ( 3) Low knowledge Lack of sanitary Financial Human health Education program on disposal landfill constraints on waste disposal - Sihanouk Ville Industry ( 2 ) Water quality Inadequate Lack of law and Lack of capacity degradation Build sanitary - Battambang Hospital ( 1 ) collection enforcement landfill and landfill Lack of inter- Air pollution and operation Market (2 ) grated solid waste bad odour management policy UNEP SCS/National Report Cambodia Page 91
Major Location Source Causal Chain Socio-Economic Action Issues Impact Immediate Intermediate Root cause Unsanitary Lack of Lack of Increase capacity dumpsite recycling understanding collection to all mechanism about waste areas Uncontrolled disposal disposals Set up recycling system
Improved disposal of hospital waste, hazardous waste Sedimen- a) Tonle Sap Natural factors (2) Soil erosion Inappropriate Lack of capacity Degradation of Eco. Capacity building tation Lake land use System Deforestation (3) Unplanned land development Lack of Public education -Estuaries in use investment Loss of fish coastal line Agricultural Inadequate law production Soil erosion control activities (2) Inappropriate and regulation, Inadequate water measure -Mekong and watershed and enforcement management Loss of lake Tonle Sap protection policy function flooding Set up land use River Absence planning Intensive enforcement and High impact to logging in the Control GDP Ban of logging catchment area monitoring b) Stung Gemstone Tailings Lack of law and Lack of capacity Shortage of surface Develop legislation Sangker mining ( 3 ) regulation water and policies (Foreign activity) Discharge sediments Inappropriate Degradation of Capacity building technology aquatic habitats Major Location Source Causal Chain Socio-Economic Action UNEP SCS/National Report Cambodia Page 92
Issues Impact Immediate Intermediate Root cause Illegal business Lack of EIA Loss of fish Need EIA report for export report on the production and take into action mining activities Loss of tourism revenue
Public health Shrimp Koh Kong Shrimp farm Uncontrolled Lack of Lack of capacity Loss of mangrove Develop policy and farm waste province aquaculture discharge treatment guideline for shrimp (Thai joinventure facilities Lack of Loss of aquaculture farm practices activities ) High demand for technology production export Lack of law and Capacity building effluent standard High sedimentation Need EIA report Inappropriate Water quality technology use degradation Enhance public participation Lack of control and monitoring Surface - Takeo Rural domestic Drough long Lack of Financial Human health Build water water province water supply ( 3 ) period appropriate constraints reservoirs shortage water Loss in agriculture - Kompong Agricultural Little surface management Lack of capacity production Develop irrigation Speu province irrigation ( 2 ) water sources policies systems Global change Increase poverty
Major Location Source Causal Chain Socio-Economic Action Issues Impact UNEP SCS/National Report Cambodia Page 93
Immediate Intermediate Root cause Intensive Rapid population Set up an appropriate deforestation growth/populated water management areas policy Increasing water consumption Temporary scarce Promote public rainfall participation
Inadequate Stop logging activity reservoir Capacity building Insufficient irrigation systems Develop water law and regulation Low DO Down stream Sewage ( 3 ) Inappropriate Lack of treatment Lack of capacity Human health Develop treatment Tonle Sap sewer system facilities and facilities Financial River Uncollected sewer system Loss of fish constraints Improve solid waste solid waster (2) Uncontrolled production collection facilities Up stream discharge and Inadequate solid Rapid population Bassac River Industrial ( 2 ) disposal waste collection growth Increase treatment Develop law and effluent standard and wastewater facilities Lack of law and cost for tap water Down part of Inappropriate and effluent standard enforcement Stung Sanker unsanitary and enforcement dumpsite Need polluter pay Lack of public Down part of principle Stung Siem awareness about Reap impact of water Need EIA report and pollution take into action
Major Location Source Causal Chain Socio-Economic Action Issues Impact UNEP SCS/National Report Cambodia Page 94
Immediate Intermediate Root cause Improve water quality analysis capacity
Set up new monitoring station
Capacity building
Promote public awareness Ground- Pursat Natural Lack of data and Financial Human health Develop research water province information constraints program shortage Increase poverty Kompong Lack of research Lack of capacity Need investment Speu province
Kompong Thom province High iron - Takeo Natural Lack of data and Lack of capacity Human health Develop research and - Svay Rieng information program salinity - Prey Veng Financial concentra- - Kandal Lack of research constraints Set up monitoring tion of the - Banteay station ground Meanchey water - Battambong - Kompong Speu Major Location Source Causal Chain Socio-Economic Action Issues Impact Immediate Intermediate Root cause UNEP SCS/National Report Cambodia Page 95
Fishstock a) -Tonle Sap High demands Lack of control Too many Financial Lower income Enforcement of laws and decline and Mekong partly for fishermen constraints policies export Poor Increasing socio- - Floodplain management Inappropriate Lack of capacity economic problem Strict control and ban of Increase fishing methods and conflicts illegal and destructive - Lakes income Over-fishing Foreign fishing practices Improper investment Decreased - Rivers Illegal and development national revenue destructive e.g. aquaculture... Poverty GDP fishing Income generation b) In the Lack of control Too many Financial Loss of marine Enforcement of laws and coastal water fishermen constraints fish-stock policies Poor management Inappropriate and Lack of capacity Increasing Strict control and ban of illegal fishing in controlling and conflicts illegal and destructive Over-fishing monitoring activities Intensive shrimp Low nutritional Encroachment of farming Increasing income regime foreign fishermen Salt fields Abuse for High impact to expansion exportation GDP
Major Location Source Causal Chain Socio-Economic Action Issues Impact Immediate Intermediate Root cause UNEP SCS/National Report Cambodia Page 96
Habitat Losses a) Flooded Tonle Sap and High Increase income Poor policy and Finance Loss of fish Enforcement of laws and Forest Mekong flood consumption and agriculture management constraints nursery and policies plains production spawning grounds Conversion to Lack of Lack of Enhance awareness agricultural understanding enforcement Fish-stock loss lands and awareness Strict control Population growth
Poverty condition b) Man- Along the High income Exportation High income Lack of laws and Loss of fish Development and apply grove coastline generation policy nursery and policy for sustainable Aquaculture Poor policy and spawning grounds mangrove use Alternative conversion management Financial livelihood constraints Low National Researches Salt production Low awareness revenue Population growth Inventory Decrease income Increasing several need Loss of buffer / filtering Poverty
Major Location Source Causal Chain Socio-Economic Action Issues Impact Immediate Intermediate Root cause c) Coral In shallow Illegal Mining for Increasing Lack of capacity Loss of fish Development and apply UNEP SCS/National Report Cambodia Page 97
Reefs coastal waters, dynamite exploration income in controlling and nursery and policy for coral reefs around inshore fishing monitoring spawning grounds conservation inland Poor Mining for management Financial Fish-stock loss Researches exploration constraints Alternative Loss of buffer / Inventory livelihood Rapid population filtering growth Strong cooperation careless records Decline in (region) Poverty/ Low biodiversity living standard d) Sea- In shallow Destructive Create income Increasing Lack of capacity Loss of fish Development and apply grasses coastal waters, fishing income nursery and policy for seagrasses methods Alternative Financial spawning grounds conservation livelihood Poor constraints management Fish-stock loss Researches Poverty condition Loss of buffer / Inventory Growing needs filtering for survivals and Strong cooperation others (region) UNEP SCS/National Report Cambodia Page 98
ANNEX II Area statistics - 1973 /76 Cambodia land Cover (area in km2) (See Figure 2.15) Province U Ar Au As Ao Av Fe Fc Fd Ff Fm S G
BANTEAY 14 2,164 32 26 0 0 1,816 0 944 134 0 2,270 79 MEANCHEY Battambang 46 2,494 115 62 0 17 3,369 0 1,850 2,224 0 2,107 204 Kompong Speu 0 1,373 894 38 0 0 1,479 0 2,899 0 0 31 39 Kompot 0 1,393 153 30 0 18 1,745 0 1,277 0 38 15 326 Kompong Chhnang 0 772 550 12 0 21 429 0 1,854 908 0 61 295 Kandal 1 844 127 0 0 115 0 0 0 926 0 565 527 Koh kong 0 598 294 180 0 0 10,296 93 414 0 834 17 146 Kompong Cham 2 2,111 234 50 864 65 2,667 0 829 1,181 0 345 511 Kompong Thom 6 1,753 67 160 20 2 6,250 0 416 1,214 0 1,526 1,558 Kratie 0 534 3 53 39 192 4,537 0 5,978 203 0 151 27 Mondulkiri 0 2 0 10 14 0 4,443 0 8,372 0 0 475 369 Preah Vihear 0 222 2 47 0 0 4,050 0 8,992 0 0 262 8 Prey Veng 0 2,541 5 1 0 5 154 0 0 385 0 276 1,247 Pursat 2 1,696 0 160 0 71 6,214 0 1,411 871 0 861 88 Ratanakiri 0 66 0 292 0 0 7,878 0 4,022 0 0 187 2 Siem Reap 49 2,522 61 378 0 6 6,317 0 4,014 1,240 0 916 131 Sihanouk Ville 2 230 122 32 6 6 857 0 0 0 74 29 75 Stung Treng 0 45 0 27 0 0 5,934 0 4,501 0 0 294 14 Svay Rieng 0 1,668 0 15 0 0 287 0 0 0 0 88 792 Takeo 0 1,986 127 0 0 0 41 0 156 41 0 11 863 Phnom Penh 25 223 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 52 0 7 24 Tonle Sap lake 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Total 147 25,210 2,786 1,573 943 518 68,764 93 47,929 9,379 946 10,569 7,196
Area statistics - 1973/76 Cambodia land cover (area in km2) UNEP SCS/National Report Cambodia Page 99
Province W B Total U - URBAN / CITIES Banteay Meanchey 1 0 7,480 Ar - Paddy / fields Battambang 14 0 12,501 Au - Upland crops Kompong Speu 3 0 6,756 As - Swidden agriculture Kompot 0 24 5,020 Ao - Orchards Kompong Chhnang 304 72 5,278 Av - Field crops Kandal 336 222 3,663 Fe - Evergreen forest Koh kong 146 0 12,964 Fc - Coniferous forest Kompong Cham 251 248 9,358 Fd - Deciduous forest Kompong Thom 103 0 13,076 Ff - Secondary forest Kratie 322 22 12,061 Fm - Mangrove forest Mondulkiri 17 0 13,702 S - Shrub Preah Vihear 3 0 13,586 G - Grasslands Prey Veng 199 34 4,847 w - Water surfaces Pursat 82 0 11,457 B - Barren lands Ratanakiri 114 0 12,561 Siem Reap 92 0 15,726 Sihanouk Ville 20 0 1,426 Stung Treng 346 14 11,175 Svay Rieng 0 0 2,850 Takeo 186 19 3,430 Phnom Penh 59 12 402 Tonle Sap lake 2,216 0 2,216 Total 4,814 667 181,535
Source: Mekong Secretariat in cooperation with LUMO for FAO and UNDP, 1994. UNEP SCS/National Report Cambodia Page 100
Area statistics - 1985 /87 Cambodia land cover area in km2) (See figure 2.16)
Province U Ar Af Au As Ao Ap Av Fe Fc Fd Fx Fs BANTEAY 12 1,320 0 350 31 0 0 57 584 0 223 358 572 MEANCHEY Battambang 0 1,957 20 275 33 0 0 56 1,601 0 1,729 1,416 136 Kompong Speu 0 868 0 667 0 0 0 38 1,287 0 2,551 95 404 Kompot 0 1,330 0 98 18 0 0 90 1,605 0 1,163 19 153 Kompong Chhnang 0 626 5 498 14 0 0 148 404 0 1,387 0 44 Kandal 8 321 0 248 0 0 0 957 0 0 0 0 3 Koh kong 0 209 0 252 21 0 0 21 10,218 82 307 78 376 Kompong Cham 0 1,781 0 760 72 16 729 948 1,431 0 389 32 449 Kompong Thom 0 1,786 31 135 188 0 7 37 4,813 0 383 323 945 Kratie 0 447 0 55 6 0 53 174 3,164 0 5,867 1,038 123 Mondulkiri 0 56 0 32 16 0 0 18 2,259 0 7.799 1,604 503 Preah Vihear 0 277 0 10 50 0 0 3 2,161 0 8,479 1,791 160 Prey Veng 0 3,068 0 17 4 0 0 458 14 0 0 0 41 Pursat 0 1,206 36 40 44 0 0 0 4,512 0 1,493 644 629 Ratanakiri 1 117 0 2 291 0 41 2 6,014 0 3,998 576 724 Siem Reap 0 2,332 83 177 557 0 0 116 2,942 0 3,898 2,098 610 Sihanouk Ville 0 216 0 16 36 0 0 85 781 0 0 4 75 Stung Treng 0 201 0 43 24 0 0 9 4,681 0 3,902 1,054 128 Svay Rieng 0 2,061 0 0 13 0 0 213 56 0 0 0 31 Takeo 0 1,740 0 219 0 0 0 191 0 0 114 0 78 Phnom Penh 42 124 0 36 0 0 0 46 0 0 0 0 1 Tonle Sap lake 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Total 63 22,043 175 3,930 ,1358 16 830 3,668 48,527 82 43,679 11,130 6,185 UNEP SCS/National Report Cambodia Page 101
Area statistics - 1985 /87 Cambodia land cover (area in km2)
Province Ff Ffs Fm St Sn Sa Ss G Gs Gf Ga Gm W B Total BANTEAY 3 0 0 2,825 273 0 0 19 109 0 678 0 66 0 7,480 MEANCHEY Battambang 1,917 25 0 2 1,652 809 0 0 0 60 774 0 40 0 12,501 Kompong Speu 0 0 0 33 350 439 0 0 0 16 0 0 8 0 6,756 Kompot 0 0 16 15 309 91 0 0 0 4 32 42 35 0 5,020 Kompong Chhnang 911 0 0 47 312 451 23 0 0 111 24 0 261 12 5,278 Kandal 789 129 0 2 350 65 9 0 0 102 0 196 441 43 3,663 Koh kong 0 0 600 25 293 184 0 0 5 11 0 0 271 10 12,963 Kompong Cham 871 4 0 5 929 362 63 0 0 87 91 0 315 24 9,358 Kompong Thom 1,093 0 0 515 1,114 689 1 0 43 151 660 0 162 0 13,076 Kratie 99 0 0 429 199 14 0 0 0 0 38 0 296 60 12,061 Mondulkiri 0 0 0 701 76 12 0 0 606 0 0 0 20 0 13,702 Preah Vihear 0 0 0 196 292 163 0 0 0 0 0 0 4 0 13,586 Prey Veng 302 48 0 2 315 71 12 0 0 32 8 21 434 0 4,847 Pursat 800 0 0 121 1,095 483 10 0 1 13 213 0 117 0 11,457 Ratanakiri 0 0 0 470 79 126 0 0 29 0 0 0 151 0 12,561 Siem Reap 871 8 0 52 896 769 0 0 20 9 194 0 94 0 15,726 Sihanouk Ville 0 0 69 0 30 38 0 0 0 0 0 48 26 0 1,426 Stung Treng 0 0 0 758 19 4 0 0 0 0 0 0 352 0 11,175 Svay Rieng 0 0 0 117 158 0 0 0 0 162 0 0 39 0 2,850 Takeo 284 63 0 2 311 22 4 0 0 11 65 25 301 0 3,430 Phnom Penh 14 5 0 0 71 2 0 0 0 39 0 0 22 0 402 Tonle Sap lake 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2,216 0 2,216 Total 7,954 282 685 3,492 11,674 5,067 122 19 813 808 2,777 332 5,671 149 181,535 UNEP SCS/National Report Cambodia Page 102
LEGEND for Map 1985 / 87
U - Urban / Cities Ff - Flooded forest Ar - Paddy / fields Ffs - Flooded secondary forest Af - Receding rice fields Fm - Mangrove forest Au - Upland crops St - Woodlands As - Swidden agriculture Sn - Natural shrublands Ao - Orchards Sa - Abandoned shrublands Ap - Plantation Ss - Swamps Av - Field crops G - Grasslands Fe - Evergreen forest Gs - Grass savannah Fc - Coniferous forest Gf - Flooded grasslands Fd - Deciduous forest Ga - Abandoned grasslands Fx - Mixed forest Gm - Marshes Fs - Secondary forest w - Water surfaces B - Barren lands
Source: Mekong Secretariat in cooperation with LUMO for FAO and UNDP, 1994.
Area statistics - 1992/93 Cambodia land cover (area in km2) (See figure 2.17) UNEP SCS/National Report Cambodia Page 103
Province U AR Af AU AS Ao Ap AV FE Fc FD FX FS
BANTEAY 0 1,967 2 171 3 0 0 177 562 0 924 93 255 MEANCHEY Battambang 0 2,475 21 93 39 0 0 281 1,662 0 1,309 943 444 Kompong Speu 0 865 0 843 0 0 0 10 924 0 2,491 23 229 Kompot 0 1,525 0 195 0 0 0 5 1,546 0 976 2 145 Kompong Chhnang 0 532 22 727 1 0 0 197 167 0 902 87 195 Kandal 1 542 0 267 0 0 0 1,467 0 0 0 0 6 Koh kong 0 173 0 329 0 0 0 0 10,547 98 360 14 244 Kompong Cham 4 2,197 0 732 27 184 717 1,315 1,319 0 474 316 181 Kompong Thom 0 1,839 91 486 151 4 6 177 4,857 0 516 388 776 Kratie 0 730 0 89 10 0 22 245 3,122 0 5,190 1,195 4 Mondulkiri 0 64 0 0 105 0 0 0 2,164 0 7,792 1,032 234 Preah Vihear 13 392 0 45 27 0 0 0 2,216 0 8,346 1,874 155 Prey Veng 0 3,594 0 37 50 0 1 708 21 0 0 0 6 Pursat 0 1,459 32 74 41 0 0 115 4,624 0 1,064 374 1,103 Ratanakiri 0 99 0 9 768 0 0 0 5,636 0 4,858 691 301 Siem Reap 0 2,682 125 154 449 0 0 123 2,759 0 3,950 1,737 697 Sihanouk Ville 0 128 0 72 0 0 0 0 882 0 15 0 76 Stung Treng 0 188 0 18 11 0 0 20 4,578 0 3,841 1,004 102 Svay Rieng 0 2,286 0 0 102 0 0 201 47 0 0 0 0 Takeo 0 2,168 0 288 0 0 0 188 0 0 4 0 8 Phnom Penh 27 192 0 36 0 0 0 70 0 0 0 0 9 Tonle Sap lake 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Total 45 26,097 293 4,665 1,856 188 746 5,299 47,633 98 43,012 9,773 5,170
Area statistics - 1992/93 Cambodia land cover (area in km2) UNEP SCS/National Report Cambodia Page 104
Province Ff Ffs m St Sn Sa Ss G Gs Gf Ga Gm W B Total Banteay Meanchey 2 0 0 485 2,440 228 0 0 0 37 113 0 22 0 7,481 Battambang 779 1 0 132 2,109 754 0 0 0 142 215 2 11 30 12,510 Kompong Speu 0 0 0 780 472 104 0 0 0 6 4 0 5 0 6,756 Kompot 0 0 79 102 257 42 0 0 0 30 61 0 7 48 5,020 Kompong Chhnang 722 107 0 217 1,065 113 0 0 0 10 10 0 204 0 5,278 Kandal 706 22 0 14 160 27 0 0 0 68 10 0 282 91 3,663 Koh kong 0 0 637 56 401 69 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 7 12,963 Kompong Cham 453 0 0 50 973 123 0 0 0 1 5 0 202 39 9,358 Kompong Thom 172 726 0 330 1,419 286 0 0 45 196 450 0 161 0 13,076 Kratie 0 0 0 526 465 15 0 0 0 78 27 0 310 33 12,061 Mondulkiri 0 0 0 1,876 44 0 0 0 391 0 0 0 0 0 13,702 Preah Vihear 0 0 0 300 209 7 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 13,586 Prey Veng 79 14 0 34 167 0 0 0 10 32 8 0 74 12 4,847 Pursat 261 389 0 203 1,316 267 14 0 5 1 50 0 60 5 11,457 Ratanakiri 0 0 0 109 10 0 0 0 0 0 0 12 68 0 12,561 Siem Reap 337 234 0 103 1,615 481 0 0 4 64 98 0 114 0 15,726 Sihanouk Ville 0 0 135 4 41 6 0 0 13 0 0 0 0 54 1,426 Stung Treng 0 0 0 1,111 6 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 283 13 11,175 Svay Rieng 0 0 0 124 71 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 19 0 2,850 Takeo 185 45 0 7 250 6 0 24 0 172 37 0 46 2 3,430 Phnom Penh 11 0 0 0 11 0 0 0 0 12 7 0 27 0 402 Tonle Sap lake 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2,216 0 2,216 Total 3,707 2,598 851 6,563 13,501 2,528 14 24 468 849 1,095 15 4,111 336 181,535 UNEP SCS/National Report Cambodia Page 105
LEGEND for Map 1992 / 93
U - Urban / Cities Ff - Flooded forest Ar - Paddy / fields Ffs - Flooded secondary forest Af - Receding rice fields Fm - Mangrove forest Au - Upland crops St - Woodlands As - Swidden agriculture Sn - Natural shrublands Ao - Orchards Sa - Abandoned shrublands Ap - Plantation Ss - Swamps Av - Field crops G - Grasslands Fe - Evergreen forest Gs - Grass savannah Fc - Coniferous forest Gf - Flooded grasslands Fd - Deciduous forest Ga - Abandoned grasslands Fx - Mixed forest Gm - Marshes Fs - Secondary forest w - Water surfaces B - Barren lands
Source: Mekong Secretariat in cooperation with LUMO for FAO and UNDP, 1994. UNEP SCS/National Report Cambodia Page 106 UNEP SCS/National Report Cambodia Page 107 UNEP SCS/National Report Cambodia Page 108 UNEP SCS/National Report Cambodia Page 109 UNEP SCS/National Report Cambodia Page 110 UNEP SCS/National Report Cambodia Page 111 UNEP SCS/National Report Cambodia Page 112 UNEP SCS/National Report Cambodia Page 113 UNEP SCS/National Report Cambodia Page 114 UNEP SCS/National Report Cambodia Page 115 UNEP SCS/National Report Cambodia Page 116 UNEP SCS/National Report Cambodia Page 117 UNEP SCS/National Report Cambodia Page 118 UNEP SCS/National Report Cambodia Page 119 UNEP SCS/National Report Cambodia Page 120 UNEP SCS/National Report Cambodia Page 121 UNEP SCS/National Report Cambodia Page 122