Ebru Boyar, Kate Fleet. A Social History of Ottoman Istanbul. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010. 376 pp. $33.99, paper, ISBN 978-0-521-13623-5.
Cigdem Kafescioglu. Constantinopolis/Istanbul: Cultural Encounter, Imperial Vision, and the Construction of the Ottoman Capital. University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press, 2009. xxxii + 295 pp. $100.00, cloth, ISBN 978-0-271-02776-0.
Amy Mills. Streets of Memory: Landscape, Tolerance, and National Identity in Istanbul. Athens: University of Georgia Press, 2010. 248 pp. $24.95, paper, ISBN 978-0-8203-3574-2.
Reviewed by G. Carole Woodall
Published on H-Urban (April, 2013)
Commissioned by Alexander Vari (Marywood University)
Sometimes diferent cities follow one another Visiting the city of Maurilia, the traveler, in on the same site and under the same name, born the words of Calvino, encounters the postcard and dying without knowing one another, without representation of the city’s past that buttresses communication among themselves. --Italo Calvi‐ against the contemporary bustling streets of the no, The Invisible Cities metropolis. The city intertwines with memory, with voices, with images, establishing a dialogue H-Net Reviews with historical documents. The interplay of place, Çiğdem Kafesçioğlu’s Constantinopolis/Istan‐ of history, and of memory registers for Istanbul bul ofers an expansive, rich, and detailed account cum Constantinople cum Byzantium as it does for of changes to the city during the time of Sultan Maurilia. Istanbul’s historical fabric is that of a Mehmet II (r. 1444-46, 1451-81). An historian of palimpsest. The layered names and histories re‐ Ottoman urban and visual culture and early mod‐ place the layered manuscripts. The city’s intricate ern urban imaginaries, Kafesçioğlu’s attention to past and geographic location at the confuence of an articulated urban environment refects her waterways, its supple spine dotted with mosques vast scholarly production on the subject matter. demarcating a distinct Ottoman stamp on its to‐ Conceptually, the slippage of meanings between pography, and its multiethnic, -lingual, and –con‐ the city’s naming introduces a point of inquiry fessional fabric as a product of empires has gath‐ about the city’s meaning and its critical role to the ered a repository of visual, printed, and expres‐ construction of Ottoman imperial power that en‐ sive texts. Over the past decade, Istanbul and the gaged with a distinct Christian-Byzantine tradi‐ country at large has become more prominent in tion. Sultan Mehmet II’s ambitious reconstruction mainstream media, as a tourist destination with project of Constantinople after its fall/conquest in visitors reaching into the millions, and as a covet‐ the year 1453 initiates her examination into the ed flm location.[1] The works of Turkish novelists ways that the city’s rebuilding correlated with Orhan Pamuk and Elif Şafak exploring the inter‐ constructing and visually declaring the empire. play of identity, nostalgia, and memory in some The overall structure of the book establishes a way tackle the questions surrounding the narra‐ critical dialogue between a project of reconstruc‐ tion of history and how people understand and tion and its retelling, depiction, and portrayal vis- make sense of it.[2] Likewise, a growing number à-vis the mediums of literary devices, historiogra‐ of popular, practical,[3] and critical texts on the phy, and visual representations. Each chapter of city[4] interrogate the historical and geographical Constantinopolis/Istanbul provides a diferent in‐ transformations of an urban space, whose name, terpretative layer undergirding the complex shift Istanbul, has been consistent since the interwar from Byzantine Constantinople to Ottoman Istan‐ years.[5] Specifcally, historians of the Ottoman bul. Instead of simply allowing both names to Empire and Turkish Republic have contextualized stand for discrete units, the city is considered an diferent temporal and spatial periods working “entity,” or a “carrier of meaning in its own right” against overwrought and recognizable Orientalist (p. 208), thus punctuating the city as an agent/ac‐ stereotypes and tropes, such as Istanbul is the tor during this profound period of transforma‐ “crossroads between the east and the west,” the tion. In short, guiding the reader through various “disordered and chaotic East,” and nostalgic ren‐ economic, religious, and political layers of the city derings of a tolerant Muslim past towards reli‐ creates legibility out of “disparate urbanistic de‐ gious minorities. The feld of Ottoman social, ar‐ vices and signifying practices that shaped the chitectural, and urban history as well as interdis‐ space and images of [the city],” (p. 225). ciplinary approaches to Turkish studies has ma‐ This study begins in the years following the tured as represented by the difering scope, in‐ conquest of Constantinople (1453-59) by the Ot‐ tent, and approach of the books reviewed here. toman Turks. Emphasizing the city’s undulating Each takes as its subject matter the city of Istan‐ topography, Kafesçioğlu highlights that Con‐ bul, and feshes out divergent and overlapping stantinople’s natural vistas suggested an organic themes that navigate the city, its landscape, and understanding of how to monumentalize the its history. cityscape depicting the new ruling elite’s emerg‐ ing imperial visions as well as ruling order. She
2 H-Net Reviews introduces the reader to such building projects as artery reminiscing that of Byzantine pageantry. the Haghia Sophia (Aya Sofya); the First Palace; Likewise, her analysis, from the socioreligious and the Citadel along the shores of the Marmara functioning of Mehmet’s mosque and its sur‐ Sea, the economic seat of the Bedestan (Market); rounding buildings to the ruling elite’s architec‐ the port; and the complex of Ayyub al-Ansari--a tural patronage and lesser-known vizierial com‐ companion of the Prophet and warrior during the plexes, suggests an expansive imperial vision frst Arab siege of Constantinople--emphasizing which included Ottoman notions of scale, monu‐ distinct interventions in the landscape. These in‐ mental presentation, and administrative power terventions represented the pre-conquest Ot‐ confgurations. toman frontier state and an emerging imperial or‐ What emerges from the author’s analysis is a der that incorporated and accommodated Byzan‐ punctuated leitmotif treatment on Ottoman no‐ tine symbols to the urban ordering. By focusing tions of ordering social and public space. The ear‐ on these earlier projects, Kafesçioğlu highlights ly modern urban imaginary pivots around the the buildings that were ultimately marginalized idea of the Renaissance. In the third chapter, rep‐ as the monumentalization gained form through‐ resenting the city is set against a varied historical out Mehmed II’s reign and before the immense backdrop of accommodation, transposition, and building program in the sixteenth century during interpretation. Here, Kafesçioğlu contends that the reign of Sultan Süleyman I (r. 1520-66). the Renaissance was “a cultural movement taking From royal projects to the architectural pa‐ place in diverse centers and peripheries, where tronage of the ruling elite and a visual assessment new ideas were fltered through extant struc‐ of such projects, the second chapter’s three-tiered tures” (p. 134). Drawing upon a wealth of visual analysis elaborates on the ways that building and textual material including poetry, archival campaigns created and communicated an Ot‐ documents, histories, epics, hagiographies, photo‐ toman Constantinople. The reestablishment of graphs, urban plans, maps, and panoramas from waterways and the punctuation of the urban ter‐ archives, special collections, and libraries in Istan‐ rain with public baths responded to the city’s re‐ bul and other European cities, the author deftly population program and the establishment of new provides contexts, ways of analysis, and skilled social spaces. Royal building projects sculpted the readings of Byzantine, Ottoman, and Italian panorama of Constantinople, integrating a redi‐ sources and urban practices. Focusing on Cristo‐ rection of an imperial vision. At this point, foro Buondelmonti’s late ffteenth-century manu‐ Kafesçioğlu’s interweaving of the visual, social, script Libera Insularum Archipelagi, the Vavas‐ cultural, and political gains moorage through the sore map, which is based on a ca. 1480 drawing, ideas of monumentalization and representation. and Hartmann Schedel’s Liber Chronicarum im‐ This lexicon provides an efective way to navigate age from 1493, Kafesçioğlu’s subtle analysis posi‐ the author’s deft mining of archival and visual tions these texts against changing cultural mean‐ materials. In particular, Kafesçioğlu underscores ings that explicitly factor into her historiographi‐ Byzantine, Ottoman, and European urban prac‐ cal engagement with the fall/conquest narrative tices that contributed to the ffteenth-century ur‐ of 1453. Specifcally, the manuscripts introduce a ban reconfguration. For example, the decision to “bird’s eye view” panoramic scope of urban detail construct the New Palace, or today’s Topkapı, on from street scenes to religious symbols marking the northeastern tip of the peninsula where Con‐ buildings according to diferent ideological posi‐ stantinople was located and on top of the ancient tions. As a result, the visual ambiguity that she Byzantine acropolis radically altered the urban to‐ identifes disrupts singular ways of reading the pography and established a distinct processional
3 H-Net Reviews city as either Byzantine or Ottoman, Islamic or Constantinopolis/Istanbul is essential reading Christian. for students and scholars of early modern Ot‐ The epic remaking and rebuilding of the city toman and Renaissance history, urban and cultur‐ confronted a historical legacy that resonated dif‐ al practices, and art history and architecture and ferently for its new rulers, inhabitants, and audi‐ will beneft many institutional collections. The re‐ ences alike. In the fourth chapter, the idea of “ur‐ search is top-notch and integrates material from ban space as inhabited” by mapping out a “resi‐ many sources, including an impressive range of dential topography” (p. 14) of the old city and sur‐ hitherto untapped archival documents. rounding neighborhoods highlights architectural Kafesçioğlu provides context and multiple regis‐ detail and repopulation practices. Utilizing indi‐ ters of reading these documents while engaging vidual waqfyyas (endowment deeds) and city‐ with entrenched historiographical topics, making wide surveys allows the author to reconstruct the this work a handsome contribution to the felds of social and physical makeup of the city. By so do‐ early modern urban and Ottoman history. Her ing, she engages with arguments in Ottoman navigation of the materials conveys her regard scholarship about the city’s residential patterning and esteem for the city, which is carefully appar‐ post-1453. What emerges is a pattern of control ent on every page. and administration linked to patronage and taste In Ebru Boyar and Kate Fleet’s A Social Histo‐ that complicates distinct Ottoman and Islamic no‐ ry of Ottoman Istanbul, the sights, sounds, and tions of urban order according to homogeneous smells of the city staged alongside catastrophic ethnic units. events and royal pageantry provide a captivating Lastly, the epilogue provides an overview of and rewarding read. The frst pages set the scene the construction projects during the reigns of with a short compendium (of major and minor Bayezid II (r. 1481-1512) and Selim I (r. 1512-20) players, recorders, visitors, and observers of and before the massive building activities during the to the city), a chronology, and an all-too-brief his‐ reign of Süleyman I (r. 1520-66)--the period gar‐ tory. All in all, the authors seem to be addressing nering the classical panorama of the city. an undergraduate audience or a soon-to-be-visitor Kafesçioğlu ruminates upon the distinguished im‐ to the city. Yet,what is purportedly an introducto‐ age of classical Ottoman Istanbul, Matrakçı Na‐ ry text and provides a social and thematic portrait suh’s picture from ca. 1537. The monumental and of Istanbul from its conquest/fall in 1453 until the representational scope of the work contemplates early twentieth century is as ambitious in scale as the disparate cultural meanings between the city’s it is with its treatment of a range of primary Byzantine and ghazi heritages. The various urban sources. The careful construction of architectural practices and religious, social, economic, cultural, history and residential patterning, historical and and political syncretism did not, according to the historiographical context in Kafesçioğlu’s work author, result in an arbitrary mapping of the city. does not transpire in this volume. Granted, the To the contrary, the various solutions conveyed an projects diverge in scope and intent. Yet, the lack approach that wedded the city with the empire. of careful attention to context, let alone the feld, Drawing upon a range of existing studies and ap‐ produces a polyvocal perpetuation of Orientalist proaches to conceptualizing the urban environ‐ allusions to a four-hundred-and-ffty-year imperi‐ ment, the city is placed in dialogue with other al span. This is surprising, especially since the central cities in the eastern Mediterranean as op‐ felds of Ottoman social history and the signif‐ posed to being a lone bastion. cance of Istanbul as the imperial capital are quite developed.[6]
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The frst chapter appropriately begins with unruly city. The calamitous efect is punctuated, the conquest/fall of the city in 1453. And, the read‐ or soothed by, the next chapter’s focus on welfare er is immediately introduced to the tone, style, and the charitable endowment’s (waqf) programs and approach of the authors to the source materi‐ of providing for the well-being of the populace al. Drawing upon ofcial histories, travel ac‐ through the distribution of food, provision of counts, archival documents, and Ottoman litera‐ medical care, construction of mosques, and the ture interspersed with visual materials, Boyar and handling of beggars. Here, the authors discuss Fleet convey historical events through the how courtly women supported imperial endow‐ bristling voice of contemporary observers. The ments, which are mentioned without drawing authors attempt to debunk particular myths at‐ upon, referring to, or couching claims within re‐ tached to the Ottoman realm and/or engage with cent scholarship.[7] historiographical debates. Specifcally, in chapter The chapter entitled “The Consuming City” 2, “The Palace and the Populace,” the position of ranges in descriptions from the vivid display of the Ottoman sultan as ruling in seclusion instead market goods, to the establishment of controlled of interacting or responding to his subjects as well prices (i.e., narh), from the sumptuous display of as his appearance at Friday prayer as an act of robes and various fnery, to the marking of minor‐ display to “ensure legitimacy” (p. 31) are men‐ ity groups according to their colored robes. The tioned yet remains only superfcially analyzed. next two chapters, “Outings and Excursions” and The authors’ discussion of various acts of petition‐ “The Hamam,” provide tableaux of the population ing, meting out of punishment, elaborate circum‐ at leisure, either enjoying conversations, relishing cision celebrations for young princes, the sounds cofee at a cofeehouse, strolling amidst the gar‐ of canons, and visual explosion of freworks ofers dens, or reclining in bath waters. The fnal chap‐ a colorful perspective but lacks in interpretation. ter, “The Nineteenth Century,” positions a city still At the beginning of most subsections, the authors impacted by plagues, fre, superstitions, streets state a claim. For example, at the beginning of the dogs, and poor roads against a backdrop of chang‐ section on pageantry, they write that “feasting ing lifestyles: European forms of leisure, of dress, and festivity were essential to maintain order in and of urban order. Although Boyar and Fleet in‐ the city and that the population had to be allowed troduce ideas of pleasure and display, violence enjoyment was realised by Selim II, who regarded and transformation, which serve as organization‐ making the people of the city joyful an essential al devices, the challenge that emerges is then how element of successful rule and one that his ances‐ to untangle the chronological overlapping and en‐ tors had also followed” (p. 47). In such instances, twined primary source threads in an undergradu‐ which are numerous throughout the book, recent ate classroom. When I used this book in my class scholarship could easily have been introduced to on the history of Istanbul, the students were quite fesh out, contextualize, or ofer added perspec‐ critical of the organization of the material and tive. Instead, the authors continue with the voice had difculty following specifc arguments. In of an observer or follow up by stringing together short, my students were more confused by the events from a variety of temporal contexts. overall narrative structure although they became In the next chapters, the themes of fear and interested in the thematic approach. death as described through natural disasters (e.g., In other words, a cacophony of voices and de‐ earthquakes, blizzards, plagues, fres), political tails in Boyar and Ebru’s book causes an absolute revolution, alcohol consumption, and consequent‐ confusion for a reader unfamiliar with the city’s ly the state’s responses to them, depict Istanbul, history, its imperial connections, its political econ‐ according to Boyar and Fleet, as a dangerous and
5 H-Net Reviews omy, and trans-imperial commercial exchange making the republic modern. Kuzguncuk is set routes, leaving her asking more questions instead against the backdrop of nationalist state policies, of receiving a coherent treatment of material. Suf‐ such as the Wealth Tax of 1942-43, the September fce here to reproduce the following sentence as a 6-7, 1955 anti-Greek riots, and the 1964 expulsion telling example: “Contemporaries predicted that of Greek citizens. Central to Mills’s analysis of this ‘horrible, cruel, mad and malignant Turk,’ as Kuzguncuk is the historical positioning and un‐ the Genoese merchant Jacopo de Promontorio derstanding of that history by its residents, a his‐ called him,[22] would be in Italy within eighteen tory that focused on instilling a sense of what it months and would exterminate the Christians, means to be Turkish. Mills’s astute lens punctu‐ [23] for whom he was said by Enrico di Soem‐ ates this read with voices and silences, gestures mern to have such a strong loathing that if he saw and glances. She draws out minute details collect‐ one he would immediately cleanse his eyes as if ed during her years living, conducting interviews, contaminated[24]” (p. 8). Each footnote refers to a and doing feld observations in the neighborhood. diferent primary source. The efect is an uncriti‐ Contemporary Istanbul relishes in the pro‐ cal treatment of these accounts, which through duction of nostalgia in which the neighborhood of their random juxtaposition leave the reader en‐ Kuzguncuk (and other ones such as Fener, Balat, tirely perplexed. and Beyoğlu) is subjected to gentrifcation pro‐ Cultural geographer Amy Mills’s Streets of cesses which capitalize on the historical reproduc‐ Memory: Landscape, Tolerance, and National tion of a multiethnic, harmonious, cosmopolitan Identity in Istanbul centers on the neighborhood past, which in turn become embedded in the pro‐ of Kuzguncuk, one of Istanbul’s historic non-Mus‐ duction of the state. In the second chapter, Mills lim areas situated along the Asian side of the demonstrates how the production of the nostal‐ Bosphorus Straits. Landscape and place provide gic landscape takes on an ideological stance that the foundation for Mills’s exploration of urban silences the very history that is part of its produc‐ and landscape transformations in the imagining tion as such. The physical landscape of the neigh‐ of the Turkish nation. The enactment of belonging borhood as imagined and captured in popular in the aforementioned neighborhood of Kuzgun‐ television series, namely Ekmek Teknesi (Bread cuk, through conversations, interactions, and en‐ Boat) from 2002 until 2005, and Perihan Abla (Sis‐ gagements on streets, in homes, in stores, in ter Abla) in the late 1980s, rhapsodizes the land‐ neighborhood associations, and--outside of it--in scape’s history. The neighborhood’s wooden struc‐ the diaspora is integrally related by Mills to the tures, churches, mosques, synagogues, shops, and idea of belonging to the nation and to critiques of close-knit streets reproduce a narrative of “histor‐ the state. ical multiethnic harmony” that silences and fabri‐ The historical narratives of expulsion, silenc‐ cates the past (p. 63). ing, tolerance, and belonging unfold over the The subsequent chapters cover competing course of six chapters, primarily focusing on Kuz‐ claims on place, its history, and belonging as ex‐ guncuk streets. The political transition from the plored with an examination of the Kuzguncuk Ottoman Empire to the republic of Turkey is de‐ Neighborhood Association and its role in the anti- picted in the historiography and in popular ac‐ Greek riots of September 6-7, 1955. The gendered counts as one being from a multiethnic, religious‐ construction of identity impacts notions of be‐ ly justifed rule of an imperial, monarchic order longing and exclusion in Kuzguncuk as well as the to a nation-state structure that prioritized ethnic importance of the neighborhood to the identity of homogenization and implemented policies in former Kuzguncuk’s Jews, located in Istanbul and
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Tel Aviv. With each chapter, stories and gestures, is neither one nor the same. Ciğdem Kafesçioğlu whispers and silences, smells and sounds layer eloquently demonstrates how the grand post-1453 the neighborhood, continually complicating the reconstruction plan, while visually articulating a production of the neighborhood that is intrinsical‐ monumental and emerging Ottoman architectural ly related to the state’s production. Yet, these vocabulary refecting an imperial and urban vi‐ ethnographic details and telling of neighborhood sion, accommodated the city’s polyvocal Byzan‐ transformations to include the entrance of non- tine-Christian past. Amy Mills demonstrates that Muslim residents, Muslim migrants, and new gen‐ the production of the state’s homogenizing narra‐ trifers, emphasize that the landscape, ideas of tol‐ tive when examined at the level of place is more erance, and identity are not static but that difer‐ varied over time, given the shifting contours of ence is constructed through the intersections of Kuzguncuk and that of the memory of its resi‐ gender, class, ethnicity, and migrant status. Thus, dents. These works question the connection be‐ narrations of a history of property confscation tween historical documents and the telling of the and riots, and neighboring practices amongst city, prompting questions pertaining to Istanbul’s women make the politics of the state uneasy and past and its future in much the same way that Ita‐ contested. Although Mills’s intricate unraveling of lo Calvino prompts the reader to think about the voices and of stories focuses on overturning static relationship between memory and the city cap‐ assumptions of history and of identity rooted in tured in a postcard, or in a face.[9] the neighborhood of Kuzguncuk, she also pro‐ Notes vides a strong analysis of the state itself and its [1]. Recent blockbuster movies flmed in Is‐ hegemonic nationalizing narrative. Streets of tanbul include Olivier Megaton’s action thriller Memory is a welcome contribution to classes fo‐ Taken 2 (EuropaCorp and Grive Productions, cusing on theory and applied methods, gender 2012), and the twenty-third James Bond spy flm, and state formation in urban contexts as well as Skyfall, dir. Sam Mendes (Eon Productions, 2012). to advanced courses on Turkish republican histo‐ For a more complete reference, see Özlem Koksal, ry. ed., World Film Locations: Istanbul (London: In‐ From ffteenth-century manuscripts and ur‐ tellect Ltd., 2012). ban plans to nineteenth-century travel narratives, [2]. Select titles include: Orhan Pamuk, The from the bristling voices of sixteenth-century Ot‐ Black Book, trans. Maureen Freely (New York: toman and foreign observers of the city to twenti‐ Vintage, 2006) (originally published in Turkish, eth-century Kuzguncuk’s residents remembering 1990); Orhan Pamuk, My Name is Red, trans. Er‐ the 1955 anti-Greek riots and the 1964 expulsion dağ Göknar (New York: Vintage, 2002) (originally of Greek citizens, the array of historical docu‐ published in Turkish, 1998); Orhan Pamuk, Istan‐ ments and methods of analysis and narration en‐ bul: Memories and the City (New York: Vintage, countered in these three works are as complex 2008) (originally published in Turkish, 2003); Elif and varied as the city itself. Yet, the seduction of Şafak, The Bastard of Istanbul (Harmondsworth: Istanbul is apparent. It is tempting to fall into ori‐ Penguin, 2008); and Elif Şafak, Flea Palace (Lon‐ entalizing tropes. The (re)production of “exoti‐ don: Marion Boyars Publishers Ltd., 2005). Critical cized” historical snippets are readily apparent to works on the Turkish novel and interwar Istanbul the city’s contemporary visitor. There is not a include: Kader Konuk, East West Mimesis: Auer‐ rigid binarism that captures Istanbul, not East/ bach in Turkey (Stanford: Stanford University West, not Islamist/secularist. Here, the slash in Press, 2010); and Azade Seyhan, Tales of Crossed Constantinopolis/Istanbul undergirds the slip‐ Destinies: The Modern Turkish Novel in a Com‐ pages of meaning, of time, and of space. The city
7 H-Net Reviews parative Context, World Literature Reimagined Leisure and Lifestyle in the Eighteenth Century (Modern Language Association of America, 2008). (London: Tauris Academic Studies, 2008); Roger A. [3]. At the time of the writing of this review, a Deal, Crimes of Honor, Drunken Brawls and Mur‐ search on Amazon.com with “Istanbul” in the title der: Violence in Istanbul under Abdülhamid II (Is‐ generated 642 titles for “Travel,” 421 for “Litera‐ tanbul: Libra Yayınevi, 2010); and Fariba ture and Fiction,” 134 for “Biographies and Mem‐ Zarinebaf, Crime and Punishment in Istanbul: oirs,” and 972 for “History.” In particular, the mar‐ 1700-1800 (Berkeley: University of California ket for travel guides has exploded with more con‐ Press, 2011). temporary guides, such as Time Out and Wallpa‐ [7]. A recent monograph includes Lucienne per City Guide. Travel writing for Constantinople/ Thys-Senocak, Ottoman Women Builders: The Ar‐ Istanbul is extensive and ofers a rich history of chitectural Patronage of Hadice Turhan Sultan, urban navigation that has been understudied. Women and Gender in the Early Modern World [4]. Recent works in flm studies include: (Farnham, UK: Ashgate Publications, Co., 2007). Savaş Arslan, Cinema in Turkey: A New Critical [8]. Recent works include: Esra Özyürek, Nos‐ History (New York: Oxford University Press, talgia for the Modern: State Secularism and Ev‐ 2011); and Asuman Suner, New Turkish Cinema: eryday Politics in Turkey, Politics, History, and Belonging, Identity and Memory, Tauris World Culture (Durham, NC: Duke University Press Cinema Series (London: I.B. Tauris, 2010). Books, 2006); and Cihan Tuğal, Passive Revolu‐ [5]. Select titles include: Pelin Derviş, Bülent tion: Absorbing the Islamic Challenge to Capital‐ Tanju, and Uğur Tanyeli, eds., Becoming Istanbul: ism (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2009). An Encyclopedia (Istanbul: Ofset Yapımevi, 2008), [9]. Consider Doug Saunders’s treatment of Is‐ in conjunction with an exhibition at Garanti tanbul in his Arrival City: How the Largest Migra‐ Gallery in Istanbul; Deniz Göktürk, Levent Soysal, tion in History is Reshaping Our World (New and İpek Türeli, eds., Orienting Istanbul: Cultural York: Vintage, 2012). Capital of Europe? (New York: Routledge, 2010); <