BODHI International Journal of Research in Humanities, Arts and Science
An Online, Peer reviewed, Refereed and Quarterly Journal
Vol: 2 Special Issue: 1 April 2018 E-ISSN: 2456-5571 UGC approved Journal (J. No. 44274)
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BODHI International Journal of Research in Humanities, Arts and Science (ISSN: 2456-5571) is online, peer reviewed, Refereed and Quarterly Journal, which is powered & published by Center for Resource, Research and Publication Services, (CRRPS) India. It is committed to bring together academicians, research scholars and students from all over the world who work professionally to upgrade status of academic career and society by their ideas and aims to promote interdisciplinary studies in the fields of humanities, arts and science.
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BODHI INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF RESEARCH IN HUMANITIES, ARTS AND SCIENCE (BIJRHAS) An Online, Peer reviewed, Refereed and Quarterly Journal
EDITORIAL BOARD MEMBERS
Publisher and Editor-in-Chief Dr. S. Balakrishnan Executive Director, Centre for Resource, Research and Publication Services (CRRPS) Tamil Nadu, India
Vice Editor-in-Chiefs Dr. Manimangai Mani Dr. B. Jeyanthi Senior Lecturer, Department of English, Assistant Professor & HOD of English, Faculty of Modern Languages and Anna University, Tirunelveli Region, Communication, Universiti Putra Malaysia, Tamil Nadu, India Selangor, Malaysia Dr. T. Marx Dr. Mamta Brahmbhatt Senior Lecturer, Department of English, Associate Professor of Management, Faculty of Modern Languages and B.K. School of Business Management, Communication, Universiti Putra Malaysia, Gujarat University, Ahmedabad, Gujarat, India Selangor, Malaysia
Pradeep D. Waghmare Mr. B.P. Pereira Assistant Professor of History, Visiting Professor of English in Journalism, Ramnarain Ruia College, Madurai Kamaraj University, Mumbai, Maharashtra, India Madurai, Tamil Nadu, India
Editorial / Review Board Dr. Sunil S. Narwade Dr. H.S. Rakesh Professor, Dept. of Economics, Assistant Professor of History, Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar Marathwada Davangere University, Karnataka, India University, Aurnagabad, Maharashtra, India Dr. Indira Banerji Dr. V.N. Kendre Assistant Professor of English, Yogoda Satsanga Assistant Professor of Sociology, Mahavidyalaya, Ranchi University, Ranchi, University of Mumbai, Mumbai, Jharkhand, India Maharashtra, India Dr. Punam Pandey Dr. Nana Pradhan Assistant Professor, Dept. of English & Modern Assistant Professor of Physics, European Languages, JR Handicapped Ramnarain Ruia College, Mumbai, University, Chitrakoot, UP, India Maharashtra, India Dr. Harshad Bhosale Dr. Prasenjit Panda Assistant Professor of Political Science, Assistant Professor, Dept. of English & Foreign Kirti College, Mumbai, Maharashtra, India Languages, Guru Ghasidas Vishwavidyalaya, Koni, Chattisgarh, India
Dr. H.M. Kantharaj Dr. Vaishali Pusate Assistant Co-ordinator of Education, Assistant Professor of Zoology, Davangere University, Karnataka, India Ramnarain Ruia College, Mumbai, Maharashtra, India Dr. Vipin Kumar Pandey Associate Professor of English & Other Foreign Dr. P.V. Mahalinge Language, DSM National Rehabilitation Assistant Professor of Hindi, University, Lucknow, UP, India Ramnarain Ruia College, Mumbai, Maharashtra, India Dr. B.V. Dhananjaya Murthy Assistant Professor of Political Science, Dr. Neelkanth Bankar Davangere University, Karnataka, India Associate Professor of Psychology, University of Mumbai, Maharashtra, India Dr. Vijaykumar Chavan Assistant Professor of Chemistry, Dr. Rajeshwar Andhale Ramnarain Ruia College, Mumbai, Associate Professor of Mathematics, Maharashtra, India Ramnarain Ruia College, Mumbai, Maharashtra, India Dr. Vijay Shankar Sharma Assistant Professor of Special Education, Dr. Anupama Mujumdar DSM National Rehabilitation University, Assistant Professor of Philosophy, Lucknow, UP, India Ruparel College, Mumbai, Maharashtra, India
Dr. Sunil Shankadarwar Dr. Parvez Shamim Assistant Professor of Botany, Assistant Professor of Physical Education & Ramnarain Ruia College, Mumbai, Sports, Government P.G. College, Noida, Maharashtra, India G.B. Nagar, UP, India
Mr. Amit Agnihotri Assistant Professor & Head of Information Technology, JR Handicapped University, Chitrakoot, UP, India
FROM EDITORS’ DESK….
The genesis of subaltern emerged as a critical concept. The concept of subaltern studies prominence is derived from Marxism and Post-structuralism. One of the most recent sub divisions of post-colonial theory is the subaltern studies. It is also interdisciplinary subject. The Italian thinker Antonio Gramsci used the term ‘Subaltern’ and emphasized the significance of the word in terms of class, gender, caste, marginalization, race and culture of the society. The subaltern refers to any specific marginalized situation in any given cultural or social context. The advent of literary and cultural theories in the literary field has brought major changes in the way of rereading, reinterpreting and better understanding literature and culture. Subaltern consciousness is one of the characteristics of subalternity. The innovative, exciting, and intellectual discussion by the scholars of all domains will induce a high order to instigate and instil the aspirants and the experts of multifaceted disciplines to a considerable empowerment of the peak to achieve the best out of this Book which is of course literally one of the aims targeted too.
The editorial team appreciates all the contributors for their research novelty and innovative outcomes. We also appreciate all the readers who invest their time to cherish these ideas into practical steps. Language is to express and literature is to follow and live. We sincerely thank the publishers and the team who put their effort to bring out this edited volume.
At this Moment we make our Sincere thanks to Management and all faculty fraternity of English Department for this Successful Academic event backed by their wholehearted contributions and supports, which exhorted us at large that are really appreciably commendable.
Editors
Mrs.D.KARTHIGA RANI Principal, N.M.S. Sermathai Vasan College for Women, Madurai
Mrs.K.P.BAKHYA SEEMA Assistant Professor & Head of English N.M.S. Sermathai Vasan College for Women, Madurai
Dr.S.BALAKRISHNAN Editor cum Publisher, Bodhi International Journal
Mr.B.P.PEREIRA Founder Director, Speech Point, Madurai
BODHI INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF RESEARCH IN HUMANITIES, ARTS AND SCIENCE An Online, Peer-reviewed, Refereed and Quarterly Journal with Impact Factor
Vol: 2 Special Issue 1 April 2018 E-ISSN: 2456-5571
Aim & Objectives Academic Excellence in research is CONTENTS continued promoting in research support for young Scholars. Multidisciplinary of research is motivating S. Page. Title all aspects of encounters across disciplines and No No research fields in an multidisciplinary views, by 1 Feminist Aspects in Rohinton Mistry’s 1 assembling research groups and consequently Novel a Fine Balance projects, supporting publications with this K.Kannadasan & Dr.N.Ramesh inclination and organizing programmes. 2 Cultural Mélange as Savoir-Faire in 4 Internationalization of research work is the unit Salman Rushdie’s Novels seeks to develop its scholarly profile in research S.Satheesan through quality of publications. And visibility of 3 Feminism in Mahaswetha Devi’s 8 research is creating sustainable platforms for Selected Works – Rudali, Breast- Giverdraupadi and Bayen research and publication, such as series of Books; S.Karuna & Prof.M.Neeraja motivating dissemination of research results for 4 A Comparison- Plight of Blacks and 11 people and society. Dalits- with Reference to Lydia Maria
Disclaimer Child’s Slavery’s Pleasant Homes and Contributors are advised to be strict in C Ayyappan’s Spectral Speech academic ethics with respect to acknowledgment Narma.S.Pratheep of the original ideas borrowed from others. The 5 Lingering the ‘Fringes’: Dalit Literature 14 Publisher & editors will not be held responsible for as an Exigent Protean Polemic on any such lapse of the contributor regarding Serfhood plagiarism and unwarranted quotations in their A.N.Suhana manuscripts. All submissions should be original and 6 Brutal Torture and Dying Women 17 G.Ramesh Banu & Dr.CS.Robinson must be accompanied by a declaration stating your 7 Tumultuous Characters Suppress the 19 research paper as an original work and has not Meek and the Humble with a Support been published anywhere else. It will be the sole from the Society - Khaled Hosseini responsibility of the authors for such lapses, if any and Bapsi Sidhwa Prove the Existence on legal bindings and ethical code of publication. of Such Characters S.Sreevidhya & Dr.C.S.Robinson Communication 8 Identity Crisis is Like a Cry for Moon in 22 Papers should be Mailed to V.S.Naipaul’s Magic Seeds [email protected] V.Meenakshi 9 Theoretical Understanding towards 26 Dalit Literature Dr.T.D.Praveen Kumar 10 Expatriate Sensibility in Jhumpa 33 Lahiri’s The Namesake
Dr.P.Pandia Rajammal
11 Self Creation and Cultural 37 27 Theme of Marginalization in 92 Displacement: Fault Lines Mahasweta Devi’s Chinta in the Krishna Ajayan Outcast: Four Stories 12 A Struggle for Identity in William 40 S.Sukanya Lakshmi & Ms.P.Bindhu Faulkner’s As I Lay Dying 28 Racism and Sexuality – A Bridge to 95 P.Helan Hema Suffering in James Baldwin’s Just Above My Head 13 A Feministic Overview of Women in 44 Ms.M.Christina Susan Literature 29 The Cross Cultural Exploration as a 102 Mrs.R.Kamatchiammal Socio - Psyche War in Kate 14 Dialectic of Discrimination: Race, 48 Greenville’s The Secret River Gender and Class in Maya Angelou’s C.Lakshmi “I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings” S.Mohammad Shafiullah 15 Patriarchy and Women Subalternity in 51 Manjukapur’s “Difficult Daughters” V.Jagadeeswari 16 Feminism in Indian Literature 55 A.Sandhya 17 Penitence and Purgation—An 57 Overview of Sylvia Plath’s Poems Mrs.V.Hema 18 The Identity Crisis in Sylvia Plath’s 60 ‘The Bell Jar’ Dr.K.C.Lalithambika 19 Portrayal of Man- Woman Relationship 64 in Anita Nair’s Ladies Coupe G.Vijayarenganayaki 20 Representation of Diaspora in Bharati 67 Mukherjee’s Desirable Daughters S.Rini 21 Contemporary Women Writers of the 70 Millennium Ms.R.Radhika 22 Gender-Based Injustice and Parental 72 Authority in Mahesh Dattani’s Play Tara P.Revathi 23 An Abiku Nationalism in Ben Okri’s 76 Trilogy H.Jameela Beevi 24 Gender Discrimination in Shashi 80 Deshpande’s The Dark Holds No Terror S.J.Soumya 25 Fantasy Novels of Chitra Banerjee 85 Divakaruni’s The Conch Bearer and Joanne Kathleen Rowling’s Harry Potter and the Philosopher’s Stone: A Comparative Study Dr.Mrs.T.Chandra 26 Dalit Literature: A Historical 88 Perspective Dr.Sandeep Kumar Sharma
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FEMINIST ASPECTS IN ROHINTON MISTRY’S NOVEL A FINE BALANCE
K.Kannadasan Ph.D. Research Scholar, Department of English, Mahendra Arts and Science College, Namakkal
Dr.N.Ramesh Assistant Professor of English, Periyar University Constitution Arts and Science College, Pappireddipatti, Dharmapuri
Abstract Rohinton Mistry is one of Canada’s critically acclaimed writers, with his three works of award-winning fiction, Tales from Firozha Baag; Such a Long Journey (1991) and “A Fine Balance” (1995). These three works are portrayal of Feminist aspects. Many critics find Rohinton Mistry’s female characters are one- dimensional and limited. They are seen to be house bound, rarely leaving their apartments, not only in and around Bombay but also places such as Delhi. The social contexts of his female characters’ lives from a feminist perspective, this analysis examines the ways Mistry interprets the situations of women for their experiences, histories and responsibilities as wives, widows, mothers and single women within the cultural of Parsi India.
Introduction of Behroze, an emancipated parsi girl in Rohinton Mistry’s novel, “A Fine ‘Tales From Firozsha Baag’ explores a new Balance”, he has portrayed a galaxy of generation of young women who despite the characters efficiently and elegantly. By mistrust of conservative parents, are willing portraying a cross section of Indian society to play. especially those who called riff-raff, the The four main characters converge in writers draw the real picture of India. There Dina’s apartment as refugees from are four protagonists in the novel Dina Dalal, contracting caste, gender or social roles. They Ishvar, Maneck Kohlah and Om Prakash in each live in an unimportant position in the this novel. The other leading characters are context of India. They are moved by the beggar master, Rajaram, the hair collector. community and try to center their own Thakur Dharmasi, Vasantra Valmik, Ibrahim individuality. The apartment is viewed as the the rent-collector, Shaker- the beggar, Ashraf worldly site of individuals in a damaging chacha, Mumtaz Chachi, Dukhi Mochi, his society. Their life in Bombay is contrary to wife Rupa, Mrs. Gupta Narayan, Radha, their expectations and symbolizes the torture, Rustom Nussawan, Ruby, Monkey Man, pain, anxiety and restlessness of people cut off Jeevan, the tailor and others. from their native villages. Dina fights for her independence and Feminist Aspects in a Fine Balance individuality but she faces the continuous A novel ‘A Fine Balance’, indicating the Failures and threats by society. Finally she socio-political environment in India during loses her flat and forced to her brother’s home 1975-77 Emergencies. Mistry’s characters are as a servant. Rohinton Mistry highlights experience in the everyday trials of human crucial events in the country’s report by condition such as the death of family depicting the background of each protagonist. members and friends, financial despair and “A Fine Balance” illustrates the deeper common disagreements that occur between insight of political, nativity and struggle of husbands and wives. Mistry creates ‘A fine suffering people. It always focuses on the deep balance’ between the sexes. Mistry’s portrayal
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structure of the individual’s existences of suggests to her that she could marry a person human life. of his choice, but Dina protests and asserts Dina, chooses to be displaced her home, her individuality. She marries Ruston Dalal, because she wants to assert her individuality whom she loves intensely. Dina is the symbol and sense of self. She has grown up in of the “new woman” who refuses to be Bombay, but her sense of independence after unresisting and submissive and does not her husband’s accidental death keeps her accept the stereotypical feminine role away from her family. She resolves to assigned to her. Even on that cruel night, restructure her life without being when her husband dies, she behaves in a very economically dependent on a man. For her, dignified manner. life is a series of emotional alteration and Dina refuses to buckle under pressure and remotion of emotional bonds. Emergency resolves to rebuild her life without being made both Dina and Manech fail in their economically dependent on a man. She arrives attempt. In the name of poverty alleviation as a strong, progressive and an independent and civic beautification, beggars are carried woman. She fetches two tailors, Ishvar and away and made to be slaves in labour camps. Om and starts working for Au Revoir Exports. Dina Dalal’s new family creates an ideal Mistry stresses the fact that in post colonial space where different cultures mingle and India the plight of the common people is no people of different classes offend sanctioned different and it requires amelioration and spaces in symbiotic equations. Rohinton freedom from exploitation and injustice. It Mistry, the socio-political novelist, emerges as seems as if the native rulers have merely a significant literary figure during the recent replaced the foreign rulers and the Indian years. “A Fine Balance” has established him government has failed to resolve the basic firmly as a significant literary figure in the problems of poverty, hunger, unemployment, Indian and Indo-Canadian traditions of fiction illiteracy and disease. writing. The educated and unemployed youth and Three sisters, whose father is too poor to the lawyers in the Bombay court do not spare provide then dowries, hang themselves to women from sexual harassment. When Dina spare their parents the shame of having approaches the court gate, a group of lawyers unmarried daughters. A picture of them surround her and demand charges, showing hanging from a ceiling appears in the their degree and advising her to be careful in newspaper after their brother Avinash, a choosing the lawyer, some of them make college student union chairman who is the indecent advances. Mistry conveys his own only source of future income for that family moral attitudes and liberal views through gets killed in police custody. Mistry portrays characters. Various episodes in the novel this indecent aspect of Indian society. He reveal Mistry’s sympathy for the oppressed highlights the injustices done to women, and his righteous anger at the excesses interrogates the marginalization of woman in during the period of Emergency. “A Fine the male-dominated society and contends that Balance” opens with a train journey and inequality between the sexes is caused by the concludes with “Epilogue” 1984. cultural construction of gender differences. After the death of Mrs. Shoroff’s, despite Conclusion of her keen desire to pursue her education, Rohinton Mistry’s characters are ordinary Dina is not allowed even to join. Nusswan, people belonging to the lower middle class of her brother tries to impose his will on and society. At the same time, the goodness of 2 Bodhi International Journal of Research in Humanities, Arts and Science
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Mistry’s characters, that likes them to the 2. Kumar, Gajendra. “Rohinton Mistry’s epical heroes of ancient literature. Mistry A Fine Balance: A Slice of Middle Class locates innate goodness compelling Life.” 76-80. circumstances. The author focuses on how an 3. Indian English Literature: A New ordinary person and imagination, overcomes Perspective. New Delhi: Sarup and Sons, radical problem. Thus, Mistry has very 2001. emotional captured the quarrel brought the Mistry, Rohinton. A Fine Balance, heroism in ordinary people. Calcutta: Penguin Books. 1996. Print. 4. Rushdie, Salman. “Damme, this is the References Oriental Scene for you”; The New Yorker. 1. Dodiya, Jaydipsingh. The Fiction of June1997.Print Rohinton Mistry: Critical Studies. New Delhi: Prestig. Books, 1998: 9-22, 93-134.
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CULTURAL MÉLANGE AS SAVOIR-FAIRE IN SALMAN RUSHDIE’S NOVELS
S.Satheesan Assistant Professor, Department of English, Infant Jesus Degree College, Shamshabad PO Hyderabad, Telangana
Abstract The repercussion of post-colonialism can be seen in various manners such as trans-culturalism and multiculturalism in the society which is capable of telling a lot more about hybridization, fragmentation, identity crisis, alienation etc. This was greatly sufficient for the so called ‘wordsmith’ who solemnized highly through their literary works. In this regard, Salman Rushdie has given glaring and impressive bequest by way of employing this genre through his peculiar oriental impact and leverage and cosmopolitan mien. Such an experience and imagination as the possible treasure, the writer crafted some of the greatest works where we see the impact of multiculturalism and the pangs it offered to the off-springs of the post- independent nation. The blend of cultures and psychic manifestations are finely juxtaposed in the novels. Man’s tendency to learn the right move when he is in adversity and, where he is in subjection, is undeniable to accentuate on a literary discourse with an intension to placate some of the arguments. This will help to unleash the masked occurrences from the works to incubate additional research. Hence, with germane principles, I would like to zero in on these features by extracting the relevant components from his novels The Ground Beneath Her Feet, and Midnight’s Children, and essays Imaginary Homelands. Keywords: Repercussion, post-colonialism, hybridization, bequest, imagination, multiculturalism, pangs, subjection, germane principles, components.
The word ‘culture’ has got its origin from all the faculties of man; intellect and emotion, the Latin word ‘cultura’ suggesting an intuition and sense, perception, flesh as well implication ‘to cultivate’. Man attempts to as spirit”. (3) refine his ways through numerous From the above statement, it is undesirable circumstances and plights, and understood that culture is neither the sole hence, the word has diverse ramifications. possession nor the ownership of a person but Thus, this term has got its great importance a transmitted, complex idea. While glancing for the way man exhibits his attitudes through the paradoxical response of Eliot who towards life and society, forming cultural had been always emphatic on the identity through the passage of time. Various consideration of this very idea through a fields of study discuss culture in the manner distorted medium of unconscious paths, and in which it appended to. People adopt their obviously, not very much mandated with own etiquettes, decorum, mores etc based on formal education, that he opines, “the unity their fundamental concepts, beliefs, with which I am concerned must be largely assumption, consuetude, ethnic, geographic unconscious, and therefore can perhaps be and linguistic practices, customs etc. Such an best approached through a consideration of effort will naturally have an influence in the the useful diversities” (51-52). individuals. This is what every nation has “culture can never be wholly conscious- their own cultural identity. According to there is always more to than we are conscious Jnanpith laureate and Kannada writer of it; and it cannot be planned because it is Vinayaka Krishna Gogak who reflected his also the unconscious background of all out focus on religion, philosophy, education and planning, including the unconscious culture, says, “culture, therefore consists in assumptions upon which we conduct the man’s harmonious and balanced cultivation of whole of our lives”. (Eliot 94)
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These definitions clearly indicate what --choose that of his own country. Everyone this term needs to perform and where is its without exception believes his own native space to occupy for it is greatly regarded as customs, and the religion he was brought up the arts and other manifestations of human in, to be the best; that being so, it is unlikely intellectual achievement. Therefore, the that anyone but a madman would mock at status of culture in any field is great, be it such things. There is abundant evidence that sociology or anthropology, it tells about the this is the universal feeling about the ancient civilization of man who in turn acquired it customs of one’s own country”. The novels of through several phases specifically during the Rushdie discuss the subtle correspondence postcolonial era when a swift transition between politics and culture and seemingly a followed by the merging of various cultures mongrelization of ethnicity of the migrated from the nook and cranny of the nation. This and the colonized could probably be scenario has been clearly depicted in romanfleuve of which the quintessence has Rushdie’s works for he is himself identified as been displayed in classy manner. In his an exemplary for his Indo-European culture. Imaginary Homelands, he praises his love for Therefore, the writer spent his wherewithal to plurality as the heritage of his motherland transfigure the occurrences pertaining to offered him the cultural stuff which he was in race, religion, nation, identity, hybridization, need of. Literally he was in search of his belonging, citizenship, subversion and ‘existence’. revision into a beguiling literary work “For a nation of seven hundred millions to through novels which fetch a wholesome effect make any kind of sense, it must base itself of cultural mélange; a conglomeration of firmly on the concept of multiplicity, of various ethnical and linguistic aspects as plurality and tolerance, of devotion and paraphernalia for cultural studies. Catherine decentralization wherever possible. There can Cuddy, in her research specifies this; only be one way—religious, cultural or “Rushdie’s fiction has the excitement of linguistic—of being an Indian; let difference novelty; it is mélange, hotchpotch, and bit of reign”. (44) this and that. This description reinforces the He thrusts the word ‘imaginary’ as a argument of cultural diversity that runs as a befitting tool to poise his point about nations thread through all the chapters”.(1996) for the anguish over many disruptions in the Cultural relativism is the very idea which country that affected to the common lives, Rushdie focused in his works because he is a and, the longing for getting back to one’s own critic to this idea. His beliefs, principles and homeland. To him India is one such great practices were drawn out from his own land where he finds the confluence of cultures culture irrespective of the judgments passed and languages, but, the political situation was by others but purely based on justified belief deeply penetrating. He says; “it may be the and opinion since it undertakes the writers in position, exiles or emigrants or procedures of epistemology. Cultural expatriates are haunted by some sense of loss. relativism flows towards this direction. From The physical alienation from India almost the translations of Aubrey de Selincourt, “if inevitably means that we will not be capable anyone, no matter whom, were given the of reclaiming precisely the thing that was lost; opportunity of choosing from amongst all the that we will in short create fiction, not actual nations in the world the set of beliefs which cities or villages, but invisible ones, imaginary he thought best, he would inevitably---after homelands, India in mind”. (10) careful considerations of their relative merits- 5 Bodhi International Journal of Research in Humanities, Arts and Science
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While glancing over the yester years one multiculturalism and plural philosophy in the (perhaps the reader) can see the nation’s postcolonial India. Further, the culture of history through culture. This is what we Islam, Hindu and Christian are the major perceive from the reading of Rushdie’s components in the cultural study of India. magnum opus and Booker of Booker’s Therefore, we get an evidence for this from Midnight’s Children which fetched him this novel that begins with the mélange of literary notability, is a convoluted fiction tale culture from the pages of Perforated Sheet that tells an allegory of the history of India, where the reconciliation of the landlord is an its struggles through the supersnooted attestation of multicultural elements, and, the protagonist, Saleem Sinai. The protagonist’s suitable of role of Jamila Singer; expectations lie in multiculturalism as an “But when Jamila Singer, concealed ideology that can cause the solidarity of the within a gold burqa arrived at the palace, nation. E.S Anker voices on this, “….within Mutassin, the handsome that owing to his these two courtships, the part is easier to foreign travels had never heard the rumours tolerate than the whole, yet it far from of his disfigurement-became obsessed with guarantees that the sum of those ingredients the idea of seeing her face; he fell hand-over will add up to admiration, and this heal with the glimpses of her demure eyes he discontinuity throughout the narrative stages saw through her perforated sheet”.( MC, 383) a satirical critique of Saleem’s (and Nehru’s) Glimpses of cultural mélange that multiculturalism as an ideology will amalgamating linguistic specimen can be ensure national unity”(95). Thus he became traced from his Imaginary Homelands in the chronicler of three nations; Bangladesh, which he now ponders over the days when he Pakistan and India. This accounts to tell had to wake up early in the morning to go for about persecutions of the refugees and the the prayers at the prayer maidan with his opportunity to accept intercultural attitudes father on Eid. The reader is at the impression and conseutudes. The disruptions and that the writer’s ability to speak and dislocations were natural and plausible comprehend other languages certifies himself cultural entities leading to metanoia; a to be a polyglot; and, here this matter is change in the lives resulting from the subjective as cultural transmission through penitence or spiritual conversion. Seyhan’s language and literature has been fulfilled by Writing Outside the World is this sort of the writer. Friday, the very sacred day of the realization for the way ‘looking back’ becomes week for a Muslim, Arabic, Latin languages, substituted activity of one’s homeland, its Catholic children, Eid, Christmas, baby Jesus, history, culture, and society that turns on the carols, his friends Hindus, Sikhs, Parsis etc illustration of the past. Indeed these aspects are clear instances for cultural diversity in bring out the depiction of the homeland and this essay. Though various aspects that its culture. To her, it should be the contribute to cultural scenario in his works, ‘preservation of memory of the homeland they Rushdie pulls religion to the second position left behind’. They have now accustomed to whereas politics occupies prime status. His some other ethnic styles which must be the statement on politics and religion often causes part of some cultures. This can be seen in ambiguity. He says, “Christ died as a political literatures. India being a multicultural nation revolutionary and but was largely that embraces various cultures is the depoliticized and wrapped in mysteries by courtyard of great philosophers and writers Paul”{381). His inclination towards pluralism whose powerful literary works on the idea of is transparent in his works, but not the 6 Bodhi International Journal of Research in Humanities, Arts and Science
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fanaticism, albeit he calls himself a ‘hardline References athiest’. Above all, the reader is at the 1. Rushdie, Salman. Imaaginary impression of Rushdie’s grand illustration of Homelands. London; Granta Books, 1991. hybridity in this regard. Ormus Cama in 2. Anker, S Elizabeth. Costituting the Ground Beneath Her Feet scintillated with Liberal Subjects of Rights. Fictions of analogies of multiculturalism and hybridity, Dignity: Embodying Human Rights in and we hear “He hasn’t fully grasped how to World Literature. make of multiplicity an accumulating 3. https://books.google.co.in/books, 2012. strength rather than a fritter weakness”. 4. Trivedi, Rajesh., Soni, Namrata. Through this novel, Rushdie encapsulates Multiculturalism in Salman Rushdie’s globalization, circulation and dissemination of Midnight’s Children. Research Scholar, knowledge, various problems, threats and RSIRJLE, Gwalior. prejudices experienced by the migrants. His 5. Cultural Relativism. Wikipedia. point is fairly lucid as the portrayal of a world 6. Gokak, V.K. India and World Culture. of hybridity and heterogeneity which 1972; New Delhi: Sahitya Akademy. organizes novelty in culture. 7. T.S Eliot’s Notes Towards a Definition of Culture.www.appletmagic.com/cultureliot. htm 8. Rushdie, Salman. Midnight’s Children. 1980; New Delhi; Avon Books, 1982.
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FEMINISM IN MAHASWETHA DEVI’S SELECTED WORKS – RUDALI, BREAST- GIVER DRAUPADI AND BAYEN
S.Karuna Ph.D. Research Scholar, Department of English, Sri Padmavathi Mahila Viswa Vidyalayam, Tirupati
Prof.M.Neeraja Research Supervisor, Department of English, Sri Padmavathi Mahila Viswa Vidyalayam, Tirupati
Abstract Mahasweta Devi is one of the India’s foremost writers. She is considered as one of the boldest of Bengali female writers. Mahasweta Devi quite often refuses to have connection with any school of thought, yet her sympathetic portrayal of the subjugation of women and consequent revolt invariably adds a feminist dimension to her work. But Mahasweta, like a subaltern, is scrupulous in her consideration towards women. The women characters in her works are stronger when compared to men. Feminism comprises a number of social, cultural and political movements, theories and moral philosophies concerned with gender inequalities and equal rights for women. Since 1980, standpoint feminists have argued that the feminist movement should address global issues such as rape, incest and prostitution. With the rise of a new wave of feminism across the world, a new generation of Indian feminists emerged. Feminism is not an intoxicant in the literature of Bengal, for here, the women traditionally steps out of prescriptive boundaries. Write, Bandyopadhyay claims that a three- fold role was originally envisaged for the woman: as Kinkini, the daughter, Kanakbati, the mother and- saint most seductive and difficult of all, as Madhusundari, the consort. To singer-saint Ramaprasad, his goddess kali was Kinkini-swarupa. To sri Ramakrishna she was the Universal Mother. But references to woman as Madhusundari, to be shunned like Pramada the temptress off Manu smriti, are not entirely lacking. Women have developed themselves according to the situations and have become advanced in various fields. Contemporary Indian feminists are fighting for individual autonomy, rights, freedom, independence, tolerance, co-operation, sexually, discrimination, sexism, patriarchy, abortion, reproduction control of the female body, divorce, equal pay, maternity leave, breast feeding, Prostitution and education. Keywords: Feminism, Subalternity, Marginalization, Oppression, Exploitation.
Mahasweta Devi is one of the India’s women. Since 1980, standpoint feminists have foremost writers. She is considered as one of argued that the feminist movement should the boldest of Bengali female writers. address global issues such as rape, incest and Mahasweta Devi quite often refuses to have prostitution. With the rise of a new wave of connection with any school of thought, yet her feminism across the world, a new generation sympathetic portrayal of the subjugation of of Indian feminists emerged. women and consequent revolt invariably adds Feminism is not an intoxicant in the a feminist dimension to her work. But literature of Bengal, for here, the women Mahasweta, like a subaltern, is scrupulous in traditionally steps out of prescriptive her consideration towards women. The boundaries. Write, Bandyopadhyay claims women characters in her works are stronger that a three- fold role was originally when compared to men. envisaged for the woman: as Kinkini, the Feminism comprises a number of social, daughter, Kanakbati, the mother and- saint cultural and political movements, theories most seductive and difficult of all, as and moral philosophies concerned with Madhusundari, the consort. To singer-saint gender inequalities and equal rights for Ramaprasad, his goddess kali was Kinkini-
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swarupa. To sri Ramakrishna she was the and bloody, naked and bloody, but fiercely Universal Mother. But references to woman strong. as Madhusundari, to be shunned like Breast giver is the narrative of social self Pramada the temptress off Manu smriti, are indulgene and apathy. Jashoda, the not entirely lacking. protagonist after her husband is crippled, Women have developed themselves becomes a vet nurse breast-feeding an endless according to the situations and have become stream of new born of the rich. S surrogate advanced in various fields. Contemporary mother of shorts forced by her husband and Indian feminists are fighting for individual circumstances to give birth over and over autonomy, rights, freedom, independence, again just to keep the milk flowing. The tolerance, co-operation, sexually, money she earns by continuously suckling discrimination, sexism, patriarchy, abortion, babies at her milk rich breasts keeps her own reproduction control of the female body, family will fed till the breasts give way to divorce, equal pay, maternity leave, breast cancer and income dries u along with the feeding, Prostitution and education. milk. Jashoda rebels ironically to succumb to Key words: Feminism, Subalternity, breast cancer, alone, breast less, with not a Marginalization, Oppression, Exploitation. single surrogate son to light her pyre. According to Mahasweta Devi the women Mahasweta Devi’s Rudali centres on two is the one who has to bear and not only bear women who develop a partnership for but also have to suffer from suppression. She survival. Rudaali is one of the haunting is both marginalized as a women as well as a stories that comes form remote villages in low caste. So, she is “doubly subaltern” if it Rajasthan. Sanichari is a beautiful girl born comes to subaltern women studies, doubly in lower cast and her life is full of sufferings subaltern means concern for the woman who because of lower cast, poor finances, lost was marginalized as woman as well as she parents, drunken husband, and mischievous belongs to a lower caste. The themes of her son. In her old age, she has become like a writings have majorly been doubly subaltern. stone which doesn’t complain and doesn’t Dopdi Mehjan in “Draupadi” is a major weep. Even a sharp eye drop that brings example of doubly subaltern character, as she artificial tears in the eyes of a Rudaali cannot belongs to the tribal community and she is bring tears in her eyes. sexually ill treated by the custodians of law. Her mother, an old professional Rudaali, Draupadi is one of the most famous lives with her for couple of days but doesn’t stories of Mahasweta Devi. It is set among the tell her that she is her mom. She suggests her tribal in Bengal. Draupadi or Dopdi as her to become a fellow Rudali with her. But the name appears in dialect, is a rebel, hunted problem is that Sanichari cant weep.When down by the government in their attempt to Sanichari’s tears come back to her eyes after subjugate these groups. The Government uses long years and she becomes a famous Rudaali all forces available to them including taking over her mother’s profession. kidnapping, murder and rape, and any tribal Though sanichari’s life is hard, she is she deaths in custody invariably accidents. But stoic and strong woman. After the death of Dipdi is not easily scared. After continuous her dissolute husband sanichari survived as days of rape and abuse, deprived in food and best she can. Rudaali relates sanichari’s story water, the story ends with a magnificent final to us in flashbacks as she reflects on her past scene in which she faces her abusers, naked with her friend, the experienced Rudaali she would inherit. We see the aging but proud 9 Bodhi International Journal of Research in Humanities, Arts and Science
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woman’s every effort at surviving in this male that she is not a feminist but strongly believes dominated world. that half of humanity – namely women is The story “Bayen” Woven in tribal suffering because of their physicality.” Unless superstitions focuses on a dauntless tribal we give dignity to that, nothing will change”. woman, Chandi—her childhood, her love She said not only does Mahasweta Devi affair with Malinder, her branding as a bayen expose the extreme operation of women in and how she faces the society which has ex- rural India but, she shows all Indian women communicated her and proves herself to be an the way out. extremely courageous woman even the approaching train does not deter her and she References does a great service to humanity. 1. Gayatri Chakraborthy Spivak, in other Thusportraying the life of exploited words: Essays in cultural politics( London: women in the novels, and short stories Methuen,1987) 215 Mahasweta Devi expressed that women 2. Devi Mahasweta Draupadi: Breast should not passive and submissive and should stories. Calcutta, Segal books, 2010 realize their own inner strengths which they 3. Rudaali by Mahasweta Devi, Seagull possess. They should also be aware of the fact Books, Caulcutta, 1997. that their own existence is meaningful and 4. Devi, Mahasweta. Bayen in best stories of should reshape their lives according to the Mahasweta Devi. (1990) New Delhi: R K new set perspective of freedom. Publishers, 1997 5. Morris, pam. Feminism and Literature. Conclusion (1993) Oxford: Blackwell Publishers, The subaltern women characters of 1995. Mahasweta Devi’s stories stand up for their 6. Bha, Yashode. The image of women in own protection at various times as they do not Indian literature. New Delhi: B R accept vanquishment. Mahasweta Devi said Publishing Corpora on 1993.
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A COMPARISON- PLIGHT OF BLACKS AND DALITS- WITH REFERENCE TO LYDIA MARIA CHILD’S SLAVERY’S PLEASANT HOMES AND C AYYAPPAN’S SPECTRAL SPEECH
Narma.S.Pratheep Faculty in English, Viswabharathy College, Anchal, Kollam, Kerala
Abstract World history shows us various stories of oppression that is spread across regions. The dominant in the society constructed various social hierarchies which divided the people as the powerful and the powerless. Most of the marginalised groups around the world have a similar system of oppression but the titles are different. India had a system of oppression named caste while in America they have another system called race. Dalits are the lower sections of society based on the caste system in India. Racism is a social system which was constructed by White Americans. They construct blacks as someone inferior and savage. These systems in different names are societal and psychological restrictions that have critically affects the lives of these underprivileged group of people. The judgement from the standards of mainstream society determines the life of these under privileged sections (blacks and dalits). Gender is also another means of oppression. Lydia Maria Francis Child was an American writer and activist her re-known short story Slavery’s pleasant Homes is a sorrowful story that presents a clear picture of how racism, slavery, marriage and classism as institution oppress the marginalised people in the story. C Ayyappan is the most outstanding representative of Dalit literature in Malayalam. His work Spectral Speech is a story of a dalit girl who commits suicide when deceived by her Christian lover. This paper explores how society treats these marginalised people and how their behaviour affects their psyche. It also portrays how these people especially women are bounded with the stigma of restrictions which was constructed by the dominant in the society.
Most of the marginalised groups around section of society which has been silent for the world have a similar system of oppression centuries. but the titles are different. In Indian society, Lydia Maria Francis Child was an caste becomes a platform of oppression, while American writer and activist her re-known in America it can be defined by race and skin short story Slavery’s pleasant Homes is a colour. White Americans who enslaved sorrowful story that presents a clear picture Africans for hundreds of years would develop of how racism, slavery, marriage and classism a doctrine of inferiority to nationalize the as institution oppress the marginalised people oppression. Just like racism which is a in the story. Her works concentrates on the prominent factor that divides people in issues like male dominance and white Western history, the caste system, a deep- supremacy. The story begins when Federic rooted factor which is a shame for Indian Dalcho was married to a young lady named culture, affects the socio-economic and socio- Marion. She brought two slaves with her cultural systems of Indian society. named Mars, a stalwart mulatto and Rosa, a Untouchables are the most exploited and young girl, but beautiful as a dark velvet unwanted ones. Not only economically, they carnation. Rosa and Marion had grown up are culturally and politically suppressed and together Rosa was foster mother of Marion. oppressed ones. Centuries of oppression George is another character who is Dalcho’s tempts them to coin a new literature for them. brother from a different mother (skinned Their literature draws real picture of their black). Dalcho enslaved George. During the sufferings and pains. It gives voice for a whole course of the story George and Rosa fell in 11 Bodhi International Journal of Research in Humanities, Arts and Science
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love. Dalcho forcefully torture Rosa and she reduced to a tool to oppress. In Ayyappan’s also refuse to do his orders. His forceful short story when the narrator asks Kunhacko torture and rape subsequently lead to Rosa’s about marrying her he replies‘ how can I ever death. At the end George takes revenge on marry you?’ which portrays the hypocrisy of Dalcho and kills him. The story ends with the society. When marriage in fact, is all about hanging of George and society blames him for human love and bonding, the society do not killing his master without considering the appreciate a union of upper and a lower caste reason behind the action. or class, as it is then seen as a touchstone to C Ayyappan is a member of the dalit measure one’s status. community which helps his works to be more Both the plot jot down the criss-cross authentic than any other upper caste writers. relation between the characters like Rosa- C Ayyappan’s Spectral Speech it is narrated Marion (Rosa foster mother of Marion) and by a dalit girl who commits suicide when George- Dalcho(brothers from different deceived by her Christian lover. In order to mother). In the dalit short story narrator tell the truth to the world she enters the body reveals her paternity after her death, that is of her lover’s sister. It deals with the Kunhacko’s and narrator’s have same father. confession of a lower caste woman who is This shows the sexual exploitation exist even reduced as a prey for her master’s corporeal before generations. hunger. It is a story of the dalit women which Even the woman belongs to lower or depicts the physical and mental torture which upper (class or caste) are treated differently. is mute and pathetic who after death According to Sharmila Rege “it is argued that transforms herself into a speaking subject. a category called women cannot exist- it is When we compare these stories both fictitious because there are several differences depict the plights of marginalised people. In (race, class, caste) construct women Slavery’s Pleasant Homes, the act of George’s differently. The experiences of these hanging is a warning for all blacks who try to marginalised women reflect this. transgress their action against mainstream These outcasted people need a medium to society. He does not have any voice, he is speak out. On one hand Child is criticising the being marginalised when the news reporters attitude of the mainstream media. George’s say that the white man is robbed and persecution is celebrated by the white media. murdered by his black slave. The reason Voice of Subaltern is denied here. “The behind Dalcho’s death is not being questioned Georgian papers thus announced the deed: and the sufferings of Rosa and humiliation "Fiend-like Murder. Frederic Dalcho, one of she undergoes is being silenced by the society. our most wealthy and respected citizens, was In Spectral Speech it the narrator who is from robbed and murdered last week, by one of his lower caste is the victim of sexual oppression slaves. The black demon was caught and by the upper caste people. Here also society hung; and hanging was too good for him." Not never allows her to talk, which is clear from one was found to tell how the black slave Rosa her friend Kunhu’s warning. was murdered. In Spectral Speech only after Marriage as an institution is criticised in death she could speak out. It is a reminder of both these short stories. The relation between the fact that the society permits a subaltern Marion and Dalcho reflects the loveless women expression only after her death. They marital life; he is not faithful towards her. are not allowed to talk in their lifetime. Marion is suppressed with the help of a social In the story Child strongly defends institution called marriage. Here marriage is George’s death for the murder of Dalcho 12 Bodhi International Journal of Research in Humanities, Arts and Science
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though murder is something cruel. She have born so they should begin from the projects the circumstances which led him to community itself. Education also helps them kill his master. But on the other hand to liberate from caste and class prejudices. Ayyappan through his story he is re-stating Through education they become more that a dalit will get freedom only after his/her conscious about their situation and they will death. definitely bring change in their community. In conclusion, in order to overcome generations of oppression both these sections References have to work and organize themselves for 1. Ayyappan, C. Spectral Speech. In the their freedom and liberation in such a manner Shade of Sahyadri. Ed. P.P.Raveendran. so that its benefits are equally accessible to New Delhi: Oxford University all members of the community. So they should Press, 2003. Print. act together for their freedom. Without 2. Child, Lidiya Maria. Slavery’s Pleasant resisting as a community they neither achieve Homes. n.p. n.d. Web. January 2018. nor defend their individual freedom. No 3. Rege, Sharmila. Dalit women talk individual is free from the community they differently.n.p. n.d. Web. January 2018.
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LINGERING THE ‘FRINGES’: DALIT LITERATURE AS AN EXIGENT PROTEAN POLEMIC ON SERFHOOD
A.N.Suhana H.S.S.T English, Sree Narayana Vilasom Hr.Sec.School Panayara Varkala, Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala
Abstract Literature is the interpretation of society. Indian society, in particular is a compendium of marginalized as well as privileged high class section. The paper analyses the history and rejuvenation of dalit literature with its heterogeneous character and its unique inevitability today in world literary arena. The postcolonial idioms of separation, isolation, powerlessness, quest for identity, consciousness of subjugation, violence and resistance are amalgamated exquisitely by the Dalit literary pieces. Dalit literature dexterously attempts the emancipation of the so called suppressed from trenchanting catalysts of oppression- poverty, sex, gender disparity and patriarchial dominance. Heywood opines on “third world power” or invisible power: Dalit writings gets ready for such a giant leap from the rancorous sidetracking agents such as race, age, culture, ethnicity, occupation and education. Marginalization can be read as a social phenomenon of relegating a section of people to the fringes of the society, humiliating them. Indian dalit writing revisits the scathing and sarcastic plight of the vulnerable, discriminated, disadvantaged, exploited, alienated section of Indian society. Maringinalisation is an affair that encapsulates two operations: domination and subordination. Gramsci’s “subaltern” and theory of hegemony and Michel Foucault’s idea of exchange of power; all define the socially excluded sect which in turn contempt the acerbic and searing caste system in India. The oppression experienced by the downtrodden has become an approach to analyse literature that echoes the gradual liberation of the critical consciousness inhibiting in the marginalized. Literature records iniquitous arrangement of the biting caste divisions. This paper ponders over a few works that depict how minorities are relegated structurally and socially and education becomes a tool to defend the vitriolic inequality practiced.
Dalit Literature is peremptory as it scales ethnicity, occupation and education. society. Indian society, in particular is a Marginalization can be read as a social compendium of marginalized as well as phenomenon of relegating a section of people privileged high class section. The paper to the fringes of the society, humiliating them. analyses the history and rejuvenation of dalit Indian dalit writing revisits the scathing and literature with its heterogeneous character sarcastic plight of the vulnerable, and its unique inevitability today in world discriminated, disadvantaged, exploited, literary arena. The postcolonial idioms of alienated section of Indian society. separation, isolation, powerlessness, quest for Maringinalisation is an affair that identity, consciousness of subjugation, encapsulates two operations: domination and violence and resistance are amalgamated subordination. Gramsci’s “subaltern” and exquisitely by the Dalit literary pieces. Dalit theory of hegemony and Michel Foucault’s literature dexterously attempts the idea of exchange of power; all define the emancipation of the so called suppressed from socially excluded sect which in turn contempt trenchanting catalysts of oppression- poverty, the acerbic and searing caste system in India. sex, gender disparity and patriarchial The oppression experienced by the dominance. Heywood opines on “third world downtrodden has become an approach to power” or invisible power: Dalit writings gets analyse literature that echoes the gradual ready for such a giant leap from the rancorous liberation of the critical consciousness sidetracking agents such as race, age, culture, inhibiting in the marginalized. Literature
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records iniquitous arrangement of the biting Nobody seems to know what the festival is caste divisions. This paper ponders over a few really about, or what it is celebrating.” (60). works that depict how minorities are She became a nun to assist the oppressed and relegated structurally and socially and she introspected her own transformation, education becomes a tool to defend the comprehending the way of the world. vitriolic inequality practiced. While Bama dexterously portrays in her Receiving attention in the literary circuit, Vanmam how poverty becomes an obtruding dalit literature drew inspiration from the agent in the life of dalits, her Sangathi Black Panther movement of North America. illustrates how they were in the clutches of Today Dalit literature is identified as a fervid sexual harassment, ignorance and deniel of struggle to recover the rights and privileges of freedom at home. Commending Bama in The the devastated, but now retaliating dalits. Hindu in 2005, Anandakrishnan in “Dalit Girl Though many have failed to recognize the Child’s Future Bleak” says that “Dalit true spirit of the literary pieces, one must community should stop discriminating among acknowledge the avid sensibility of the their own sub sects…Dalit women had a writers. While Dr. B R Ambedkar made a tougher fight to wage than other women and halloo for rejuvenation through literature, must struggle harder to break away from the dalit writer, Bama highlights the resurrection system if they are to gain entry into the of dalit community through education. Her knowledge society” (4). confessional autobiography Karukku(1992) Sharan Kumar Limbale’s Akkarmashi or ardently pictures the oppression and The Outcaste (1984) dwells on the humiliation experienced by dalit women, their manipulation of culture and impoverished quest for identity, their belief, education, condition of Mahar community. It records the culture and religion. Bama says; “In the face agony, injustice, maltreatment and pain he of such poverty, the girl children cannot see suffered as an outcaste. Limbale himself says the sense in schooling, and stay at home, that they are discarded like bus tickets. He collecting firewood, looking after the house, couldn’t even marry as he was treated as born caring for the babies, and doing household out of impure blood. The book highlights the chores.” (68) fractured identity of the author who struggled Although the “Untouchability Offences a lot to resurrect from the cocoon of a half- Act” was passed in the year 1955, the caste. The dalits are repudiated of the fruits scathing caste inequity never ceased. Bama of education. They were denied quality jobs, perspicaciously narrates the belief and relief accused of polluting upper class. of dalits as they convert to Christianity, but Sharankumar Limbale in Towards an the newly converted dalts too segregated, Aesthetic of Dalit Literature mentions: discriminated and dehumanized. With the A considerable proportion of Savarna promise of a castles system and economic critiques of Dalit literature suffer from independence, many of them willingly shallowness. Also, there is a distinct tendency converted to Christianity. They were viciously to expose the instances of one-sided, cheated and even ignorant about the festivals monotonous and sub-standard writing and and celebration; not even know about the publishing found in Dalit literature. There is birth of Christ. Bama remarkably also an attempt in Savarna critique to sever propounded, “At Christmas, Easter, and New the Dalit writers’ links with tradition and Year’s day, people hang up posters of culture. And, finally, there is a total absence Rajnikant and Kamalhasan here and there. of sociological literary yardsticks. All these 15 Bodhi International Journal of Research in Humanities, Arts and Science
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limitations point to the need for a Dalit In politics we will have equality and social literary criticism. and economic life we will have inequality. The marginalized is compelled to accept Emancipation of the “other” is the need of and follow the ideals and values instructed by the hour. The sidelined dehumanized dalits the upper class. These literary pieces render are no more ready to endure subjugation: the stark reality of subordination which is They are indeed part of our economy. They ubiquitous in all dalit communities. create history. Dalit literary movements Akkarmashi depicts the virulent and vitriolic emancipate them through the powerful submission and an urge for rejuvenation. The triggering and motivating policy- education. book excels with its first hand experiential These dalit writings set off a giant leap to narrative. stamp their idiosyncratic style to delineate Urmila Pawar’s Aaydaan or A Weave of the wicked and nefarious act of Bamboo: A Dalit Woman’s Memoir (2003) marginalization and segregation which explores the pliancy of human spirit. Pawar ultimately culminates in the grand retrieval remembers, “My mother used to weave of a unique literary genre. Of course an order Aaydan and I was writing this book, both to put an end to an ordeal. It represents were activities of creation of thought and liberation from disparagement. It practical reality of life.” (1). The book dwells amalgamates the hellenish and diabolical on the pathetic and biting caste system and experience and a reversal of power structures. the exploitation by patriarchal society. She Yes, Dalit literature with its distinctive touchingly canvasses how the disparity bizarre perspectives and unique outlook, breaks its limits even in the preparation of marches forward in rebellious resurrection food. Sashi Deshpande’s novel Small mode to establish a resuscitating role in all Remedies too deploys the same setting. The spheres. upper class ascribes no value to the “other”. Bama adds: “We are willing to marry out References of the community but nobody is willing to 1. Ambedkar B.R. Annihilation of caste: An marry us. Upper caste men look at Dalit undelivered speech. New Delhi: Arnold women as polluting beings, except when they Publishers, 1990. Print. rape us”. Urmila Pawar attempts a scornful 2. Bama. Karukku. Trans. Laksmi attack on the depressing and supercilious Holmstrom. Chennai: Macmillan India, attitude of the dominant section. She 2005. Print. challenged the imperious customs, traditions, 3. Limbale, Sharankumar. The Outcaste culture, practices, ideals and values imposed Akkarmashi. New Delhi: Oxford UP, upon them. On 25th November 1949, Dr B. R. 2003. Print. Ambedkar declared: 4. Limbale, Sharankumar. Towards an Political democracy cannot last unless there Aesthetic of Dalit Literature: History, lies at the base of it social democracy. By Controversies and Considerations. Canada: social he means a way of life, which Orient Longman, 2004. Print. recognizes liberty, equality and fraternity as 5. Pawar, Urmila, Maya Pandit. A Weave of principal of life. On 26th January 1950, we Bamboo: A Dalit Woman’s Memoir. are going to enter into a life of contradictions. NewYork: Columbia UP, 2003 .Print.
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BRUTAL TORTURE AND DYING WOMEN
G.Ramesh Banu Part-Time Ph.D. Research Scholar, Bharatiar University Coimbatore
Dr.CS.Robinson Assistant Professor, Government Arts College, Ponneri
Abstract World was not a good habitation for women. The women were tortured regardless of their age. They were forced to abort the child as she was female. If the female child was born in ignorance of elders the child was killed as soon as the child was born. There were forced marriage, forced abortion and forced pregnancy. The women were tortured in various ways in various countries such as female infanticide acid throwing and Sati in south Asia, foot binding in China, breast ironing, force-feeding and female genital mutilation in Africa rape, gang rape, marital rape in most of the countries etc. This article aims to throw some light on Female Genital Mutilation through the novel Possessing the Secret of My Joy by the famous African American novelist Alice Walker. Keywords: Habitation: residence, Infanticide: an act of killing infant, Sati: illegal practice of Hindu widow cremating on husband’s funeral pyre.
Man has constructed everything for his children. The men performed circumcision to convenience in the masculine society. He can heighten their sexual pleasure. enjoy anything in the world. But woman can There are three kinds of circumcision. enjoy nothing without his permission. To They are 1 Sunna circumcision is to remove make it easier, the man has made some basic prepuce or vaginal foreskin. 2 clitoridectomy instincts as taboos. One of them is sex. A man is to detach the clitoris. 3 Infibulations is to can have sex with any number of women. He excise the both sides of vulva and scraped raw shows his manliness. He is called as stud. If a and sewn together by leaving a small opening. woman does the same she is called slut. She The men concocted stories to make them should not speak about sex and she should believe and passed it on from one generation not crave for sex. She should be an object on to another. They proclaimed that female bed. These inhuman cruelties are severely children were born with unclean and impure condemned by women writers. Walker has genital organ and the organ should be portrayed the uttermost cruelty of men to removed for the purification. women in Africa in the name of community Walker’s fifth novel Possessing the secret and religion. She has showed submissiveness of joy delineates the evil practice of genital of women in the first three novels. She has mutilation. She fought against these thrown some light on genital mutilation in the atrocities through her writings. She didn’t fourth novel The Color Purple. To attract the conceive this novel through her imagination. attention of the world, she has drafted a But she collected data by visiting various special novel to bring the secret joy of men to countries. Walker witnessed death of female light. In the bible, God has commanded children in their early age only because of Abraham that the men in the family should Female Genital Mutilation. The novel is the be circumcised. On the contrast, the men true life story of Walker’s own community. commanded to circumcise the women though Characters may be imaginative. But it is fatal. It is done in the early age of female incidents are true. Walker wants to make awareness about female genital mutilation 17 Bodhi International Journal of Research in Humanities, Arts and Science
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among the people and uproot that evil were born with unclean parts. The unclean practice from various countries. In these parts should be removed to live in the society. countries, women were denied education and Once god had sex with earth. Clitoris of earth they were told that they were nothing and became monstrous. So God cut the clit. Thus useless. Men taught them that they were stories were cooked up by men. servants and slaves to them until their death. Tashi was an innocent girl. She became a Walker has made Tashi a familiar face to murderer. She had only one sister. Her sister the readers. She has introduced her in the died during circumcision. She couldn’t forget novel The Color Purple. Walker expresses her easily. She was silenced not to speak danger and consequences of female genital about her. She couldn’t digest the death of her mutilation through the character Tashi. sister. It might be crueler than sacrificing Female initiation was inevitable. Men and human beings alive to the goddess in some women never cared for this cruel operation countries. Her anger and pain collected and which brought a girl unbearable pain stored in her sub-conscious. Finally she throughout the life or painful death. The murders the circumciser for the benefit of the operation was performed with unclean and whole community. Walker wanted to put an rusty razors. Two sides of vulva were scraped end to this evil and cruel practice. Though it and sewn together by thorns without was a strong protest she was not afraid of any anesthesia. There was no medicine to cure the threat or enmity in the future. This kind of wounds. The piercing scream of the girl was presentation helps the present generation to not bothered by the circumciser. The women understand meaning and value of freedom in the world may know the labor pain. There which is enjoyed today. The freedom was built is no pain greater than labor pain. But pain on the sacrifice of innumerable women. This and sufferings of the girls during and after generation should create a better circumcision was greater than travail. The environment for the posterity. inhuman activity created more complication in sexual relationship and childbirth. The References men struggled to penetrate their wives. The 1. Walker Alice. Possessing the Secret of Joy. struggle was painful for women and pleasure New York: Pocket Books, 1992. Print. for men. Tashi was infibulated. After 2. Wardere Hibo. Cut: One Woman’s fight marriage, her husband penetrated her for against FGM in Brittain Today. London: three times. She was bleeding on every try. Simon and Schuster U.K LTD, 2016. The circumcision brought her many Print. defects in her body. She gave birth to a retard 3. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Breast_ironi child because of ordeal. She couldn’t walk as ng other girls. She was a patient at home. There were a lot of stories which made the women accept and believe. Female children
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TUMULTUOUS CHARACTERS SUPPRESS THE MEEK AND THE HUMBLE WITH A SUPPORT FROM THE SOCIETY - KHALED HOSSEINI AND BAPSI SIDHWA PROVE THE EXISTENCE OF SUCH CHARACTERS
S.Sreevidhya Ph.D. Research Scholar, Department of English, Bharathiar University, Coimbatore
Dr.C.S.Robinson Assistant Professor, P.G Department of English, L.N Government College (Autonomous), Ponneri
Abstract Patience, endurance and obedience are the most inevitable in the lives of women. They are taught to endure all sufferings with indefinite patience and obey their male members. In the Pre-Taliban period, women worked outside homes, as nurses, engineers, lawyers and doctors. They did not even wear the burqa and were never forced to remain silent when subjugated. After both Afghanistan and Pakistan met several wars, they were unable to remain stable. The country’s economic condition remained pathetic. There was no safety for people and along with it came in the Taliban enforcing strict rules on the public. In the name of religion, they forced men to take control of their women. They began to feel that women are safer with their face covered. Patriarchal laws were in vogue, but never ill-treated women. With the coming of extremists and other religious leaders, women were punished in the name of safeguarding. Ill-treatment began to raise its hood in the disguise of patriarchal principles. Women could live freely inside their own homes only if they bore a male child. Otherwise men practised polygamy.
Introduction Mariam‘s father and husband Rasheed. Khaled Hosseini and Bapsi Sidhwa have Mariam is averse to this union as she does not each wonderfully portrayed the existence of love Rasheed but is forced into marriage with tumultuous characters in their novels. this man, much older than her. Jalil‘s wife, Rasheed in A Thousand Splendid Suns and Afsoon locks the door of Mariam‘s room so Sakhi in The Pakistani Bride are befitting that she could not run away from the examples who show that they are filled with entrapping marriage. Hosseini‘s depiction of inferiority complex. Feeling inferior to the this minute fact serves to show that in Afghan others is because of the inability to prove culture marriage is not equated with true one’s potentiality. Men are always scared if love, but rather with convenience, as also the the women will go astray abandoning them. obligations and conventions in patriarchy. But the same fear and principle does not The temporary imprisonment of Mariam apply vice versa. They can marry more than before her wedding ceremony also becomes once for even the silliest of reasons. Such the starting point for her lifelong marital injustices take place in front of the victim sentence. Marriage with the malicious without their consent. They beat the women tempered Rasheed becomes a penalty for her; under the slightest pretext of suspicion. Rasheed behaves as her tormentor rather Mariam's capacity for endurance is what than husband. Over time, he becomes verbally allows her to survive horrible conditions and and physically abusive to his wives and depressing personal losses. Men too undergo daughter; to the point of near murder, he also the violence of the fighting, but for the women compels Mariam to participate in his there is additional violence because the men pleasures, that he forces upon her. The in their lives inflict cruelty on them, examples matrimonial home becomes, in that case, being Nana‘s father and husband Jalil and equivalent to a detention centre from which 19 Bodhi International Journal of Research in Humanities, Arts and Science
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there is no freedom for women like Mariam. cultural shock for Mariam. Oppression in all The recurring brutal battering, beating, ways cripple her dreams. She undergoes a lot kicking, slapping and verbal insults she of miscarriages due to ill health. But she is encounters in her conjugal dwelling become continuously forced to fulfil his pleasures in for her even worse than custodial violence. the name of religious laws. When Mariam Custodial violence was unheard of in the fails to carry a boy, he marries Laila who soon pre-Taliban period. The emergence of such becomes close to Mariam. This ally does not terms is a result of the tumultuous behaviour excite Rasheed. She is always treated very of the men in the society. Feminism came as a badly. He finds fault with her for everything movement to end the tortures on women and she does.Her participation in social life exploiting them in the name of weaker sex in becomes nil because of no appreciation for the society. The first wave of feminism was her. She is called a harami always. This fought for the right to vote by women. the harami status is attached to her as an second wave feminism was fought in order to identity that lives along with her until death. bring social and economic equality to women She is denied of a family, love and care, also. The third wave feminism evolved inorder friends and happiness. though she is able to to help the women identify their own self and reason many matters in her life, she is portray their inner self to the society in their marginalised for her harami status. own perspectives. With all feminist Along with her new friend Laila, Mariam approaches and all methods to avoid plans an escape with Aziza but is caught and oppression women have only tried to rise from handed back to Rasheed. Torture flows in all their kitchens. Though the women of today forms as he illtreats them without food and have been proving their worth in all major water, locking them in different places. He fields, the oppressed in the down trodden ensures that they always remember that they society, are continuing to remain the same. are totally powerless, but he is. He does not They are subjected to gender based allow any interaction with anyone outside. He exploitation and violence. Violence at home is always says, “What a man does in his home is locked within their mouths. They aren’t his business,” (AThousand Splendid Suns, allowed to walk out of their homes alone or 284) the patriarchal laws are so bad that they talk to anyone outside. They are made have separate hospitals for women and men. powerless and speechless. Cultural The treatment given to women is very bad imperialism was at its extreme when religious and are kept in bad conditions too. They have extremists understood that women play a to bear with the volatile temperament of the very important role in the society. Hence, they men at home as well the men in the society. It targeted the women through men. They did not require a lot of courage and advised the men to take complete control of preparation for Mariam to kill Rasheed. She their wives and daughters. This was enforced knew the punishment for killing her husband, on the majority of the illiterate population in but was happy to have freed Laila and the Afghanistan and Pakistan. kids from the evil-minded Rasheed. Rasheed is an abusive husband who does Women do not try to raise their voice not know to handle a gentle girl like Mariam. against suppression. She does not question He breaks her spirit of freedom by forcing the norms that are laid against her by her burqa and denying small joys of her life. immediate family and her society. Very few Being born to educated, liberal and kind girls would dare to question their male parents, Rasheed’s behaviour is a complete members regarding the differentiation met on
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them. They are shunned at home and their according to the changing sets of rules put brains lack the power of reasoning to question forth by the male members in the family. the men in the society. It is a life of Burqa is a symbol of silence. But it has to dependence that they live, always expecting become the symbol of resilience. Women’s fate mercy from men. However, what they are is a plaything in the hands of men. They blessed with is not mercy but, physical and shape it like clay in the form they desire to mental abuse. see. Zaitoon’s life is comprised of three stages Marriage is not an institution in most of journey- her childhood days, marriage cases of women like the characters created by fixing and her travel to the hills trying to free Khaled Hosseini and Bapsi Sidhwa. Men are herself. Her father Qasim does not care for also mocked at if they do not control their her feelings truly as she is not born of him. As wives. Men are honoured if they have boy the patriarchal and tribal law enforces, he is babies, and control their women at home. more concerned about the promise given to Trying to flee from the imperialistic the boy’s family, while fixing her marriage. culture only results in the worsening of the Life is important to them in the way they situation. They are beaten to death or pelted. follow the rules laid for them by the religious Being a woman is like being a beast of society. They do not consider the future or burden. Domestic violence and degradation is fortune of girls. Their education is least always endorsed on women. they should have important to them because endurance is the a yielding spirit and not a revolting one. biggest education one must have acquired. Whatever is forced on them should be Men do not bother about conducting loose borne with utmost patience and never voice morals but always doubt the women. Zaitoon’s out pain. Women are trained to endure while agony starts at the next day of marriage. Her staying with the parents itself. They are husband, a tyrant figure,beats her even at a taught the lessons of silence, pain and slightest issue. She is savagely tortured by endurance so that they do not bring a bad her husband for going near theriver. The river name to them after marriage. is marked as a boundary between the tribal area and the army. The world ofZaitoon is References across the river on the side of army. This is 1. The Bride: A Feministic Analysis. the world Zaitoon is familiar with. Sheyearns Interdisciplinary Journal of to move back to it. Contemporary Research in Business Men talk about the honour of women but Vol 3, No 10. February 2012. at the same time, go to brothels. They behave 2. Singh, Namita. Feminism v/s Gender as if they are entitled all the pleasures of the Equity: Socio-Political Activism in Khaled society even if it is illegal. Women always Hosseini’s A Thousand Splendid Suns. want to fight against such men who are unfair International Journal of Educational and unjust to them. But they have been Research and Technology. muffled by the men. The women of the P-ISSN 0976-4089; E-ISSN 2277-1557. household have to learn the meanings of IJERT: Volume 4 [2] June 2013: 88 – 92. ‘shame’, ’honour’, ‘social position’. But men 3. Wulandari, Sri. The Oppression Against are free from understanding these words. Women In Afghanistan Portrayed In Men are the generators of the rules and Khaled Hosseini’s A Thousand Splendid women are the recipients of punishments. Suns.
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IDENTITY CRISIS IS LIKE A CRY FOR MOON IN V.S.NAIPAUL’S MAGIC SEEDS
V.Meenakshi Assistant Professor of English, Manonmaniam Sundaranar University, Tirunelveli
Abstract In Magic Seeds, which is the sequel to a novel published in 2001 called Half a Life, a middle-aged man called Willy Chandran is the dominant voice. He is a nomadic soul who drifts from India to England, to Africa, to India, and then back to England again, in pursuit of his own identity; a man who feels himself to be forever trapped within a "half and half world", neither one thing nor the other. He suffers from spasms of political idealism; he joins a guerilla group which is fighting for the "liberation" of the people in a Portuguese colony in Africa. Nothing finally satisfies in the end of the novel.
Introduction bring him the fulfillment he so desperately It is important to get the crux point of seeks. At Ana’s estate house in Africa, Willie V.S.Naipaul’s previous novel Half a Life feels like a stranger, and says, It may be before focusing on Magic Seeds. The because of something in our culture that in protagonist of Half a Life is Willie Chandran spite of appearances, men are really looking who is in quest of stability and completeness for women to lean on (Half a Life 141). And in the whole novel. When the novel Half a Life further, Ana was important for me because I opens, the protagonist of the novel puts a depended on her for my idea of being a man question before his father why he is named (142). Willie wants to discover some object in after an English writer. On not receiving life through his sensual associations and justified answer to his question Willie feels a sexual encounters in Ana’s Africa. One day sense of negation to himself. This sense of Willie gets a slip while he was coming down negation starts in Willie from very beginning. step at Ana’s house. During the treatment in Willie always thinks about his self- the hospital Willie realizes that he has wasted discovery. His mixed parentage spoils the the crucial phrase of his life being Ana’s bright future of Willie. Willie’s unusual origin, London man. Finally Willie decides to leave his education, and his experiences in early life Ana and goes to Berlin to stay with his sister makes him alienated and uprooted. All these all his expectations and dreams about Africa facts are responsible for making Willie unable and Ana proved futile and pessimistic. to settle down anywhere. Willie decides to go However, at the end of the novel Half a to London to get completeness and construct Life, he finalizes to leave Ana realizing, that his new identity. Reaching London, he finds it is not his life and chooses to stay in Berlin himself in a different situation. He is an with his sister Sarojini who is a film maker outsider there. and also leading half a life. But even in Berlin At the end of the novel Half a Life Willie he cannot find himself. He was a confused and Chandran marries Ana, his girlfriend, and perplexed man. Willie starts searching his goes to Africa as Ana’s London man leaving identity and roots. Magic Seeds starts where his culture, country and personal identity Half a Life comes to an end. behind. Willie lives in Africa with Ana in her In the novel, the novelist presents the house as husband and wife. He became characters who are products of racial and famous there as Ann’s London man. His culture mixture. In the novel all the experience of love with Ann, he hopes, might characters are living in multi-cultural society.
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They are discovering their roots and In Magic Seeds we find Willie a neglected identity. Throughout the novel Willie is and uprooted from his own culture. He cannot drifting without solid and fixed identity. One get any permanence satisfaction anywhere. cannot achieve a fixed identity in multi- He is unable to adjust anywhere. He leads background. Willie deeply thinks that he a half life. He has forgotten his roots and must seize the time to construct his origin that is why he is very curious about subjectivity because he has spent too much finding his lost roots Now he does not want to time leading a life of gypsy: He thought that live without identity. After the gloomy period was how I appeared in London. That is how I had gone, Willie is living in Berlin with sister appeared now. I am not as alone as I thought. Sarojini. Willie feels relaxed after having Then he thought: I am wrong. I am not like faced suffocating life in Africa. But soon we them .I am forty one middle life. They are come to realize that all Willie’s constructive fifteen or twenty years younger, and the world purposes of taking control of his life are not has changed. They have proclaimed who they destined to be fulfilled. His visa is expiring are and they are risking everything for it. I soon and Willie, exactly as it happened in have been hiding from myself .I have risked London years before, is forced to face the nothing. And now the best part of my life is reality of thinking about what to do. But the over. (138) Protagonist Willie moves from only answer that he is able to give his sister is India to London and finally to Africa in late “I don’t see what I can do. I don’t know where 1950s, where he marries a Portuguese woman I can go (…) I was always someone on the and seems to be settle there with Ana. . When outside. I still am. What can I do here in he slips down from steps in Ana’s house he Berlin?” (Magic Seeds 55) Willie is still lost realizes that he has wasted the best part of and disillusioned in himself. His sense of his life by being Ana’s London man. At last negation and displacement has not Willie says to Ana: I am forty-one. I am tired diminished after the departure from Africa. of living your life….the best part of my life Berlin is definitely new and promising place has gone, and I have done nothing…it would for Willie. But he comes to realize that this is be still your life. I have been hiding for too not city where he can settle. He is the victim long. ( 227) This paraphrase shows Willie as a of colonial psyche. The fact that Willie has not crestfallen man and he is broken from body gone through such a profound change, is also and soul. He does not want to remember his proved by his persistent refusal to share his past any more. Ana is also tired of living with personal thoughts, even with the sister. Willie. She is leading a half life. Both of them Moreover, the narrator explains that are sailing on the same boat so Ana said,” Willie refuses to reveal his true feelings to Perhaps it wasn’t really my life either.”(227). both other people as well as to himself; thus, Finally, the following lines reveals his at this point of the narration, Willie’s extreme philosophy of life: Willie thought, I don’t know difficulty in creating any form of authentic where I am. I don’t think I can pick my way dialogue or form of communication becomes back. I don’t ever want this view to become evident. He rejects his previous life in London familiar. I must not unpack, I must never and Africa as an unauthentic life in which he behave as through I am staying. (135) did nothing but hiding his true self both to Naipaul’s next novel Magic Seeds brings the others and to himself. All his previous desires hero of the novel back to India from Africa and needs now seem to him to have been after almost 18 years. The beginning of Magic “false”, as they were not part of himself but Seeds is the ending of Half a Life. the product of an alienated condition. It is at 23 Bodhi International Journal of Research in Humanities, Arts and Science
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this point that Sarojini starts telling him has been some mistake.I have fallen among about an Indian guerrilla movement whose the wrong people. I have come to the wrong leader is a certain Kandapalli: according to revolution. I don’t like these faces.And yet I Sarojini this revolutionary movement, which have to be with them. I have to get a message fights to emancipate the poor low-caste Indian out to Sarojini or to Joseph. But I don’t know villagers from the land owners’ abuse of how.I am completely in the hands of these power, is part of the same regenerative people. (49) Willie is totally confused and process in our world. Willie decides to join the perplexed with the people of guerrilla movement and therefore leaves Berlin for movement. His mind is with a number of India. A new kind of emotional life came to questions about his position. Willie lost Willie” the time spent in Berlin seems like a himself in conjecture about the people around time of reconciliation and revelation, a time in him… They were all people in their late which Willie eventually manages both to find thirties or early forties, Willie’s age, and he his location in the world and to develop a wondered what weakness or failure had different, new and more authentic way of caused them in midlife to leave the outer relating with himself. world and to enter this strange chamber … After more than twenty years Willie saw Among these people … he was a stranger. (52) India again: India began for him in the After years of purposeless and risky life, here, airport in Frankfurt, in the little pen where lost in the jungle, Willie realizes that he is passengers for India were assembled. He losing also himself, and therefore the only studied the Indian passengers there (…). He purpose becomes that of surviving. Willie says saw India in everything they wore and did. “I’ve forgotten myself. Now I’m truly lost in He was full of his mission, full of the every way. I don’t know what lies ahead or revolution in his soul, and he felt a great behind. My only cause now is to survive, to distance from them. India began to assault get out of this.”(125) Eventually, together him, began to remind him of things he with another absconder of the movement he thought he had forgotten and put aside, escapes and he intentionally gives himself up things which his idea of mission had to the police: for his involvement with the obliterated; and the distance he felt from his revolutionary actions he is given a ten-year fellow passengers diminished. … He felt sentence. Fortunately, Willie will not spend something like panic at the thought of India much time in jail due to the intervention of he was approaching. … He felt ‘I thought of his sister Sarojini and his friend Roger, a the two worlds, and I had a very clear idea of lawyer, whom Willie met when he was in the world to which I belonged. But now, London. After six months Willie is free and really, I wish I could go back a few hours and again bound for London. His return to London stand outside the Patrick Hellman shop in signs the last stage of Willie’s peregrinations Berlin, or go to the oyster and champagne bar around the world. in the KDW64. (Magic Seeds 25-26). Somehow, he joins the guerrilla group and Conclusion starts to live in the jungle, sometimes finding Willie during his entire life keeps looking shelter in the small country villages, sharing for his roots everywhere. Willie said, “It is the his time exclusively with the other members one thing I have worked at all my life, not of the movement. being at home anywhere, but looking at Willie's placement with communist home.” (p. 74). There seems to be no magic guerillas is absurd and he thinks that: There and no miracle in the life of Willie Chandran 24 Bodhi International Journal of Research in Humanities, Arts and Science
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but history is being repeated. Displaced life is 2. Hall, Stuart. “Cultural Identity and not going to cease at all. The quest for roots Diaspora” Theorizing Diaspora: A Reader. still continues. Thus Willie represents the Ed. Jana Evan Braziel and Anita Mannur fragmented cultures and displaced United Kingdom: Blackwell Publishing populations. The title 'The Magic Seeds’ refers Ltd, 2003. both to the abortive revolution sown by the 3. Kent, Mohini. “The New Naipaul”. India revolutionaries and also to the seed that will Today plus, First Quarter, 1997. produce a race less society, a new class of 4. Mishra, Vijay. “New Lamps for Old: drifters' for whom 'Home' remains an utopian Diasporas Migrancy Border.” dream which is never realized. Thus we see Interrogating post-colonialism: Theory, that Willie’s search for self remains a cry for Text and Context. Ed. Harish Trivedi and moon. Meenakshi Mukherjee. Shimla: Indian Institute of Advanced Study, 1996. 67-86. References 5. Naipaul, V.S. The Middle Passage. 1. Bande, Usha. “Journey Motifs in Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1969.rpt. Diasporic Writings: A Reading of Journey 6. Naipaul, V. S. (2001). Letter between to Ithaca.” Interpreting Indian Diasporic Father and Son. Family Letters. Ed. Experiences. Eds. Kavita A. Sharma, Gillon R. Aitkin. New York: Knoff, 2000. Adeash Pal, Tapas Chakrabarti. New 7. Half a Life. Picador.2001. Delhi: Creative books, 2004. 151-159. 8. Magic Seeds. Picador.2004.
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THEORETICAL UNDERSTANDING TOWARDS DALITH LITERATURE
Dr.T.D.Praveen Kumar Assistant Professor, Vijaya Teachers College, Bangalore
Abstract The Dalit movements and literature in India have occupied significant place in the discourse of social sciences. These movements have addressed numerous issues that facilitate to understand and analyse Indian polity. Dalit literature is nothing but the literary of expression this consciousness. The Dalit literary movement however,. Was not one that had begun with a bang and also had faded into the certain call without anybody taking heed to the cry of sensitive response. This very movement is still very much on and moving with great momentum. 1970s witnessed great deal of Dalit movement, literature, activities throughout the country in almost all major languages. The word ‘Dalit’ was first use in Maharashtra to emulate the movement heralded in the United State of America for emancipation of blacks as ‘black panthers’. On similar lines ‘Dalit Panthers’ was founded in Maharashtra in the part of 1960s which eventually paved way for dalit literature in Marathi. The word dalit caught up with popular mood and the movements and literature in other languages unhesitatingly named them as dalit. When looked into the scenario of Kannada and Karnataka., the literature and the movement are just not borrowed from other parts,. But have a strong foothold for provincial and indigenous reasons. Dalit literature became a form of literature in Kannada as the cultural and social scenario has changed gradually. Dalit literature has expressed itself in several genres such as : Prose, Poetry, Short stories, Drama, Autobiography and Critic and Research. Through these genres Dalit literature serve the society to remind the mistakes and faults of the society. My paper will mainly concentrate on how the culture and social set up plays an important role in the evolution of a literature and how its course will be changing with the culturalization of a particular region and sect. Dalit., being supressed and exploited had no identity in the 19th and dawn of 20th century. When dalit movement started in 1970s onwards they thought of having their own literature in order to create their own identity and express their anguish of past centuries. Even they used it to fight against the inequality and exploitation of the so called upper castes of the society. This paper highlights how dalit literature too a form gradually and how it became a literary movement with the examples and illustrations of some renowned writers of Kannada in particular and other Indian languages in general.
Theoretical understanding towards contradictions, rites and rituals, vices and Dalith Literature virtues, dogmas and doubts, professions and India has been considered the most protests is able to sustain itself across stratified of all known societies in human different regions of India in varying degrees of history with peculiar form of caste system. rigidity. The system is ‘peculiar’ in the sense that it In today’s world, without raising our harbours one of the greatest separating forces voices nothing is achieved. Protest has that divides human beings into higher castes become a part of our life. It is between and lower castes. This division is backed by individuals, groups nations, animals and certain religious sanctions, based on which inanimate things. Protest are at two levels. sociologists explain concepts such as purity One is individual protest which occurs and pollution. These sanctions help the caste between family members, relatives, friends, system to renew its legitimacy even after it is officials, politicians, philosophers etc. challenged. As a result, the caste system with communal protest occurs between different it myriad variations of super ordination and communities, working capitalists etc. Protest subordination, it confusions and among nations occur between nations of
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different religions, developing countries, east The Primary motive of Dalit literature is and west neighbouring countries. the liberation of dalits. Dalit struggle against Protest is an inherent feature of human castist tradition has a long history. For society. The progress of any society tends to example, in Kannada it goes back to the first be determined by the degree of social protest. Vachana poet of the 11th century, Madara India is not an exception to this phenomenon. Chennaiah, the cobbler. He represented dalit Indian society witnessed and wide range of issue of that day. Continuation Vachana era protest movements differentiated by Basavanna through his vachana tradition ideologies, methods and objectives in different negotiated the question of untouchability in historical conjectures. Literature is one of the his own way in 12th century. His all inclusive dominant agencies to reflect the social reality initiation to get dalits into the main stream of and question the forms of discrimination and his own thought process or including them levels of deprivation in diverse spheres of the into his group has multifarious approach. society. Literatures which express disproval How he approached this question of or objection to the social and political order untouchability and tried to negotiate with it encompass a variety of issues. They all come can be gauged by going through his vachanas under the category of protest literature. They centered on this issue. These vachanas are call public attention towards slavery, human also centred on Dalits. The 12th century Dalit rights, racism, poverty, caste system in saint Kalavve challenged the upper casted in society, immigrant experiences the following words: ethnocentrism…etc “Those who eat goats, foul and tiny fish: Such, they call caste people Dalit Literature Those who eat the Sacred Cow Literature is one facet of culture. And it That showers frothing milk for gives a deep understanding about the society. Shiva The significance of a literature can be best Such, they call out-castes” understood in terms of the culture from which Dalit literature is a powerful, it springs, and the purpose of literature is revolutionary emerging trend in Indian clear only when the reader understands and literary scene and also Dalit literature is accepts the culture on which the literature is always marked by revolt and negativism, as it based. Culture, being a main source of is intimately linked with hopes for freedom of literature, influences many writers and a group of people who, as untouchable, are thinkers. There is close relationship between unfortunate bunched of social, economic and culture and literature. The literature of each cultural inequality. Dalit literary movement every language is divided into may blocks therefore is just not a literal movement but is according to their culture. Even its evolution the form of change and revolution where the and revolution depends upon the cultural primary aim was the liberation of Dalits. evolution of that particular region. Dalit literary movement thus has a long When looked into the scenario of Kannada history which ideally unfolds the secret and Karnataka, the literature and the struggle against castist tradition. So Dalith movement are just not borrowed from other literature, known as the literature of parts, but have a strong foothold for suppressed class under the Indian caste provincial and indigenous reasons. Dalit system, depicts the issues of injustice, literature became a form of literature in unsociability and the heart wrenching Kannada as the cultural and social scenario struggle of suppressed classes. has changed gradually.
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Dalit Literature deals with dalit realities Literature indeed had immensely influenced and has sociological implications. Dalit Dalit literary movement. At almost the same literature is an offshoot of postcolonial trends period there were some famous poets writing and protest writing. They project repression in Telugu calling themselves Digambara and suppression as the agencies responsible Writers. fore the deterioration of a part of Indian In one of the historic moments, the very society. They focus tragic plight of millions of same Basavalingappa, while delivering a landless, poor, illiterate, hungry and starving lecture in a college function in 1974, uttered, people and also they concentrates on essential “Most of what is in Kannada literture is in dignity, nobility and humanity with reference fact cattle feed (boosa)”. This triggered to Dalit. Literature of Dalits has to agitation statewide by the upper caste and continuously deconstruct its own position as non dalits which eventually resulted in the representation at the same time engage in the resignation of the minister. The social creation of a larger universal literature. consciousness was visibly trifurcated as Dalit literature also resists literary Brahmin, Sudra and Dalit. Progressive conventions and language rigidities and tries thinkers including the iconic Sudra Writer to create its own poetics against the set K.V. Puttappa, popularly known as Kuvempu, politics of the classical literature of the upper came in support of Basavalingappa. This castes. The reality of dalit literature is incident prompted the birth of Dalit distinct so is the language of this reality. It Sangarsha Samiti (DSS) under the leadership uses the uncouth, impolite spoken language, of prominen B. Krishnappa in the dialect that is specific to dalits of a region, Bhadravati(1974), a small town in Karnataka. wherever possible and emphasizes the faithful As a sequesl, a ‘dalit youth writers reflection of the heartrending dalit experience association’ was formed in 1975. In the in terms as simple as possible. Very often, meanwhile, a group of writers comprising dalit writing prioritizes subjective narratives mostly sudras formed “karnataka Writers and in contrast to the norms of the existing Artist conclave” primarily expressing anti standard literature that concentrates on the Brahmin sentiments. The roots of Dalits objectivity and the universality of literature. literature in Kannada can be traced here itself. The Dalit awareness officially made its Background of Kannada Dalit Literature existence known here itself. This itself grew Dalit writers are influenced by the into KDSS later on. In 1976 it organized a ideologies of Marx, Lohia and Ambekare it Dalit writers meet. One can trace its foot has gained momentum since 50 years. prints form this stage. The strength behind Influenced by these personality many writers this was nothing but the Boosa incident of in various languages have tried to deal with late B. Basavalingappa. the theme of untouchaility. One of the best Devanooru Mahadeva and siddalingiah representatives of this new wave of Dalit are considerd to be the pioneers of Kannada liberation and literary movement was the Dalit Literature. Siddalingaiah set a new Dalit Panther Movement in Maharashtra trend inn poetry, a norm of course unthiable which eventually paved way for Dalit by others, but he could not sustain the flow, literature in Marathi, which made the term may be because of overbearing imitaions that Dalit a household name in nearly every followed nor could he experiment with new Indian region. Further, as has been witnessed idiom. His contemporaries like M.N. before, there was also seen a rise in Dalit Javaraiah, Chennanna Valikara, Mulluru literature during the 1960s. Black american Nagaraj, B.T. Lalitha Naik, Geetha 28 Bodhi International Journal of Research in Humanities, Arts and Science
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Nagabhushan, Munivenkatappa and others 36% of rural Dalits live below the poverty practiced literature for a longer time and line their contributions are acknowledged as 38% of urban Dlaits live below the poverty greater. line. The next generation writer like Aravind Malgatti, Sarjoo Katkar, Mudnakudu Sources Chinnaswamy, K.B. Siddaiah, Sukanya UN, Human Rights Watch, Times Maruthi, Mallika Ganti, L. Hanumanthaiah, Database (Dalits situation in India) Mogalli Ganesh and others picked up their Varasanadu own idiom and even now they contunue to entrall the literary audience. Even a Brief Study Reveals the The third generation appears to be more Following Truth about India sensitive to academic disipline and is catching 1 crime is committed against a Dalit every the eyes of readers. N.K. Hanumanthaiah, 18 minutes. Subbu Holeyar, Lakkur C. anand, V.M. 27 atrocities against Dalit every week Manjunath, T. Yellappa, D. Saraswathi. 13 Dalits are murdered every week Anasuya Kamble are the Prominent names. 5 Dalits homes or possessions are burnt These writers written poems, short stories, every week novels and autobiographies. Through their 6 Dalits are kidnapped or abducted every writings Dalit writers provided useful insight week. on the question of Dalit identity. Now the subaltern communities found a new name by Dalit Theology coming together with the perspective ‘dalit is One of the salient features of the Dalit dignified’ thereby rejecting the sub-human theology is that it is an out and out theology status imposed on them by the Hindu social about the downtrodden, “the theology which order. they themselves would like to expound”. One Totally Dalit Literature whose main of the major generators of the Dalit theology subject is the agony, suffering and the is the Dalit experience of torment and ache. problems of the most oppressed section in the The theology has a two fold function. Firstly, society needs to be reinterpreted in the it acts in harmony with the aim of liberation. changing political scenario in India and also This liberation is a emancipation from both in the entire world. They are need of the hour the religio-cultural and socio-economic to create a wild awareness of how Dalits bondages. The theological movements, struggled and survived the sufferings. This secondly, also possess a lot of psychological platform will create a consciousness to the dimensions which are of equal importance. Dalit generation next, to familiarize and Smoe of the illustration which taken form realize the suffocating past and get well the Dalit literature for the purpose of explains armed to build a future for bright freedom. Dalit theology. Siddalingiah is a major poet in Kannada Statistics of the Dalits in India literature, who poineered the Dalit voice in 200 million estimated Dalits in India 1975. Dalit is a cultural term denoting the 17% of the Indian population oppressed class which was treated as 110,000/- registered so many violence’s untouchable by the so called upper castes in against Dalits in 2005 India. These situation take place in his 38% of Indian state schools make Dalits poems. India became independent in 1947 but sit separately when eating still Dalits getting dominent by richmen. 29 Bodhi International Journal of Research in Humanities, Arts and Science
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Before independence all people of India laborer of such peoples getting profit to their expected the social, economical, gender, land lords by working day and night but they religious, cultural equality wil occur in society were not getting sufficient basic necessary if we get independence but after independent form them. It can be said as the whatever the situation were there same administrative class reality of the society. continued in society. Siddalingaiah express Dalits are unknown to their own rights so there feelings followed as still they are as exploited class/lower class in It came to Tata Birla’s pocket the society among all the castes. The upper Then came to the man eater peoples class people taking as advantage of helpless mouth Dalit people. The voice against Came to shoes of police underestimating them and the revenge Resulted in masters hunter’s cane against upper class people as followed : I’ll Came to gun’s bullet break like wood a rich man body I’ll smash These lines express being independent your intestine and I’ll remove it India still dalits are dependent. This is the Bone cholesterol regreting thing. The maing aims of the Dalit I’ll drink blood like wine movement is to change the society and getting Of the rich man freedom from the class people which are the If they not return rights of the Dalit exploiters. which is their power, revolution were take The challenges of Dalits is to converting place to establish humanistic society with the mind of capitalists, richmans and destructing wild behaviorism and exploitative uppercasts peoples to their responsibility nature of one who are so called safer class in towards upgrade the society. Poet society. The dalits who are living their life siddalingiah has played very vital role with labourism, untouchability..etc those through his poem in getting mean to Dalit people should come out from all these movement. Its literaly true. The poet is unmeaning full life. They need to get human regreting about the cruel history of Dalits rights in society. The poet expect that the behind this the changes canbe seen by poet upper class people should aware needs and sayings. wants, sorrow and happyness, do’s and don’ts Who plough, sow and harvest, of the Dalits. sweating in the sun Dalits are the steps of Kings Places and Who take rest sighing heavily with big pillars by removing their intestine fatigue For the decoration of their palace but those Who go about empty handed, getting people only play with our blood. This is the little to eat or wear reality of social system. One who exploiting us These, these are my people...... telling ‘we all or one, and we are the childern Who excavated gold but go with out of god’ but the real thing is they only not food allowed daliths in to village as well as Who weave fine fabirics, but og temples. Now Dalits know the reason of themselves bare discrimination and exploitation to overcome Who do what they are told, who subsist this Dalits only discover the new path that is on mere air revolution through their literal weapon. These, these are my people Dalits decided Pen is one and only sword to From ancient period Dalits were popets of change our society. So they create protest Land lords, capitalists and rich man's. Those literature. were the working as slaves and bonded 30 Bodhi International Journal of Research in Humanities, Arts and Science
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In the poem ‘Thousand of River’ from the “lonliness, struggle, sadness, Siddalingiah explains ‘my people they came bitterness, survival instinct, masochism, and like a mountain, my people arrive in hordes’ the violence borne of relationships”. The book so now Dalits were aware of their needs and also has a blurb by Ananathamurthy who say, they are eager to get what they want. “these are poems to be read carefully. They Black faces bearede with silver have the ability to expand our cognitive ways Burning eyes red with rage apart from enriching our emotional world”. Burst though the blankets of sleep Hanumantayya is a poet who cannot be read Breaking the barriers of day in a hurry. Breaching the bounds of night It may not be an exaggeration to say that Like all Dalits stepped into the Dalit which in the recent past much of the notable poetry movement which were placed for the Dalits in kannada has been Dalit poetry. The justice in society. modern dalit poetry in Kannada burst into One of the contemporary Kannada poets lime light in the 70s and after with writer whose work inspiring readers that is N K such as siddalingayya. It was also the Hanumantayya. There was an unnecessary heydays of DSS. Among the ones that are one controversy in Karnataka aroud 2004 about of poet is Govindayya. One of his celbrted eating beef. At the time Hanumantayya wrote poems is “A, B, C and …” it goes like this poem titled: ‘Becoming a cow by eating cow Open my eyes when I began stirring meat’, an excellent poem which caught the my lims: attention of many and NKH began to be liked A hearth was ablaze by poetry lovers. Setting his black limbs to the fire Hanumantayya’s poems are written in Father breathed through beedi standard dialect. His is not the dialect based As lives were in a boil in the boiling poety. He is also a very frequent user of gruel symbols: First and foremost this poem, like much of On this ant dalit literature reveals a self deprecatory I placed my heavy step gesture. This gesture is and acknowledgment The ant is still moving. of the suffering endured by the parents, or by Hanumantayya sees all the samll beings. extension, being endured by the dalit He is alert to the living beings that we community. Secondly, it celebrates the access take for granted. While in the ‘Spine..’ poem to education and the change made thus quoted above he goes on the thank all these possible. Thirdly, it records the systmic tiny beings whose life is forever casually nature of oppression. The inhumanity of such endangered by our activities, his piems also treatment however has no robbed the mother frequently show gratefulness too. Violence is and father of the ability to find joy. The world common motif in her poems. Often the poems continues to be inhuman, yet the dalit life- invoke the violence meted tout to the wordld celebrates the little joys of success. community over the ages, sometime to Thrength and freedom. violence in the daily lives of people, creatures. Finally the contribution of Dalits There is sadness about the pervasiveness of literature has been immense : violence. Therefore most poems also have First and foremost, it effectively macabre image. threatened the Bramanic hegemony from Nataraj Huliyar who has written a literature. preface to Hanumantayya’s Picture’s Spine Second, is concertized Dalit masses for says that these poems seem to have emanated assertion, protest and mobilization. 31 Bodhi International Journal of Research in Humanities, Arts and Science
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Third is stirred up thinking is Dalit authenticity and freshness of experience intellectuals and catalyzed creation of experimental works encouraging revolt and organic intellectual of Dalits. realistic works. Fourth, given that the level of literacy Dalit consciousness is not associated with been particularly low among Dalits, the a person. It belongs to the community. So we Emergence of Dalit literature where both can find its creativity in every stage. The the writers and readers are mostly Dalits, caste consciousness and confidence are much is itself an evidence of a profound change above the communalism here. It has arose taking place in Indian society. from confidence, not from blindness.
Conclusion References Dalit literary movement not only 1. Dalita Jagathu, Purushothama Bilimale, concentrated on the political matters but 1989, Hosadikku Prakashana, Bangalore. cantered around human beings. It knows that 2. Dalitantaranga, Pothe .H.T, 2004, man himself is society and society is nothing Tippanambu Prakashana, Gulbarga VV, other than human beings. It rightly viewed PG Center, Rayachur. that bringing about a change in people is 3. Dalita Chaluvali Onedu Avalokana, greater Bandaya for its problems are directly Dr.Munivenkatappa, 1998, Vicharavadi linked with social problems. A single hand Prakashana, Mysore. can’t clap. So, it built a forum joining hands 4. Dalitatva Aksharavagada Athma with others. More concern was shown towards Kathanaka, Srinivasamoorthy .K.V, 2010, human beings than the political thoughts. Ladayi Prakashana, Gadaga. That’s why we can’t find direct rebel in Dalit 5. Poisoned Breade, Arjun Dangle(Ed), way. This is the main reason for the reduction Orient Longman, 1992. is the initial uproar. This human society does 6. Dalit Identiy and policts, Ganshyam not provide for a peaceful life for Dalits they Shah, Sage Publication, New Delhi, 2001. are baseless. Hence the human beings in this 7. Dalit in Modern India vision and values, society are not human beings or these people S.M. Michael(Ed), Vistar Publication, think, that they human beings and they treat New Delhi, 1999. the ordinary human beings lower even to an 8. Social System and Dalit Identity, Om animal. The man has been humiliated amidst Prakash Sargwan (Ed), common wealth the men scared is living without even showing publisher, 1996. a glimpse of anger outside. Dalit literature 9. Dalits and Democratic Revolution, Gail has justified furious expression and anger in Omvedt, Sage Publication, New Delhi, it, for the reason that, in order to come out of 1994. such a situation, a dalit hunds self confidence. 10. Dr. A Critical study of Dalit Literature n One can identify its principles sprouting here India, Dalit literature of the Decade, itself. google. Since ‘human being’ is the centre of dalit 11. Dr.Rahamat Tarikere: Contemporary literature political thinking has remained a Kannada Literature. part of it. Likewise religious, cultural, 12. Mudnakudu Chinnasway : Kannada Dalit educational and social maters have been Literature. objectives to be. That’s why Dalit literature 13. Siddalingaiah, Hanumanthaiah and has been called by the critics as the cultural Govindayya Translated poetries. record of dalit life, the weapon of social metamorphosis, and the work with 32 Bodhi International Journal of Research in Humanities, Arts and Science
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EXPATRIATE SENSIBILITY IN JHUMPA LAHIRI’S THE NAMESAKE
Dr.P.Pandia Rajammal Assistant Professor of English, Kalasalingam University, Krishnankoil, Tamilnadu
Change is an inevitable factor in all walks Lahiri’s characters undergo external of life. The native place of a person is not migration. decided by an individual; rather one inherits Expatriation is a forced migration. The it from their parents. Even that inherited native people of a country may be forced to place is not permanent to them. The stream of leave their homeland by law, war or due to life changes one’s living place at anytime. natural calamities. For example, Srilanka is a Many people are not fortunate enough in war - stricken country. There the minority completing the entire life span in a place Tamil people suffer in the hands of majority where they are born. In the globalized era, Singhalese people. They are cornered changing the living place for survival has economically and politically. Over three become the order of the day. decades, millions of people moved to different The change of living place can be countries. Relatively affluent people settled in otherwise called as Physical Change. This America, Canada etc. Others moved to India change occurs due to many reasons. Some as refugees. Those who move as refugees people migrate from one place to another during the war find it very difficult to make looking for better employment opportunities. both ends meet and they are at the mercy of In general, this type of people migrates alone the country to which they have moved. These at first for making fortunes. Once they get people share their desire to return to their settled, then the entire family moves towards native place once peace returns which the new land to enjoy its fortune and so they becomes rare. become the citizens of those respective The other kind of expatriation is being Nations. Countries like America and Canada expelled by one’s own country. In olden days, embrace them with law by giving green cards. many people who are considered as traitors by Some people go to the foreign land alone for the government used to be excommunicated. employment and later they marry a person Ironically in the so called modern and from the same land and settle there civilized era, other than political criminals, permanently without returning to their writers and artists are banned by their homeland. The law also favours such people. mother landers. For example, M.F. Hussain Thus migration happens to people with their the renowned painter is sent out from India whole heartedness. and his works are vandalized during the Migration means "the movement of people Exhibition. He died in expatriation in the from one place to another". There are two year 2011. He also constantly claimed that his main types of migration: first, internal motherland is India. Next is the living migration, i.e. migration within a country, example for expatriation, the Booker Prize and secondly international migration which Winner and the author of Satanic Verses, means the movement from one country to Salman Rushdie. His book is banned in India another. The characters of Lahiri migrate to and also in some Muslim countries because US for the chance of better job, better his ideas are against the Islam religion. In education and a better standard of living. So, case of these two people (refugees), even the
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physical change of their living place is also psychology of the individual. It leads to the temporary. As Terry Eagleton writes in, The imbalance of the mind and it affects the rest Idea of Culture (2000) that the very word of one’s life. During the exodus the collective „culture‟ contains a tension between making psychology of the people is affected. They are and being made most Diaspora writers clueless about their future and carry the hope concentrate on generational differences in of returning to the place from which they are exploring how new and old Diasporas relate to sent away. Here, the alienation is collective. their land of origin and the host culture. The important factor regarding migration and Often their major concerns in works are expatriation is those who live away from split and flowing nature of individual home voluntarily or by force, they feel identities. The rootlessness, coupled with the alienated physically and mentally. indifferent attitude of host culture adds to Here Alienation means, Alienation is a sense of otherness and alienation. Indians of withdrawal or separation of a person from almost all Diasporas have sought to record their loved ones and also their affections from the manner in which they have adapted to an object or position of former attachment. In their environment. They have tried to Lahiri’s works each and every character sense demonstrate how they have experienced both the feeling of alienation in one way or the identification with new world and alienation other. The main reason for alienation is the from their old homeland. Jhumpa Lahiri has loss or death of a person or relationship. Then said, “The question of identity is always a the next important factor creating alienation difficult one, but especially for those who are is the expatriated land itself. Almost all the culturally displaced, as immigrants are who characters of Lahiri feel expatriated which grow up in two worlds simultaneously”. automatically leads to loneliness and then to But here the meaning of the word alienation. ‘Expatriation’ is completely different. An The writers of Indian Diaspora often deal expatriate is a person who lives in a foreign with the characters moving out of their country temporarily or permanently, being in homes, either to US or to the great West, a culture other than that of the person's where all dreams are believed to come true. upbringing. The experience of expatriation They migrate to further their own future gradually disconnects the individual from prospects, gain financially and professionally one’s roots, simultaneously it challenges his and also to be envied as NRIs by their existence in the alien land or situation. unfortunate countrymen at home. In many Expatriation makes a person to straddle cases financial security is achieved but the between nationality and exile. All the sense of alienation becomes very deep. This characters of Lahiri try to assimilate with the situation leads to the problems of adjustment culture of the present but nostalgia of the in foreign land or alien situation. This past does not allow them to adapt. So they are situation also projects the problems of torn between two cultures and have lost their Migration, Expatriation and Alienation in all identity. Their survival in alien situations Diasporic characters. This is very commonly ultimately leads to Identity Crisis. seen in the characters of Lahiri. Finally the concept of Alienation, it occurs The Name Sake is a suggestive story of due to various reasons. An individual may be Ashima Bhaduri, a student of a degree class alienated by the majority of society or a in Calcutta who becomes Ashima Ganguli country. Alienation starts from the change in after her betrothal to Ashoke Ganguli of the living place and slowly it creeps into the Alipore. Ashoke shifts home to Boston for 34 Bodhi International Journal of Research in Humanities, Arts and Science
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pursuing his Ph.D in Fiber Optics. He is doing country where she knows so little, where life his Electricals and Electronics Engineering at seems so tentative and spare” (NS 6). MIT, US. Thus Ashoke family migrates to US Ashima is left alone in her pregnancy and in search of good fortune. feels alienated from the mainstream of her Many Indians, inspite of their nativity parents’ world. want their children to settle down in abroad, Ashima’s second expatriate experience in order to earn more and to get attraction in along with Mr. Ashoke Ganguli is the naming the marriage market. Ashoke’s Grandfather ceremony of their son. After delivering the was a former Professor of European child, Ashima is eagerly waiting for the Literature at Calcutta University. He used to grandmother’s letter from India which carries say, “Ganguli is a legacy of the British, an the Bengali name for their son. A Bengali anglicized way of pronouncing his real name will have two names: the pet name surname, Ganagopadhyay” (NS 67). He and (dhaknam) is paired with a good name Ashoke’s father wants him to be a prospective (bhalonam). Good name is for the groom in Calcutta where the Bhaudri family identification in the outside world. In is attracted to this ambitious Ganguli. Ashoke America, the newborn child will be discharged Ganguli is described as, from the hospital only with their proper He was slightly plump, scholarly looking names, which can never be changed. So the but still youthful, with black thick-framed Ganguli’s are forced to name their child glasses and a sharp, prominent nose. A neatly without the expected letter. trimmed Moustache connected to a beard that The fourth day there is good news and covered only his chin lent him an elegant, bad news. The good news is that Ashima and vaguely aristocration air”. (NS 8) the baby are to be discharged the following After their marriage, Ashoke and Ashmia morning. The bad news is that they are told migrates to Boston. There Ashoke remains by Mr.Wilcox, compiler of hospital birth busy in career building as an architect, while certificates, that they must choose a name for Ashima spends her days in nostalgia at the their son. For they learn that in America, a Boston apartment. baby cannot be released from the hospital Ashima Ganguli feels herself as an without a birth certificate. And that a birth expatriate while living in Boston under many certificate needs a name (NS 27). circumstances. At first, she experiences it Suddenly Ashoke remembers the train during the time of her first delivery. She feels accident with gratitude and names his son to have her motherhood in a foreign land. She Gogol. Even though Ashima approves, she is feels horrible to have had her pregnancy in displeased for not having a proper Bengali this alien land. Naming Ceremony for their son, Gogol. Hence “It’s the consequence: motherhood in a Ashima feels alien in that expatriated land foreign land. For it was one thing to be US. pregnant, to suffer the queasy mornings in The next is with the death of her bed, the sleepless nights, the dull throbbing in husband, Ashoke Ganguli. At this juncture her back, the countless visits to the bathroom. she feels completely alienated in the foreign Throughout the experience, in spite of her land. In spite of Gogol and Sonia being with growing discomfort...That it was happening so her, she is doubled with alienation and far from home, monitored and unobserved by expatriation. She even longs for her native those she loved, had made it more miraculous place and wants to go back to Calcutta. But still. But she is terrified to raise a child in a she settles down at US. Later Ashima feels 35 Bodhi International Journal of Research in Humanities, Arts and Science
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expatriated about the failure marriage of his location, movement, crossing borders, original son Gogol with Moushumi, a Bengali girl. home lands and adopted home lands and Though marriage took place in a grand identity. All the Hariharan’s and Lahiri’s manner, it results in the broken marriage. characters undergo a Physical Change. They There Ashima realizes the attitude of the migrate towards their marriage life, for second generation settlers who want to be an studies and for career purpose, expecting American in that alien land. prospects. So they experience the sense of The main character of this novel is Gogol. migration, expatriation and alienation in one He experiences his expatriate feelings from way or the other. his birth onwards. The following incident clearly portrays this, when Gogol is six References months old he had his annaprasan, the formal 1. Bala, Suman, ed. Jhumpa Lahiri: The rice ceremony in US. There he is offered solid Master Story teller A Critical Response to food for the first time. The next part of this Intereter of Maladies. New Delhi: KPH., ceremony is to predict Gogol’s future path in 2002 life. Gogol is offered a plate containing a 2. Bhardwaj Ritu: Identity and Diaspora in clump of soil, a ballpoint pen, and a dollar Jhumpa Lahiri’s The Namesake. The bill. If he touches a clump of soil, he will English Literature Journal .Vol. 1, No. 1 become a landowner; if it is a pen, he will (2014): 11- 14 become a scholar and finally if he touches a 3. Eagleton, Terry: The Idea of Culture. dollar bill, he will become a businessman. Oxford: Blackwell, 2000. Most of the children will grab at one of them, 4. Hall, Stuart: Cultural Identity and sometimes all of them, but Gogol touches Diaspora, Contemporary Postcolonial nothing and turns away. His father told Gogol Theory: A Reader, ed. to take the pen, but he begins to cry. As if he 5. Jain, Jasber: Critical Spectrum: Essays in cries wondering about his own future. Thus, Literary culture. Jaipur: Rawat he has felt his expatriate feeling from his publications, 2003. birth. 6. Jhumpa Lahiri: The Namesake. New In general, Indian Diasporic Literature Delhi: Harper Collins, 2003. which has caught global attention in recent 7. Mishra, D. (2007), New Diasporic Voices times is usually about educated migrants or in The Inheritance of Loss. 'Prajna' their descendants. It deals with issues like Journal 0/ Humanities, Social Sciences alienation, expatriation, nostalgia, identity and Business Administration, S. P. crisis, discrimination etc. It operates in a University, Vol. 12. cultural space haunted by heterogeneity, and 8. Rushdie, Salman. Satanic Verses. Random attempts to reconcile with alien realities. All House Trade Paperbacks, United Diasporic Fiction is full of issues related to Kingdom, 1988.
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SELF CREATION AND CULTURAL DISPLACEMENT: FAULT LINES
Krishna Ajayan Guest Lecturer in English, St.Johns College Anchal Kollam, Kerala
Diaspora Theory has influenced the collections of poetry, literary memoirs, essays, literature of every language of the world. This and works of fiction and literary criticism. literature is widely known as Expatriate or Born in Allahabad, India, Alexander divided Diasporic Literature. Diasporic literature her childhood between India and Sudan. deals with alienation, displacement, When she was eighteen, she went to study existential rootlessness, nostalgia, quest of in England. Not surprisingly, the themes of identity. It also addresses issues related to identity, migration and memory feature amalgamation or disintegration of cultures. recurrently in her writing. Maxine Hong Mostly the migrants suffer from the pain of Kingston writes of her work: “Meena being far off from their homes, the memories Alexander sings of countries, foreign and of their motherland, the anguish of leaving familiar, places where the heart and spirit behind everything familiar agonizes the live, and places for which one needs a minds of migrants. Women in diasporas are passport and a visa. Her voice guides us far doubly marginalized, as women and as away and back home.” members of a minority community. The Meena Alexander’s literary career began cultural displacement and sense of isolation early, at the tender age of ten, when she are typical to migrant women writer’s began writing poetry. While her poetry might existence. The tensions of transplanted be her best-known work, her works span a existence, the struggle for survival in an alien variety of literary genres. Her first book, a land and culture, the distressing experiences single lengthy poem, entitled The Bird’s cracked by multiple identities, the state of Bright Wing, was published in 1976 in rootlessness, insecurity, denial of Calcutta. Since then, Alexander has published independence and a safe port etc. are eight volumes of poetry, including River and compounded in case of migrant women. For Bridge; two novels: Nampally Road (1991) and diaspora writers there is a greater compulsion Manhattan Music (1997); two collections of to discover ‘self’. Commenting upon the both prose and poetry, The Shock of Arrival: creative process of immigrant literature, Uma Reflections on Postcolonial Experience (1996) Parameswaran has observed that “it starts off and Poetics of Dislocation (2009); a study on as a transplant, with its major referential Romanticism: Women in Romanticism: Mary points centred in the original homeland and Wollstonecraft, Dorothy Wordsworth and whatever it says is implicitly comparative”. Mary Shelley (1989); and her autobiography, Meena Alexander is an excellent diasporic Fault Lines writer. She is an internationally acclaimed Fault Lines is Alexander’s autobiography. poet, scholar, and writer. Born in Allahabad, Not only an unravelling of her past, the book India, and raised in India and Sudan, also highlights themes that occur in Alexander lives and works in New York City, Alexander’s poetry. As a result of her family’s where she is Distinguished Professor of relocations as a youth, Alexander struggles English at Hunter College and at the CUNY in Fault Lines to forge a sense of identity, Graduate Centre in the PhD program in despite a past full of moves and changes. English. She is the author of numerous Thus, this work revolves around the theme of
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establishing one’s self, an identity mother and writer over borders and across independent of one’s surroundings. In her multiple cultures. There are reflections and autobiography she writes: “I am, a woman recollections about the cities, towns, villages cracked by multiple migrations. Uprooted so she had lived in since birth; Allahabad, many times she can connect nothing with Tiruvella, Kozencheri, Pune, Delhi, nothing” (3). In fact, the title itself suggests a Hyderabad, within the boundaries of India; questioning of lines, boundaries, definitions of Kartoum in Sudan, Nottingham in Britain oneself. As Alexander writes, “I am a poet and Manhattan the island. She journeys writing in America. But American poet? . . . hither and thither in time, recollects her An Asian-American poet then? . . . Poet tout childhood experiences in Kerala, childhood court? . . . woman poet, a woman poet of images like conch shell, seashore, the rooms, colour, a South Indian woman who makes up the distant house, gardens and different lines in English. . . A Third World woman characters like her mother, father, maternal, poet. . .?” (193). Alexander searches for her paternal grandparents, servants, cooks, own identity and self-creation amidst a world children, friends all knotted into each other. that strives to define, identify, and label ‘Alienation’ or sense of not belonging people. These definitions of race and anywhere has become the major obsession of nationality prove difficult to defy. Alexander. She is always traveling and feels a Meena Alexander’s Fault Lines a memoir stranger wherever she goes and is living on is a slowre-counting of the imagination. It is the margin in alien lands amongst alien distinguished by a strange mode of people. Her memoir is writing in search of a experiencing and footage reality. The personal homeland. She indulges in a voyage of self- narrative originates its power and charm discovery and begins her narrative in a from the awareness of the interaction between chronological order. She moves back and the self and the world. Meena Alexander is an forth, to the past and to the present. To a acclaimed South Asian writer, a woman born query by her friend Roshini “what are you in one continent, educated in another, living writing about?” she sums up the essence of in the third continent, in all or in none, the subject matter of her narrative. It is about speaking many tongues English, Arabic, “being born into a female body; and about the Hind, French. A woman cracked by multiple difficulty of living in space, moving about so migrations, uprooted so many time. She much, living without ground rules.” In Fault explores the challenges faced by postcolonial Lines she plants herself in her early days of immigrants. In Fault Lines she takes us from Kerala, recollects childhood events. Her her childhood in Tiruvella in the South of memory, myth, history interact as she India and Khartoum in Sudan to her present recreates strongly felt images of her childhood day home in Manhattan. She poignantly in Kerala. She fondly remembers her parents, describes the wealth of experiences and grandparents and the narrative advances events that shaped her life and writing. through a galaxy of characters. Her Leaving places and returning to them in grandfather Ilya’s influence on her is memory is the theme of Fault Lines. Fault tremendous as he shapes and sharpens her Lines is the term used by geologists to ideologies and political acumen. In 1956, she describe cracks in the earth. Alexander uses it leaves India with her Amma to live in a place to visualize the uprooting she has faced in her called Khartoum in Sudan. In her words, “The life. first ocean crossing obsessed me. I think of it Alexander in her memoir, Fault Lines as a figuration of death” (FL 65). The traces her growth as a child, woman, wife, following years of her childhood are spent
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partly in Khartoum and partly in Kerala. It is of establishment of one’s self, an identity split between two vastly disparate worlds, but independent of one’s surroundings. Her her identity remains firmly rooted in India rumination about her predicament of being because of her familial connections. cracked by multiple identities is detailed in Alexander’s focus is on the agony and pain the first chapter of Fault Lines. She writes. “I resulting from the dislocation and she am a woman cracked by multiple migrations, attempts to relocate herself through artistic uprooted so many times” (FL 3). She becomes process. Alexander joins in Kartoum school intensely preoccupied with her identity and and at school she is extremely shy and selfhood and this is evident in latter chapters depends on her friend Sarai’s boldness. of Fault Lines. She writes, “I am a poet Besides the school, her parents also instruct writing in America, but American poet – An her about religion, sentiment, womanhood, its Asian American poet – a woman poet, a demands etc. As an adolescent she is torn woman poet of colour, a South Indian woman between the conflicts of the dictates of her poet who makes up lines in English, a Third mother about ideal womanhood and the world woman poet” (Fl 193). requirements of femininity and the claims of An autobiography may be considered a intelligence. In Khartoum she was forced to historical or a social document. Here the learn and speak English along with writer attempts to know the self, selects Malayalam and Hindi. Her tutor polished her certain basic social and historical Indian English and she is the first “Non- determinants that shape the individual being. White “child in clergy house school. At the Since the lives of the individuals are so beginning, she is jeered at for her dark skin. inextricably linked to the fate of the She feels inferior to others and cannot community, the autobiographies turn into interact with others as she considers herself historiographies of the community, ugly. But she comes out of her inhibitions ethnography of their people. They become once she starts writing poetry. Initially she cultural acts. Meena Alexander also receives rebukes and chiding for her articulates the shared fate and collective intellectual work. Her “female body” stand in action of the female community. As observed her way to success and appreciation. Her first by Vijayasree, “The inculcation of female poems are composed in French and later she bonding appears an important feature of revises and turns to English, the language expatriate women’s writing and women are learnt by her through great pans. For her, major source of inspiration in times of English was “The language of intimacy which suffering and needs and the empowerment of bore the charged power of writing”. In 1969 female tradition becomes the significant her parents return to India and she feels sad aspect of Alexander’s writing. To conclude, to leave her friends and Kartoum. But the Meena Alexander’s Fault Lines is highly desire to return to India is irresistible. Her introspective and psychoanalytical, the mother wants her to join in Madras so as to process of growing up and the establishment start afresh the traditional life which is of her identity are delineated in the most battered so far by being expatriates. But she spontaneous, lyrical manner. She has is refused a seat in Madras University. She is attracted the attention of critics as an awarded scholarship for Ph.D. Her second immigrant writer, internationalist, feminist, crossing to England takes place in 1969 with part of multi-ethnic writing community. As a tearful adieu by her parents and others. In both a woman and a migrant, Alexander has a her works she struggles to forge a sense of need to break the silence and make sure that identity. Her work revolved around the theme her voice is heard.
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A STRUGGLE FOR IDENTITY IN WILLIAM FAULKNER’S AS I LAY DYING
P.Helan Hema Assistant Professor in English, Shri Sakthikailassh Women’s College, Military Road, Ammapet, Salem
Abstract William Faulkner was a Nobel Prize-winning American author. He is one of the most influential writers of the twentieth century. His reputation is based on his novels, novellas and short stories. He was also a published poet and an occasional screenwriter. Most of Faulkner's works are set in his native state of Mississippi. Critics often associate Faulkner with literary modernism, a movement that began before World War I and gained prominence during the 1920’s. In fact, Faulkner was greatly influenced by two of the most celebrated modernists, T. S. Eliot and James Joyce. Eliot’s poem The Waste Land explored, in form and content, the dehumanizing effects of industrialization. Joyce’s landmark novel Ulysses featured the use of “stream of consciousness,” which Faulkner employs in As I Lay Dying. Faulkner’s use of multiple narrators underscores one of his primary themes; every character is essentially isolated from the others. Moreover, the characters in the novel do not communicate effectively with one another. Although the reader is privy to the characters’ thoughts and emotional responses, none of the characters adequately expresses his or her dilemmas or desires to others. Questions about the nature and strength of self-identity recur throughout the novel. This paper proposes to focus on the identity crisis faced by the characters in the novel As I Lay Dying.
As I Lay Dying chronicles the death of Faulkner’s use of multiple narrators Addie Bundren and the subsequent journey to underscores one of his primary themes as bury her corpse in her family’s cemetery every character is essentially isolated from several miles away. This disastrous and the others. Moreover, the characters in the darkly comic tale is enriched by Faulkner’s novel do not communicate effectively with one innovative narrative technique, which another. Although the reader is privy to the features narration by fifteen characters, characters’ thoughts and emotional responses, including a confused child and the dead none of the characters adequately expresses woman, Addie. In addition, Faulkner mixes his or her dilemmas or desires to others. vernacular speech with “stream-of- Outside of Darl, who knows Addie’s and consciousness” passages to enhance this Dewey Dell’s secrets through intuition, the unique narrative style. characters can only guess at the motivations, Through his characters, Faulkner beliefs, and feelings of others. When these addresses subjects that challenge guesses turn out to be wrong, stereotypical perceptions of poor Southerners. misunderstandings ensue. As a result of their For instance, characters contemplate issues of communication problems, members of the love, death, identity, and the limitations of Bundren family live alienated from each language. Their actions and adventures draw other-whether willfully like Addie or Jewel, attention to rural life, class conflicts, and the unknowingly like Anse, Cash, Dewey Dell, or repercussions of desire and selfishness. Vardaman, or painfully like Darl. This Significantly, Faulkner explores the potent, alienation extends to neighbors, who complex workings of the human mind. misinterpret or simply cannot fathom the Difficult to categorize, As I Lay Dying has family’s actions. provided a rewarding, illuminating, and, at In fact, the theme of self-identity is closely times, unsettling experience for generations of intertwined with the theme of relationships readers. or, to put it more precisely, the conflict 40 Bodhi International Journal of Research in Humanities, Arts and Science
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between an individual and society. Basically, In such a way, the author shows that this trend can be traced in the life of many human relations have degraded. Even people, characters depicted by Faulkner in his book in who are supposed to love each other, one way or another. In this respect, it is understand each other, be a perfect match, possible to refer to the main character, Addie are egoistic and concerned with their own Bundren, who is the mother of four children interests and needs. It seems as if they live in dying in the course of the novel. The entire their own world and their family life is rather novel is based on flashbacks which reveal the a duty than an element of happy life. At the past life of the main characters and reveal same time, it is obvious that Addie as well as their relationships and problems each many other characters of the book have character had in his or her life. As for Addie serious problems with her self-identity, Bundren, she is one of the most important because it is not fully shaped practically until characters in regard to self-identity. the end of her life. She does not live the life At first glance, she is a successful woman, she wants to live. in the traditional, patriarchal sense, which Therefore, the author shows that the was actually a norm in the first half of the main character cannot understand her own twentieth century. She has a family, including self. On the other hand, the growth of her self- husband and four children. In such a consciousness starts after the birth of Jewel, situation, it is quite difficult to speak about who is an extramarital son, whose father was any conflicts between her self-identity Addie’s preacher. Since this moment Addie’s because, according to existing social norms, self-identity starts to shape definitely. she is supposed to be a happy woman. At any Symbolically, the author shows that it is only rate, from a conventional point of view, she after the violation of social conventions and had everything a woman could dream of in norms an individual can arrive to the early 1920’s since in a patriarchal society understanding of his or her own self as is the a woman was supposed to be a good wife and case of Addie. The formation of her self- mother that should make her happy. identity is a very complex process since she However, Addie does not really seem to be cannot break up with Anse that means that happy. In stark contrast, it turns out that her her self-identity is still restrained by social life was almost unbearable. She lived with the norms. At this point, it is obvious that the man whom she hated. Her children seem to be author shows that the society at the epoch her salvation from despair and the life with had a destructive impact on an individual’s the man she does not love. The relationship of self-identity because people could not be what Addie and Anse, her husband, reveal the fact they wanted to be. Instead, they had to play that these people, even though they are role defined by the society and social norms spouses, do not really understand each other. and traditions. They lead a routine family life but it is quite Anse is similar to Addie in regard to his symbolic that, when Addie is dying she asks self-identity, which tended to isolation, Anse to bury her in Jersey. She does it exclusion from the society. However, unlike intentionally to revenge on Anse for all the his wife, Anse does not really struggle against years she spent with him, regardless of her the society and he does not really care about hate to him, because she knows that the trip the society as well as about his family. For to Jefferson will take much time and efforts instance, after Addie’s burial he hastily that will make Anse suffer. remarries. In such a way, the author shows that his marriage with Addie did not really 41 Bodhi International Journal of Research in Humanities, Arts and Science
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matter for him. Otherwise, he would hardly personal life, egoism of Cash are obvious that re-marry so fast. proves that self-identity of Cash has stopped At the same time, Anse is a typical egoist, developing when he understood the a person whose self-identity is not absolutely importance of his own needs and interests, clear for himself, but he does not really try to while he has failed to develop his self-identity find his way in life. He is just doing nothing, to the extent that he could take care of other although, that is probably his way to self- people, develop basic humanistic values, etc. identity. Nevertheless, he does not attempt to In this respect, the only daughter of Addie challenge social norms by extramarital and Anse, Dewey, seems to be different. In liaisons. On the other hand, his lifestyle is fact, the process of formation of her self- highly individualistic, egoistic and oriented on identity is very painful. Dewey Dell Bundren the satisfaction of his own needs and is pregnant, but neither the father of a child interests. He is a lazy person, who does not nor the family of Dewey does want this child work because he fears that he will die for he to be born. For instance, Lafe, the father of had a serious illness in his childhood. the child, gives Dewey money to make an Consequently, the author creates another abortion. In such a way, he simply attempts character whose self-identity, being not to escape his responsibility for the future of clearly shaped, still dominates over his social the child. At the same time, the father of life, which is apparently secondary to him. He Dewey also insists on the abortion, while the prefers to live in his own world, where he position of Dewey is not taken into feels at ease and does not bother about consideration at all. In this respect, it is worth problems he might have faced in the life if he mentioning the fact that Dewey cannot worked and was more concerned with the life actually take decision as for the future of her of his family and society at large. child on her own because she is totally At the same time, their elder son, Cash is dependent on the support of men. What is even more pragmatic and concerned with his meant here is the fact that even her father as self than his parents. At first glance, he is a well as the father of her child, are not her good person. He is a skillful carpenter and he masters as Rufus is in relation to Dana in is quite successful in his life. However, his Butler’s book, but they still have the power of self-identity is highly egoistic because Dewey because without their financial utilitarianism prevails in all his actions and support she can neither make the abortion lifestyle at large. For instance, he starts nor raise up her child. In such a way, it is making a coffin for Addie when his mother men who actually take the decision in relation has been still alive. Nevertheless, he works to her yet unborn child, but not Dewey pragmatically and methodically with herself. appalling calmness. At this point, the author Thus, she learns that other people do not probably attempted to emphasize really care about her and this knowledge utilitarianism of Cash and his indifference to apparently changes her character and her other people around him. His mother loved self-identity. She has lost her naivety, but it is him since he was her first child and he obvious that she is still alone in this world seemed to love his mother too, but, as the where all people are concerned with their self matter of fact, this love was rather pretended and seem to be indifferent to others. For than real. It is possible to compare his love to instance, the pharmacist seems to be his mother to the love of Addie to Anse since supportive and helpful, even altruistic, but, this love is not sincere. At any rate, the eventually it turns out that the only thing he 42 Bodhi International Journal of Research in Humanities, Arts and Science
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wants is to rape Dewey. This event William Faulkner, in his As I Lay Dying, accomplishes her disillusioning and her self- raises a very important theme of self-identity. identity is totally shaped since she He depicts a variety of characters who are understands that all people care about their different, but still they have something in own interests, desires, needs, but they do not common this something is their self-identity care about others. This is probably one of the which is characterized by the domination of main messages Faulkner attempted convey selfish interests of people and their concerns with the help of his book. He shows that with their own success and happiness. people develop an extremely egoistic self- However, the problem is that each individual identity which prevails over their social life, lives in his or her own world and they pay which they do not really care about. They little attention to their social environment. want to be happy, but their happiness is limited by their interests and needs and even References closest people, such as spouses, parents or 1. Basset, John Earl. As I Lay Dying’: children, are not really important. Family Conflict and Verbal Fictions. In this respect, characters depicted by Journal of Narrative Technique11.2 Faulkner seem to be thoughtless. They do not Spring, 1981. n. pag. JSTOR. Web. 4 Nov think much of their life, their problems or 2011. problems of other people. At this point, Darl, 2. Brooks, Cleanth. William Faulkner, the the eldest son of Addie, is probably Yoknapatawpha Country. Louisiana State exceptional. Unlike other characters, Darl is UP, 1990. Web. 4 Nov 2011. Print. intellectual, he thinks a lot. However, even 3. Faulkner, William. As I Lay Dying: the this character is unable to socialize to Corrected Text. New York: Modern overcome boundaries of his egoistic self- Library, 2000. Print. identity. He is intellectual, but he does a little 4. Adamowski, T.H. “‘Meet Mrs. Bundren:’ of practical work. In other words, he has As I Lay Dying – Gentility, Tact, and plenty of ideas but he does practically nothing Psychoanalysis.” University of Toronto to make them true. As a result, he also lives Quarterly 49.3 (1980): 205-227. Print. in the world of his thoughts and ideas, being 5. Millgate, Michael. "As I Lay Dying." The isolated from the rest of the world and his Achievement of William Faulkner. New relations with other people, including his York: Random, 1964. 104-12. Print relatives are rather formal than warm and 6. Swiggart, Peter. "A Modern Mock-Epic: As sincere. I Lay Dying." The Art of Faulkner's Thus, taking into account all above Novels. Austin: U of Texas, 1962. 108-30. mentioned, it is possible to conclude that Print.
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A FEMINISTIC OVERVIEW OF WOMEN IN LITERATURE
Mrs.R.Kamatchiammal Assistant Professor in English, Madurai Kamaraj University Constituent College, Kottur, Theni
Abstract Feminism is a range of political, ideologies, and social movements that share a common goal to define, establish, and achieve political also. Feminism is both an intellectual commitment and a political movement that seeks justice for women and the end of sexism in all forms. However, there are many different kinds of feminism. Feminists disagree about what sexism consists in, and what exactly ought to be done about it; they disagree about what it means to be a woman or a man and what social and political implications gender has or should have. Nonetheless, motivated by the quest for social justice, feminist inquiry provides a wide range of perspectives on social, cultural, and political phenomena. Important topics for feminist theory and politics include: the body, class and work, disability, the family, globalization, human rights, popular culture, race and racism, reproduction, science, the self, sex work, and sexuality. Extended discussion of these topics is included in the sub-entries.
Important Circumstances "feminism" in English as rooted in the The term 'feminism' has many different movement in Europe and the US beginning uses and its meanings are often contested. with the mobilization for suffrage during the For example, some writers use the term late 19th and early 20th century and refer to 'feminism' to refer to a historically specific this movement as "First Wave" feminism. political movement in the US and Europe; Those who employ this history often depict other writers use it to refer to the belief that feminist as waning between the two world there are injustices against women, though wars, to be "revived" in the late 1960's and there is no consensus on the exact list of these early 1970's as what they label "Second Wave" injustices. My goal here will be to sketch some feminism. More recently, transformations of of the central uses of the term that are most feminism in the past decade have been relevant to those interested in contemporary referred to as "Third Wave" feminism. feminist philosophy. For an overview of the However, other feminist scholars object to history of feminist thought see: "Feminism, identifying feminism with these particular history of". The references I provide below are moments of political activism, on the grounds only a small sample of the work available on that doing so eclipses the fact that there has the topics in question; more complete been resistance to male domination that bibliographies are available at the specific should be considered "feminist" throughout topical entries and also at the end of this history and across cultures: i.e., feminism is entry. not confined to a few (White) women in the In the mid-1800's the term 'feminism' was West over the past century or so. Moreover, used to refer to "the qualities of females", and even considering only relatively recent efforts it was not until after the First International to resist male domination in Europe and the Women's Conference in Paris in 1892 that the US, the emphasis on "First" and "Second" term, following the French term féministe, Wave feminism ignores the ongoing resistance was used regularly in English for a belief in to male domination between the 1920's and and advocacy of equal rights for women based 1960's and the resistance outside mainstream on the idea of the equality of the sexes. Some politics, particularly by women of color and feminists trace the origins of the term working class women.
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One might seek to solve these problems by broadly, then, one might characterize the goal emphasizing the political ideas that the term of feminism to be ending the oppression of was apparently coined to capture, viz., the women. But if we also acknowledge that commitment to women's equal rights. This women are oppressed not just by sexism, but acknowledges that commitment to and in many ways, e.g., by classism, homophobia, advocacy for women's rights has not been racism, ageism, ableism, etc., then it might confined to the Women's Liberation seem that the goal of feminism is to end all Movement in the West. But this too raises oppression that affects women. And some controversy, for it frames feminism within a feminists have adopted this interpretation, broadly Liberal approach to political and e.g., (Ware 1970), quoted in (Crow 2000, 1). economic life. Although most feminists would Note, however, that not all agree with probably agree that there is some sense of such an expansive definition of Feminism. "rights" on which achieving equal rights for One might agree that feminists ought to work women is a necessary condition for feminism to end all forms of oppression--oppression is to succeed, most would also argue that this unjust and feminists, like everyone else, have would not be sufficient. This is because a moral obligation to fight injustice--without women's oppression under male domination maintaining that it is the mission of feminism rarely if ever consists solely in depriving to end all oppression. One might even believe women of political and legal "rights", but also that in order to accomplish feminism's goals it extends into the structure of our society and is necessary to combat racism and economic the content of our culture, and permeates our exploitation, but also think that there is a consciousness (e.g.,Bartky 1990). narrower set of specifically feminist Given the controversies over the term objectives. In other words, opposing "feminism" and the politics of circumscribing oppression in its many forms may be the boundaries of a social movement, it is instrumental to, even a necessary means to, sometimes tempting to think that there is feminism, but not intrinsic to it. E.g., bell little point in demanding a definition of the hooks argues: term beyond a set of disjuncts that capture Feminism, as liberation struggle, must different instances. However, at the same exist apart from and as a part of the larger time it can be both intellectually and struggle to eradicate domination in all its politically valuable to have a schematic forms. We must understand that patriarchal framework that enables us to map at least domination shares an ideological foundation some of our points of agreement and with racism and other forms of group disagreement. I'll begin here by considering oppression, and that there is no hope that it some of the basic elements of feminism as a can be eradicated while these systems remain political position. For an overview of different intact. This knowledge should consistently philosophical approaches to feminism, see inform the direction of feminist theory and "Feminism, approaches. practice. (hooks 1989, 22) On hooks' account, the defining Feminism and the Difference of Women characteristic that distinguishes feminism To consider some of the different from other liberation struggles is its concern strategies for responding to the phenomenon with sexism: of inter sectionality, let's return to the Unlike many feminist comrades, I believe schematic claims that women are oppressed women and men must share a common and this oppression is wrong or unjust. Very understanding--a basic knowledge of what 45 Bodhi International Journal of Research in Humanities, Arts and Science
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feminism is--if it is ever to be a powerful claim is grounded in the (alleged) universal mass-based political movement. In Feminist fact of the eroticization of male dominance Theory: from margin to center, I suggest that and female submission (MacKinnon 1987; defining feminism broadly as "a movement to MacKinnon 1989). Although MacKinnon end sexism and sexist oppression" would allows that sexual subordination can happen enable us to have a common political in a myriad of ways, her account is monistic goal…Sharing a common goal does not imply in its attempt to unite the different forms of that women and men will not have radically sexist oppression around a single core account divergent perspectives on how that goal might that makes sexual objectification the focus. be reached. (hooks 1989, 23) Although MacKinnon's work provides a What makes a particular form of powerful resource for analyzing women's oppression sexist seems to be not just that it subordination, many have argued that it is harms women, but that someone is subject to too narrow, e.g., in some contexts (especially this form of oppression specifically because in developing countries) sexist oppression she is (or at least appears to be) a woman. seems to concern more the local division of Racial oppression harms women, but racial labor and economic exploitation. Although oppression (by itself) doesn't harm them certainly sexual subordination is a factor in because they are women, it harms them sexist oppression, it requires us to fabricate because they are (or appear to be) members of implausible explanations of social life to a particular race. The suggestion that sexist suppose that all divisions of labor that exploit oppression consists in oppression to which one women (as women) stem from the is subject by virtue of being or appearing to be "eroticization of dominance and submission". a woman provides us at least the beginnings Moreover, it isn't obvious that in order to of an analytical tool for distinguishing make sense of sexist oppression we need to subordinating structures that happen to affect seek a single form of oppression common to all some or even all women from those that are women. more specifically sexist. But problems and A second problematic strategy has been to unclarities remain. consider as paradigms those who are First, we need to explicate further what it oppressed only as women, with the thought means to be oppressed "because you are a that complex cases bringing in additional woman". E.g., is the idea that there is a forms of oppression will obscure what is particular form of oppression that is specific distinctive of sexist oppression. This strategy to women? Is to be oppressed "as a woman" to would have us focus in the U.S. on White, be oppressed in a particular way? Or can we wealthy, young, beautiful, able-bodied, be pluralists about what sexist oppression heterosexual women to determine what consists in without fragmenting the notion oppression, if any, they suffer, with the hope beyond usefulness? of finding sexism in its "purest" form, Two strategies for explicating sexist unmixed with racism or homophobia, etc. (See oppression have proven to be problematic. Spelman 1988, 52-54). This approach is not The first is to maintain that there is a form of only flawed in its exclusion of all but the most oppression common to all women. For elite women in its paradigm, but it assumes example, one might interpret Catharine that privilege in other areas does not affect MacKinnon's work as claiming that to be the phenomenon under consideration. As oppressed as a woman is to be viewed and Elizabeth Spelman makes the point: treated as sexually subordinate, where this 46 Bodhi International Journal of Research in Humanities, Arts and Science
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Recent accounts of oppression are designed to "monocausal explanations," to allow that the allow that oppression takes many forms, and explanation of sexism in a particular refuse to identify one form as more basic or historical context will rely on economic, fundamental than the rest. For example, Iris political, legal, and cultural factors that are Young describes five "faces" of oppression: specific to that context which would prevent exploitation, marginalization, powerlessness, the account from being generalized to all cultural imperialism, and systematic violence instances of sexism (Fraser and Nicholson (Young 1990c, Ch. 2). Plausibly others should 1990). It is still compatible with pluralist be added to the list. Sexist or racist methods to seek out patterns in women's oppression, for example, will manifest itself in social positions and structural explanations different ways in different contexts, e.g., in within and across social contexts, but in doing some contexts through systematic violence, in so we must be highly sensitive to historical other contexts through economic exploitation. and cultural variation. Acknowledging this does not go quite far enough, however, for monistic theorists such References as MacKinnon could grant this much. 1. Delmar, Rosalind. 2001. “What is Pluralist accounts of sexist oppression must Feminism?”In Theorizing Feminism, ed., also allow that there isn't an over-arching Anne C. Hermann and Abigail J. Stewart. explanation of sexist oppression that applies Boulder. to all its forms: in some cases it may be that 2. Crow, Barbara. 2000. Radical Feminism: women's oppression as women is due to the A Documentary Reader. New York: New eroticization of male dominance, but in other York University Press cases it may be better explained by women's 3. 1999. Sex and Social Justice. Oxford: reproductive value in establishing kinship Oxford University Press. structures (Rubin 1975), or by the shifting 4. Nussbaum, Martha. 1995.”Human demands of globalization within an ethnically Capabilities, Female Human Beings.’ In stratified workplace. In other words, Women, Culture and Development pluralists resist the temptation to "grand 5. www.encyclopedia.com social theory," "overarching metanarratives,"
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DIALECTIC OF DISCRIMINATION: RACE, GENDER AND CLASS IN MAYA ANGELOU’S “I KNOW WHY THE CAGED BIRD SINGS”
S.Mohammad Shafiullah Junior Lecturer in English, Government Junior College, Nandalur
Abstract Predicament and experience of marginalized women in America have been less studied since African- American literature was not taken as an integral part of American literature. Though it gets better attention now, it is impossible to say it accorded the level it deserves. Maya Angelou who won Pulitzer Prize for her first volume of autobiography – I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings, is one of the significant authors who talk loud addressing blacks’ predicament and experience in America. This paper has attempted to explore the experiences of African-American women by taking Maya Angelou’s novel in focus.
Introduction object positions reciprocally. When we looked Maya Angelou was born on April 4, 1928 at in this way, Angelou’s representations can in Saint Louis, Missouri. Maya Angelou’s be seen in contrast with the fixed colonial given name was Marguerite Johnson. When representations where “oppressed” is the only she was about three years old, their parents identity devised for the women of colour. divorced and the children were sent to live Problem of Race, Gender and Class in with their grandmother in stamps, Arkansas. Maya Angelou’s novel “I Know Why Caged Angelou’s claims that her grandmother whom Bird Sings” she called “momma” had a deep influence on As Maya Angelou is an Afro-American her and she learned to take pride in herself writer, it seems natural that her people and and to appreciate the strong bonds that held their position in society play an important the African-American community in a small part in her works. Much of her writings are town of Arkansas. Angelou’s first work of based on her personal experience. It is literature, “I Know Why the Caged Bird obvious that race, gender and class decide the Sings,” is an autobiography. Angelou’s position of people all over the world. They sometimes disruptive life inspired her to write have to endure all the violence of racism, this book. It truly reflects the essence of her gender inequalities and class complexities. struggle to overcome the restrictions that Being aware of these facts, famous were placed upon her in a hostile contemporary writers like Alice Walker, Toni environment. Angelou writes with a twist of Morrison and Maya Angelou aims to portray lyrical imagery along with a touch of realism. the experiences of black women in their The title of the book is taken from the poem writings. Maya Angelou has deep “Sympathy” by the great black poet, Paul understanding of the limitations and Laurence Dunbar. possibilities of lives of black Americans, The novel, “I Know Why the Caged Bird especially women. Maya Angelou in her Sings,” falls under the rubrics of postcolonial writings especially through her seven fiction and reveals the protagonist’s autobiographies shows us how race, gender experience of being “caged” by various circles and class complexities held sway over the of marginality. Her representations are also southern states of America and how these significant because they point out how the complexities influence her right from the age women of colour acquire the subject and of three.
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The Publication of Angelou’s novel “I When Mrs.Henderson was called in the court Know Why the Caged Bird Sings” in 1970 to provide information about the man who explores some of the typical notions of took shelter in her store, she was called ‘Mrs.’ “blackness” and “feminine” which are by the judge mistakenly, because a black propagated in the idiom of the colonizer. This woman was not supposed to own the store. novel reveals the protagonists experiences of In California, Marguerite had to study in being “caged” by various circles of a school of white children, which resulted in marginality. Maya Angelou compares herself, her close observation of racism, particularly her black female role models and even her towards black women. The protagonist faced entire race to a bird, which is locked in the persecution in the form of rape in a post- cage but nevertheless sings. Maya implies migration phase, which deconstructs the that by reading her autobiography, the reader notion of migration as all empowering will come to understand why the bird sings phenomenon. On the contrary, it highlights despite being locked up in a cage. At the same the concept of multi-axial phenomenon of time, the title implies the possibility that the power, where gender operates through prison refers to class, gender and racist various modalities. society and prison master to white man, who Various cultural signifiers such as clothes exploits black community. It also implies also signify the disempowerment through perhaps the bird sings to break free, to diasporean experience. Marguerite is very provide solace to itself, to inform others her much aware of the difference between the life story in which she learnt to live and break ways the whites and the blacks dress the cage to fly and found out her place in this themselves up. Marguerite’s mother cut her world, in spite of many obstacles that hair in bob, to make her a part of that hampered her in her childhood, like the fashionable circle. The clothes signify the struggle to overcome racism, rape at an early class difference, rather than the cultural age, prejudice at its height at that time for difference between the white and the Black. blacks, her quest for identity and the The white were used to dress up in a complexity of familial relationships. expensive clothes in contrast with the Blacks, The novel under discussion is significant who were always making their clothes from because Angelou points out how marginality the rags. Clothing along with other signifiers is created at multiple levels. Maya’s name together knit up a system of representations gets altered easily by a white woman from which defines the subject and object positions ‘Marguerite’ to ‘Mary’ without her consent. for the women of colour. Social locations too Angelou demonstrates the racist practice of define the position of power or discrimination rechristening African-Americans without by the virtue of belonging to a particular realizing as how this is going to disturb their society, culture, family or race. In the novel, “I morale and their overall personality. The Know Why the Caged Bird Sings” we find out coloured people living in Arkansas feared that gender is constructed by the social racial exploitation because they belonged to a structure in which the women of colour are community consists of economically placed. Certain norms regarding sexuality, disadvantaged citizens. The Negroes were identity and professions are followed by the forbidden even to have delicacies like ice women because of their social setup. creams very often. Similarly, the institutions of law were not supposed to be respectful to the black women. 49 Bodhi International Journal of Research in Humanities, Arts and Science
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Conclusion 2. Braxton, Joanne M., ed. Maya Angelo’s Black feminist thought is characterised by I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings: A Case fighting against inscribing certain roles for Book. New York: Oxford Press, 1999. the women of colour, colonizing her body and Print. limiting her thought process. The genius of 3. Burr, Zofia. Of Women, Poetry and Power: Angelou lies in the fact that she represents Strategies of Addressing in Dickinson, Diaspora as a space where multiple identities Miles, Brooks, Lorde and Angelou. Illinois of the women are contested and placing her in Press, 2002. Print. the subject and object positions. While doing 4. Gillespie, Marcia Ann, Rosa Johnson so, she investigates the issues of race, class Butler and Richard A. Long. Maya and gender oppression, significance of self Angelou: A Glorious Celebration. New definition for a black woman, the concept of York: Random House, 2008. Print. motherhood and activism. These identities are 5. Hagen, Lyman B. Heart of a Woman, not fixed, rather fluid and are defined by the Mind of a Writer and Soul of a Poet: cultural norms, customs and traditions. It is A Critical Analysis of the Writings of the politics of gendering, its repercussions Maya Angelou. Lanham: Maryland and dynamics that I have tried to uncover in University Press, 1997. Print. this paper. 6. Lupton, Mary Jane. Maya Angelou: A Critical Companion. Westport: References Greenwood Press, 1998. Print. 1. Angelou, Maya. I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings. New York: Random House, 1969. Print.
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PATRIARCHY AND WOMEN SUBALTERNITY IN MANJUKAPUR’S “DIFFICULT DAUGHTERS”
V.Jagadeeswari Assistant Professor of English, Mohamed Satak College of Arts & Science Sholinganallur, Chennai
Abstract Indian women are subordinated in this patriarchal male dominated society. Women are being treated as a domestic slave since they are subordinated to their men. The main reason behind this treatment of women is to subjugate them under the patriarchal dominance and utilize them whenever needed. Women tend to have minor role in this male dominated society and are not allowed to express their own views and ideas. The role possessed by women is to please their men and do all the household chores as unpaid laborers. The paper brings out how the female characters are subordinated in the patriarchal society with reference to ManjuKapur’s “Difficult Daughters”. As a feminist writer, ManjuKapur raises a strong protest against the male dominated Indian society. This paper analyses the sufferings of the three generation women: Kasturi, Virmati and Ida. Kasturi, the elderly gives birth to eleven children leaving her health completely deteriorated. She follows the traditional norms and rules of the society, she lives in and accepts the patriarchal dominance and she cannot reject giving multiple births. Virmati, central character of the novel “Difficult Daughters” becomes the second mother to her siblings, is burdened with all the responsibilities of the household work. Harish, Virmati’s husband, represented as the patriarchal society, oppresses Virmati compelling her to abort their baby. The third character Ida is prey to the burden of patriarchal expectation. Ida was forced to live to her father’s expectation and after marriage compelled to live to her husband’s expectation. The unequal, unjust and oppressed role of women can be observed in all the three female characters that undergo a loveless life throughout dominated and dictated by their husbands. Keywords: Patriarchy, Subalternity, Trauma, Disillusionment.
The women life in India is structured Indian women’s self quest and struggle to free around gender discrimination giving more themselves from the restrictions imposed by priority to the male right from childhood till society and the discord and disillusionment of their marriage. Mainly after her marriage she the educated woman in the tradition bound is ordered and compelled into the lifestyle of Indian society with reference to her husband’s family. In spite of all her efforts ManjuKapur’s “Difficult Daughters”. and serious dedication towards her family, ManjuKapur is an emerging Indo – she is treated only as an outsider. She often Anglican fiction writer born in Amristar in experience frustration and alienation which 1948. She was educated in India and Canada often leads her into a trauma. Women are and was a professor of English at Miranda often dominated by their husbands and House in New Delhi and did her post discriminated at her in – law’s house. They graduation in English at Dalhousie are made up to have a willing body at night, a University, Canada. She took a whole eight willing pair of hands and feet and a year time to finish this book and has won the submissive mouth in the day. Women are Common Wealth Writers’ Prize for the year expected to be duty bound and sacrificing 1999. The women in her novels seem to be the mothers in the position of a married woman personification of new women who have been in this patriarchal structure. For centuries, carrying the burden of inhibition since ages women are always back - staged by and want to break that tradition of silence patriarchal world. The paper analyses the now. ManjuKapur’s female protagonists are continuous and never ending story of the the representatives of that female folk who 51 Bodhi International Journal of Research in Humanities, Arts and Science
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long to be free from the stale social customs prays furiously for the miracle of a and traditions but are never allowed. miscarriage and in all above she should never The women characters in Manjukapur’s conceive again. Kasturi could not remember a “Difficult Daughters” are divided into three time, when she is not tired and when her feet generations who marry for different reasons and her legs did not ache. The physical body and also hate their marriages for different structure of Kasturi changed drastically due issues. In case of Kasturi, marriage is a to her continuous child bearing. Kasturi’s responsibility and for which she becomes the back was curved; stomach was always heavy, sufferer being exploitated in a patriarchal breasts long and unattractive. society. In the case of Virmathi, it is for the “I am going to die, Maji, this time. I sake of love and attachment towards a know”. married man Harish which results in her “I will die if I have another child,” alienation. For Ida it is to carry the line and it (ManjuKapur 8). results her to remain single and childless. The above words reflect Kasturi’s Manjukapur has successfully portrayed the desperate cry to not to have another child. conflict of tradition and modernity in her Kasturi’s pain is not only because of her characters. The women in her novels seem to continuous child birth, but she gets be the personification of new women who humiliates by others especially by her sister have been carrying the burden of inhibition in – law, who makes fun right in front of her. since ages and want to break that tradition of Lot of measures taken to abort the eleventh silence now. In the traditional social milieu of child results only in vain as she has the child her novels she shows the existence of mothers on a cold December night. A western allopath and daughters, where marriage is regarded as doctor finally comes to her rescue and the ultimate goal and destiny from which declares that her repeated births deplete the these women cannot escape. body and should be stopped from another Kasturi at the age of seven is caught red - pregnancy. Kasturi is brought upon the handedly by her parents when she prays to a conventional principles of patriarchal society, picture of Christ. It is when Kasturi attends where marriage is the ultimate destiny of a her mission school and at the age of an girl’s life and marriage implied that a girl has innocent childhood time, her mother tore the to work tirelessly to please her in – laws. picture into pieces and screams at her and Kasturi is very happy in her patriarchal male also threatens her to get married. But it is dominated society even though she faces due to his uncle who intervenes and advises much trauma and above all she insists her her not to pray any other god than their daughter Virmati to follow the same as her. religion. After her graduation, her education Kasturi is portrayed as a typical Indian continues at home. Kasturi is taught cooking woman who strongly follows the patriarchal and stitching continuously till her marriage is norms. She is habituated to live under the finalized with SurajPrakash. It is a happy male dominance and she personally favors the marriage for Kasturi, for she follows the male dominance in the family. traditional norms and rules of the society, she The character of Virmati is seen as the lives in and accepts the patriarchal flag bearer of the same type which she has dominance that she could not reject giving received in the hands of her mother Kasturi. multiple births. It is only after giving birth to Virmati’s relationship with her mother is eleven children Kasturi couldn’t bear the pain always problematic. Kasturi feels that of giving birth anymore. She turns to god and Virmati is sent to her as punishment that she 52 Bodhi International Journal of Research in Humanities, Arts and Science
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has to bear her throughout her life. Kasturi finally ends up in marrying Harish, which often criticizes her for having dreams on her ends her relation with her mother and other life, which were unconventional and improper family members. After her marriage, for a girl to cherish in the patriarchal Virmathi has a very cold welcome from each structure. Kasturi strongly rooted inside her, and every member of Harish family. In her how a woman without her own house and later days Virmati accepts that it is her family is a woman without moorings. Also she biggest mistake of marrying Harish. Harish is implores her to settle down with a domestic the best example of patriarchal male life like other girls of her age did. Virmathi dominated society. Harish keeps Virmati has to do the daily chores and is often abused under his rule and she is expected to follow by her mother without any apparent reasons. only his guidance. Virmati is not even given Virmati failed in her exams because of her the choice of naming her daughter and it is excess domestic duties. Though failed in her only the decision of Harish. Virmati feels as if exams and burdened by her domestic duties she is freed from one cage to get into another Virmati’s craving for higher education deeply bigger one. Virmati loses her family as they enrooted inside her. Virmati is often torn do not accept her marriage with Harish who between family duties, the desire for pursuing is already married with children. Virmati is higher education and her love with the not even invited to her sibling’s marriage and married professor Harish Chandra. One after they totally neglect her. Virmati dares to another Kasturi gives birth to children and cross the patriarchal threshold, but she is the whole burden of household work increases again caught in another and all she has to do upon Virmathi, being the eldest daughter of is just to adjust, compromise and adapt to the the family. needs of the patriarchal family. Virmati Virmati falls in love with Harish, who becomes totally a loser as she gets herself pressurizes her not to marry, but to continue alienated from her family and in addition that her education. Harish asks her to boldly she also fails to get her own identity for which represent herself before her family and her she is struggling. Virmathi who breaks the unwillingness to get married. Virmati is not rule when asked by Kasturi, forces Ida to do bold enough to bring it out to her family, but the same. Virmathi shows her disappointment with much hesitation talks to Kasturi, who on Ida and tells her to live up to her father’s gets angry and slaps her. Virmati in much expectation. trauma decides to commit suicide as she is not However, it is actually Virmati’s difficult bold enough to bring out her opinion. Shocked daughter Ida, who in her determination to by her suicidal attempt, everyone enquires live a life, despite all odds, represents the real about this and finally she declares she wants situation of a modern woman struggling in to do her higher education and she did not the patriarchal society. Ida becomes the want to get married now. After this suicidal typical daughter of a difficult daughter attempt, Virmati is house arrested and locked Virmati, as she could not develop an in the godown. Finally after much struggle understanding with her mother. Ida wants to she leaves Lahore for her higher education. decide on her own and make her decisions Frequent visits by Harish make their love herself and live as per her wish. But she is more strong. It is in this course of time, she not allowed to show any signs of intellectual gets pregnant and as the exams are nearing, decision making, but only to follow her she has no option than to abort. Mentally father’s orders. Ida protests against her disturbed Virmati faces many obstacles and mother, when she asked her not to disappoint 53 Bodhi International Journal of Research in Humanities, Arts and Science
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her father. Ida thinks why she should please sorts of trauma. Ida struggles to battle in the him when he doesn’t show concern and love patriarchal society. Ida struggles against the towards her. Harish, being the perfect badge of marginality which society imposes example of patriarchal a male dominated upon her and even from her young age, she is society controls both Virmati and Ida to follow engulfed by melancholy, depression and him and live as per his wish. Harish imposes despair. too much regulation on her and his The female characters Kasturi, Virmati expectation on Ida ultimately pressurizes her. and Ida are seen to be struggling to cast off Ida is burdened with so many skills. She is their web of patriarchal dominance. The sent to classical music and dance classes and protagonist Virmati, her mother Kasturi and she is expected to bring the best results in her her daughter Ida all of them emerge in their academics. Harish wants Ida to expertise young age as difficult daughters and when Classical Literature and to discuss it with they try to cope up with the society, they him elaborately. confront failure. These three representative Ida on the whole is shown off as a pretty, daughters in their journey of life face well dressed and well-mannered woman with difficulties from others or by the exemplifying levels in all arts and studies. Ida circumstances they live in. Thus the women right from her childhood is only ordered to do beneath the patriarchal demands and power things. She is compelled or dragged to do are subjected to isolation. The condition things by her parents and not much care and across all Hindu society is that, as a girl she affection is shown to her. Much to the disaster is under her father’s control, then after the her marriage also ends up as a tragic one. The marriage under her husband’s control and relationship between Ida and her husband finally after the loss of her husband, it is the Prabakar breaks up as she is forced to get her turn of the son to take the control over his baby aborted. Ida is shattered when she loses mother. These women just try to challenge her baby and she is unable to come out of her the existing social – cultural – patriarchal grief. It is very much shocking for Ida when system, but they cannot liberate themselves Virmati also supports Prabakar in aborting from oppressive patriarchal structure. her child. Ida knew very well that Virmati has a good opinion on her son – in – law, but References she is not aware much about their troubled 1. http://literaryindia.com/Literature/Indian- relationship. Virmati knew Prabakar only as Authors/780.html a cultured, highly learned and good writer. 2. http://www.contentwriter.in/articles/book- But Ida is the real sufferer in the hands of reviews/novels-manju-kapur.htm Prabakar. Ida is forced to abort her first baby 3. Kapur, Manju. A Married Woman, New to which she is not willing. This results in Delhi: India Ink 2002 their divorce. Ida’s life has nothing as she is 4. http://indianwritinginenglishhcc.blogspot. husbandless and childless leading her to all ru/
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FEMINISM IN INDIAN LITERATURE
A.Sandhya Assistant Professor, Shri Sakthikailassh Women’s College, Salem
Abstract The word feminism seems to refer to an intense awareness of identity as a woman and interest in feminine problems. Margaret Homans has rightly pointed out that the concept of feminism raises fundamental queries about reading, writing and the teaching of literature. Women were not recognized as individuals or autonomous beings. Women had to face many obstacles in the academic circuit which symbolizes the effects of an educational culture that radically restricts the scope of women’s intellectual exposure. The study shows feminism is a struggle for equality of women, an effect to make women become like men. More and more women who joined the work force of freedom struggle were educated and became economically independent and even supported families. In the early decades of the 20th century women took other women for granted and focused their attention on male dominated spheres. In the typical Indian families of that period father was the central figure governing or controlling female members of the family. In this way a male child plays dominant role. The Indian society believes that men have the power and cultural hegemony in the society. Women are marginalized through cultural institutions and religious rituals. Feminist movements have been trying for removal of this marginalization.
First Wave Feminism supportive and sisterly whereas men are First wave feminism refers to a period of rational, competitive, aggressive and feminist activity during the 19th century and patronizing. early twentieth century in the United kingdom, Canada, the Netherlands and the Feminism in Indian Short Stories United states. Literature is human experience The publication of stories from Indian through imaginative writing, the early phase Christian life by Kamala sattianandan in the of feminism was marked by autobiographical year 1898 marked the beginning of the short or even confessional writing which witnessed story in English by the Indian writers. But the relationship of literature to personal the tradition of the short story in India may experience. It is through literature being a be traced back to the Panchatantra, the major cultural practice that feminism as Jataka tales, Katha sarotsagara. When the critical theory as well as politics, developed Indian short story came of age in the 1930s its after 1960. Since the resurgence of feminism possibilities as an art form were realized. in late 60s and 70s, Marxists believe that Anita Desai portrays the psychological nature is not pre-existent; it is produced innerself in her collection of short stories socially. This assumption led feminists to entitled ‘Games at twilight and other stories’ think of patriarchy, not as something (1978) She pleads for an attitude of naturally given but as different forms of moderation and adaptability of changing oppression. circumstances in the virtue of her successful characters. Second Wave Feminism A feminist novel for india is not a novel Second wave feminism saw a more radical which a women writers just because she is a edge in feminist movement than was present woman and knows how to write. It is written in theories of earlier period. Radical feminists by the one who has understood a woman both not only demanded equal rights but also as a woman and as a person pressurized by asserted superiority of women over men. They all kinds of visible and invisible, external and want women to be an intuitive, nutrient, internalforces by the one who is not carried 55 Bodhi International Journal of Research in Humanities, Arts and Science
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away by feminism. An attempt shall be made writing from a very early age and contributed to study the various aspects of feminism that various articles to newspapers and magazines were taken by Sashi Deshpande in her novels she belongs to family that has an ardent love and to see how far she has succeeded in for literature and social worker and a writer. securing for the members of her sex, their Mahesweta Devi was inspired by her present available status in the family and in family to pursue her career as an artist and society. an activist. She was appointed as a lecturer in English at Calcutta university and was Shobha De’s Writings retired from service in 1984. After the Shobha de narrates a very sensitive in her retirement, she concentrated on writing for writings about feminism. Her way of the upliftment for the poor, especially the narrating every aspect of relationship is downtrodden sections of the society. She has wonderful. She is very frank in narrating the been editing the quarterly ‘Bortika’ since 1980 incidents and situations with a touch of open to voice the pent-up emotions of the heartedness. Her female characters break all marginalized people of India. shackles of customs and traditions that tie A major preoccupation in recent Indian them in the predicaments and rein in their woman’s writings has been a delineation of freedoms and rights. Her female characters inner life and subtle interpersonal are modern, strong and take bold decisions to relationships. In a culture where survive in society. Money symbolizes power individualism and protest have often and freedom and a room of her own is to have remained alien ideas and marital bliss and contemplative thinking. the woman’s role at home is a central focus. A major development in modern Indian fiction Manju Kapur’s Writings has been the growth of a feminist or women The other noted novelist under the study centered approach, an approach that seeks to is manju kapur; she is a professor of English project and interpret experience from the at Miranda house in Delhi. Her first novel, viewpoint of a feminine consciousness and “Difficult Daughters” received the ‘Common sensibility. Feminism assumes that women wealth award’ for the Eurasian region. Her experience the world differently from men novel ‘A Married Woman’ which is a seductive and write out of their different perspectives. story of a love at a time of political and The authenticity of feminine sensibility and religious upheaval, told with sympathy and feminine sensibility and feminine experiences intelligence. It is the story of an artist whose would demand a brief scrutiny of the canvas challenges constraints of middle-class changing position of women in india. existence. Conclusion Mahasweta Devi’s Writings In conclusion, the study shows feminism Mahasweta Devi, the renowned Bengali is a struggle for equality of women, an effort writer and activist, was born in 1926 at to make women become like men. The Dhaka in East Bengal, the modern day agonistic definition of feminism sees it as the Bangladesh. She had done her elementary struggle against all forms of patriarchal and studies at Dhaka and after the partition of sexiest aggression. This study reveals the Bengal; her family migrated to West Bengal growth of Indian feminism and its in India. She took the B.A(Hons) in English development. Indian women writers have from Viswabharati university in placed the problems of Indian women in Shantiniketan. She passed the M.A. in general and they have proved their place in English as a private student from Calcutta the international literature. University in 1963. Maheswata Devi started 56 Bodhi International Journal of Research in Humanities, Arts and Science
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PENITENCE AND PURGATION—AN OVERVIEW OF SYLVIA PLATH’S POEMS
Mrs.V.Hema Assistant Professor, Department of English, Nazareth College of Arts and Science, Avadi
Abstract Confessional poetry emphasizes the inmates and sometimes unflattering information about details of the poet’s personal life, such as in poems about mental illness, sexuality and despondence. The confessionalist label was applied to a number of poets in the 1950’s and 1960’s. Poetrythat the “Personal” was hardly new in the 1950’s 60’s. The leading poet in our discussion is “Sylvia Plath” and her poems “Daddy” and “Lady Lazarus” are taken for our perusal. Plath fictionalizes herself in her writing. All her poems uncompromisingly charted female rage, ambivalence and grief, in a voice with which many women identified. The confessional poets were not merely recording their emotions on paper, but craft and constructions were extremely important to their work.
Penitence and Purgation—an Overview mental agony and restlessness Stan Smith of Sylvia Plath’s Poems writes in 20th Century American Literature: “ Confessional poetry emphasizes the Her father was a Nazi, and her mother very intimate and sometimes unflattering possibly Jewish. In the daughter of two information about details of the poet’s strains marry and paralyze each other she personal life, such as in poems about mental has to act out the awful little allegory, illness, sexuality and despondence. It is because she is free of it…their symbolic otherwise titled as “Poetry of Confession”. The function in the emotional ecology for her work confessionalist label was applied to a number is clear”. There is an immediacy of emotion, of poets in the 1950’s and 1960’s. Poetry that and sometimes dark, often aggressive and discussed the “Personal” was hardly new in beautiful honesty to her writing. She just the 1950’s and 60’s. The thing that wrote about that dark- themed stuff because distinguishes the confessional poets from she was depressed. other personal poetry in their rejection of the “Lazy Lazarus” combines the private with standards for appropriate content that the public. It is an aggressive and violent saturated Academia during the middle of the poem that glorifies the impulse to commit twentieth century. The confessional poets suicide. Plath writes here of her feelings disregard for this approach in favour of an about the concentration camps of Hitler in intimate and autobiographical one was conjunction with her inner pain. Plath shocking. allegorizes her escape from various The leading poet in our discussion is unsuccessful suicide attempts as a miraculous “Sylvia Plath” and her poems “Daddy” and series of rising from the dead. The poem “Lady Lazarus” are taken for our perusal. reveals her tendency to appropriate history Sylvia Plath is undoubtedly one of the and myth. In doing so, she simultaneously greatest poets of America. Commenting on lays her experience and formalizes it, thereby her poetic development, James T Callow and creating a work that transcends privacy. The Robert J Reilly wrote, “Like Keats and poem contains thirty stanzas of three lines Dickinson she was preoccupied with and each. It is a psychotic fantasy that a person perhaps even half in love with death, and like who has committed suicide can talk about it. Dickinson, Lowell and Roethke, She wrote The poem alludes the Biblical character poetry that is auto biographical and even Lazarus, who was raised from the dead by confessional”. Tracing the original of her Jesus. In connection with the theme, I would
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like to quote the lines from the poem “Lady electra complex. The thoughts of release from Lazarus”: misery from her father’s demise and her I have done it again husband’s infidelity sounds strange and One year in every ten account for her delusion. The poem repeats in I manage it… five-line stanzas with meter and rhyme A sort of walking miracle, my skin scheme resembling the style and structure of Bright as a Nazi lampshade. a nursery rhyme: Plath boasts that she has succeeded in You do not do, you do not do meeting death once again, she has also Any more, black shoe succeeded in coming back alive like Lazarus. In which I have lived like a foot Once in every ten years she accomplishes this For thirty years, poor and white, brave feat. She is a walking miracle now. She Barely daring to breathe or Achoo. compares her skin to Nazi lampshade. This is The poem opens with reference to the an extraordinary performance by Plath in a father’s black shoe, in which the daughter has fairground watched by the public. This is her “lived like a foot”, suggesting her third triumph. She is probably in search of submissiveness and entrapment. The entire birth through death. To Plath, dying is an art. poem may seem to have stretched the The following lines show how she tries to die permissible limits of analogy. This piece of several times: “light verse”, as Plath called it, constantly The first time it happened when I was ten shifts between grotesque, childish flights and It was an accident allusions and deadly serious rage toward the The second time I meant father- Nazi. To last it out and not come back at all “Daddy is obviously an attempt to do In the summer 1953 she tried to kill away altogether with the idealized father but herself by consuming sleeping pills. Her it also makes clear of different guises: statue, experience in the hospital is described thus: shoe, Nazi, teacher, devil and vampire. If the ‘I rocked shut starting point of Plath’s idealization of the As a seashell. father was the heroic white patriarch of They had to call and call “Lament”, the end point is the black vampire And pick the worms off me like sticky of “Daddy”. The father has been re-envisioned pearls’. in terms of his sexual dominance, cruelty and Plath attempted suicide exceptionally well authoritarianism. There is a feeling of which is described as: remorse in the speaker for not having been I do it so it feels like hell able to kill her father, for he died before she I do it so it feels real could do so. Thus, to the poet, the father I guess you could say I’ve a call. figure is a person of courage and affection and The repetition of the words “I do it” adds God is effected. There is a tone of regret in the real force to her conviction. She has a call for declarations. “death”. She enacts the strip tease by which ………..O you………… she reduces us into believing that she can Not God but a swastika commit suicide every ten years and come back So black no sky could squeak through alive. Every woman adores a fascist, Sylvia Plath’s “Daddy” is a psycho- The boot in the face, the brute dramatic poem. That termination of Brute heart of a brute like you. impossibility is a remedy is what is conveyed The poet is sole over her mother’s love and in the poem. It is a suffer from electra adoration for this brute who happened to be complex. The suicidal tendency fortifies the her father. She cannot understand how a 58 Bodhi International Journal of Research in Humanities, Arts and Science
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woman could afford to live with a man who and through him, with the guilt of the was fascist – so dark at heart and “So black German exterminators and suffering of their no sky could squeak through”. The picture Jewish Victims. “Lady Lazarus” and “Daddy” that the poet has of her father is dust-like – are poems which are written at the edge of perhaps the man who partook her life after sensibility. They both utilize an imagery of her father’s demise. The second man cut her severe disintegration and dislocation. The heart into two. Sylvia Plath famously public horrors of the Nazi concentration described the poem as about a girl with an camps and the personal horrors of fragmented electra complex. Her father died when she identities become interchangeable. Men are thought he was God. Coupled with morbid reduced to parts of bodies and to piles of imagery, the narrator’s child-like intonation things. evokes a keen state of unease in the reader She became the first poet to win the throughout the poem climaxing in the final Pulitzer Prize posthumously, for her collection line: “Daddy. Daddy, you bastard, I’m of poems. Plath fictionalizes herself in her through”. The poem “Daddy” shows an writing. All her poems uncompromisingly attempt to change the situation. Plath states: charted female rage, ambivalence and grief, in “Daddy, I have had to kill you”. By this she a voice with which many women identified. course means her unhealthy relationship with The confessional poets were not merely a memory of a father. The extent to which her recording their emotions on paper, but craft father’s memory affected her is obvious, and constructions were extremely important especially in the lines: to their work. Sylvia Plath is remembered as At twenty I tried to die a great poet first and foremost. And get back, back, back to you. I thought even the bones would do. Here Plath refers to an attempted suicide References by overdose of sleeping pills, stating that it 1. “A Brief Guide to confessional Poetry”. was an attempt to get back to her father, to be Poets.org-Poetry, Poems, Bios & More. with him in death, she continuous by stating Web.15 Oct.2010. that: 2. http://www.poets.org/viewmedia.php/prm But they pulled me out of the sack, MID/5650. And they stuck me together with glue. 3. Beckmann, Anja. “Sylvia Plath (1932- And then I knew what to do. 1963). “Sylvia Plath.de. 1996. Web. 17 I made a model of you, Oct. 2010. http://www.sylviaplath.de/ A man in black with a Meinkampf look 4. Steinberg. Peter K. “A Celebration, This The man in black is a reference to her Is.” SylviaPlath.info.Dec.2007.Web.17 husband, Ted Hughes. Oct.2010. Before or after reading the poem one 5. http://www.sylviaplath.info/biography.ht should look into Sylvia Plath’s life which ml stood fragmented like a broken mirror. She 6. http://www.en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daddy- gives vent to this despondency in her poetry, (Poem) for after all human beings crave for 7. http://www.sylviaplath recognition or partaking of third persons in forum.com/daddy.html their misery or misfortune. In the poems 8. http://www.en.wikipedia.org/wiki/lady- “Daddy” and “Lazy Lazarus” fear, hate, love, lazarus death and poet’s own identity becomes fused 9. http://www.bible.org/seriespage/raising- at black heart with the figure of her father, lazarus-john-11
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THE IDENTITY CRISIS IN SYLVIA PLATH’S ‘THE BELL JAR’
Dr.K.C.Lalithambika Associate Professor and Head, Department of English, Thiruthangal Nadar College, Selavayal, Chennai
The term identity crisis has no complete and an all encompassing definition. An attempt to define it is simply complex. The term was first used during II world war to refer to patients who have lost a sense of their selves and historical continuity. Identity is the core element to develop interpersonal competence and define the role of an individual in society. A man’s life is a long journey in search of his identity and in this journey he undergoes a series of existential encounters with society. Ultimately he gains wisdom about the world. Severe identity crises have been created in the blacks owing to the changing phases of American society. The blacks live with the bitter memories of slavery till date and they struggle to strike a balance between their original identity which is black and their acquired identity which is American. They strive for emancipation from a dominant group identity which is all pervasive and is located in the core of the individual. Later numerous writers began using their works to express the bitter realities of blacks to achieve self-realization. This paper focuses on the theme of identity crisis in Sylvia Plath’s “The Bell Jar” which is a psychological analysis of the character Esther Greenwood, the protagonist who undergoes traumatic experiences in her life. “The Bell Jar”( 1963) is the only novel written by Sylvia Plath who is one of America’s most significant female authors. It chronicles a young woman’s descent into depression and eventually into suicidal behavior coupled with her quest to discover herself. But in the yesteryears, self discovery meant navigating through traditional norms of social propriety on the one side and new ideas of freedom and self-determination on the other.
From the Greek playwright Sophocles to conflict has a direct bearing on writers African American writer Alice Walker, the thematic concerns. In literature tragedy is identity crisis has proved itself to be a closely closely knit to the characters’ prominent thematic concerns in literature. confusion about their identity. The confusion Tragedy is inevitable when the characters are is about their true identity and their caught in the conflict between who they are designated roles. It precipitates the creation and who they are supposed to be. of not only personal but also social tragedy. Nevertheless it is essential for the characters Their emotional sufferings frequently occur to be aware of their true selves for their self- owing to their inability to overcome the crisis. realization. Such characters learn about In Psychology the term identity crisis was themselves, discover their individuality and coined by the psychologist Erik Erikson and it show growth. Finally they are on the road to means the condition of being uncertain of self-discovery. one’s feelings about oneself especially with Identity crises is an age old theme which regard to character, goals and origins. has been of great concern to the writers and The character Esther Greenwood, the the reading public as well. The individuals protagonist of the novel and the struggle she who suffer from the problem of identity crisis encounters in her life portray best the feel compelled to conform to social problem of identity crisis. The problem of conventions. Either they lead double lives or identity crisis surfaces first in her split end up as casualties of unsympathetic society. relationship with her mother and later on This leads to mental conflict which has been with society itself. Her inability to pursue a an important subject in literature. Mental writing course and her bitter experiences in
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New York puts her through a psychological Greenwood is a parallel to Sylvia Plath, thus conflict, a sense of frustration, depression and enabling the reader to understand both the disintegration all leading to suicidal thoughts. character and the author in a humane way. The novel is the story of a nineteen year old Esther tries to adjust herself to those that Esther Greenwood, the breakdown she surround her by taking in the different experiences and the beginnings of her personalities, trying to find the right one, that recovery. Having finished college for the could be hers. She allows the people around academic year, she wins a one –month paid her to decide who she is , thereby losing the internship at Ladies Day Magazine in New power to define, to judge and to respect York city. Diane Bonds characterizes Esther’s herself. depression as an “intolerable psychic conflict She longs to be perfect, thus she wants to produced by trying to meet cultural be everyone but herself. Esther’s desire to be expectations of women (Bonds, 57). Marjorie carefree and a risk taker is stirred by the Perloff describes it as her “human inability to character of Doreen. Doreen was fashion- cope with an unlivable condition” (Perl off, conscious, worldly, and lived a life on the 520-21). edge, unlike Esther. She is Esther’s exact The Bell Jar merits attention not because opposite, her rebellious side. This is evident of its autobiographical value, but due to the when Esther expresses that “Doreen had undiminished relevance of the issues intuition. Everything she said was like a voice discussed in the novel. The central questions speaking straight out of my own bones” (Plath addressed in The Bell Jar for instance the 7). Jay Cee is just another identity Esther is social expectations, gender roles, isolation and eager to assume. Successful and famous is individuality persist even today. Esther feels exactly what Esther has been working all her “empty” at the party and she leaves only to life for. Jay Cee is wise and could give come back to the hotel and sit in her room, direction or answers to all the questions gazing at the telephone and wondering about Esther is confused about. Once again, Esther the calls she might receive. Paradoxically the is looking for herself in other characters. She device that can connect her with the rest of believes that Betsy is more like her. Betsy the world seems to her “as dumb as the encompasses her view of virtue and goodness. death’s head”, echoing several recurring Esther is not able to decide for herself, what themes – nihilism, isolation and death. Esther she wants; this is why she incorporates the is encumbered by the social pressure to different identities of the characters that conform to societal conventions which surround her and does not establish one for precipitates the identity crisis that eventually herself. She longs for acceptance not only leads to a mental breakdown. from her peers, but also of herself. Esther Despite being a promising English major, feels that no matter where she goes or who with spotless track record in journalism and she is, she is always in the “hell” of her own editing, Esther is inwardly confused and lost. mind “…wherever I sat-on the deck of a ship The inability to decide what to do with her or a street café in Paris or Bangkok I would own life isn’t some passing irresoluteness, it is be sitting under the same glass bell jar a shattering existential crisis most powerfully stewing, in my own sour air”(Plath 185). This depicted in the metaphor of the fig tree. Her quotation introduces the symbol of the bell inability to cope with daily life and social jar. She is trapped inside herself. The bell jar pressures brings her down into an inescapable of Esther’s madness separates her from the word of profound depression. Esther people she should care about. Esther’s 61 Bodhi International Journal of Research in Humanities, Arts and Science
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suicidal urges come from this sense of inevitable disappointments later in life. suffocating isolation. Jay Cee has forced her (Beck, 7) to take a good look at herself, and what she Throughout her life she had perfect sees scares her. She retreats more within grades and the perfect boyfriend, Buddy herself. The bell jar is covered tightly over Willard. Her world comes crashing down her. She decides to quit on herself and all she when Buddy confesses that he had sexual has worked for. Esther feels a disconnection relations with a waitress one summer. Esther between the way other people view her life begins to think that she must find that perfect and the way she experiences life. By all person inside her so she uses alter egos and external measures, Esther should feel happy, personality adaptations, which lead her into and excited, because she has overcome her confusion and self-denial. middle-class small town background. Esther Esther feels she is being stuffed into a feels uncertain about her own abilities and black, airless sack with no way out. Esther’s about the reward that her abilities have descent into depression sends her to an earned her. Eventually the rift between asylum for her illness reaches great severity. societal expectations and her own feelings and She becomes delusional and begins to hate experiences become so wide that she feels she her doctor. Dr. Gordon makes no attempt to can no longer survive. Her personal and understand her suffering; he merely attempts professional accomplishments have become a to make her normal again with electroshock source of frustration. therapy. Esther is affected by two common and Esther’s mother told her “we’ll act as if all distinct causes of depression that psychiatrist this were a bad dream” (Plath 237). They Aaron T. Beck notes in his research .The first were going to pretend that her stay in the of which, Beck writes: “In the course of asylum never occurred and that it was all a development, the depression - prone person bad dream. Even though she was being may become sensitized by certain unfavorable treated by a psychiatrist, Dr. Gordon, Esther types of life situations such as the loss of a begins to dwell on suicide, and the shock parent” (Beck, 7). Beck states that such early therapy sends her into a deeper depression. traumatic experiences cause the depressed The “bell jar” is symbolic, “a thin layer of person to exaggerate future losses later in life. glass that separates Esther from everyone, Esther mentions her father three times and the novel’s title, itself made of glass, is throughout the text and in one scene finds evolved from her notion of disconnection. One herself kneeling at her father’s grave stone, rainy day, after visiting her father’s grave, “howling her loss into the cold salt rain”(167). she attempts suicide. She overdoses on However , her father’s premature death is not prescription pills. Now desperate, her mother necessarily a direct trigger to Esther’s sends her to a state mental institution, where depression but her rejection from a Harward Esther meets Dr. Nolan. She gains Esther’s writing course serves as the tipping point , a trust by being intuitive and sensitive to the loss that causes her to fully break down Esther’s feelings and needs. Under psychologically. The second factor Beck compassionate supervision, and carefully outlines is the notion that “ depression - prone conducted shock treatments; Esther begins to individuals spend their childhood setting rigid improve. Esther begins to think differently, perfectionist goals for themselves so that their and it is through this therapy that Esther universe collapses when they confront begins to breath once again.
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By overcoming some of her demons, 244). The author, Sylvia Plath, has given us Esther manages to become a productive an ironic twist to Esther’s recovery. She has member of society. She learns to free herself arranged Joan’s suicide and Esther’s recovery from the tyranny of others’ expectations. Once as opposites. To the extent that Esther is left she is able to reveal her true self in her own wondering, at Joan’s funeral, just what is it way, she develops new confidence and she thinks she is burying. Joan’s demise and understands that her struggle against this so- eventual burial is significantly related to the called oppressive conformity of customs and death of Esther’s many imposters. In a sense expectations is not hers alone, but rather a the suicide of this surrogate, Joan, is Esther’s general human condition. “All the heat and salvation from herself. The struggle that fear had purged itself. I felt surprisingly at Esther Greenwood went through to conquer peace. The bell jar hung, suspended, a few her demons and find her true self, are very feet above my head. I was open to the similar to human beings very own struggles circulating air” (Plath 215). At last Esther is in adolescence. They long for identity and self- free, but not totally. The ‘bell jar’ still hangs realization. In their quest for identity, over her head. It is like a dark cloud waiting individuals all go through what Esther to envelop her once again, in her madness. Greenwood experienced. It is the normal Esther is able to go on with a seemingly quest of the human psyche. It is the people we functional life. But she feels like a ticking encounter on this road that can either help or time bomb, waiting to explode. In this hinder our destinies. There is a little of explosion she would once again lose herself. Esther Greenwood in most people. The “bell She wonders if she will be lost forever, never jar”, parental expectations, and society’s to be given another chance to be whole again. pressures hang above everybody’s heads. For the author, Sylvia Plath, the ‘bell jar’ did descend again, only months after the References novel was accepted for publication, its author 1. Beck, Aaron T. “The Development of attempted suicide for a second and final time. Depression: A Cognitive Model.” The Esther sees suicide not so much as self- psychology of Depression: Contemporary destruction, but as a ritual which frees her Theory and Research. Ed. Raymond from her false identity and restores her J.Friedman and Martin M. unique self. It is her false image she wishes to 2. Katz.Washington: Hemisphere Publishing murder. She wants to put an end to her Corporation, 1974. Print. pretentious twin that is her public persona. 3. Bonds, S. Diane. “The Separative Self in Once Esther has freed herself from the Sylvia Plath’s The Bell Jar”. Women’s “bell jar” she feels renewed. She anxiously Studies awaits her expected dismissal from the 4. 18.1: May 1990, 49-64. Print. hospital. 5. Plath, Sylvia. The Bell Jar, New York: At last, Esther finally seems in control of Harper Perennial, 2005. Print. her own life, she is guiding herself back into 6. Perl off, Marjorie G. “A Ritual for Being society, in which her future will be decided by Born Twice: Sylvia Plath’s The Bell Jar.” the impression she makes on others. She has 7. Contemporary Literature 13.4: Autumn been, as she puts it, “born twice—patched, 1972, 502-22.Print. retreated and approved for the road”(Plath
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PORTRAYAL OF MAN- WOMAN RELATIONSHIP IN ANITA NAIR’S LADIES COUPE
G.Vijayarenganayaki Assistant Professor, Department of English, Cauvery College for Women
Abstract Anita Nair is known for portraying women’s courage in different manner. All women writer focus on sufferings of woman and provides breaking up of relationship as a solution for the problem but Nair makes readers to think women as a fragile creature in the beginning and suddenly transposes them as strong and courageous women while facing patriarchal domination. In this novel Ladies Coupe all women face patriarchal domination but they courageously opposed such attitude of man and make men dependent on them. They break the traditional idea of woman’s responsibility in family and place their individuality by achieving their desire. Through this novel the readers can understand the development of women in the current scenario. 21st century women serve as a best example for raising their voice in the male dominated society. These women know the way to gain significance from men. Keywords: Transposes, Courageous, Individuality, Achievement, Significance.
Indian literature has now developed and (2006), Living Next Door to Alise (2007) and is preferred not only by the Indians, but by Idris: Keeper of the Light (2014). people all over the world. Ancient literature “Anita Nair’s Ladies Coupe reads more comprises translation of regional literature. like a provocative documentary –a pastiche of Novel writing in India started only in female voices” (Thekkayyam 318). The novel nineteenth century. Literature focuses both starts with Akhila’s sense of escape from her on the empowerment of woman and nation. sister’s family and her plans to move to Women’s writing has become popularized only Kanyakumari. Before entering into the in the twentieth century. Many writers like compartment she becomes aware of other five ShashiDeshpande, Anita Nair, women who are going to accompany her in the MeenaKandasamy and others focuses on coupe. After boarding she occupies the sufferings of woman in the society. They also window seat of the coupe and starts to think provide solution for overcoming such about her past life. Her mother has no belief problems. These writers often focus on in equality between man and woman in empowerment in aspects such as finance and marriage. According to her, a wife is always education. inferior to husband and a woman should carry Anita Nair is a twentieth century Indian out the task whatever her husband wants her writer in English. She is a writer belonging to to do. This reminds Betty Freiden’s words in the third phase of feminism, that is, a woman her feminine mystique that “How to dress, voicing her own experience about the status of look and act more feminine and make the women in the society, the problems faced by marriage more exciting” (15). women and the relationship between man and Nair first brings out the healthy woman. Her well known works are Satyr of relationship between Janaki and Prabhakar. the Subway & Eleven Other Short Stories She says a woman is always looked after by (1997), The Better Man (2000), Ladies someone. There is someone to take care of Coupe(2001),Malabar Mind (2002),Where the her. For her first there is her father, her Rain is Born (2003), Puffin Book of World husband and then her son. She always needs Myths and Legends (2004),Mistress (2005), someone to take care of her. She feels Adventures of Nonu, The Skating Squirrel incomplete without her husband and son. “Sometimes a woman would say I feel empty 64 Bodhi International Journal of Research in Humanities, Arts and Science
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somehow…incomplete or she would say I feel her father advices to maintain good as if I don’t exist” (Freiden 20). Their relationship with Ebe. Eighteen months after relationship seems to be healthy because of their marriage she finds that she is pregnant. her subjugation to him. His dominative She feels very happy for her motherhood and authority surfaces when his son rejects his her happiness vanishes when Ebe advices her choice in selecting the shoes but Janaki to abort the baby because they should first Vociferates at him for his behavior “‘that’s not settle in the life. This reminds us the words of helping. You just want to control him. You Simon de Beauvoir who says “Men universally want to control everybody. You want everyone forbid abortion, but individually they accept it to do your bidding” (30). His relationship with as a convenient solution of a problem.”(509). Janaki is stronger than his love for his the her blind love towards Ebe made her to do son. Simone de Beauvoir in her The Second whatever he orders her. He treats Margaret Sex talks about love of women for her man as a mechanical device for carrying out “Love has been assigned to woman as her household works.“Of the growing thousands supreme vocation, and when she directs it of women currently getting private towards a man, she is seeking god in him” psychiatric help in United States the married (679).She gains her identity as a strong ones were reported dissatisfied with their woman from the words ofPrabhakar. A marriages” (Freiden 25). woman should be provided with education to Margaret compares Paul’s coterie with the overcome her dependence and inferiority in chemical elements to describe their her mind. Communication with the people characteristics. Her hatred towards her around her will help her more in making right husband makes her to seek revenge for his decisions in her life. cruel activities “There’s Margaret, Sheela, narrates her poignant a chemistry teacher, who grows to hate her relationship with her grandmother husband, an obnoxious headmaster, whom Ammumma. Sheela’s father is known for his she once adored. Emptied of love, she is left patriarchal attitude. He always accuses bitter and vengeful” (Banerji 44).She makes Sheela for her quick encounters. According to him fat and protects the school children from him a woman should not act against man’s his punishments and makes him depend on decision “Women heard in voices of tradition her for doing his routine activities. Thus she and of Freudian sophistication that they could seeks identity and makes her relationship desire no greater destiny than to glory in healthy by making him obese. She turns her their own femininity” (Freiden 15). He loves relationship healthy by making him depend her encounter in her childhood days but now on her. she is a woman so she loses her rights in Prabha Devi is a woman who is born and providing such encounters. Sheela breaks out brought up in a rich family. Through her Nair of culture and tradition by grooming her brings out the passion of adult in following grandmother’s dead body. Woman should be western culture and how it ends in failure. thoughtful of her rights in the society which After having been assaulted by Pramod, she helps her in voicing out her idea. Sheela in a sense of fear subjugates herself to serves as a predecessor to break the Jagdeesh.Throughout her life she takes care convention and seek identity. of all household chores and family. She Margaret Shanthi, a chemistry teacher realizes her emptiness in life only on her seeks her identity by making her husband fortieth birthday. “I want something more depend on her for his work. She starts to than my husband and my children and my narrate about her marriage life. She is home” (Freiden 32). She then decides to learn awarded with gold medal in M.Sc. chemistry. swimming and achieves her goal within seven She falls in love with Ebenezer Paulraj and days. She maintains her healthy relationship 65 Bodhi International Journal of Research in Humanities, Arts and Science
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through sexual approach with her love relationship. Ultimately Akhila reveals husband.“What woman understand by love is her courage by breaking herself from her clear enough: it is not only devotion, it is a familial torture and places her freedom by total gift of body and soul” (Beauvoir 652). planning to seek the love of Hari. Education helps a woman in seeking her Man-Woman relationship is well identity. portrayed in Anita Nair’s Ladies Coupe. This Marikolanthu’s story focuses on men’s novel focuses not only on strength and treatment of women as a sex object. . “When a weakness of man-woman relationship but also woman tries to put the problem into words, on lewd attitude of man towards woman. she often merely describes the daily life she Though Janaki is often pampered by leads” (Freiden 30). Her relationship with Prabhakar even for her own activities, she Sujathaakka failed when Sujata came to proves herself as a strong woman by opposing know that Marikolanthu is having sexual male dominated attitude of Prabhakar. relationship with her husband Sridhar. Margaret failed to get affection from her Marikolanthu’s story focuses on man as a husband so she seeks revenge by making him lusty human being. This idea is portrayed obese and turns their relationship as a through Chettiyar’s relationship with his healthy one by making him depend on her. wife. When he found that she is incapable of Sheela breaks her traditional value and providing pleasures, he goes to Seethalakshmi proves she’s different from others. Prabha to have sexual pleasure. Sridhar, Sujata’s Devi seeks healthy relationship by making husband has the same what his father did. her husband understand her ambition and Marikolanthu’s hatred towards her son brings Marikolanthu revenge on her son vanishes the revenge attitude of woman towards a man with the death of Murugesan and finally she through her child. Ignorance is a root cause accepts her son which serves as sign for their for all problems. So woman should be healthy relationship. provided with education to overcome such This novel beautifully focuses on man- ignorance. She should have a rebelling woman relationship both for its strength and tendency for the injustice done to her. She weakness and how woman changes her should have an ability to overcome the relationship into healthier one is well problem instead of subjecting herself to it. portrayed by Nair. This novel can also be Akhila, protagonist of the novel narrates viewed other perspectives like psychological the problem in her relationship with her and feminist aspects because it all deals with siblings. Akhila’s father is an honest worker sufferings of women and the remedies that in income tax office. After her father’s death can be provided to overcome such sufferings. she heads the family and starts to work for References her family. She took up her father’s job and 1. Banerji, Jaya. “Six Women in a Box”. Rev. educates her brothers and sister. But her own of Ladies Coupe: A Novel in Parts. Indian sister considers her only as a money lender Review of Books 10.9 (Jul 16-Sep 15 for their family. When Akhila decides to lead 2001):43-44. her life in a separate house, her real nature 2. Beauvoir, Simone de. The Second Sex. comes to the fore which is seen through her London: Vintage.1997.Print. words “so, that’s what it is!’ Padma broke in. 3. Freiden, Betty. Feminine Mystique. New ‘She’s having a love affair. And she York: The Vail-Ballou Press.1963. Print. doesn’t want us to find out. That’s why she 4. Nair, Anita. Ladies Coupe. New York: wants to go away by herself. Who’s he? And Penguin Books. 2001. Print. how did you find him.’”(206). She also talks 5. Thekkayyam, Jaya. Rev. of Ladies Coupe about the pathetic condition she faces in her Samyukta 2.2 (Jul 2002): 318-321.
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REPRESENTATION OF DIASPORA IN BHARATI MUKHERJEE’S DESIRABLE DAUGHTERS
S.Rini Assistant Professor of English, Sri Ramakrishna College of Arts and Science, Coimbatore
Abstract Bharati Mukherjee was an Indo-American writer. In Desirable Daughters the writer speaks for the rights of the Migrants and highlights their sufferings in abroad. This research paper aims to depict the effect of dislocation of Indian women and their feeling of alienation and identity crisis. This paper throws light on social and cultural issues through the protagonist who brings the social and cultural change in the society. Displacement leads to separation and also leads to alienation which leads to rebirth in a new country, new culture and new society in an alien land. The protagonists of the novel look back to their native country with pain and nostalgia but after all these sufferings they are not ready to look back. Keywords: Migration, Displacement, Alienation, Nostalgia, Identity.
Bharati Mukerjee (July 27, 1940 – diasporic experiences. The main character is January 28, 2017) an Indo-American writer more detached from the Indian culture other has made a great impression in the literary than her two sisters. The novel registers the field. Bharati Mukerjee’s novels depict the sense of alienation, lack of belongingness, cultural issues in West Bengal, India. The memory and identity. The novel does not writer faces alienation and racial minority in describe the protagonists’ nostalgia; urge to Canada and then she relocates to United return to her homeland. Bharathi Mukerjee’s States as a citizen. The writer’s women novels The Tiger’s Daughter and Wife focus on characters are projected as her immigration as the process of gaining rather autobiographical experiences in her novels. than losing the native culture. The characters in her novels define “self” in The novel Desirable Daughters is the cross-cultural context. story about the immigrants dealing with Bharati Mukherjee explores the diasporic three sisters and their multiple dislocations in consciousness of the immigrants, their three different ways. The three sisters are the dislocations and the relocation of the women daughters of Motilal Bhattacharjee and the migrants in her novels. Migration and great-grand daughters of Jaikrishna dislocation is a global and trans-cultural Gangooly, belonging to a traditional Bengali necessity. Mukherjee’s characters are tossed Brahmin family. They have their own voyage in an environment regarding their identity, towards their own destiny. The sisters are of racism, sexism and other social oppression. traditional and modern. Padma and Parvati The Tiger’s Daughter (1972) and Wife have their own choices. Padma an immigrant (1975) relate the problem of belongingness, of ethnic origin, New Jersey and Parvathi nationality, location and identity. Jasmine marries a man of her choice and settles in (1989) and Desirable Daughters (2002) reflect Bombay. the cultural diaspora. The novel Desirable Tara, the main character is the narrator Daughters is about three India born upper of the novel, takes the readers deep into a class sisters namely Padma, Parvati and new world and float rootless with time. The Tara. They live in USA as Indian immigrants. identity testifies that not only her own but This novel revolves around the life of Tara’s also the immigrants. Tara values her
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traditional upbringing and takes pride in There are many instances in the novel where moving forward in life. The family values of Tara shows her Brahmin heritage. “We are the protagonist give a secured feeling that Bengali Brahmins from Calcutta and nothing hides her weak self. “Tuberculosis is can touch us” (35). These lines are Tara’s everywhere. The air, the water, the soil are words in honour of her Brahmin inheritance. septic. Thirty-five years is a long life. Smog Tara for six long years, she defies the obscures the moon and dims the man-made tradition of arranged marriage in India and light to faintness deeper than the stars. In lives with a Hungarian refugee. The bringing such darkness perspective disappears. It is a together of the broken family also symbolizes two-dimensional world impossible to the reconciliation of cultures. penetrate” (Mukerjee 12). Tara is a migrant woman who belongs to Tara is in distress with her cultural cosmopolitan world of a Silicon Valley displacement and fragmentation. She is entrepreneur. She migrates after her unable to manage with the traditional shape marriage with Bish Chatterjee and reaches of an Indian woman. Tara, in the novel finds America and she represents herself as Indian difficult to adjust herself within the gender wife. Back at homeland, Tara follows Indian role of a mother and wife. Tara feels torn tradition, culture and values and she leads a between the culture and shattered identity. secured life. Tara tries to hold the culture of Tara reminds the mountain resorts of India America affords to understand the new present in San Francisco. She is highly aware culture. Tara is aware of being different in the of her cultural differences. Tara’s home at San multicultural population of San Francisco. Francisco appears to be a sad home. She says: Yet she finds it not possible to explain to “I am not the only blue jeaned woman with American friends of classless, mobile society Pashmina shawl around my shoulders and and Indian identity is, broken down running shoes on my feet. I am “The dusty identity is as fixed as any not the only Indian on the block. All the same, specimen in a lepidopterist’s glass case, I stand out, I am convinced. I don’t belong confidently labelled by father‘s religion here, despite my political leanings; worse, I (Hindu), caste (Brahmin), sub-caste (Kulin), don’t want to belong” (79). mother-tongue (Bengali), place of birth Tara very much suffers from Bish and she (Calcutta), formative region of ancestral wants separation from Bish. Divorce is not origin (Mishtigunj, East Bengal)” (78). acceptable in the Indian code of matrimony. Tara knows her restrictions and knows Tara leaves Bish because life of an American hard to come out of culture and tradition. wife had not been happy. When the bond Tara understands the impossibility of pulling between Bish and Tara becomes unbearable, the past, she feels an uprooted self and she arrives at a bitter realization. “In understands the circumstances and anxiety of America, it seemed to us, every woman was an isolated self in a foreign nation. She stands expected to create her own scandal, be the up against a community and gives up that centre of her own tangled love nest” (80). community that has lost meaning in her life. After the divorce, Tara sends her son with Tara stands alone and opposes to achieve Bish on holidays and weekends to Australia. success. She fails to mention the height of her Tara does not belong to India or to America or distress and the blessing of the individuality. to the Silicon Valley Wives Group, but she She says, “When everyone knows your feels comfortable in all these cultures. Tara business and every name declares your breaks her identity; culture and homeland. identity, where no landscape fails to contain a 68 Bodhi International Journal of Research in Humanities, Arts and Science
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plethora of human figures, even a damaged people think that Bish Chatterjee couldn’t consciousness, even loneliness, become support his wife?” (82). privileged commodities” (34). Tara as an immigrant says, “I‘ve lost the Tara belongs to Bengali Brahmin culture Indian radar” (118). “Now, my radar was but she is multicultural. Tara stays in down” (195). The word radar highlights Hindu America; she admires and follows American virgin protection. In the novel Tara swings culture being an American immigrant. The between American and Indian culture and twin identity of Tara is always interweaving identity. Tara turns back to homeland. It junctures creating chaos in her personal life shows her affection with her homeland, and as an admirer and follower of both Indian search for identity in her homeland which is culture and American culture. Tara is against lost by her migration to America. Tara says, “I the Indian practices and customs such as finally yielded to that most American of dowry system, child marriage and having impulses, or compulsions, a roots search” (17). more than one wife at the same time etc. Tara Tara confesses that, “If we’re unhappy, we’re is also delighted to be a part of the huge expected to suck it up for the kids’ sake or our family and she says, “We are Bengali reputation. We worry what our parents will Brahmins from Calcutta, and nothing can think, even when they’re halfway around the touch us” (44). world and we’re middle aged adults” (162). Tara is also inclined to the Hungarian In this novel, Bharati Mukherjee culture because she lives with a Hungarian highlights the identity crisis of the desirable carpenter. Tara now belongs to more than one daughters who face both traditional and nation or culture. Tara experiences to live in modern worlds and their changing values. different countries with different cultures Indian emigrant Tara’s search for identity in such as India, America, Hungary, Argentina America, a place known for multiculturalism and China. Tara marries Bish Chatterjee as reveals the space of tradition, personal an arranged marriage. Tara feels that her memories in different places and a new life marriage life is not smooth and she decides to style in the socio-cultural constrains. Tara walk away from her marital life. Tara she tries not only to establish her own identity, believes in the policy of adjustment and but she tries to recreate her own identity therefore she takes Andy in her life after her against the traditions to which she belongs. failure marital life with Bish. Tara works in Yet, she also maintains her own Indian pre-school as a volunteer and enjoys her love identity for which she feels proud. The efforts life with Andy. As a divorce settlement, Tara that Tara puts to maintain both the identities sends her son with his father Bish. Tara as partly Indian and partly American makes returns to her father’s place for comfort, the cross of new culture that again raises the finally. In USA, Tara being a Bengali question of her real identity. Thus, immigrant, she feels the grief of her divorce throughout the novel, Bharati Mukherjee and marriage, she says, “When I left Bish depicts the identity crisis of its protagonist after a decade of marriage, it was because the who longs for her new self. promise of life as an American wife was not Reference being fulfilled. I wanted to drive, but where 1. Mukherjee, Bharati. Desirable Daughters. would I go? I wanted to work, but would New Delhi: Rupa. Co., 2004. Print.
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CONTEMPORARY WOMEN WRITERS OF THE MILLENNIUM
Ms.R.Radhika Assistant Professor of English, Guru Nanak College, Chennai
Abstract The women writers today are growing comparatively with the men writers. Through ages the women writers are changing their views, perceptions and lifestyle with the development of science and technology. Today the women writers are increasing in numbers and the freedom of expression is scaling heights. When we compare the ideas of women writers throughout the world, it is found that they have become strong in their expression, ideas and enforcement. Not only in the field of writing but also in every other field they are making a mark. This paper would analyse the freedom of expression of world women writers with that of contemporary Indian Women writers. The paper will also bring out how the women writers today are growing breaking the barriers and at the same time without leaving their culture and tradition. Keywords: women writers, views, perception, expression of ideas, contemporary writers.
Introduction wave of feminism in 1960’s and 1970’s took Literature is indeed the most explicit place for women’s liberation. A common record of the human spirit. A creative writer contemporary issue every country facing is has the perception and analytic mind of a the question of women whether in western or sociologist who provides an exact record of the Indian literary tradition, the women are seen human life, society and social system. as launching themselves for their identity. Literature reflects not only the social reality The new woman today challenges the but also shapes the complex ways in which traditional notions of “Angel in the house” and men and women organize themselves, their sexually voracious image. The ‘new women’ is interpersonal relationships and their essentially a woman of awareness and perception of the socio-cultural reality. consciousness of her low position in the family and society. The feminist literary criticism Women in the Society has developed as a component of the women’s Systematic subject deprivation of women movement and its impact has brought about a has been a fact as much in life as in revolution in literary studies. literature. Women have realized that their Twentieth century feminist social theory prime duty is not merely to please and obey cannot be isolated or understood separately man but also to lead a life of dignity and from feminism as a social movement. In equality. Even great philosophers like general term the concern of the feminist social Aristotle thought women as inferior to man. theory is to understand and explain the He says that the female is female by virtue of subordinate position of women in society with certain lack of qualities. Shakespeare too reference to gender difference, specifically in refers women as “frailty thy name is woman”. terms of a theory of Patriarchy. In Indian Vedic age Manu, the law giver of Hindi Dharma Shastra, clearly assigns Feminism through Decades women a subordinate position to man. Feminist version of equal right doctrines The old conventional notions of male- which had their philosophical origins in dominated society were so rude, unbearably, M.Wollstone Craft’s ‘ A Vindication of the suppressive that women’s discourse take a Rights of Women ‘ in 1792 which attempted to shape of movement. And as a result strong remove various political and social barriers to 70 Bodhi International Journal of Research in Humanities, Arts and Science
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women’s full participation in society. The literature is making attempts at readdressing ‘First Wave’ of Feminism was primarily the age-old imbalance, at creating and concerned with the problem of formal equality reflecting a new- social order which no longer between men and women. The ‘Second Wave’ wishes to downgrade women but rather feminism in America was associated with the considers them autonomous and struggle and conditions of imperialism. The transcendent. key writers in the Second Wave from 1900 – Indian women writer today, have 1970 were Simon de Beauvoir, S.Finestone, undergone a major social change in their G.Greer, Kate Millet and D.Mitchell. There outlook of the society. Today, they live in a seems to be a great transition in the mutual companionship and in an emotional development of the women. understanding life with their peers. Their relationship continues as long as they have mutual trust in their relationships and emotions.
Conclusion People consider ideals as entertainment. They readily accept it in art and literature, but when it comes in real life, they avoid it. Indian Women writers today through their work demand only the acceptance and Now-a-days women have a greater share equality between man-woman. Freedom is our in social responsibilities. They also have nature says Swami Vivekananda. Every infinite number of opportunities open before human being has a soul, that craves for them. Indian novelists have dealt with family freedom and this could be reached only when relationships with high seriousness because our goal becomes freedom. It works to create the traditional heritage of India gives great self-identity and make this world a better importance on family unit. They do not shy place to live in. away from experimenting with any shade of human experience. They have extensively References dealt with the theme of man woman 1. Dass, Veena Noble. Ed. Feminism and relationship which has a great historical, Literature. New Delhi: Prestige Books, sociological and cultural significance. 1995. The Indian society which has been so 2. Dhawan, R.K. Indian Women Novelists conventional and tradition bound could not Set III Vol.4. New Delhi: Prestige Books, remain immune to the new force that has 1995. started slowly influencing it through 3. Suneel, Seema. Man – Woman education and social awareness. This brought Relationships in Indian Fiction. New about a change in the prevalent attitudes and Delhi: Prestige, 1995. beliefs which in turn has favoured a new order in place of the old. The modern
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GENDER-BASED INJUSTICE AND PARENTAL AUTHORITY IN MAHESH DATTANI’S PLAY TARA
P.Revathi Assistant Professor in English, Shri Sakthikailassh Women’s College, Military Road, Ammapet, Salem
Abstract The gender perspective looks at the impact of gender on people's opportunities, social roles and interactions. Successful implementation of the policy, programme and project goals of international and national organizations is directly affected by the impact of gender and, in turn, influences the process of social development. Gender is an integral component of every aspect of the economic, social, daily and private lives of individuals and societies, and of the different roles approved by society to men and women. Mahesh Dattani is a contemporary Indian playwright and his play Tara revolves around the separation of conjoined twins. Gender discrimination is the reason for the separation and the exercise of the parental authority is also observed in the course of the play. The paper focuses on how parental authority and gender discrimination lead to the death of the daughter Tara and decline of Patel’s family. The gender discrimination and parental authority account for the death of the innocent girl, Tara. The paper also looks into the aspect of society playing an invisible role in the separation of the twins. Keywords: Gender difference, Parental authority, Injustice, Society, Separation
Mahesh Dattani is an eminent the Williams, the Patel also very often contemporary Indian playwright who uses his quarreled over the place of woman in a plays to represent the dark evils of the family. society. All his plays make the readers to Tara is a play by Mahesh Dattani which think about the social evils that are dominant encompasses several themes related to social in the society. Tara is not just the story of the evils. This paper focuses on the parental protagonist of the play. It is about the story of authority and gender discrimination that a girl child born in an Indian family. The victimized the children and how gradually the situation gets aggravated and turns worse if family was also led to pain and suffering. the girl is physically or mentally challenged. Parents and their notion of gender led to the It is a better example of child-abuse that is death of their own daughter and it is also the prevalent in a section of the Indian society. reason why Chandan flees to London to Every girl child born in an Indian family does escape the harsh and crude memories that suffer some kind of exploitation and is very burdened him in India. much aware of it as the privileges that are Tara and Chandan are conjoined twins denied to them are consciously or and their separation brings in a lot of chaos unconsciously provided to the son. into the family. Though it is only the mother The play Tara, according to Dattani, and the grandfather who were keen on (introduction to the play) had been inspired separation, the father can also be held by Tennessee William’s play The Glass responsible as he gave in to the decision of his Menagerie, which is based on Tennessee wife. The father and the mother should be the William’s real-life story. Tennessee William’s source of impartiality towards their children. father belonged to a middle class family like Patel and Bharati failed to be in the true Tara’s father Patel. Tennessee William’s sense of the term ‘parenthood’. They made mother belonged to an affluent family of the their children suffer both psychologically and bureaucrats like Mrs. Bharati Patel. Just like physiologically through the operation. Their 72 Bodhi International Journal of Research in Humanities, Arts and Science
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impudent decision over separation and parents have behaved in an unjust manner. preferring Chandan over Tara, not only with Their illusion was disillusioned through the regard to separation but also the post- consequences of the operation. Both the operation concerns that Patel had for children were doomed to suffer because of one Chandan and his education made Tara feel unjust decision. Further speculation of the low and unnoticed by her father. Her life was cause of this prenatal preference is that it is a sacrifice and she was not even aware that deeply rooted in the society. The society has she was making a sacrifice for the sake of her invisible issues and this gender difference brother. The operation went futile as it did within a family space is because of the harbor only pain and suffering. societal expectations of a man to be physically Dattani himself mentions in an interview strong and helpful to the family. The girls with Erin B Mee that his plays deal with the should be the silent sufferers and Tara invisible issues of the society and Tara is becomes a symbol of sacrifice herself. about a life of a girl who “wastes away and The death of the daughter Tara is the dies after coming to know she wasn’t really ultimate result of parental preference of the loved the way she thought she was” ( Mahesh son over the daughter. The parents wanted Dattani 21). Lata Mishra’s “Gender Politics in the son to have a distinct future for himself, Tara” also talks about the gender so the mother preferred to give the third leg discrimination that is meted out to Tara and to Chandan and the father, after operation, how Mahesh Dattani uses the medium of the was so keen on the education of his son. The family to discuss the gender role conflicts that Gender discrimination begins with parental dominate in our society. S.L. Bhyrappa in preference of son over the daughter and “Abiding values in Indian Literature” belittling the importance of daughter. Home, suggests that “Not by proposing solutions to in this play, is a reflection of the society and the immediate problems of his society, but by how parents blindly give in to the notion of transforming the nature of the human being gendered preference. The concept of a girl and does the writer try to cure the ills of society a boy had let to the major destruction of and make his unique contribution to the Patel’s family. Parents have complete betterment of the human authority over their children and they do not conditions”(Bhyrappa 183). Mahesh Dattani give them any reason for their actions and does not give any suggestions or ideas at the decisions. Patel did not want the children to end of his play. He leaves it open to the know about the reason of the separation discretion of his audience. operation because it is a gendered preference In the course of the play, Tara undergoes and the children will not be able to stand it two operations and she eventually dies. Her because it will hurt them so much. death is because of the gender difference that Nevertheless they could not hide it from the the mother saw amongst her children. They children and when they came to know about wanted Chandan to be the beneficiary of the it, Tara and Chandan were shocked and Tara separation. Tara lost her leg that belonged to dies and Chandan flees to London. Mr and her. She was not even aware that the leg Mrs. Patel destined themselves to sorrow and belonged to her neither had they got her misery and they are left only with guilt. The approval for providing her leg to Chandan. parents ruined the lives of their own children This does not mean that Tara would have and they failed miserably as the family is refused to give her leg; she would have given broken beyond repair. it to Chandan without any complains. The 73 Bodhi International Journal of Research in Humanities, Arts and Science
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The play is set in the twenty-first century not be provided with power or any material where gender conflicts still continue to benefits. He used his material power and pervade in the lives of the Indian families. wealth to make the Dr. Thakkar perform the The Gender conflicts and differences begin at operation. The grandfather comes across as a home. The society plays an important person with strong gender notions of invisible role for gender conflicts to begin at preferring men over women. Yet all his home. The male child preference had always actions went futile as both the children ended been a dominant part of the society. up being crippled and Chandan goes to With education and exposure to London after Tara dies and he refuses to come knowledge we tend to believe that the male back to India. The grandfather becomes more child preference does not happen in the like a villain and he had inflicted sufferings educated urban spaces and it is the thing of on his grandchildren through his notion of the past. The male child is always considered suppressing women and denying them to be prominent even till date and Tara holds everything they deserve. this true because of the separation of twins to The preference of Chandan over Tara is a prefer Chandan, the son. gendered preference. The doctors clearly Tara is unique in Indian writing in mentioned that the third leg belongs to the English as the play revolves around the lives daughter and it involves huge risk if the leg of conjoined twins of different sex. The has to be given to Chandan. But they were conjoined twins are usually of the same sex. willing to accept the risk rather than This play gains its prominence because of the providing the leg to Tara to who it belonged. difference in gender of the twins. The Dr. Thakkar also willingly accepted to concealed motive of separation was to favor perform the operation because of his own Chandan. Mahesh Dattani brings into personal benefits. The operation, thus was not limelight the fact that even educated parents considered as the life and future of two in the 21st century have biased notions and children, rather on one hand it was to prefer ideas towards gender. Tara is a byproduct of the son and make him more strong physically such notion. The mother, Bharati victimizes and on the other hand it was a business her own children by her impudent decision where the doctor preferred his own benefits over the surgery. and Tara was not a subject of consideration The family’s ideas and perceptions are and her future was unnoticed by the parents shaped by the society and the family and the doctor. ultimately reflects the society. The The play also features how children are grandfather is absent in the play. Yet his oblivious to the gender discrimination and presence is felt through the dialogues of the how they fall prey to their parents’ decision. other characters in the play. He is a strongly Chandan always considers Tara as an gendered person. He was the one who was integral part of himself and he argues with behind the idea of favoring Chandan. The his father when Patel asks him to go to office invisible society is reflected through the with him leaving Tara behind. When Patel invisible grandfather. The grandfather leaves says that Tara will not accompany them, she all his property to Chandan and there is no looks hurt and Patel immediately says that it share to Tara in his property. This shows that is her wish to accompany them. This shows the grandfather marginalizes women and he how Patel fails to be impartial towards his had strongly believed that women are daughter and Patel is keen about the future of supposed to be under men and they should the son. The daughter stays out of the picture. 74 Bodhi International Journal of Research in Humanities, Arts and Science
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He exercises his control over his son and he her. But he is not ready to go alone. He wants wanted him to work and he insists Chandan his sister to accompany him. Tara and to go to office, whereas Chandan is more Chandan are clueless about the concept of interested in writing stories and Patel fails to gender discrimination and biases and hence recognize the hidden talent of his son. Patel they stand above Mr. and Mrs. Patel. The wanted Chandan to be independent and he generation gap is apparent where Chandan is wants to shape the future of his son. So he not biased towards his sister and he believes exercises the parental authority to make him that both of them are equal. comply with his decision. Patel uses his The fact that the injustice is perpetrated authority over the children to make them by the victim’s own Mother (as most of the what he wants to do. rural Indian women does) whose preference to The irony lies in the fact that the the male child makes the play more poignant daughter has done a great sacrifice but she is and suggests indirectly that it is women, not hardly recognized. The rigid gender difference men who continue the chain of injustice to make devalues the self of Tara. Tara is naïve women right from the moment of their birth. and innocent and her life is more of a sacrifice, an unknown sacrifice. It can be References called an unknown sacrifice because she 1. Dattani, Mahesh. “Tara”. Collected Plays. didn’t know that Chandan will be benefitted New Delhi: Penguin Books India (P) Ltd, out of the operation. The children are pure at 2000. their hearts and they are left with confusions 2. Bhatta, S.Krishna. Indian English and perplexities as they are unable to Drama: A Critical Study. New Delhi: understand their own parents’ motives and Sterling Publishers, 1987. intentions. Patel’s behavior made Tara think 3. Chatterji, Sunitikumar. Indian Drama. that her father hates her. Tara says to New Delhi: Publication division, 1981. Chandan, Tara: You say that because he’s 4. Chandra, Subhash. “The (un) twinkling nice to you….he talks to you more often. Star: Responding to Dattani’s “Tara”. The (Dattani 373) Commonwealth Review, Vol.13, No.2, 60- Tara considers that Chandan is her 92 father’s favorite as most of the times Patel 5. Chaudhuri, Asha Kuthari. Mahesh talks about Chandan going abroad and Dattani: An Introduction. New Delhi: pursuing his career. This shows how the Foundation Books, 2005. gender conflicts and gender differences are 6. Subramanyam, Lakshmi. Muffled Voices: made to be realized by the daughter Women in Modern Indian Theater. New unconsciously. After her kidney Delhi: Har-Anand Publications (P) Ltd., transplantation operation, she even tries 2002. convincing Chandan to go to college without
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AN ABIKU NATIONALISM IN BEN OKRI’S TRILOGY
H.Jameela Beevi Assistant Professor & Head, Department of English, Annai Hajira College for Women, Melapalayam, Tirunelveli
Abstract The aim of this article is to showcase the rueful plight of African nation particularly Nigeria. Here, the Nigerian born African Writer, Ben Okri explores the nation’s condition through the concept of ‘Abiku’. In his novel The Famished Road, Okri introduces Azaro, an ‘abiku’ child of Yourba myth who seesawing between the world of pure dreams and the African slum which is always curbed with poverty and suffering where the children are born to die everyday. This is the authentic condition of postcolonial Africa. In his trilogy, Ben Okri talks about the fertility of the country and also the colonialist’s domination over people. During postcolonialism the condition has changed the people are overlooked by their own people because of the divisions of parties like Party of the Rich and Party of the Poor in politics. In the course of the novel, Okri calls the nation as an “abiku nation, a spirit-child nation” (TFR 567). Just like the abiku child or spirit child, the nation too struggles a lot and faced many problems politically as well as economically even after colonialism. Ben Okri belongs to this Nigerian Slum he intensed to expose the rueful flight of the nation using ‘abiku’ concept. Keywords: Colonialism, Post Colonialism, Abiku, Yoruba belief, abiku child, spirit child, nation, abiku nation, spirit nation.
Introduction “predestined to death”. It is form (abi) “that The birth-pains had returned which possesses” adn (iku) “death”” (web). And another bloody Using ‘abiku’ concept, in his trilogy, Ben Parturition wracked our Okri exposes two ‘abiku’ in his novels and Demented nation both abiku’s are opposite in their nature. As - Ben Okri, A. Political Abiku Nidhi Rana makes a note of it and clearly Ben Okri is one of the foremost African states in his dissertation, writers in the postcolonial and postmodern In the ‘Abiku’ Trilogy, Okri tackles the traditions. His writings mainly deal with historical period when Nigeria was on the social and political issues. Since he published verge of independence facing social and his first novel, Flowers and Shadows (1980), political turmoil, But Okri, with his use of the Okri has risen to an international acclaim, abiku phenomenon, vouches for freedom by and he is described as one of Africa’s leading not remaining locked in a historical writers. His best known work, The Famished framework – He breaks the dilemma between Road, won the Booker Prize in 1991 along past and present and moves beyond the past with Songs of Enchantment and Infinite to project a future for Nigeria. In Famished, Riches make up a trilogy. In his trilogy, Okri Okri portrays two abiku children –Azaro, the describes the life of Azaro, an ‘abiku’ or ‘spirit’ narrator of the novel, and his friend Ade. child. Being an ‘abiku’, Azaro experiences the Azaro and Ade are opposite characters. Ade is social and political turmoil of an African a typical abiku who never wanted to be born nation reminiscent of Okri’s remembrance of and who eventually returns to the world of War torn Nigeria. Ben Okri makes use of this spirits in the second book of this trilogy. (91) ‘abiku’ of Yourba belief to explain the realistic To make the above statement true, there condition of the country. The definition of is a quote discloses “Ade’s unwillingness to Abiku is given in the web as “Abiku is a stay in the earthly life in The Famished Road Yoruba word that can be translated as as, “Ade wanted to leave to become a spirit
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again, free in the captivity of freedom. as ‘Ogbanje’ and Soliman mentions I wanted the liberty of limitations, to have to ‘Ogunyemi’(152) for the same traits. find or create new roads” (559). Okri mentions this ‘abiku’ concept in four And also the following quote will be different angles. As explained earlier both clearer of Ade’s unwillingness, Ade did not Azaro and Ade are ‘abiku’ children with want to say any more, he did not like the opposite characters. Then, Madame Koto is weight of the world, the terror of the earth’s conceived with three abiku children. This can time. Love and the anguish of parents be known through Azaro in Infinite Riches as, touched him only faintly, for beyond their Madame Koto is pregnant with spirit stares and threats and beatings he knew that children” (76). Moreover, Okri creates not his parents’ guardianship was temporary. He only ‘abiku’ characters but ‘abiku’ nation too, always had a greater home. (TFR 557) through Ade the author says in The Famished Like Ade, Azaro is also an ‘abiku’, but Road as, “Our country is a abiku country. being ‘abiku’ not like Ade, he chooses the Like the spirit child, it keeps coming and worldly life. After choosing this worldly life going. One day it will decide to remain. It will Azaro is often disturbed by his spirit become strong”. (547) companions. There is a quote which says that It is proved that the nation is surrounded Azaro’s spirit companions always watched with this ‘abiku’ entity. Mainly the author him. It is proved in the words of spirit talks about Africa and particularly Nigeria. companion itself which says, “You are a Here, the ‘nation’ is compared to ‘Abiku’ and mischievous one. You will cause no end of most probably with children. As per natural trouble. You have to travel many roads before phenomena the child has to grow and develop, you find the river of your destiny. This life of if it is in the case with nation, it should grow yours will be full of riddles. You will be and develop but it does not happen. Okri protected and you will never be alone”(TFR 6). explores it brilliantly mixing the pragmatic Soliman speaks briefly about the Abiku and mythic condition simultaneously in the phenomenon in his article as, The abiku abiku existence. Azaro dad feels that while he phenomenon is quite popular in West African journeys in dreamland. He envisions many oral tradition especially amongst the different things, among them, In his journeys, Dad ethnic groups of Nigeria, particularly the found that all nations are children; it shocked Yorubas, the Igbos and the Ijos. Due to its him that ours too was an abiku nation, a popularity, many Nigerian and other West spirit –child nation, one that keeps being African writers have drawn on this rich reborn and after each birth come blood and cultural resource as a way to express their betrayals, and the child of our will refuses to national identities. (150) stay till we have made propitious sacrifice In the African myth, this ‘abiku’ may and displayed our serious intent to bear the show a terrifying experience. It is said this weight of a unique destiny. (TFR 567) spirit child is recognized by various names As Felicia Moh, in her book, An among different Nigerian ethnic groups. Introduction to his Early Fiction, clearly Soliman notes, “The Yorubas, for example, states, The nation’s history, like Azaro’s use the commonly known word ‘abiku’ which births and deaths has been one of the eternal is literally translated as “one who is born to recurrences, of hopes and betrayals, of failing die”. They use various names for the same and starting again. The Nigerian nation...is ‘abiku’ phenomenon. In the Igbos, it is known one that has the superficial motions of change but never really changes. Nigeria is one of 77 Bodhi International Journal of Research in Humanities, Arts and Science
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those abikus who “do not all have the marks their willingness to “bear the weight of unique of their recurrence. Often they seem normal. destiny” (TFR 567) refers simultaneously to Often they are perceived of as new’. (558) But Nigeria’s destiny, as an abiku figure, and to it has been the same old nation. It is, like the people’s. (80) Azaro, a child that has never grown. Azaro It is understood from the above goes from crisis to crisis because his parents statements that if a character or nation come cannot afford the expensive sacrificial objects around with the ‘abiku’ it undergoes many which will get him cured. The nation, like the problems and sufferings, for an ‘abiku’ abiku, has remained in a precarious state of character ‘Azaro’, his parents do a lot of uncertainty and continual cries because no sacrifices to make him to stay or get back effort has been made at fully addressing and from the world of suffering just like that ‘the solving its problems.(78) nation’ particularly refers to Nigeria and it By describing about the relation of abiku has been facing so many hardships, pain and and nation Okri is always thinking of wretchedness. It is obvious that if people want improving the condition of his nation in his to defend the nation they should come works. Though the African nation is rich in forward and try to erase the scars it has so far her resources, the people are living in poverty. from the colonialism and even after in the Not only poverty but also too many problems postcolonial era, they need to do sacrifice and to solve. make the nation to develop and expect the Kim Sasser’s quotation in his dissertation better future. As Felicia Moh opines the related to Azaro’s links to the nation: similar thought, As with Azaro, the nation’s natal For an Abiku to stay and live his normal affiliation have a profound responsibility life on earth, the parents will need to consult to convince. Quayson comments on this: herbalists and make expensive sacrifices. As Since the abiku is caught in a cyclical web Dad discovered, “the child of our will (nation) of births, deaths and re-births, it fractures refuses to stay till we have made propitious history and problematizes the unity of the sacrifice and displayed our serious intent to materiality of events and their putative bear the weight of a unique destiny” (564) In affective referents. If the country is like the, Azaro’s case, his parents would willingly have the affective statue of its history is thrown made whatever sacrifices required of them, into doubt precisely abiku because it is but they are poor and cannot afford the trapped in a grid of non-progressing motion. sacrificial items. Panic measures are taken When Okri suggests this, however, it is whenever he falls ill which do not not to postulate an ineluctable determinism, satisfactorily solve his problem. But in the but rather to suggest that his country has not case of Nigeria, the people have not done enough to transcend the trauma of “displayed a serious intent to bear, the weight unending underdevelopment or the nausea of of a unique destiny” by addressing once and confusion in its unfocused attempts to escape for all the problems besetting it as a nation. it. (Strategic 132) Rather than tackle the major problems which By characterizing the nation as an abiku threaten the peaceful existence of the nation, – one who would break the cycle and remain if the leaders adopt interim solutions, and so, it could so be convinced – Famished Road the nation continues its rhythmic existence of redirects the burden of responsibility for birth (hope), betrayal and death (bloodshed). Nigeria’s maturation onto the Nigerian people (76) themselves.... the people must demonstrate 78 Bodhi International Journal of Research in Humanities, Arts and Science
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Kim Sasser says about the abiku cycle of in the abiku entity. On the whole, Okri wishes the Nigerian nation. This nation can be called to give an affirmative message of making as abiku and mainly it is compared not with better Africa. ‘Ade’ but with ‘Azaro’, both are ‘abikus’ with contrast characters. Ade foretells that Nigeria References will eventually choose to remain on earth. 1. Okri, Ben The Famished Road. London: Sasser mentions about Soliman’s notes on the Vintage Books, 2003. implications of Nigerians juxtaposition with 2. - -. Songs of Enhancement. London: other abiku figurations: Jonathan Cape. 1993. “[...] Okri sees Nigeria as an abiku child, 3. - -. Infinite Riches. London: Phoenix. 1998. but significantly not an ogbanje, rather a 4. - -. A Time for New Dreams. London: resilient abiku who has taken the tough Rider. 2011. decision to remain alive [...]. The implication 5. Moh, Felicia Oka. An Introduction to His is that Nigeria too can be a resilient abiku but Early Fiction. Nigeria: Fourth Dimensions only if it transcends a history and a present of Publishers, 2001. Print. nothing but conflict” (166). Jean W.Ross 6. O’Connor, Maurice. “An Abiku Narrative”. touches on a similar point when using the The Writings of Benk Okri: Trancending term maturity to discuss the abiku nation: the Local and the National. New Delhi: “By the novel’s end, Azaro recognizes the Prestige. 2008. 67. Print. similarities between the nation and the abiku; 7. Rana Nidhi. “The Theme of Freedom in each is forced to make sacrifices to reach the selected works of Ben Okri”. Diss. maturity and a new state of being” (337). Punjab U, 2011. Print. However, an important nuance needs to be 8. Sasser, Kim. “Magically Strategized supplemented with Ross’s reading because Belonging. Magical Realism as key to Famished Road’s characterization of cosmopolitan mapping in Ben Okri, Nigeria as an abiku is that Nigeria’s Cristina Gracia, and Salman Rushdie.” maturation is not simply contingent upon the Diss. U of Edinburgh 2011.Print. nation’s own tenacity, but also that of the 9. Soliman, Mounira. “From Past to Present Nigerian people. (78-79) and Future: The Regenerative Spirit of Hence, being an abiku child or an abiku the Abiku”. Alif. Journal of comparative nation both are suffering in one way or other. Poetics No.24, Archaeology of Literature: Here, Okri compares the sufferings of a Tracing the Old in the New American nation with a child. If a child suffers the University in Cairo Press. pp 149-171. parents should do some sacrifices to save the JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/4047423 life of the child. Just like that, for a nation the 10. http://en.wikipedia.org> wiki> Abiku people should come forward to defend the 11. http://en.wikipedia.org> wiki> Ben_Okri nation by resisting the negative forces exists
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GENDER DISCRIMINATION IN SHASHI DESHPANDE’S THE DARK HOLDS NO TERROR
S.J.Soumya Guest Lecturer in English, KMSM DB College, Sasthamcotta
Abstract The Dark Holds No Terrors is the story of an educated and economically independent woman who is in search of her identity, which leads her to unearth the hidden strength within her. Sarita (Saru), the protagonist of the novel, is neglected and ignored in favour of her brother Dhruva during her childhood. The illogical and absurd traditions, sardonically followed by women, are impediments on her growth as an individual. Through the character of Saru, Deshpande seems to convey a significant truth that women have the power to control and improve their lives, if they are determined to do so, however, for this they have to break their silence. ‘The Dark Holds No Terror’ is a story of Sarita and her relationship with her parents, husband and the agonizing discrimination she faces throughout her life. It is the story of a marriage on the verge of break down and of a woman who has been made acutely conscious of her childhood. The story counters the prevalent concept that “everything in girl's life is fashioned to a single purpose and that is to please a male” Keywords: Gender discrimination, identity crisis, oppression, womanhood.
Shashi Deshpande's novels reveal the Deshpande makes her female inability of the women to express and the fact protagonists search for ‘self’ to discover their that Positive movement is always the identity. She minutely analyzes the movement towards expression. In Indian unwholesome situation in which a sensitive middle class, traditionally, the role of women woman has to live and move about, caught was only to take care of the household between the powerful currents of tradition activities and to Support the husband in all and patriarchy, of terror, suppression and his work/ decisions etc. She was to bring up gender discrimination. Since time the children in the Right way and to inculcate immemorial, women in India have been the sense of belonging and respect for elders struggling to come out of the shackles of their in them. When Women started to go out of the traditional image in society, which don't allow house to fend for themselves; they realized them freedom. They are in constant search of how they were Capable of changing their own privacy, individuality, love, conjugal and lives if they wanted to. Shashi Deshpande’s domestic harmony in the male dominated themes are based on the lives and problems of middle class family. Saru understands that by women. Her works ardently concentrate on putting up with all her difficulties she was the predicament of women and male actually trying to prove her mother wrong. characters are pushed towards the According to her mother, Saru was never to be background. Her plots and sub plots point happy and Saru didn’t want her mother to towards the status of women in the tradition feel happy that her mother’s preconceived bound, patriarchal middle class society, in notion or curse has come true. Realization which they are trying to come out of the sets in Saru that she is responsible for her shackles of the dilemmas of set norms and own happiness and she was determined not thus attempting to redefine their status. let anyone take away her contentment. She
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decides towards the end that she will not half of the story deals with the Saru’s life as a remain silent. She will raise her voice against wife. Saru is a victim of gender discrimination all the odds, fears and pains of discrimination. as a wife too, she is tortured by the sexual Towards the end of the novel she reaches a extremes of her husband, Manohar, who stage when she decides not to allow herself to thinks that being a male he has all rights to be bogged down by apprehension, treat his wife as he wants. Saru’s disagreement, and refutation or by low self- introspection at her father's home brings esteem. She comes to a conclusion that to home answers to her questions, she reach self-actualization she needs to live in a understands that the problems of her life can conducive atmosphere that is open and be ironed out only by her and for that she flexible. needs to voice her feelings.
Saru’s Early Life and Her Mother’s Discrimination by Mother and Father Attitude towards Her Deshpande successfully rejects the The Dark Holds No Terror is a very stereotyped image of mother and refuses to powerful novel written by Shashi Deshpande use any mawkishly sentimental language to that portrays the life of Sarita (Saru), a lady describe the mother-child relationship. Saru doctor. In the beginning of the novel Saru receives ignorance in favour of her brother, goes to her Father’s house when she gets to Dhruva. Her parents have disproportionate know that her mother is no more. Her love for their son. In family her importance is parental home doesn’t hold any special place negligible. It is revealed through the in her mind; it equally brings back to her the celebration of Dhruva’s birth day. His birth horrible memories of the cruel attitude of her day is celebrated with overwhelming love and mother who didn’t even want to see Saru interest accompanied with religious when she was in her death bed. programme. On the contrary, Saru’s birthday The first half of the Dark Holds No Terror used to remain out of their memory. Things deals with the unkind, vicious and prejudiced become infinitely worse after Dhruva’s death attitude of Saru’s mother. She is a strong when her mother with her characteristic product of patriarchal society who considers Insensitivity blames Saru for his death. Not her daughter response ble for her son's death only gender but also her dark complexion Saru's predicaments date back to her becomes one of the objects of underestimating childhood, when she had to undergo gender and discriminating the girl child. Saru as a discriminaion at home. young girl expresses her wish to stay with her As Simone de Beauvoir observes "One is mother all her life, which her mother denies. not born, but rather becomes a woman. It is Home, a place that is supposed to promote the civilization as a whole that produces this growth of a child, robs the little girl of her creature which is described as feminine". rights and self-respect. Saru’s mother’s attitude is typical of most The mother always kept two different Indian mothers and Saru’s problem is measuring yards, one for the son and other for aggravated when the younger brother the daughter. Sadly for Saru the gender accidentally dies by drowning. This becomes a discrimination starts at home. This difference turning point in her life. Saru’s mother’s in her mother's treatment of her son and obvious preference for her brother, Dhruva, daughter enrages Saru. Being a traditional creates a sense of alienation within Saru thus Hindu woman, the mother considers it her precipitating a sense of insecurity. The second duty to remind her daughter that she is 81 Bodhi International Journal of Research in Humanities, Arts and Science
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grown up and she should behave accordingly. drives her to leave home and obsessively seek It is a mother’s responsibility to see that the success in medical college. When Sarita children especially the daughters behave well. reaches her father’s house he is not warm and When Saru attains menarche, the first welcoming. Moreover, his subconscious self experience of menstruation is horrifying and also considers it treachery to the dead (his painful. Instead of explaining the process to wife) in case he dares welcome his daughter her and putting her at ease, the mother warmly or supports her. Also like a frightens her with the fact that she would traditional Indian father in a patriarchal set bleed for years. She is not permitted to enter up,he is not concerned with the troubles of the kitchen and Puja-room. She is expected to family-members, he enjoys the privilege of sleep on a straw mat. Separate plate and being the master and head of the family tumbler is provided to her, which makes her without actually being involved in the feel like an outcast during those days. Saru problems of the members of the family. Saru wonders why the woman is considered unholy is so badly hurt by the way her husband during the menstruation period. She feels like treats her that she decides to tell her father an unwanted child who is perplexed at her about it. It was a great effort for Saru to very being. The Indian girl-child, unlike most divulge to her father about the kind of of her western counterpart, is puzzled and treatment meted out to her by her husband. panicky at the physical changes taking place She tells her father about her husband who within her body at the time of puberty. She loves cruelty in sex which is fuelled by his feels repugnant and hideous. Time and again insecurity and inferiority complex. It is Saru is made to realize that with physical beyond the understanding of the father who growth, she has become vulnerable to the had always remained reserved and atrocious and ravenous clutches of the society. maintained distance with his wife. A woman’s Time and again she is made to realize feelings were never given importance. Man that being a girl she is different and not as remained cold towards her and kept her at a privileged as a boy clearly indicating gender distance lest she gains importance. Gender differentiation. It takes time for young Saru discrimination is a part and parcel of the to understand she was a female and some world at that time. things are bound to happen. She rebels against her mother "If you're a woman, I don't Discrimination after Marriage want to be one" [P 55] says Saru to her As a consequence of the treatment meted mother. This very sentence spoken by Saru at home and in a bid to search for her tells us the hatred she has for the life of a identity, Saru resolves to be a doctor, hoping woman and the basis of the same is the that a professional career could be the key discrimination meted to women at large that would unlock the door out of the because of the patriarchal system. Saru’s first wretched life at home. Whether it is her public defiance of the patriarchal power profession or marriage, Sarita had to put up system is when she breaks the so called with the opposition of her mother. Her protective barrier of her house and leaves defiance is further expressed, when she home. With a deep seated hurt feeling, she becomes economically independent and says to her mother: “You don’t want me to marries a man of her own choice. She falls in have anything; you don’t want me to do love with a college mate and marries him anything. You don’t even want me to live”(P. against her parent’s wishes. Saru hopes to get 142). Bitterness and hatred for her mother married to go away from this atmosphere at 82 Bodhi International Journal of Research in Humanities, Arts and Science
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home which is not gender sensitive. She looks disparity, sexual division of labor which start forward to the role of a wife with the hope at home and which are deeply rooted in the that it will give her relief from oppression of public and empower themselves. Manu gains the mother, and will give her freedom from the identity of the husband of a renowned this gender discrimination which she was not Doctor, he is not very happy with the steady able to understand or tolerate. Her married rise in Saru’s social status. This rise in her life with Manu had its own ups and downs social status becomes the root cause of and it makes her think that even pleasure is a disturbance between them. Manu fails to fantasy whereas grief seems more real having exercise his male domination over his wife mass and matter. The departure of Saru from hence he tries to play the traditional male her mother is the first step towards dominated role through sexual molestation at autonomy. The social acceptance and night to show his superiority. This is also the recognition she gains as a doctor and the result of the gender discrimination which demands on her time carve a chasm in her prevailed in the society at that period. relationship with Manohar (Manu), her husband. Manu cannot tolerate people Saru’s Resolution to Fight the greeting her and ignoring him. The gender Discrimination discrimination continues even in the It doesn’t take long for Saru to realize professional arena. Saru being a lady doctor is that her coming to her paternal home after preferred by all. She gets respect and her she gets to know about her mother’s death husband can’t digest that. This changes the and to seek refuge from her husband was a loving husband into a sadist. Saru feels futile exercise as she is not welcome there; agradual disappearance of love which she had being a daughter she is expected to be happily once developed for Manu. She starts hating parked with her husband. Towards the end of the man-woman relationship which is based the novel when Saru is informed about on attraction and need, not love: “Love ...how Manu’s arrival to her paternal home to take she scorned the word now. There was no such her back she is disturbed initially as she is thing between man and woman. There was totally upset about her relationship and does only a need which both fought against; not want to face him. After a bit of pondering futilely.... turning into the thing they called over the issue she is able to come to a ‘love’. It’s only a word she thought. Take away conclusion. The moment she realizes the the word, the idea, and the concept will importance of life, she resolves to take charge wither away (p.65). of her life. The realization that Saru gets after Manus sexual overtures hurt the woman nearly a fortnights stay in her father’s house in Saru. She cannot free herself from him as is that it is her life that she is living and she she is a part of the conservative society. has to face all the hurdles herself. She has to Moreover, the next morning after the night’s live for her own happiness by forgetting all ordeal, he used to be the same smiling Manu about the past. “It is my life and I have rights again which Saru is not able to understand or to live in my own way”. She gets the courage digest. As a man Manu had the liberty to to face the Dark, the dark wherein she was treat his wife the way he wanted, even to the subjugated to physical and mental torture by brink of marital rape, but Saru being a her husband, she knows that The Dark Holds woman could not stop his overtures or even No Terrors if she rises to face it. The novel complain about it. The strength of ends with a positive feeling that matured Deshpande's work is her awareness of gender- Saru will do everything possible not to let the 83 Bodhi International Journal of Research in Humanities, Arts and Science
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gender discrimination come in the way of her family can be responsible for their happiness, she will fight it out and make her degradation. Even the educated and life better. economically independent women lack strong willingness and courage to fight against the Conclusion exploitative forces. Saru goes through Shashi Deshpande, through her novels rebellion followed by separation from family tries to put forth familial, economic and social and experiences that define before becoming problems in which the modern middle class empowered women who can balance their role woman is groping. When we take review of very well in the family .Their stand in the the protagonists of Deshpande’s novels, quest family reflects that women expect only love, for identity is their goal emanated from respect from the family but not inferior, experiences in the family. Women are the subjugated or subordinate position in life. victims of patriarchy and oppression displayed by their male counterpart in the References family. Saru is the example of inferior 1. Beauvour, De Simone. The Second Sex. position and subsequent degradation of her Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group, 2011. gender. The novelist exposes various subtle 2. Shashi Despande. The Dark Holds No processes of oppression and gender Terrors. Vikas Publishing House Pvt. Ltd, differentiation operative within the family. 1980. Indian woman has for years been a silent 3. Iyengar, Srinivasa K R. Indian Writing in sufferer. While performing different roles in English. Sterling, 1976. life, she has never been able to claim her own 4. Jain, Jasbir. Anita Desai: Indian English individuality. Women’s weak and submissive Novelists. Sterling, 1982. nature, their love and affection towards
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FANTASY NOVELS OF CHITRA BANERJEE DIVAKARUNI’S THE CONCH BEARER AND JOANNE KATHLEEN ROWLING’S HARRY POTTER AND THE PHILOSOPHER’S STONE: A COMPARATIVE STUDY
Dr.Mrs.T.Chandra Guest Lecturer, PG & Research Department of English, APA Arts College for Women, Palani
Abstract Comparative Literature was established in France during the 19th century. The term ‘Comparative Literature’ was coined by the familiar Victorian poet and literary critic, Matthew Arnold. It is a comparison of one literature with another or other literatures. It frequently deals with the relationship of only two countries, cultures or two authors of different nationalities. Thematology or study of themes is a new entrant in the field of Comparative Literature. It was introduced by American Comparatist, Harry Levin who coined the term ‘the matics’ or ‘thematology. Recently, it has emerged as a significant branch of comparative literature. It involves the study of ‘themes’ and motifs. The ‘theme’ is a recurrent element but it is related to the subject-matter to both form and content. The present paper analyses two different writers Chitra Banerjee Divakaruni and Joanne Kathleen Rowling and their selected works. Both of them are female writers but they belong to different countries and nations. Chitra Divakaruni is an Indian Immigrant writer but Joanne Kathleen Rowling belongs to England. But both of them have written the children fictions. J.K.Rowling was born in 31st July 1965, in Gloucestershire, England and Chitra Banerjee Divakaruni was born in 29th July 1956 in India, and immigrated to the U.S.A in 1976. The children fiction has various themes in which adventure, fantasy, myth retold and biographical background have been dealt by the writers.
Chitra Divakaruni’s sequel novels are The strives with the evil spirits and also the Conch Bearer (2003), The Mirror of Fire and obstacles such as Magic River, Snow Dreaming (2005) and Shadow Land (2011). Mountains and the scarlet snake. Anand faces A small boy Anand’s special skill is to courageously these obstacles and fulfills his communicate with the objects of power and to duty in the silver valley with the help of his develop a unique friendship with the conch. Master Abhaydatta, his friend Nisha and the Anand’s task in Divakaruni’s novels The powerful magical object conch. Conch Bearer, The Mirrior of Fire and J.K.Rowling, the British writer, has Dreaming and Shadow Land is to enter the written Harry Potter, a series of seven other world and retrieve the conch which has fantasy novels. Harry Potter and the power to set things right by its mere presence. Philosopher’s Stone is one of the novels by A small boy also can achieve in his J.K.Rowling. It illustrates how Harry makes ventures in Divakaruni’s novel The Conch close friends and a few enemies at the school Bearer in which Anand sacrifices his personal of witchcraft and wizardy. The evil wizard work and sincerely performs his duty to Lord Voldemort Chamber of Secrets killed retrieve the conch to its rightful place, the Harry’s parents when religions groups when silver valley in the Himalayas. His interest in Harry was one year old. Harry Potter and the magic may the primary reason to do his work Philosopher’s stone has been attacked by successfully with his companion as well as his several religions groups and banned in some friend Nisha. In the meanwhile, Surabhanu countries because of accusations that the treats cruelly Anand and Nisha by creating novels promote witchcraft. Some Christian evil spirits to obtain the conch from them. He commentators have written that the book
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exemplifies important Christian view points, have written that the book exemplifies including the power of self-sacrifice and the important Christian viewpoints, including the ways in which people’s decisions shape their power of self-sacrifice and the ways in which personalities. Harry Potter and the Chamber people’s decisions shape their personalities. of Secrets (1998), Harry Potter and the Similarly in Divakaruni’s The Conch Bearer, Prisoner of Azkaban (1999), Harry Potter and Anand faces dangerous situations to save the the Goblet Fire (2000), Harry Potter and the conch from the evil sorcerer. The magical Order of the Phoniex (2003) , Harry Potter and objects such as conch, pearls, and mirrior are the Deathy Hallows (2007) are Rowlings six small elements and powerful to help the fantasy series novels of Harry Potter. Harry children’s adventures. These magical objects Potter and the Philosopher’s Stone fall within play a vivacious role with the protagonists in the genre of fantasy literature. It also Divakaruni’s sequel novels The Conch Bearer. contains elements of mystery, adventure, The Mirror of Fire and Dreaming and Shadow thriller and romance. Adventure, love, Land. The conch was utilized by the Lord friendship and death are the major issues in Krishna in the Mahabharat to signify its J.K.Rowling’s Harry Potter and the series importance. It is a symbol of Hindu novels. The prominent characters are Harry, mythology. Divakaruni provides joy to her Ron, Lord Voldemort and Dursleys. Harry is young readers when reading such kind of eleven years old in the first novel Harry adventurous stories. Potter and the Philosopher’s Stone. Harry’s Both in Harry Potter and The encounters are the quest to rescue the Philosopher’s Stone and The Conch Bearer, philosopher’s stone. Harry almost expires in the protagonists Harry and Anand are small his quest to preserve the stone. He achieves boys who have struggled to protect their with his friends and defeats evil. magical elements from evil persons. In both Most of the reviews were very favorable, novels, quest for the Conch and quest for the commenting on Rowling’s imagination, stone are the prominent issues focused by the Humour, Simple, direct style and clever plot novelists. Friendship is another major issue construction, although a few complained that in these novels portrayed by the novelists. the final chapters seemed rushed. The writing Similarly, the magical objects inspire the has been compared to that of Jane Austen, protagonists Harry and Anand through their one of Rowling’s favorite authors, or Ronald magical power in which the protagonists in Dahl, whose works dominated children’s these novels. The mirror object is used in both stories before the appearance of Harry Potter, novels Harry Potter and The Philosopher’s and of the Ancient Greek story-teller Homer. Stone and it shows Harry and Anand the way While some commentators thought the book to find the stone and the Conch when the looked backwards to Victorian and Edwardian protagonists miss the stone and the conch. In boarding school stories, others thought it Horry Potter and The Philosopher’s Stone, placed the genre firmly in the modern world Harry is an orphan but, In The Conch Bearer, by featuring contemporary ethical and social Anand has mother in his family. The authors issues. Harry Potter and the Philosopher’s are female writers who have written these Stone, along with the rest of the Harry Potter children fictions. The children Harry Potter series, has been attacked by several religious and Anand are taken to the different world groups and banned in some countries because through the magical Power. Anand in The of accusations that the novels promote Conch Bearer in silver valley meets many witchcraft, but some Christian commentators pupils who are in while graves in Meditative 86 Bodhi International Journal of Research in Humanities, Arts and Science
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school. He finally finds the conch in Silver old lad in The Conch Bearer. These writers Valley. In the same way Harry Potter in have employed magical Realism as a Harry Potter and The Philosopher’s Stone, in narrative strategy in these novels. Magical the schools Great Hall, the new pupils are realism is a juxtaposition of two worlds, the allocated to house by the sorting Hat/ In The magical world and the real world. It was first Conch Bearer, Anand’s Master is Abhaydatta introduced by Franz Rob, German art critic. and he meets many masters in meditation. In Harry Potter and the Philosopher’s stone, References Harry Potter’s professors are Snape, Mc 1. Rowling J.K. Harry Potter and the Gonagall and Quirrell. Philosopher’s Stone. U.K: Bloomsbury This paper finds out that small children Publishing House, 1997. should have adventurous spirit of their own to 2. Divakaruni, Chitra Banerjee. The Conch attempt victory in their tasks. Both of these Bearer New York: Alaadin Paper Back, novels are based on magic and fantasy and 2003. they revolve around the prominent 3. Yusuf S. Comparative Literature Madurai: protagonists Harry in Harry Potter and The Manimekala Publishing House, 2009. Philosopher’s Stone and Anand, twelve year
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DALIT LITERATURE: A HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE
Dr.Sandeep Kumar Sharma Assistant Professor, Department of English, P.U. Constituent College, Dharmkot (Moga) Punjab
In this research paper, I have tried to from the sociological point of view. Dalit highlight the historical perspective of Dalit literature carries the burden of inequality, Literature with minute details. As we know agony and age old injustice. Baburao Bagul that untouchability is one of the greatest evils comments, "Dalit literature is not a literature of Indian society since the inception of the of vengeance as it is not a literature which civilization. In the Manu Smriti, the Hindu's spreads hatred. Dalit Sahitya first promotes law book of social code, one can observe the man's greatness and man's freedom and for tragic picture who were deprived of many this reason, it is a historical necessity" (Bagul rights especially their banning of entry into 53). In the Manu Smriti, the authentic law the temples or reading the Hindu scriptures book of Hindu social and domestic code and as the traditional Indian society was conduct, the untouchables are not permitted brahmanical. That is why the great social to get any knowledge of Vedic literature and reformers of India like Mahatma Gandhi, B. other religious books. Moreover, they have no R. Ambedkar, Tagore and Swami Dayanand right to go to the temples, no freedom to even etc. raised their voice of protest against this listen to the Mantras or the incantation of the age-old injustice and discrimination. But it is Vedas. They are also deprived of the right of painful and distressing that inspite of the best studying Sanskrit which was the language of efforts of these prominent personalities and most of the Hindu scriptures. It also resulted the successive constitutional amendments, the downfall and degrading of this great the traces of untouchability can be still seen language. It is important to mention here that in the Indian society. Caste and class are the sweepers and the scavengers are considered as the two most important considered as untouchables because of the yardsticks of social stratification as they are filthy work they have to do. The so-called closely linked with each other. The term upper caste people believed that a touch by a Dalits encompasses the helpless sections of sweeper or a untouchable would pollute them. India who were made to lead an inhuman and Religion plays a key role in our country sorrowful life; and were deprived of the and Hindu religion emerges as the major fundamental rights by the rigidity of dominating force. The presence of a Dalit was traditional Indian caste system. The Dalits regarded as a bad omen to the Brahmins, the were socially, religiously and culturally so called guardians of morality. The most suppressed and psychologically burdened. ironic thing about the entire issue was that it However, different forms of Dalit literature was these so called untouchables who worked include poems, novels, biographies, short in the land for providing food and other stories and autobiographies have appeared on essential things of life to the Brahmins but the literary scene time to time to highlight the these high caste guardians of morality tried to merits of Dalit literature also. exploit and crush these down-trodden in the It is worth mentioning that Dalit brahminical social structure. Melody literature is created in the social context Lalmungthani observes, "We can see from generally and hence it should be examined reading Dalit literature that spans several
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decades that the sufferings of the Dalits or now degenerated into an instrument of the untouchables is a never ending chain" oppression and intolerance, though it tends to (Lalmungthani 10). perpetuate inequality and develop the spirit It is necessary to understand and clarify of exclusiveness. In this social order, the the meaning of the term 'Dalit'. The word problem came when it developed prejudices Dalit is derived from Sanskrit language which against the lower castes and they were means 'suppressed' or 'crushed' and it refers allotted the jobs which were least desired by to the people who are at the margins of the others, for example, they were required to society because of their low class. It also perform manual labour, maintain public represents those people who are socially, health by removing garbage, human waste economically and historically oppressed; and and excreta, cleaning streets, sewers and dry there is no doubt to mention here that Dalit is latrines. Dalits were considered to be a infact a caste but a separate category of polluted class which was secluded from upper people who are discriminated by the powerful Hindu castes, their religious and social life. sections of the society in one way or the other. Priyamvada Gopal comments, “Dalits were The word 'Dalit' was also used as 'depressed commonly distinguished precisely by their class' and it was due to the remarkable invisibility and ritually enforced physical contribution by Dr. B. R. Ambedkar that the segregation from other members of the term got a new identity as 'untouchable'. It society” (Gopal 50). It means that they were also includes classes like landless labour, not permitted to go to schools, temples and minorities and all others who are poor, other public places and this discriminating hapless and defenseless. Literature written by treatment checked their progress, harmonious the members of Dalit communities or the development and human rights. literature which presents a graphic account of In the 20th century, the term Dalit the social, political, religious and cultural literature came into existence in 1958 when aspects of these communities is called Dalit the first conference of Maharashtra Dalit literature and this literature is based on the Literature Society was organised where Dr. B. spreading the ideas of justice, social equality R. Ambedkar who is popularly known as the and justice to the downtrodden and have-nots. father of Dalit Movement outrightly rejected It is important to understand that it is the the notion that caste system is God made and literature which promotes brotherhood, for the upliftment of the poor and the human dignity and it is the literature which downtrodden, he, along with Jyotiba Phule destroys all the social hierarchies which refer started a political campaign so that the Dalits to all kinds of discrimination in the society. may get a respectable status in the society. In Sharankumar Limbale remarks: this context, the remarks of Arjun Dangle are The aim of Dalit Literature is to protest noteworthy, "Dalit literature is not simply a against the established system which is based literature, it is associated with a movement to on injustice and to expose the evil and bring about change, It represents the hopes hypocrisy of the higher castes. and ambitions of a new society and new There is an urgent need to create a people" (Dangle 266). The hopes and separate aesthetics for Dalit literature, an aspirations of the exploited class, the aesthetics based on the real experiences of exploitation of Dalit women by the high class life. (Limbale 29) men and the problem of untouchability are Actually, the system of caste is the the major issues of Dalit literature. The main outcome of tolerance and trust. Though it has aim of Dalit writers is to highlight the evils of 89 Bodhi International Journal of Research in Humanities, Arts and Science
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Indian caste system and the Dalit writers faithful documents on the contemporary social have expressed in their writings what they set up as it presents a real picture of the rural see or feel in the social set up. Great Marathi India. He is a lover of mankind and his novels writer Baburao Bagul and Namdeo Dhasal reflect his responsibility towards society, contributed significantly to take Dalit especially those who are marginalized, writings to the pinnacles of glory. oppressed, and the subalterns who suffer at In Gujarati literature, the Dalit literary the hands of the colonial masters, and the so trend has started around 1975 which reached called representatives of the upper class of the to its peak during 1980 and the contribution traditional Hindu society. His faithful account of Harish Mangalam, Raju Solanki and and realistic portrayal of the prevailing Dalapat Chauhan to Gujarati Dalit literature orthodox Hinduism are quite valuable in is praiseworthy. It is worthy to mention that bringing a positive change in the society. To in Gujarati literature, the Dalit poetry came Mulk Raj Anand, casteism is an age-old lie from non-Dalit poets first like Umashankar made by the powerful and wicked in society to Joshi and Karsandas Manek. Similarly the uphold discrimination. His prime concern as a non-Dalit writers also raised their voice to the social critic is to remove caste system as it sufferings of the have-nots in their works damages social cohesion by giving certain which gave impetus to the Dalit writers of sections of society an unfair advantage over Gujrati literature who are committed for others permanently. Casteism is a hydra- social awakening and ready to root out the headed evil, contagious like small pox and it evil of untouchability from the society. The poisons and destroys the dignity of man. The traumatic situations of untouchability have issues that surfaced in Untouchable are caste, been dealt with great fury by these writers in gender, class exploitation and religious their works and their poems were published discrimination. Anand himself believes that in leading Gujarati periodicals. Raju Solanki's in India, caste system is a powerful one that poem 'Mashal' is a masterpiece in Gujrati gave privileges to a few people according to Dalit poetry in which he hit at the root of the their 'superior' religious order and identity. problem with great realism. There are many Untouchable manifestly portrays this trend of other great poets in Gujrati literature who the national movement by using the Dalits as have written many excellent poems as these a vehicle for political, social and religious Dalit poets have used their personal reform. In this way, the novel represents the experiences of injustice and discrimination in nationalistic history of the country and has an writing poems which make them the immense impact on both the National mouthpiece of humanity. These poets of Movement and the Indian English literature. Gujarati literature present the various His works are interspersed with Indian aspects of Dalit life with the smallest detail moral values, the evil forces which dominate and their incalculable service to the Gujarati the society, his humanitarian attitude and Dalit poetry cannot be underestimated. deep sympathy for the poor, wretched and the It will be totally unfair if we do not down-trodden people. Saros Cowasjee holds mention the name of Mulk Raj Anand who that Anand “in his narratives presented a lot occupies a commanding and distinctive place of new people, who had rarely entered the in Indian English literature and his novels sphere of literature” (Cowasjee 40). like Untouchable, Coolie, Two Leaves and a Arundhati Roy is an Indian novelist, Bud gave him the honour as a crusader social campaigner, cultural critic and a against social exploitation. His novels are popular political figure who has been fighting 90 Bodhi International Journal of Research in Humanities, Arts and Science
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a non-violent war through words and protest and thus it has established as a new form of against violence done to the human beings all literature which is not considered inferior to over the world. Her Booker Prize winning the main stream literature. Poetry, music, novel The God of Small Things deals with the drama and painting reveal the aesthetic horrors of the caste system in India and how richness of Dalit literature and there is no forbidden love in the caste system is treated exaggeration to state that Dalit literature has and how women in general are marginalized achieved the status of a new genre in the and oppressed. The novel is a faithful account current times. The writers of Dalit literature of the sorrows and sufferings of a Dalit, have rendered incalculable contribution and it Velutha who becomes a helpless victim of is because of their sincere efforts that now the hatred, injustice and brutality. Amitabh Roy term Dalit has undergone a sea change in its aptly remarks, “The God of Small Things meaning and scope. explores the caste system, gender difference and police-politician relations that have References existence in the country even after virtually 1. Bagul, Baburao. "Dalit Sahitya: Man's six decades of independence. The novel Greatness, Man's Freedom". Asmitadarsh discloses the cavernous gap between the Vol. 1. (1973): 56-57. Print touchables and the untouchables, the 2. Dangle, Arjun. Poisoned Bread, exploiters and the exploited, and the powerful Translations from Modern Marathi Dalit and the powerless” (Roy 22). Literature. Mumbai: Now I arrive at the conclusion that there 3. Orient Longsman, 1992. Print. is no doubt that Dalit literature in India over 4. Gopal, Priyamvada. The Indian English the past many decades has emerged as a Novel: Nation, History and Narration. separate and significant category of literature New York: in the different Indian languages. This 5. Oxford University Press, 2009. Print. literature has given a new voice, new rise and 6. Lalmungthani, Melody. "From oppression new position to those particular people who to liberation through education" Critical are subject to ceaseless discrimination and Essays on inequality due to the hierarchical social 7. Dalit Literature" Ed. D. Murali Manohar. milieu. In many ways, it is a protest literature New Delhi: Atlantic, 2013. Print. which faithfully presents the realities of Dalit 8. Limbale, Sharankumar. Towards an situation and becomes a significant weapon to Aesthetic of Dalit Literature. trans. C.B. strengthen the Dalit movement. The impact of Bharti. New Delhi: Orient Dalit writings have got the attention of many Blackswan, 2004. Print. literary associations to grant him the status 9. Roy, Amitabh. The God of Small Things: of a separate category of literature and it is a A Novel of Social Commitment. New matter of great pride of honour that in recent Delhi: Atlantic Publishers, 2005. times, almost all the universities of India Print. have given a special place to Dalit writings
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THEME OF MARGINALIZATION IN MAHASWETA DEVI’S CHINTA IN THE OUTCAST: FOUR STORIES
S.Sukanya Lakshmi M.Phil. Scholar, Department of English, SCSVMV University
Ms.P.Bindhu Assistant Professor of English, SCSVMV University, Enathur, Kanchipuram
Abstract This paper explores marginalization of young widow who is physically and financially suppressed by her community members. Chinta belongs to high class society. Chinta is one of the collections in the Outcast: Four Stories. Outcast contains four stories such as Dhouli, Shanichari, Joshmina and Chinta. Mahasweta Devi is a prolific writer in the Bengali language she started her career as a writer at her young age. Mahasweta Devi has won many awards such as Padma Shri Padma Vhibushan . This story is originally written in Bengali language by Mahasweta Devi and translated into English by Sharmitha Dutta Gupta. Chinta is a young widow who runs her life in such difficulty. In order to overcome such situations she sells utensils, at last, poverty leads her to sell her own daughter. In between these circumstances, she eventually falls in love with someone whom she trusted a lot. This paper analyses Chinta as a mother and also as a woman these two parts are very powerful role of Chinta. Though China belongs to the upper caste, she encounters gender discrimination and exploitation. Keywords: Physically, financially, suppressed, poverty, circumstances,
Mahasweta Devi was born on January 14, translated into various languages such as 1926 in Dhaka. She is a Bengali writer in English. various genres such as novelist, short story Devi is the recipient of various acclaimed writer, playwright, essayist, columnist, editor awards and honours from the Government of and above all she is also a Socio-cultural India, they are, Padmashri award for her activist and rented her service to various poor contribution in social work towards tribal people and rural people in India especially in people in Orissa and Bihar, and she is also North India. She was born to her literary honoured with Jnanpith award in 1996. She parents, her father Manish Ghatak a won prestigious award Magsaysay award in remarkable Bengali poet and novelist, her 1997. As a writer, she voices of the people who mother Dharitri Devi, a notable writer and lead their life in much difficulty, who social worker. Devi had her early education in struggles with poverty, sexual violence, Midnapore and Calcutta. She completed her gender discrimination and caste conflict. graduation in 1946 in Santiniketan. Devi was Davis works dealing with these themes. influenced by her parents, and by Gananatya Poverty is one of the major themes in her it is an association in 1930s to 1940. It is a works such Breast Giver in Breast Stories. group that accomplishes to bring social and Poverty is cursed upon the subordinate people political threat to rural villages in Bengali by the high class society. India is known for village. Devi has written many stories, its wealth in those days, but there was a time including novel and short stories, some of the when Gahji Muhammad invaded India for the collection of stories are, Outcast: Four stories, 17 times he looted many treasures from our Breast Stories, Bitter Soil, The Book of the motherland. After that people's mind changed Hunter, Old Woman. Davis works have been
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so they started letting many treasure from poverty through her characterization and how poor people so these people remain poor itself. these people suffer for even 10 rupees. Ten Sexual violence is one of the other major rupees is a merger amount, but these people themes in her stories such as Shanichari, and even mortgage their belonging for their in Outcast: Four Stories. Sexual violence is poverty. A few days later she joins in a job the cruelest treatment upon women; a man then she becomes weak, she is being taken who is not satisfied in their married life care by some people who show much concern indulges in such activities. Jayanta towards her. They give old sari, torn cloth and Mahapatra’s poem Hunger deals with such a stale piece of breads; she thinks she has sexual violence, here poet talks about sexual someone to think about her. “Poor people like hunger. Marginalization is another theme in us are killed off in many ways. Of course, I Devi’s short stories Chinta in Outcast: Four didn’t need to learn this from Chinta” ( 88 ) Stories. Gender discrimination and Caste One fine morning Chinta’s village people conflict are the major causes of many come and talk to her as she commits crime. problems in India. In literature world, Chinta starts to narrate her sad story majority of story deals with gender that she is a widow. when her husband dies discrimination and caste conflict. she has a boy named Gopal she also has one Widow in Indian society is not much third of land, two rooms and goats, and cow. respected by other people. When a woman Since she is a widow her in laws starts to becomes a widow, she is not allow to wear claim the custody of the land “ You ‘re a young colour sarees, flowers, no respect form society. widow. Give us custody of your land’ I didn’t Chinta loses all these thing in the name of agree. They turned against me. It was a society’s norms. She is exploited by the terrible time, Ma. I was so young then – men landlords and money lenders. Mahasweta began to prowl around my house after dark.” Devi is recognized for her work among the (90) dispossessed tribal communities. She had Ustab is another minor character in this been writing about the struggle against story, who ruins the life of Chinta. Ustab is a exploitation, cruelty of landlords and money wicked person in this story. In the beginning lenders, and injustices and indignities caused she refuses to accept the relationship with by the police to the tribals about the problem him but later she is attracted by him. He of marginalization. (Vijaya, B, 23). shows a fake love towards her children but Chinta is the last story in Outcast: Four she believes that it is a pure love. Ustab Stories. Chinta is the protagonist of this story. sometimes offers sweet to her children. As a She is a fair, short and widow and she is a wife Chinta is failed in her married life. maid who earns eight rupees per month. Marriages are made in heaven. But this Chinta, though she is a mother of two saying proves to be wrong in her life. When a daughters and she bears one more child; she woman is married she has many dreams to finds very difficult to take care of the family pursue in her life. She accomplished only as well as her children. As a mother the needs motherhood, in her life. All other part in her of the children are always larger. It doesn’t life she is left alone to face many obstacles in depend upon whether they are rich or poor. this incredible world. As a woman she is not It’s purely depends upon the heart. respected in this society that to she is a Chinta once lost her job, she even struggles to widow. Though she possesses a land she is get food, she mortgages her silver bangle for slave for his in laws. When woman becomes 10 rupees. Devi’s highlights the effect of motherhood she will be much happy but when 93 Bodhi International Journal of Research in Humanities, Arts and Science
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her husband dies her life is thrown as dust, As a woman, she is cursed by god when she leads her life in darkness, suffering, her husband died she is marginalized by other frustration, and emptiness. She realizes this man in the society. The poverty forced her to is life. Chinta as a woman she borrowed two sell her own daughter for rupees eight and rupees from a narrator this shows that she ten. As a wife she is not fulfilled in her leads in much poverty. marriage life. As a mother she struggles hard Gopal is grown up boy he is ready for to bring her childrens. Human beings must marriage Chinta has to perform the rituals learn to support when other human needs inorder to get rid of the sin. Chinta needs 200 help. rupees as a penalty to perform the rituals, in To conclude, Mahasweta Devi’s voice for the amount she gives gala feast to the village voiceless people, devi uses myth in her stories people. Chinta borrows two rupees from the to bring hidden reality which is suffered by narrator to buy some sweets for her uncle-in- tribal people and poor people. Man should law, Chinta says these people will not eat food avoid violence against another human being. which is cooked by her. “Problems are solved not by gods but by human beings. In the References twentieth century, many things that happen 1. Devi, Mahasweta . Outcast: Four Stories. around us are not in the least innocuous. And Trans. Sarmistha Dutta Gupta. Calcutta: they have been happening for years.” (92). At Seagull, 2002. Print. last the poverty forced her to sell her own 2. Vijaya. B. Fiction of Mahasweta Devi: daughter. A Study of Class, Caste, & Gender. New Delhi: Prestige Books, 2014. Print.
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RACISM AND SEXUALITY – A BRIDGE TO SUFFERING IN JAMES BALDWIN’S JUST ABOVE MY HEAD
Ms.M.Christina Susan Assistant Professor, Department of English, N.M.S.Sermathai Vasan College for Women, Madurai
Abstract The sexual question and the racial question have always been entwined - James Baldwin (1989, 178) By examining the suffering and by extension the trauma that are experienced in James Baldwin’s Just Above My Head (1979), I argue that the expression of psychological and emotional pain in the narrative not only draw attention to the suffering individual, but more importantly, accents the various ways that Black people have responded to systematic and normalized dehumanization. Through the encounters with their wounding, some characters are completely destroyed and alienated by their suffering while others transform their pain into something positive. On the other hand, I glean from Baldwin’s text a philosophy that black suffering is multiple and can be debilitating but can only be transcended when those experiences are shared with others who are suffering under and near the margins of that society. Thus, I argue that the task at hand in this writer’s work is more than an assertion and exposition of suffering and trauma, but a dialectical confrontation with what it means to be a human being whose fundamental humanity is called into question by a racist and sexist society.
The work of James Baldwin—from his Inherent in much of James Baldwin’s short fiction, novels, essays, and public fiction one finds characters who experience speaking—spans a crucial period of American “suffering upon suffering.” In essence, as history. Baldwin literarily shaped, and was Dorothy H. Lee observes, Baldwin’s shaped by, the political vicissitudes of the characters are defined by their capacity to mid-twentieth century. Baldwin used his endure both their own pain and that of others. various forms of language to grapple with a The ability to “endure” the catastrophic tumultuous world, to harness the chaos of narratives and personal catastrophe race, sexuality, nationality, and class. His life illuminates the extent to which black writers as well as his literature—although the two have relied upon the Black Christian were very much intertwined—pay testament tradition and its emphasis on redemptive to “the divided mind of James Baldwin” while suffering. Usually through some encounter also speaking to, about, and from the world. with God or the recognition of one’s innate Baldwin inhabits his novels in ways that humanity in the midst of one’s suffering, transcend himself, his corporeality. As Baldwin’s characters are “saved” from the Baldwin himself says about Just Above My destruction that systematic oppression can Head (JAMH), “that book is not directly cause. Julia’s innate human worth is affirmed autobiographical at all, but it is by her mother who is also on her deathbed. autobiographical on a much deeper level.” His She is reminded that she too is capable of own narratives speak a kind of serving others. Her humanity is autobiographical truth that is much more acknowledged by the capacity to enhance the than mere enumeration of his own history life of others. In other instances, extreme and personality; rather, it speaks himself “on suffering cannot be transformed; it crushes a much deeper level.” the mind, body, and soul. The weight of that
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suffering, however forceful or forgiving, can that Arthur is Hall Montana’s younger destroy the individual. brother. What we hear when we lean closer Just Above My Head, Baldwin’s fifth and are the erasures, the anxieties, the conditions least notable novel wrestles with similar that produce the (rhetorical) situation. themes that are prominent in Toni Morrison’s Arthur’s humanity is bound up and The Bluest Eye. Arthur Montana (the simultaneously unraveled by Hall’s textual protagonist) is unable to escape out of the narration. Whoever Arthur Montana was, and religious, racial, familial, and sexual wanted to be, he was “nobody’s faggot” (JAMH alienation that he feels and internalizes, and 30). Here, Baldwin uses his truth-telling thus dies alone. Julia experience considerable narrative by placing Arthur in the context of suffering, but she survives. In the end, her his past and searching out all that reveals suffering is redemptive. him to be fully human. “Nobody’s faggot”--- From the outset of the text, we “hear” words that redouble itself as historicity and Hall Montana-the narrator, tell his the story facticity. Homo Sum. I am a human being. So of his now dead homosexual brother, Arthur. those words suggest that to be human is not Unable to mourn his brother’s death or talk to be anybody’s “faggot”. Arthur Montana died about him for two years, Hall confesses that in that London Pub from heartbreak. He, like he did not cry: “Nothing came out of me, not his mother, knew that his identity as a gay even water” (JAMH 7). Admitting his mean- black man was the reason that “the church, spiritedness, absence, and his failure to listen when they turned against him, became to Arthur, Hall Montana is found at the directly responsible for his death” (8). beginning of the novel urging his brother, who Simultaneously, Hall Montana tries to has been silenced by death to “Speak. Speak. wrestle with the “truth” of his brother’s life— Speak” (JAMH 6). Against the irrevocable a truth that teeters on the edge of adopting an silence of the universe, Arthur Montana. Hall overly idealistic and celebratory tone, to a cries out: narrative that threatens to undermine Oh, my God my God my God my God my Arthur’s experiences and sexual identity: God, oh my God my God my God I knew all your fucking little ways, man, oh no no no, my God my God my God my and how you jived the people God, forsake me if you will and I —but that’s not really true, you didn’t don’t give a shit but give me back my really jive the people, you sang, brother, my God my God my God my you sang, and if there was any jiving God my God! (7) done, the people jived you, my Attempting to “revisit, respeak, and brother, because they didn’t know that reconcile Arthur’s story” (Clark 49-50), Hall they were the song and the price Montana has begun the process of of the song and the glory of the song: you reconciliation, confessing and witnessing, sang. (JAMH 7) calling and responding. As Keith Clark Whatever the fuck your uncle was, and he further argues, the above passage speaks was a whole lot of things....(JAMH 35). As volumes about the importance of Arthur’s expressed above, narratives that tend to place narrative (57). That Hall is able to narrate his the character in the context of their past most brother’s life—is symptomatic of a larger likely reflects a positive outlook on that society who subjugates and relegates the individual’s humanity than on narratives that black gay character to a distorted desert the past for a shift to the characters heterosexual narrative. It does not matter and events in the present (Allen, 42). Judith 96 Bodhi International Journal of Research in Humanities, Arts and Science
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Butler sums up this idea when she wrote, “the Jimmy’s comments suggest that Arthur’s past is irrecoverable and the past is not past; death was deeply rooted in the narratives the past is the resource for the future and the that were being constructed around their future is the redemption of the past...”. The sexuality. Specifically, it was the black faith narration of Arthur’s tragic death in the community whom Arthur tried to serve London pub suggest that the denial of his full through his music that condemned and denied humanity—his homosexuality coupled with his full humanity. All the “moral shit” helped his conflicting career as a gospel singer Arthur to see that what the world called resulted in the tragic details of his death: morality was “nothing but the dream of “The damn’d blood burst, first through his safety. That’s how the world gets to be so nostrils, then pounded through the veins fucking moral” (p. 588). The morality that in his turns Arthur away from the larger world, neck, the scarlet torrent exploded through results in his retreating to himself in which his mouth, it reached his eyes and blinded he never recovers. Reflecting upon Arthur’s him, stay in Paris, Hall says, “[Arthur] rather and brought Arthur down, down, down, regrets his solitude, and wishes he had down, down” (JAMH 13). someone to eat with, someone with whom to The passage fixes Arthur Montana’s life share the city. He wishes that I were there, as succumbing to the pressures of society. but he needs someone else more than he More importantly, the narrative about needs me, he needs a friend” (459). Arthur Arthur’s death can only be told through the cannot confide in a brother nor a family who mouth of which Keith Clark calls “the straight does not know or understand what it is to be a brother/narrator” (57). Speaking further to black gay man in America. this point, Clark concludes that “Hall’s hetero Hall in his mourning and moaning is normative text blots out Arthur’s homosocial alone with no one to “hear” him out, save a and homosexual text…Hall leads us to silent God who has seemingly abandoned him. Arthur’s story but leaves the interiors of As it is, Hall Montana is mourning the Arthurs sexual life largely unexamined” (58- loss of his brother. In his cry of grief, Hall 59). Montana is willing to forego his faith in Near the end of the novel, Baldwin shifts exchange for his brother’s life. In classic blues the narrative authority of Arthur’s life to his fashion, Baldwin reverses and revises the lover/partner—Jimmy. Recounting a rumor Christian scriptures in which God promises to that a story, condemning Arthur because of never “leave you or forsake you”. German his relationship with Jimmy would be Liberation Theologian, Dorothee Soelle (1975) released, Jimmy speaks of this to Hall after maintains, Arthur’s death: “The scream of suffering contains all the Even when people started talking about despair of which a person is capable, and in us, the way they did, you remember, this sense every scream is a scream for God. I really did not give a shit. I was hurt. But All extreme suffering evokes the experience of I will tell Great God Almighty, baby: being forsaken by God. In the depth of I was in love with your brother. It’s only suffering people see themselves as abandoned since he left us, and I’ve been alone and forsaken by everyone” (p. 85). and so unhappy, that all the other moral In a prayer-like fashion, Hall cries out to shit, what the world calls moral, started what Soelle calls, the “mute God.” God is fucking with my mind.” (JAMH 588) rendered mute not because he has not 97 Bodhi International Journal of Research in Humanities, Arts and Science
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answered Hall’s request, but because hall has hurt you if they can’t get close to you” (453). resigned himself to his fate (“forsake me if you To protect himself from hurt and will”). He expects this God to not answer his suffering, Arthur feels that he must remain request to bring his brother back to life. He distant, alone, isolated. I argue that in knows that is an unreasonable request. In particular it is the weight of suffering that this instance, death silences Arthur, Hall, and draws him in and towards himself. As much God. as Hall wishes to help Arthur in his retreat Arthurs “tragic flaw” is not his “inability from this vicious world that causes suffering to reconcile his homosexuality with his for him, Hall admits: “I had my father to turn ‘calling’ as a gospel singer” (Carson, 2000, p. to, but Arthur had only me, and I was not 226); He is unable to ward off and bear the enough” (94). weight of the existential realities and Without question, Hall is a brother who is identities of his life. For him, the suffering concerned about Arthur’s physical well-being that he experiences arises as a result of the as he is about his professional career as a eyes of hatred that are directed towards him gospel-singer. According to Lynn Scott, “Hall and he feels violated, stripped naked, spat on. had been Arthur’s protector and promoter. At Arthur is meanwhile condemned to his fate by the same time Hall received a sense of the internalization of the world’s debasement, vicarious pleasure in Arthur’s [singing], there but more importantly by the inability to was a limit to what he wished to know of his negotiate the life that he leads. Arthur brother’s private life, of the suffering that Montana’s “blues” are confined to an inner life produced the song” (2002, 132). Music, as as opposed to a public articulation of that raw Paul Montana informs the reader, “don’t discourse in which one is able be purged begin like a song:” through such a ritual. Music can get to be a song, but it starts Arthur’s initial confrontation with human with a cry. That’s all. It might be the cry of a suffering occurs when he, Hall, and his piano newborn baby, or the sound of a hog being accompanist “Peanut” go down South to join slaughtered, or a man when they put the in the freedom rallies. As they are walking knife to his balls. And that sound is down an Atlanta street, the group is everywhere. People spend their whole lives confronted by a group of men who ask, “Why trying to drown out that sound. (95) don’t you northern niggers stay up North?” Hall’s conventional life allows him to (434). A fight ensues and Arthur is left with a escape the dangers and intensity of Arthur’s split upper lip. However, Arthur still manages life. Hall is not required to see the reality that to sing at the freedom rally near a church. eventually destroys his brother. As famous as After the rally is over, Peanut manages to he is, Arthur cannot live a quiet and slip out to the church’s outhouse and never conventional life. Secondly, his homosexual returns. A search ensues, but as Hall notes, lifestyle coupled with his life as a public “We put ads in papers, we ransacked Georgia; figure gives him reason to fear those who but we never saw Peanut again” (452). Soon oppose him. Even though Hall senses Arthur’s after Peanut’s disappearance, and under the loneliness and this connection to Arthur’s presumption that he had been killed, Arthur fears about being judged harshly by others, he begins singing abroad. While he is away, thinks it is enough to wait for Arthur to Arthur sends a postcard to his brother Hall. reveal his insecurities and anxieties: “I knew He says: “It’s lonely…out here…but maybe what Arthur was worried about, and I wish I that’s the best way for it to be. Can’t nobody could talk to him about it. I wanted to say, 98 Bodhi International Journal of Research in Humanities, Arts and Science
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Dig it, man, whatever your life is, it’s perfectly “called” to preach the Gospel. Unlike her all right with me. I just want you to be happy. “jealous” brother Jimmy, she is a child Can you dig that? But that’s a little hard superstar. Lynn Scott argues that Julia’s to say, if your brother hasn’t give you an conversion to the Christian fundamentalist opening. […]. Arthur was worried about church is both her flawed quest for acceptance another man’s judgment; in this case, mine” by her family and the white dominant (379-80). Hall’s silence, according to Scott, “is establishment that equates her blackness related to his discomfort with his brother’s with ugliness and sinfulness. On her homosexuality. Hall’s discomfort exists deathbed, her mother realizes and articulates inspite of, or perhaps because of, Hall’s the falsehood of Julia’s ministry: “The Lord intense adoration of and devotion to Arthur” ain’t pleased with you. He going to make [you (2002, 135). and your father] to know it. How come you In cases of suffering and trauma, the think you can fool the Lord? You might done ability to communicate with others is had me fooled. But I wanted to be fooled! How essential for any type of “working through” come you think the Lord don’t see? When I devastation. No matter what form it takes, see” (p. 167)! Obeying her mother’s command, language is the very bedrock of liberation. Julia soon steps away from the pulpit. Soelle (1975) further concludes: “To become Eleanor Traylor notes that when Julia steps speechless, to be totally without any away from the pulpit, she begins a “slow relationship that is death” (76). As Arthur’s recreation of herself” (1988, 220). After she fame increases, he becomes extremely isolated had decided to permanently step away from from Jimmy, his lover. This move further the ministry, her father, Joel, demands that from Jimmy reveals that the nature of she go back to work because he had “churches Arthur’s suffering is more internal and lined up for more than a year” (172)! Finally private. admitting that she no longer believes, the While on the surface, it may appear that following conversation with her father takes Arthur’s death is caused by his excessive place: consumption of too much drugs and alcohol. ‘Daddy,’ she said, ‘I’m through with A closer look reveals the true horrors that preaching. The Holy Ghost has left me. Arthur endured and bore witness to. An I just don’t believe…I don’t believe- - explosion took place inside the basement of I don’t believe.’ And she stared at her father. the London pub. It was an explosion within ‘You said you were called to preach—you said himself; an attempt to reconcile the “blues” of God called you to preach. You don’t believe— his life, with the irrevocable silence of the you made us believe!’ ‘I did believe! I did! But world in which he lived and breathed. Arthur now’[…] ‘ What you mean you don’t believe no could not fully express the depths of his more? Don’t you believe in me?’ ‘I did it for humanity; his human worth, and he was you’ [.] (147) destroyed by it. Shortly after Julia’s mother death, her Unlike many of the other characters father, Joel, rapes his fourteen-year-old throughout the novel, Julia does not suffer daughter because she refuses to return to the from feeling inferior, or of feeling the world’s pulpit to support him. The reason that Julia judgment of her. In fact, Julia, as Francine had become a child preacher was to gain the Allen contends, feels superior as a child love of her parents and to keep them together. preacher (2006, 79). She feels divinely In fact, both of her parents depend on her for inspired. As a seven-year-old, Julia had been emotional, financial, and spiritual support. 99 Bodhi International Journal of Research in Humanities, Arts and Science
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Paul Montana, sensing the danger of be your Pillow? And I say to him, in my placing such a duty and power in the hand of dream, No, they’ll find out what’s up the road, a child says, “You both scared of that child. ain’t nothing up the road but us, man, and And you both done let something happen to then I wake up and my pillow is wet with that child- -that ain’t supposed to happen to a tears. (500) child” (127). Joel confronts Julia, reminding Like Baldwin himself, Hall Montana her that “You all I got.” Julia becomes knew that man must be his own savior. If it is resentful of her father for depending on her as man that one will encounter daily, it is man the sole provider: “If I’m all you got, you in a that must struggle together in the pursuit of mighty sorry condition. I ain’t got nothing”, human liberation. Not only does this scenario she said (238). Despite the frequent abuse by illuminate the tensions between faith claims her father, Julia does not turn in on herself or and the possibility of God’s non-existence, but believe that she is innately inferior. In fact, it hints at an alternative philosophy of Julia rejects her father’s assessment of her as existence-black existential humanism. worthless. In his drunken rages, he is Hall Montana realizes, even in his dream, especially dependent on Julia as an emotional that ethics for the (black) humanist looks stabilizer. different. In a world where there is no God, In both her personal agony and loss of man is responsible for her/his own fate. faith, she does not remain silent, nor does she Having arrived at such a conclusion, Baldwin lose sight of her own humanity. She becomes establishes humanism as both a philosophical “the bridge of suffering” (Lee 92). Through her and theological construct. The existential relationship with her brother Jimmy, her predicament that Hall encounters in his grandmother, and with Hall Montana and his dream reduces him to tears. To “discover” that family, she finds the salvation she needs to God doesn’t exist is distressing because there recover. In finding herself, she also finds a is nothing to cling to, just us. new image of God. “As a child preacher she Everything appears meaningless and had not belonged to herself nor had the arbitrary. Baldwin constructs his theme of remotest idea who she was. She had then suffering against the backdrop of the black been at the mercy of a force she had no way of religious faith tradition. In and through the understanding” (468). That force was the black faith community, some of his characters power of the individual to know and create an are “redeemed.” What the novel suggests is independent self. that those who find and develop their In a move that is far too ironic, the former humanity through the Christian boy-preacher Baldwin designates teenaged understanding of God will inevitably be Julia as the one who must break with her relieved from their suffering. Arthur is faith, in order to recover the self. As wounded from the outset and does not seek evidenced by her journey to the motherland in refuge from the church community that which she realizes that “there is no hiding ostracized him. In trying to find consolation place;” that man is his/her own savior. To and salvation through his music career, drive this point home, Baldwin utilizes Hall Arthur isolates himself and is separated from Montana: the love of both God and the human Then I do remember, in my dream the community. beginning of a song I used to love to hear Arthur sing, Oh, my loving brother when the world’s on fire. Don’t you want God’s bosom to 100 Bodhi International Journal of Research in Humanities, Arts and Science
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References 7. Chicago: University of Illinois Press. 1. Allen, F. L. (2006, February 2). 8. Dorothy H. Lee “The Bridge Of Suffering” Reclaiming the Human Self: Redemptive in Callaloo. No. 18 (1983) pp. 92-99. Johns Suffering and Spiritual Service Hopkins 2. in the Works of James Baldwin. Doctoral 9. University Press Dissertation. Atlanta, Georgia, United 10. Fred R. Standley and Louis H. Pratt, eds., States of America: Georgia State Conversations with James Baldwin, First University. Edition (Jackson: 3. Baldwin, J. (1979). Just Above My Head. 11. University Press of Mississippi, 1989), New York: The Dial Press. 278. 4. C. W. E. Bigsby, “The Divided Mind of 12. 7 A Dialogue: James Baldwin and Nikki James Baldwin,” in James Baldwin, ed. Giovanni (1973) Harold Bloom, Bloom’s 13. Judith Butler, “After Loss, What Then?” 5. Biocritiques (Philadelphia: Chelsea In David L. Eng and David Kazanjian’s House, 2006). Loss: The Politics of 6. Clark, K. (2002). Black Manhood in 14. Mourning. 2003 (London: University of James Baldwin, Ernest J. Gaines, and California Press), Pg. 467. August Wilson. Urbana and
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THE CROSS CULTURAL EXPLORATION AS A SOCIO - PSYCHE WAR IN KATE GREENVILLE’S THE SECRET RIVER
C.Lakshmi Assistant Professor, Department of English, NMS Sermathai Vasan College for Women
Abstract Australian literature is considered to be a unique one in the Commonwealth literature for its secular subjects. It focuses on the psychological struggles of mankind among the steered societal norms. Australian writers, who adopted various genres, never ever forget to focus on the social backgrounds and parental perspectives of Australian world. Kate Grenville’s novel The Secret River describes the conflict between the earliest settlers of the country and the natives of Australia as they clashed for ownership of the land. The cross cultural exploration of these people fosters a tug-of-war between them, probing their self-identity in Africa. Theme - ownership, racism, social class and hope.
Introduction tried to steal from his boss in London, William When the first European settlers arrived Thornhill became one of the first settlers in in 1788 the Aborigines were the sole the Australian wilderness in this novel. occupants of Australia. A hundred years later Thornhill grew up poor but dreamed of a Aborigines no longer held much of the better future. He thought he was on his way continent, and many Aboriginal groups were to this better future when Mr. Middleton took struggling for survival. Almost everywhere him on as an apprentice as a waterman. He white settlement had proved overpowering. completed his apprenticeship successfully and The convicts sent from England were given married Sarah “Sal” Middleton is childhood the chance to receive a full pardon and start sweetheart. His father-in-law gave Thornhill their lives over. There had been no peaceful his own boat as a wedding gift. Things were adjustment between whites and Aborigines, going well for the new couple until both Mr. and the frontier between them had many and Mrs. Middleton got sick and died. Their times been marked in blood. Even where care used up all of the money the two had in white settlement was sparse, traditional savings. Their property, including the boat Aboriginal society was often strongly Mr. Middleton had given Thornhill, had to be influenced by the presence of the new sold to pay their remaining debts. As a result arrivals. This novel The Secret River resolves Thornhill had to go back to working for others around the literary displacement and and was unable to make a living for his psychological trauma of the people who are family. He was caught stealing in an attempt alienated in their own land and those who to feed his family and was sentenced to death exiled from a different culture. It tells the by hanging. story of William Thornhill, one of those first Thornhill received a pardon for his crime settlers who arrived in New South Wales as a and was allowed to go to Australia to serve convict and an outcast and who eventually his sentence. After one year of service with carved out a place for himself in Australia's his wife as an overseer, Thornhill earned his incipient ruling class. ticket of leave allowing him to work for Poor background leading to the act of whoever he wanted. He eventually partnered steel up with Thomas Blackwood an old friend from William thornhill, the waterman on the London who transported crops and supplies to River Thames Sent to Australia because he and from the settlers along the Hawkesbury
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River. Thornhill fell in love with a piece of complains, Sal has a difficult time settling in property he saw along the river during his to their new life in Australia. The very trees first trip. He convinced Sal they could earn with their grayish leave tell her she is no enough money to return to England if they longer at home. Sal feels the wild continent claimed a plot of land and farmed it. pressing in on her from all sides, and she misses the smells and sounds of London. A Cross Cultural Exploration While William thrives in the new land, Once they were on the land in the Sal finds it harder to adjust because she did wilderness, the Thornhill were regularly not suffer the same level of humiliation as threatened by the natives who once had freely William. Sal clings on to her memories of roamed the land. Although other settlers Britain, recreating her life in London as much abused and even killed the natives, Thornhill as possible. Grenville uses Sal to explore the just wanted to be left alone. Even though he persistence of British culture in Australia and wasn’t purposefully cruel to the natives, they the lingering concept that Britain was Home. came and stole most of his corn one day. After Both the aborigines and the settlers of he and his workers ran them off, they Australia are struggling for the ownership in returned that night and set fire to what was the land they possess. It is never considered left. as the colonization or domination. But When he was asked to assist a group of everyone is seeking for a firm identity in men going to ambush a camp of natives Australia. Australia is place crowded with a Thornhill agreed to go along and help. He number of alienated people. A strong identity knew his life would never be the same after emerges not only from this conscious he stooped to the level where he would help contemplation of our life's purpose, but also kill other human beings. After the natives from successfully resolving the developmental were cleared from the area Thornhill and his challenges that characterize the family became successful on their land in previous childhood years. Greenville is very Australia. They became the gentry they’d much firm in projecting the characters of The always dreamed of being in London. Even Secret River as the symbol of identity crisis. with his prosperity, Thornhill still used his The individual characteristic of the person telescope to scan the woods looking for the which is affected by the exile, poverty and natives that once called that land their home. alienation projects the psychological war of the characters in the novel The Secret River. Ownership war Australian people are the one who wars with Ownership is a major theme in this novel. both the society and with their psyche for the It is actually the question of ownership that survival. lies at the bottom of the conflict between the settlers and the Australian natives. The References English believed that by “marking” a piece of 1. Grenville, Kate. The Secret River. Text property with a crop they made it theirs. The publishing. Australia. 2005. Print. natives, on the other hand, had free rein of 2. Grenville, Kate. “A Historical Balancing the land for decades before Australia was Act.” Interview with Catherine Keenan. claimed for England. They saw the settlers as Age 20 Sept. 2008, sec. A2: 24-25. taking over land that had been theirs for 3. https://researchonline.jcu.edu.au/39164/1/ centuries. 39164-mcnamara-2010-thesis.pdf Through the character of Sal, Grenville 4. https://eprints.utas.edu.au/10684/2/02who explores the disorientating experience of the le.pdf immigrant. While she works hard and rarely 103 Bodhi International Journal of Research in Humanities, Arts and Science