Computer Aided Drafting, Design and Manufacturing Volume 25, Number 1, March 2015, Page 7 CADDM

Projection Theory and Research of Ancient Chinese Graphics

LIU Ke-ming1, LIU -shi2

1. School of Humanities, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan 430074, ; 2. School of Architecture, Tsighua University, Beijing 100084, China.

Abstract: Demonstrating the approach to protract the figure of three-dimensional graphs with geometrical forms in two-dimensional planes, graphics is a basic technical discipline of examining protracting engineering drawings using the method of projection and addressing issues on space geometry as well as its theory and approach. Graphics is also a kind of semiotic system of writing. China boasts of rich tradition of graphics with amazing architectural drawings in Pre-Qin period, booming theories of graphics in Wei and Jin Dynasties, refined protracted drawings in Song and Yuan Dynasties, and graphics being regarded as important instruments in Ming and Qing Dynasties when thorough apprehension were pursued in order to seek the practice of administration. It not only forms the basis for modern and contemporary graphics in China, but also shapes the future development of graphics. Key words: ancient Chinese graphics; projection theory; focus perspective; cavalier perspective

China boasts of rich tradition of graphics with 1 Introduction amazing architectural drawings in Pre-Qin period, Graphics is one of the important tools of both booming theories of graphics in Wei and Jin Dynasties, thinking and communicating in human society. The refined protracted drawings in Song and Yuan engineering drawings that are applied to ''construction Dynasties, and graphics being regarded as important in line with the drawings'' or ''processing according to instruments in Ming and Qing Dynasties when the drawings'' are not only necessary documents for thorough apprehension were pursued in order to seek technologies and project construction, but also the practice of administration. It not only forms the important tools for technical communications among basis for modern and contemporary graphics in China, scientists and technicians, among different areas and but also shapes the future development of graphics. among various drawings. Therefore, engineering drawings are recognized as ''international language'' 2 Recognition of Projection in The Works th commonly used by the circle of engineering and of Liezi in the 5 Century BC technology. Demonstrating the approach to protract the figure of three-dimensional graphs with The recognition of the method of projection has a geometrical forms in two-dimensional planes, long history in China. It can be dated back to the graphics is a basic technical discipline of examining Spring-Autumn and Warring States period (around the protracting engineering drawings using the method of year BC 475). The recognition of projection can be projection and addressing issues on space geometry as seen in the first chapter of ''Telling Stories, the Eighth'' well as its theory and approach. Graphics is also a of The Works of Liezi. The method of projection and kind of semiotic system of writing. It is necessary its theory was stated as, ''If the shape of body is knowledge basis of every engineer and technician who winding, the shadow will be curved; if the shape of consciously conceives, analyzes, and expresses the body is upright, the shadow will be straight. '' Its problems on engineering and technology by means of principle is shown in Fig.1. drawing process as well as thinks in a scientific The second chapter of ''Telling Stories'' of The manner using graphic approach. Therefore, graphics is Works of Liezi also addressed that ''if the body is long, an important benchmark of the level of development the shadow will be long; if the body is short, the of various disciplines. shadow will be short'', which means if the stature is tall, the projected shadow will be long; if the stature is

Corresponding author: LIU Ke-ming, Male, Ph.D., E-mail: [email protected]. 8 Computer Aided Drafting, Design and Manufacturing (CADDM), Vol.25, No.1, Mar. 2015 small, the projected shadow will be short. The above modern theory of orthogonal projection. Its principle statement is the general rule of projection, which is in is shown in Fig.2. line with the principle of linear projection in the

(a) (b)

Fig.1. Diagram of the recognition of projection as ''the curved or straight shadow depends on the shape of body'' and ''its winding or upright depends on foreign bodies'' in The Works of Liezi.

Fig.2. Diagram of the recognition of projection as ''if the body is long, the shadow will be long; if the body is short, the shadow will be short'' in The Works of Liezi.

over several feet horizontally is equivalent to as far as 3 Theory of Focus Perspective of Zong hundreds feet. '' Bing of Kingdom of Song of the Southern Dynasties (the 4th to 5th Centuries)

In Chinese literature, the earliest systematic statement on central projection can be found in the article ''Preface of Painting Landscape'' written by Zong Bing (376-443) of the Kingdom of Song in the Southern Dynasties, which said ''however, Kunlun Mountain is so huge and the eyes are so small that if the eyes are forced to be so close to the mountain, the Fig.3. Geometrical model of the theory of focus shape of the mountain will not be seen. If one is perspective derived from Preface of Painting several miles away from the mountain, the whole Landscape written by Zong Bing. shape of the mountain will be enclosed in one's eyes. It is because the more distant one is from the landscape, the smaller its shape that one can see. Now As the earliest record in the world up-to-date, it is a let us unfold a piece of silk on which to allow the valuable literature on the history of graphics and can distant landscape to project. So the shape of Lang also be recognized as an elaborating statement on Feng Dian, which means the place that gods live, on central projection, i.e. the theory of perspectives. Zong the top of Kunlun Mountain can be included in the Bing believed that for the same object, if one is too small piece of silk. To paint three feet vertically is close to it, the complete picture cannot be viewed; equivalent to as high as thousands feet. To spread ink otherwise, if one is distant from it, its complete profile LIU Ke-ming and LIU Li-shi, Projection Theory and Research of Ancient Chinese Graphics 15 can thus be seen, hence so called ''everything looks straight-forward and concise schematic diagram of small in the distance and big on the contrary''. Unfold perspective projection. It is within this theoretical a piece of silk and place it between eyes and the object. context that the architectural graphics in ancient China So the tall and high objects or landscapes can be developed gradually[1-2]. projected. The geometrical model based on Zong Bing’s theory is shown in Fig.3. 4 Theories of and in th th The statement of ''to paint three feet vertically is Northern (11 to 12 equivalent to as high as thousands feet; to spread ink Century) over several feet horizontally is equivalent to as far as Not being satisfied by the method of central hundreds feet'' describes the mathematical relationship projection, i. e. focus perspective, scholars of graphics between the projection and the object being projected, in China following Zong Bing established new which is close to the similarity theory in affine theories to meet the needs of creative painting geometry. Its geometrical model is shown in Fig.4 and according to the requirements of paintings and Fig.5. drawings in visual and spatial composition. Guo Xi, the painter (unknown birth and death dates) and Shen Kuo (1031-1095), the scientist in Song Dynasty proposed the method of ''three remoteness'', the composition theory of ''residing'', ''roaming'', ''the shape of mountain can be viewed from various facets'', and ''the shape of mountain is different as one moves along'', and the ideas of ''small by near and big in the distance'', ''folding close'' and ''folding distant'', addressing fundamentally the contradiction between the method of perspective drawing and the painting Fig.4. Diagram of ''to paint three feet vertically is image and being recognized as development and equivalent to as high as thousands feet'' derived innovation of the perspective theory of traditional from Preface of Painting Landscape written by Chinese paintings. Zong Bing. (1) Guo Xi's Method of Three ''Remoteness'' Guo Xi, the outstanding landscape painter in the Northern Song dynasty in the 11th to 12th century, wrote a book entitled ''Lin Quan Gao Zhi Ji'', which means the corpus of exquisite sentiment for forests and fountains, advocating that creative painting shall be based on everyday life and the experience of close observation on the Nature. In summarizing the aspect of framing and composition, he pointed out, ''There are three 'remoteness' for mountains: looking up the top of mountain from the foot is called high Fig.5. Diagram of ''to spread ink over several feet horizontally is equivalent to as far as hundreds remoteness; peeping at the back of the mountain from feet'' derived from Preface of Painting Landscape the front is called further remoteness; viewing the written by Zong Bing. distant mountains from the adjacent mountain is called horizontal remoteness.'' This is the method of ''three remoteness'' in framing traditional Chinese paintings. The statements in ''Preface of Painting Landscape'' He proposed changes in perspective emerged from written by Zong Bing can be recognized as the pioneer different points of sight, which summarizes the basic of modern ''third angle method''. From the point of method of framing in traditional Chinese paintings. sight to ''a piece of silk'' indicates the plane of projection and from ''a piece of silk'' to ''the shape of According to the principle of perspective, this Lang Feng Dian on the top of Kunlun Mountain'' method of ''three remoteness'' describes three means the object being projected. The underlying perspective relations of upward-view, horizontal view principle of this model of projection is the same as and top-view generated from three different locations third angle method. It can be recognized as a of points of sight during the process of vertical 10 Computer Aided Drafting, Design and Manufacturing (CADDM), Vol.25, No.1, Mar. 2015 movement. facets of the branch of flower can be grasped. The painters who are learning to paint bamboos take a Summarizing the creative experience of Guo Xi and branch of bamboo. In the moonlit night, its shadow is his predecessors, the proposition of the method of casted onto the white wall with the real shape of the ''three remoteness'' illuminates the rules of changes of bamboo emerging. What is the difference with the composition formed by viewers in various points of painters who are learning to paint landscape? '' He also sight, i.e. upward-view, horizontal view and top-view. stated that ''the mountain can be different if viewed ''Highly remoteness'' is suitable for expressing the from close points, several miles away, or dozens miles lofty and soaring of mountains when viewed from away. Whenever one moves further, the mountain close viewpoints and upward viewpoints; ''further looks even more different. This is called 'the shape of remoteness'' lends itself to represent the mountain is different as one moves along'; the superimposition and uninterrupted of increasingly mountain can be different if viewed from the front, or high and distant mountains; ''horizontal remoteness'' the side, or the back. Every time one looks at it, the fits to the expression of stretching to the horizon of mountain seems even more different. This is called deep mountains. The proposition of ''three 'the shape of mountain can be viewed from various remoteness'' allows us clear theoretical understanding facets' ''. of several basic methods of framing in composition of traditional . Guo Xi emphasized that in painting landscape, one shall observe objects as ''the shape of mountain can be (2) ''Residing'', ''Roaming'', ''The shape of mountain viewed from various facets'', and ''the shape of can be viewed from various facets'', and ''The shape of mountain is different as one moves along'', i.e. not mountain is different as one moves along'' with a fixed perspective or point of sight. Painters It is yet not complete to interpret Guo Xi's theory of shall not only experience the terrain, structure, and the ''three remoteness'' in terms of the relation between the natural changes according to different seasons and change of perspective and the horizontal line, apparent climates, but also examine and apply various vertical and central point. For Guo Xi's theory is not composition methods for expression based on the only limited within focus perspective. Rather, it is a needs of artistic expression. For various methods of breakthrough against the constraints of focus perspective formed different artistic realm, which is perspective, a kind of cavalier perspective that relies just the living and practical basis of the generation of on the movement and change of point of sight. In Lin the method of ''three remoteness'' and its Quan Gao, Zhi Ji, Guo Xi proposed the theory of argumentation. In traditional Chinese long-scroll ''residing'', ''roaming'', ''the shape of mountain can be paintings, the ''three remoteness'' as various methods viewed from various facets'', and ''the shape of of framing are often integrated, breaking the temporal mountain is different as one moves along''. and spatial limitations, which is the unique expression ''Cavalier perspective'' is the method that does not tool that emerged from this observation method. fix the location of point of sight. Rather, the sight line (3) The Perspective Theory in Meng Xi Bi Tan can be moved according to the needs of the picture in written by Shen Kuo order to express the realm that is wide and deep. This Shen Kuo in the Northern Song Dynasty method of observation is in line with the artistic (1031-1095) wrote 26 volumes of Meng Xi Bi Tan requirements of highlighting similarity in spirit. The (which means Dream Pool Essays), with two volumes holistic idea of image can only be shaped by means of of supplementary Bi Tan (which means Essays) and further sensing from different perspectives. The one volume of Xu Bi Tan (which means Continuance essential characteristics and spiritual atmosphere of Essays). His perspective theory is found in the volume the object can only be grasped by means of framing of ''The Category of Calligraphy and Painting'' of this and beginning to paint after understanding the book. In this volume, he proposed the unique opinion structure, characteristics and appearance of the object. on ''small by near and big in the distance'', ''folding In Lin Quan Gao, Zhi Ji, Guo Xi discussed the close'' and ''folding distant'', most of which proved theories on projection and cavalier perspective in excellent insights. First of all, Shen Kuo regarded that painting using the examples of painting flowers and the framing of paintings shall conform to the rules of bamboos from different perspectives and in various perspective. Therefore he appreciated the artworks of ways. He said that ''the painters who are learning to Dong Yuan and Ju Ran, with comments ''if the paint flowers place a flower in a deep hole and stand artworks are viewed from close point, they are seldom over the top of it and overlook it. In doing so, the four like real objects; however, if they are viewed from LIU Ke-ming and LIU Li-shi, Projection Theory and Research of Ancient Chinese Graphics 15 distant, the landscape will be apparent. '' and big in the distance'', ''folding high'' and ''folding distant'', which are unique in traditional Chinese Secondly, Shen Kuo placed emphasis on cavalier paintings, and established in the first place perspective perspective rather than focus perspective. In Meng Xi theory for this painting method. However, rather than Bi Tan, he proposed his own opinion on Li Cheng's originated from Li Cheng, the approach of ''painting ''painting overhanging eaves with face upward''. He overhanging eaves with face upward'' was originated wrote in Meng Xi Bi Tan that ''another example can be from early Tang Dynasty, which proved also as seen in Li Cheng's paintings of pavilions and towers valuable since the feeling of steep and lofty of objects on hills. He painted all wide eaves with face upward. can be expressed. He explained this as viewing upward from below and said if viewed the eaves of towers horizontally, one Honestly, concerning the paintings of Li Cheng, could only see its rafters. I do not agree with him. ''there were seldom predecessors who could compare Concerning the method of painting landscape, the rule and now there are few who can compete. '' Shen Kuo 'small by near and big in the distance' shall be obeyed, also highly appreciated Li's artwork, and in ''Poems of which is similar to one's viewing rockwork. If the Drawings and Painting'', regarded ''Li Cheng's brushes method is the same as observing a real hill, one can as beating the Nature''. In ''Poems of Drawings and only see one layer of mountain when viewing upward Painting'', Shen Kuo also highly evaluated the from below. How can one see layers of mountains? paintings in the period between Tang and Song One cannot see what happened in the creeks and Dynasties[3]. valleys either. We can take house as another example. (4) The Theoretical Basis of Cavalier Perspective In this way, one cannot see what happened in the courtyard or in the back lane. If one stands at the east The basic principles of cavalier perspective lies in of the hill, the west side of the hill will be the distant breaking the limitation of one single field of vision, view; if one stand at the west of the hill, the east side moving the points of sight and integrating multiple of the hill will be the distant view. If this is true, how fields of vision in order to organize the landscape into can one paint landscape? Mr. Li may not know the one frame naturally and organically. The method rule of 'small by near and big in the distance', where allows greater freedom for the composition of one can apply the method of 'folding high' or 'folding paintings, achieving the goal of widely viewing and distant' with clever reasons. How does it concern with comprehensively framing as ''placing everything in lifting open the corners of houses? '' one's mind'' and operating as one wishes as ''writing every aspect of landscape''. Due to the widened The key focus of Shen Kuo's theory lies in the volume of the fields of vision, some particular forms method of ''small by near and big in the distance'', of composition can be thus generated, such as which is not only the approach of creation of long-scroll, vertical scroll, vertically-hung scroll, etc, traditional Chinese paintings, but also scientific allowing greater wideness and performance of the conclusion on the issues of perspective expressed in objects and landscapes painted in one frame. The Chinese vocabularies. The proposition of ''folding combination of multiple fields of vision of cavalier high'' and ''folding distant'' is the clear recognition of perspective includes the horizontal and vertical the corresponding relation in quantity to the integration of multiple fields of vision. phenomenon of perspective as "everything looks small in the distance and big on the contrary." There are two ① The Method of Horizontal Movement of layers of meanings in the method of ''small by near Multiple Fields of Vision and big in the distance'': it not only points out the In Lin Quan Gao Zhi Ji, Guo Xi stated that ''The unique framing approach of traditional Chinese exact comments of common people are that in the paintings, but also illuminates the unique perspective landscape of a painting, if there is walking, viewing, method and way of thinking in traditional Chinese roaming, residing, the artwork shall be within the paintings. The huge-length or long-scroll landscape category of excellence.'' It is the repetition of the painting in China is expressed using the method of movement of painter's point of sight to observe the “small by near and big in the distance'', i.e. cavalier landscape by viewer's eyes that move along the rolling perspective. If they are painted with focus perspective, of the scroll, illustrating the obvious continuity and i.e. expressed by means of ''lifting open the corners of migration of the objects and landscape of the painting. houses'', it seems impossible to paint. The orientation of the movement of the point of sight Shen Kuo acknowledged and illuminated of the painter is the prerequisite of determining the theoretically cavalier perspective as ''small by near ways of combination of the picture with cavalier 12 Computer Aided Drafting, Design and Manufacturing (CADDM), Vol.25, No.1, Mar. 2015 perspective. The observation on objects and landscape with point to line that covers only small areas, it is of people's eyes in movement is operated along three necessary to adopt the observation method with line to dimensions: height, width, and depth. The points of line, i.e. placing the points of sight according the sight can be moved left and right, or back and forth, or sequence of objects. In doing so, one can observe the up and down, or expended and moved horizontally objects with certain apparent distant and angle, and vertically in the same time. The frames composed shaping the parallel movement process of the picture of cavalier perspective belong to the category of plane with the same directional fields of vision. Thus combination of multiple fields of vision. continuous field of vision can be obtained and linked. The resulted path of the central point is still a Take the horizontal combination of multiple fields horizontal line. If one observes a cube with the of vision as an example. This kind of combination can parallel sequence movement of the point of sight in form such compositions as horizontal scroll and the angle of 45 degree, the combination of the long-scroll as the result of the horizontal movement of continuous sequence planes of the 45 degree angled points of sight, including the left and right, and back cube, with the 45 degree angled edges of each cube and forth movement of the point of sight. For instance, vanishing at the left and right distant points of this with the method of directional movement of field of vision respectively. Its drawing principle is horizontal multiple fields of vision, when the illustrated in Fig.6. landscape stretching dozens, hundreds or thousands of miles cannot be expressed by the turning point method

Fig.6. Illustration of parallel movement of multiple fields of vision with the point of sight moving horizontally at the angle of 45 degree.

In term of expression, the contents of every field of position higher than the picture. The virtual and reality vision are often linked according to certain associated as well as the sparse and dense of the planes vary, factors, as can be seen in the long-scroll paintings. For alternate and experience changes up and down within example, in ''Along the River during the Qingming the straight long-scroll painting. The dwellings in the Festival'' by Zeduan in Song Dynasty, the painting are placed along the roads or the river with booming and prosperous scenes of Bianliang City different orientations. The drawing method of parallel during the are expressed by means projection is applied to reinforce the stereo feeling of of multiple visions of peoples' activities within the many buildings. When viewing the picture, one can city as well as outside the city with the time as its feel being personally on the scene. inner associated factor. The parallel movement of high ② The Vertical Combination of Multiple Fields of viewpoints and the method of composition of walking Vision viewing are adopted in this painting, allowing the viewers feeling watching the scenes and appreciating In addition to the horizontal combination of the sentiments with the visitors at the apparent multiple fields of visions, there are vertical combinations of multiple fields of vision represented LIU Ke-ming and LIU Li-shi, Projection Theory and Research of Ancient Chinese Graphics 15 as such forms of composition as vertically-hung scroll The combination of fields of vision as the vertical and vertical scroll, which are the results of the vertical vs. height refers to the observation with the point of movement of points of sight. In short, it is the sight moving from bottom to top on the objects combination of multiple fields of vision of sequencing in vertical order. If one observes a cube upward-view and top-view. The words of with regular vertical movement of the viewpoint, the ''upward-view'' and ''top-view'' can be first found in linking of the fields of vision with vanishing trajectory ''Ren Jian Shi'' (''The Secular World'') in Zhaungzi, can be obtained. However, in traditional Chinese which best recorded the vertical combination of paintings, the combination of vertical fields of vision multiple fields of vision for the first time. Its without vanishing trajectory is often adopted to observation method is similar to the rule of the contract landscapes with different heights onto the horizontal combination of multiple fields of vision, vertically-hung scroll plane. with varied directions. The combination of visions can The combination of fields of vision as the vertical be the permutation of upward-view and top-view from vs. depth expresses the changes of the depth, or the fixed position of viewpoint, as well as the closeness and remoteness, of many artworks in the sequence of the vertical movement of points of sight. vertical scroll composition of traditional Chinese The method of combination of upward-view and paintings instead of expressing the hierarchy of height top-view from the fixed point of sight places the of landscape. The range from the bottom to top of the landscapes both higher and lower than the point of vertical scroll is used as the volume of the depth of sight onto one picture. Since the viewpoint is fixed, it objects and landscapes. For the scenes with great is apparently the process of observation on the depth, one can climb higher and observe the different landscape with upward-view and top-view. The depth at different height, which is called observing the painters may sit behind the fixed apparent position close from the bottom and the distant from the top. So halfway up the mountain, lowering his head and by rising step by step, the landscape is pushed further viewing creeks, slope paths, rocks and trees and from the bottom to the top of the plane naturally with looking up and viewing upright mountains and peaks. less sheltering from each other, pushing the depth of Between upward-view and top-view, there must be the plane even further. landscape of the field of vision with horizontal view, The relationship between rising of the point of sight either in mist or woods on the remote slopes, linking and pushing further the landscape can be seen as a the lower and higher landscapes naturally. Actually, it cluster of series of paralleled lines generated from the is the method of looking around vertically at fixed points of sight that locate at far distance when viewing position, by means of which the combination of planes landscape at the same angle of views with the points with vanishing trajectory is obtained. of sight at different height. In doing so, all the scenes In addition, there is a kind of combination of field are located below the height of the apparent position, of vision without vanishing trajectory. Such types of resulting the rising up of the composition. This is the composition in traditional Chinese paintings are very method applied by the painter to achieve the commonly seen: in one picture, there are objects and observation effect with ideal, infinite points of sight landscape with upward-view, horizontal view and by means of limited steps of movement at close top-view; or the foreground is from top-view, the distance. It is also the difference between traditional medium shot horizontal view and the background Chinese paintings that make use of the height of the upward-view; or the foreground is from top-view, the plane to accumulate the depth of the landscape and medium shot is the combination of horizontal view western paintings that push the background to the upward-view, and the background is from horizontal vanishing line to intensify and flatten the landscape, view; or there is difference of upward-view and expressing the advantage of the composition without top-view for landscape, while the apparent position for vanishing trajectory. The illustration of the vertical all dwellings are the same, no matter their heights. movement of multiple fields of vision in cavalier perspective can be seen in Fig.7 and Fig.8[4-7]. The method of directional vertical movement can form the composition of vertically-hung scroll with Characterized by Chinese culture, the systematic the approach of moving vertically the point of sight summarization of the perspective theories by Guo Xi and observing at different height before linking each and Shen Kuo during the 11th to 12th centuries is the field of vision. Due to the different characteristics of contribution of scholars of graphics in ancient China the landscape sequencing, there are various results of to the perspective theory and the transcendence over the picture after vertically moving the viewpoint. and denial against focus perspective in the theory of 14 Computer Aided Drafting, Design and Manufacturing (CADDM), Vol.25, No.1, Mar. 2015 graphics. With unique operating approaches, cavalier Ming and Qing Dynasties advanced despite perspective conforms to the basic rule and principles difficulties in sorting out and elucidating the graphics of perspective, while is not subject to general rules theories in ancient China as well as the techniques of and principles. The place of observation of the drawing and painting. At the same time, they absorbed painters is neither fixed nor limited by certain fields of the theories and techniques of western graphics while vision. Rather, one can move his position to observe studied and introduced the western graphics, making according to one's own creative intentions. The great contributions on the piling up of the knowledge contents viewed from different positions can be of graphics home and abroad with innovative organized into the picture plane according to one's achievements. The emergence of Shi Xue (Study of own needs, allowing the expression of the picture Vision) and Qi Xiang Xian Zhen (The Engineer and plane more comprehensive and vivid. Machinist's Drawing Book), the two representative works on the theories of western graphics in modern In the historical process of the development of times introduced in , exemplified the graphics, China experienced halfway declining in the achievements on engineering graphics and techniques Ming and Qing Dynasties, losing its role in the of architectural drawing in China at that time, development process of graphics around the world and reflecting concretely the evolution from traditional withdrawing from the historical stage. Although at graphics to modern and contemporary graphics. that time, China experienced slow development in science and technology, the scholars of graphics in

Fig.7. Illustration of the vertical movement of multiple fields of vision in cavalier perspective.

Fig.8. Illustration of the vertical movement of multiple fields of vision in cavalier perspective. LIU Ke-ming and LIU Li-shi, Projection Theory and Research of Ancient Chinese Graphics 15

5 Conclusions References

First, the theory and techniques of graphics are one [1] Liu Keming. A History of Engineering Drawings in China[M]. Wuhan: Huazhong University of Science and of the important means of scientific research as well Technology Press, 1st Edition, 2003: 128-135. as a potent tool in addressing engineering technologies [2] Liu Keming. On the Cultural Resources of Architectural and building construction; they are employed to Drawings in China [M]. Wuhan: Hubei Education Press, express the drawings of various space shapes and 2006: 131-148. computational problems to explore and reveal [3] Liu Keming. On the Cultural Resources of Architectural scientific laws, exerting powerful influences in a Drawings in China [M]. Wuhan: Hubei Education Press, unique way over a variety of disciplines and 2006: 205-216. continuously propelling social productive forces. [4] Yin Guangyu. Perspective [M]. Beijing: China Academy of Arts Press, 1999: 19-24. Existing for thousands of years unbroken, graphics in [5] Pu Xincheng. Drawing and Perspective [M]. Wuhan: China, with profound ideas and theories of graphics, Hubei Fine Arts Publishing House, 1991: 40-42. as well as drawing techniques, has laid a foundation [6] Needham J. Science and Civilization in China, for modern and contemporary graphics and provided VolumeⅠ[M]. London: Cambridge University Press, 1954: firm support for the traditional Chinese graphics to 35. evolve and develop into modern times. [7] Wei Yongli, Yin Jinshan. Theory of Art Techniques: Perspective and Dissection [M]. Beijing: Higher Secondly, Chinese scholars in Xianfeng and T'ung Education Press, 1995: 149-159. Chih ruling periods in Qing Dynasty integrated the Chinese and western learning as well as that in ancient LIU Ke-ming is currently a Ph.D. and modern times, which was of great help in the Huazhong University of Science and development of China's engineering and architectural Technology School of humanities, He graphics in modern times. In addition to absorbing the got his MS from University of theories and techniques of western graphics, they Science and Technology of China introduced western graphics, thus contributing 1987. His current research interests significantly to the systematization and dissemination include a history of Chinese technical drawing, study of graphics knowledge at home and abroad, making it of Chinese technological thoughts, origin and possible for China's graphics to stride forward and development of architectural drawing in China etc. He keep improving, achieving more than their can be reached at [email protected]. predecessors had ever done. It is evidenced by the emergence of such renowned specialists of graphics as LIU Yi-shi is currently a Post Nian Xiyao and Xu Jianyin and such monographs on doctoral, Tsinghua University School graphics as Shi Xue and Qi Xiang Xian Zhen. Hence, of Architecture, Dr. Berkeley the imported western graphics and fundamentals of University of California, USA. His architectural drawing greatly enriched people's current research interests include knowledge of graphics at that time and facilitated architectural technology in Modern China's engineering and architectural graphics move China, Chinese modern architectural history and urban into modern times. history, history of science and technology etc. He can be reached by [email protected].