Biological Control in IPM Programs in the Pacific

R. Muniappan, Program Director, IPM CRSP, Virginia Tech Biological Control Programs in the Pacific • Invasive Alien (IAP) – Terrestrial and aquatic plants in the natural ecosystems and fruit and plantation crops. • Invasive Alien (IAA) – In the fruit and plantation crops. • Invasive Alien Arthropods (IAA) – In the vegetable crops. • Invasive Alien Microbes (IAM) – In agriculture. • Need for incorporation of Biocontrol in IPM (especially in vegetable crops) Biological Control of Terrestrial and Aquatic Invasive Alien Plants (IAP) • Chromolaena odorata • Coccinia grandis • Lantana camara • hysterophorus • Mimosa diplotricha • Mikania micrantha • Clidemia hirta • Eichhornia crassipes • Pistia stratiotes • Salvinia molesta • Sida spp. • Miconia calvescens and others Chromolaena odorata ()

•Origin – Neotropics •Introduced to – 1845 •Introduced to Guam – 1960s •Current distribution: Humid tropics of Asia, Africa, Australia (Queensland), and Pacific Pareuchaetes pseudoinsulata (: Arctiidae)

•Introduced to Guam –1986. •Cultures supplied to Indonesia, South Africa, PNG, and Micronesia .

Defoliation of C. odorata induced defense 120.0 * Control 100.0 * * (Diptera: ) 80.0 Plants with gall * 60.0 * Origin : Neotropics (Colombia) * Introduced to Indonesia in 1993, Height(cm) 40.0 20.0 and Guam 1998. 0.0 Established in Micronesia, Indonesia, 3 4 5 6 7 8 PNG, East Timor, India. Weeks after exposure International Organization for Biological Control – Working Group on Chromolaena

17 News letters published since 1988 International workshops held • 1988 - Bangkok, Thailand • 1991 - Bogor, Indonesia • 1993 - Abidjan, Ivory Coast • 1996 - Bangalore, India • 2000 - Durban, South Proceedings published- 7 Africa • 2003 - Cairns, Australia • 2006 - Pingtung, Taiwan • (2010 – Nairobi, Kenya) Pareuchaetes and Cecidochares

• Pareuchaetes proven to be partially effective in countries where it has been established. • Insect induced defense in C. odorata reduces its effectiveness. • Cecidochares connexa - Easy to establish • Effective in reducing seed production • Effectiveness may be affected by local parasitoids Ivy gourd, Coccinia grandis

•Origin – Africa •Introduced as vegetable •Invasive – and Mariana Islands •Birds spread the seeds • Vines touching soil will take root •Resistant to herbicides C. grandis in Saipan C. grandis in Guam

M. oedipus - adult Melettia oedipus M. oedipus - larva (Sesiidae)

Origin – Kenya, Africa Introduced: Hawaii – 1996 Guam – 2007 Saipan – 2007 Leaf mining weevil, Acythopius cocciniae (Coleoptera: Curculionidae)

Gall forming weevil, Acythopius burkhartorum (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) Coccinia grandis – Before and after introduction of natural enemies (slides – Hawaii Dept of Agriculture) Lantana camara (Verbenaceae)

Efforts to biocontrol started in 1902

41 agents have been released on lantana

Effective agents: •Teleonemia scrupulosa •Ophiomyia lantanae •Uroplata girardi •Epinotia lantana •Lantanophaga pusillidactyla • xanthochaeta Uroplata girardi (Coleoptera: Chrysomelideae)

Adults feed on the leaves and larvae mine the leaves

Performs well under semi-shaded conditions

Established in Cook Islands, FSM, Fiji, Guam, Hawaii, New Caledonia, Niue, CNMI, Palau, PNG, Samoa, Solomon Islands, Vanuatu

Adult Leaf mined by larva Teleonomia scrupulosa (Tingidae) Established in most of the Pacific Islands. Effective in dry season and not in wet season. Egg parasitoids recorded in India. Severe defoliation causes displacement of other natural enemies present.

Epinotia lantana (Tortricidae) Established in FSM, Guam, Hawaii, CNMI, Marshall Islands, Palau, PNG

Hypana laceratalis (Noctuidae) Established in CNMI, Fiji, Guam, New Caledonia, Palau, Yap Parthenium hysterophorus (Asteraceae)

Origin –Tropical North and South America Distribution in the Pacific – PNG, New Caledonia Vanuatu and Hawaii Natural enemies: 11 insect species and 2 fungi were introduced to Australia

Source: Modified from University of Queensland’s Centre for Biological Information Technology bicolorata (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae)

•Introduced to Australia in 1980 •Introduced to India in 1984 •Under quarantine – South Africa and Ethiopia •Failed in quarantine – Sri Lanka and PNG

Parthenium defoliated by Zygogramma FIRST ANNOUNCEMENT AND CALL FOR EXPRESSIONS OF INTEREST Combined workshop:

8th International Workshop on Biological Control and Management of Chromolaena odorata and Other Eupatorieae and Workshop on Biological Control and Management of Parthenium hysterophorus

Nairobi, Kenya, August/November 2010 Mimosa diplotricha Origin: Tropical America Distribution: Most of the Pacific Islands except Marshall Is., Tonga, Kiribati, Tokelau, and Tuvalu Natural enemy: Heteropsylla spinulosa – Effective – Established in Guam, CNMI, FSM, Cook Is., Samoa, Fiji, PNG, and Solomon Is. Giant sensitive , Mimosa diplotricha (Mimosaceae) Pictures: L. Kuniata  M. diplotricha infested  Heteropsylla spinosa – Effect area in Papua New Guinea of nirogen application

a) Adults

25

20

15

10

5

Adults per 30cmperAdultstip 0 13-Dec-91 20-Dec-91 27-Dec-91 3-Jan-92 7-Jan-92 8-Feb-92

Control Urea

d) Damage

12 10 8 6 4 2

= complete=control) 0 13-Dec- 20-Dec- 27-Dec- 3-Jan-92 7-Jan-92 8-Feb-92

Damagescore 10 (1=no control, 91 91 91

Control Urea Water hyacinth, Eichhornia crasssipes

Origin – Neotropics World’s worst aquatic weed

Neochetina eichhorniae (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) introduced to Fiji, PNG, Solomon Islands and Vanuatu. Neochetina bruchi introduced to PNG. Waterhyacinth in a lake before and after release of Neochetina eichornieiae and N. bruchi in South Africa (Photos: Coetzee et al.) Salvinia molesta contol by Cyrtobagous salviniae Photos : P. Room and S. Bauer Introduced – Fiji 1991, PNG (Before and after in Australia) Pistia stratiotes (Araceae) before and after introduction of Neodronomus affinis in a lake in Ivory Coast (Photos: M. Julien) Introduced: PNG – 1985, Vanuatu 2006 Mikania micrantha Liothrips mikaniae – Solomon Islands – 1988 (NE) Puccinnia spegazzini – Fiji and PNG (2007) Clidemia hirta Liothrips urichi – Fiji (1930), Hawaii (1953), Palau (1972), Solomon Is. (1938, 73, 75), Samoa Miconia calvescens Colletotrichum gloeosporioides – Tahiti Sida spp. Calligrapha pantherina – Fiji (2002), Vanuatu (2004) Benefit cost analysis for the biological control of invasive weeds in the tropics

Weed Country Benefit/cost ratio

Acacia longifolia (Andr.) willd South Africa 104

Acacia pycantha Benth South Africa 665

Acacia saligna (Labill.) Wendl.) South Africa 800

Azolla filiculoides South Africa 2.5 13

Eichhornia crassipes Benin 124 Australia 27.5

Lantana camara South Africa 22 Australia 5.6 Australia 9 Benefit cost analysis for the biological control of invasive weeds in the tropics (Cont.)

Weed Country Benefit/cost ratio

Mimosa diplotricha Australia 17.6 Mimosa pigra Australia 0.8 Opuntia aurantiaca South Africa 709 Opuntia spp. Australia 312.3 Parthenium hysterophorus Australia 7.2 Pistia stratoides Australia 27.5

Prosopis spp. Australia 0.5 Salvinia molesta Australia 27.5 Sri Lanka 53 Zimbabwe 10.6 Biocontrol of Invasive Alien Arthopods (IAA) in fruit and plantation crops Papaya mealybug, Paracoccus marginatus Pink hibiscus mealybug, Maconellicocus hirsutus Orange spiny whitefly, Aleurocanthus spiniferus hispine beetle, Brontispa spp. Coconut rhinoceros, Oryctes rhinoceros Spiraling whitefly, Aleurodicus dispersus Red coconut scale, Furcaspis oceanica Banana leaf roller, thrax Fruit Piercing , Eudocima phalonia Cycad aulacaspis scale, Aulacaspis yasumatsui Papaya mealybug, Paracoccus marginatus (Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae)

• Origin: Mexico • Polyphagous • Papaya more susceptible and die out in 3 to 4 months after infestation • Spread: • 1990s – Caribbean, Florida and South America •2001-5 – Micronesia and Hawaii •2008-9 – India, Indonesia, Malaysia, Thailand, Sri Lanka, Bangladesh, Maldives Biological control of Papaya mealybug

Papaya trees killed by mealybug Parasitoids Introduced : • Anagyrus loecki • Acerophagous papayae • Pseudleptomastrix mexicana • (Hymenoptera: Encyrtidae)

Papaya mealybug parasitoid Impact of Parasites on Papaya Mealybug – Guam (Hibiscus and Plumeria)

160 40 500 3.5 450 140 35 3 400 120 30 350 2.5 100 25 300 2 80 96% 20 250 Reduction 83% Reduction 60 15 200 1.5 40 10 150 1 Mealybug 100 20 5 0.5 Mealybug 50 Parasite 0 0 0 0 Parasite June July Aug. Sept. June July Aug. Sept. 2002 2002 Pink hibiscus mealybug, Maconellicoccus hirsutus (Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae) •Native to India •Found in Hawaii 1983 and Guam 1984 •Present in CNMI and FSM •In 1993, reported in Grenada, now it has spread all over the Caribbean, Florida, California and S. America Natural Enemies of PHMB Anagyrus kamali Allotropa sp. near mecrida Cryptoleamus montrozieri (Coccinellidae)

Anagyrus kamali female and an ovipositing female (Photos: Dr. Lance Osborne)

Population dynamics of PHMB and its natural enemies in Guam Orange spiny whitefly (OSW), Aleurocanthus spiniferus (Hemiptera: Aleurodidae) Orange spiny white (OSW)

• OSW was first recorded on Guam in 1951 • 1952 – Five parasitoids were introduced from Mexico

Encarsia smithi - Established on Guam

Introdueced to Kosrae, Pohnpei. Chuuk, and Yap Aleurodicus dispersus -Spiraling whitefly • A native of the Caribbean • Established in Hawaii – 1978 • Spread throughout the world Natural enemies introduced: • Encarsia haitiensis (Aphelinidae) • Nephaspis bicolor (Coccinellidae) Red coconut scale, Furcaspis oceanica

Red coconut scale – Endemic to Caroline Islands. Established in Guam in the 1970s

Parasitoid, Adelencyrtus oceanicus introduced to Guam from Ulithi (Yap) in 1988. Parasitoid emergence hole Brontispa spp.

• Brontispa longissima – South pacific • Brontispa palauensis – Palau and Guam • Brontispa marianensis – CNMI • Brontispa chalybeipennis – Pohnpei, Marshalls and Hawaii • Natural enemies: Tetrasticus brontispae, Asecodes hispinarum, Chrysonotomyia sp., Chelisoches morio, Oecophylla smaragdina Brontispa palauensis Oryctes rhinoceros

Metarhizium application to coconut logs

Baculovirus oryctes used in all over the Pacific Islands Fruit Piercing moth, Eudocima phalonia (Noctuidae) feeding on Guava Citrus fruit pierced by a moth

Citrus fruit drop due to fruit piercing moth damage in Vanuatu Carambola fruit pierced by a moth Egg parasitoids Trichogramma, Ooencyrtus and Telenomus of Eudocima phalonia Euplectrus maternae (larval ectoparasitoid of Eudocima spp.) •Collected in India and introduced in Guam but did not establish Netting Fields to prevent fruit piercing moth damage to crops

Banana leaf roller, Erionota thrax

Distribution: CNMI, Guam, Hawaii, PNG

Parasitoids introduced Egg parasitoid: Ooencyrtus erionotae Larval parasitoid: Apanteles erionotae Cycad aulacaspis scale, Aulacaspis yasumatsui

Natural enemies introduced to Guam Rhizobius lophathae Cocobius fulvus Biocontrol of Invasive Alien Arthropods (IAA) in IPM Programs of Vegetables

• Crucifer crop pests • pests Major Pests of Crucifers • Diamondback Moth – Plutella xylostella • Cabbage Web Worm – undalis • Cutworm – Spodoptera litura • Cabbage Cluster Caterpillar – Crocidolomia pavonana • Flea hopper – Halticus tibialis • Aphids – Lipaphis pseudobrassicae (L.) and Brevicoryne brassicae (L.) • Leafminers – Liriomyza spp. Parasitoids of Crucifer Pests in Guam

Plutella xylostella - • Trichogramma sp. • Cotesia plutellae • Chelonus blackburni Spodoptera litura - • Telenomus sp. • Cotesia variventris • Euplectrus xanthocephalus Plutella xylostella and its parasitoids

Cotesia plutellae

Plutella xylostella

Diadegma semiclausum Diadromus collaris Spodoptera litura and its parasitoids

Spodoptera - adult Egg parasitoid, Telenomus sp.

Larval parasitoid, Cotesia sp. Larval parasitoid, Euplectrus sp. Crocidolomia pavonana and its damage of Chinese cabbage

Hellula undalis and its damage of radish Trap crops for cabbage

Chinese cabbage- Tempest – Crocidolomia pavonana, Halticus tibialis Radish- Minowase Summer Cross 3 – Hellula undalis Mustard- Indian – Plutella xylostella, aphids Collards- Vates – Plutella xylostella? Pests of Eggplant Eggplant fruit and shoot borer: Leucinodes orbonalis Philippine lady beetle: Epilachna philippinensis Leafhoppers: Amrasca sp. Spider mites: Tetrasticus spp. Thrips: Thrips palmae

Pediobius foveolatus introduced from Philippines to Guam In 1954 to control Epilachna philippinensis

Grubs of Epilachna

Eucanthecona, a pentatomid bug feeding on the grub Biological Control of Invasive Alien Microbes (IAM)

• For control of soil borne fungal, bacterial, nematode diseases such as: Fungi - Fusarium, etc Bacteria – Ralstonia, etc Nematodes – Meloidogyne, etc Biological Control of Plant Diseases

Soil or Seed Treatment:

Trichoderma viride for control of soil fungal diseases Pseudomonas fluorescens for control of bacterial and nematode diseases Bacillus subtilis for induced resistance

Office of International Research, Education, and Development, Virginia Tech Trichoderma Application in IPM

Trichoderma production by farmers in Indonesia Yield difference in cauliflower Trichoderma treated v/s untreated Nematode Control in Okra Plots

No seed treatment Seed treatment with Trichoderma+Pseudomonas Integration of Biological Control in the IPM

IPM package for An IPM vegetable package is a set of technologies that can be applied to a given crop to obtain increased yield and vegetables delivers food reduce pesticide use. It includes the following elements: security and biodiversity Soil Preparation Biological control is one of Techniques to enhance the soil—such as soil BioliogicalControl Adoption of biological control is a major the major components of solarizationand the addition of growth enhancers such as neem cake, VAM, and component of IPM. Local natural IPM. The result is a fertilizers—provide vegetables with the enemies such as parasitoids can significant increase in plant nutrients they need and deter pests such as significantly decrease the need for health and yield, a dramatic weeds and nematodes. pesticides. reduction in pesticide use, Seed Treatment Traps and Biopesticides Sticky traps, pheromone traps, and bait improvement in biodiversity Seed treatments such as Trichodermaspp., Pseudomonas fluorescensand Bacillus subtilis traps may be used for both monitoring and an increase in farmer protect the seedlings from pests. and reducing pest populations. When income. these populations reach an economic Seed Selection threshold, biopesticidessuch as NPV can Quality seeds should be chosen according to be used. IPM plays a major role in the need and availability. Pest resistance, yield, Supplemental Tactics management of Invasive marketability, and suitability to the environment Supplemental tactics including physical Alien Plants and especially are important considerations. management techniques, such as using to manage Invasive Alien Seedling Selection and Grafting stakes, nets, and planting trap crops or All seedlings in the nursery should be closely nectar plants can be used to reduce pest Arthropods and Microbes. examined for viral and other diseases, and damage. infected seedlings should be eliminated from Strategic Action the planting material. Grafting for pest Strategic action, such as irrigation and resistance should be done when needed. rogueing, should be taken to keep plants healthy, reduce re-infection, and discourage pests. While this step is very effective, it is often labor intensive.

www.oired.vt.edu/ipmcrsp/

The Integrated Pest Management Collaborative Research Support Program (IPM CRSP) is managed by Virginia Tech at the International Affairs Office Building, 526 Prices Fork Road (0378), Blacksburg, VA 24061. Phone: (540) 231-6338 This research was supported by the Integrated Pest Management Collaborative Research Support Program (IPM CRSP), which was made possible by the United States Agency for International Development and the generous support of the American people through USAID Cooperative Agreement No. EPPA-00-04-000 16-00. Grafting to confer resistance to soil-borne diseases

•Eggplant yield ↑ 249% in Bangladesh

•Technology transferred to India, Nepal, Uganda, Honduras and Ecuador

•Technology transferred from Bangladesh to Ohio

Dead eggplant due to bacterial wilt Healthy field of grafted eggplant IPM practice in bitter melon crop in Bangladesh

• Application of compost with Trichoderma • Setting up cuelure traps • Setting up mashed sweet melon traps • Picking disposal of fruit fly infested fruits • Release of parasitoids

Cuelure trap Area-wide management of melon fly Mashed sweet melon trap Nucleopolyhedrosis Virus Application in IPM

NPVs identified for tropical vegetable pests:

NPV production by a NGO in Indonesia Helicoverpa armigera Spodoptera litura Spodoptera exigua Maruca vitrata Plutella xylostella

Commercial production of NPV in India Peanut bud necrosis virus of Tomato

• Transmitted by thrips Peanut bud necrosis virus infected tomato • Common in Asia • Rogueing is effective in controlling this virus

Unrogued field Rogued field Gemini virus control in tomatoes

Healthy tomato Virus infected tomato

Transmitted by white Primarily Bemisia tabaci

Field without host free period Field with host free period

Host free period for 3 months is effective in reducing the incidence Impact on crop yield in India

Yield ( Kg/Acre ) Crop IPM practice Farmers practice Eggplant 13,987 7,484

Okra 5,125 2,425

Tomato 9,533 3,573 Conclusion Pests that are threat to the Pacific Islands

•Asian citrus psyllid – Diaphorina citri (Hawaii) •Coconut eriophyid mite - Aceria guerreronis •Mango fruit borer – Citripetis sp. (Saipan) •Mango fruit fly – Bactrocera invadens •Melon fly – Bactrocera cucurbitae (Marianas) •Other fruit flies •Papaya fruit fly – Bactrocera papayae •Papaya mealybug – Paracoccus marginatus (Guam, Tinian, Palau, Hawaii) •Red palm weevil – Rhynchophorus ferrugineus •Solenopsis mealybug – Phenacoccus solenopsis (New Caledonia) Pests that are threat to the Pacific Islands Cont.

• Banana leaf roller – Erionota thrax (Marianas, Hawaii) • Chromolaena – (Micronesia, PNG) • Citrus greening • Cycad aulacaspis scale – Aulacaspis yasumatsui (Hawaii, Marianas, Palau) • Eggplant fruit and shoot borer – Leucinodes orbonalis • Mango leafhoppers – Idiocopus spp. (Palau) • Parthenium – (Hawaii, PNG, Vanuatu, New Caledonia) • Orthezia insignis - (Guam) • Western flower thrips – Frankliniella occidentalis (Hawaii) Tospo, Gemini, and Poti insect transmitted viruses:

•Tomato spotted wilt virus •Peanut bud necrosis virus on tomatoes •Tomato yellow leaf curl virus •Several other virus diseases Thank You

Acknowledgements: Pacific Biocontrol Workshop Organizing Committee Pacific Cooperative Studies Unit, Univ. of Hawaii U.S. Forest Service Land Care, New Zealand