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Religion and Development in

aith actors play increasingly visible roles in coup in 2010, voters approved a new constitution in a Niger’s social and economic development, national referendum. The next year, opposition leader yet their contributions are often poorly Mahamadou Issoufou was elected president. Issoufou understood and are rarely fully reflected won reelection in 2016.1 F in the development strategies of the gov- Political instability, sluggish economic growth, and ernment and its partners. In a predominantly Muslim weak service delivery mechanisms in Niger have con- country with a devout population, religious leaders draw tributed to some of the lowest development indicators in on their authority to shape national dialogues around the world. The country ranks last of 189 countries on the education, health, and gender equality. There are notable 2017 UN Human Development Index (HDI), which mea- partnerships with state ministries and non-governmen- sures achievements in health, education, and income.2 tal organizations. Faith-inspired organizations (FIOs) In 2014, 45 percent of the population lived below the in- play particularly important roles in engaging with sen- ternational poverty line of $1.90 a day (2011 PPP).3 With sitive social and cultural issues such as child marriage the highest fertility and birth rates in the world, Niger’s and family planning. This brief provides an overview of population is expected to nearly triple in the next thirty initiatives that address education, gender, and health years (from 22 million in 2018 to 63 million in 2050).4 in Niger. Niger is divided into seven regions and the capital Since declaring independence from France in 1960, district of . The sparsely populated desert re- Niger has been governed by several military dictator- gion of in the north is difficult to control polit- ships, punctuated by four coups between 1974 and 2010. ically and has historically been a haven for rebels and, Multiparty democracy was declared in the early 1990s, more recently, terrorist groups. The majority of the and the country held its first free and fair elections in population lives to the south, along the border with 1993; however, a coup three years later brought Niger or around the major cities of Niamey, Maradi, under military rule once more. Following another and .

MARCH 2020 RELIGION AND DEVELOPMENT IN NIGER

LIBYA

ALGERIA

NIGER

AGADEZ

National capital Department capital International boundary Department boundary

0 100 200 300 km Agadez 0 100 200 mi MALI

Tahoua TILLABÉRI ZINDER CHAD Tillabéri MARADI Niamey Zinder Dia DOSSO Maradi Dosso C A M E R O O N

N’Djamena BURKINA NIGERIA FASO

FIGURE 1: Map of Niger with Administrative Regions and Major Cities

Source: https://www.un.org/Depts/Cartographic/english/htmain.htm

BOX 1: The Impact of Climate Change on Niger

Climate changes poses a major threat problem that already affects more than especially in light of the country’s rapid to livelihoods, health, and long-term 1 million Nigeriens. In addition, tem- population growth. Conflicts over land political stability in Niger. The coun- perature changes will make droughts and water access may be difficult for try’s semi-arid climate and periodic and floods more frequent, extreme, state authorities to contain, especially droughts means that only 12 percent and unpredictable, elevating the risk of in remote areas. Civil unrest and scant of land can sustain agriculture. A pre- water scarcity, heat stress, and vector- economic opportunity will likely cause dicted temperature increase of 3 or 4 and waterborne diseases. mass migration, as rural Nigeriens degrees by 2100 is likely to limit arable Dwindling natural resources are likely resettle in urban slums or migrate to land severely, fueling food insecurity, a to undermine political stability in Niger, neighboring countries such as Nigeria.a

a. “Community-Based Adaptation: Niger.” UNDP Climate Change Adaptation. Accessed February 4, 2020. Available at: https://www. adaptation-undp.org/projects/spa-community-based-adaptation-niger; Potts, Malcolm et al. “Niger: Too Little, Too Late.” International Perspectives on Sexual and Reproductive Health 27, no. 2 (2011); “Climate Risks in Food for Peace Geographies: Niger.” USAID, 2017. Available at: https://www.climatelinks.org/resources/climate-risks-food-peace-geographies-niger; “WFP Niger: Country Brief.” World Food Programme, 2019. Available at: https://docs.wfp.org/api/documents/WFP-0000110490/download/

2 World Faiths Development Dialogue | www.wfdd.us Niger’s Religious TABLE 1: Niger’s Development Indicators Landscape Indicator Current Status (Year) uslims accounts for 95 to Population 22.4 million (2018)a 98 percent of Niger’s pop- M ulation.5 Historically, many Total area 1,267,000 sq. kmb have incorporated elements of ani- Urban population (percent of total) 16.4% (2018)c mism/African Traditional Religion (ATR) into their religious practices; Population growth rate 3.8% (2018)d however, overt references to ATR in Capital city population (Niamey) 1.21 million (2018)e Islamic practices declined following a shift toward conservativism in Ni- Population aged 0–14 years 11.2 million (2018)f gerien Islam in the 1990s.6 A small GNI per capita, Atlas method (current US$) 380 (2018)g number of Nigeriens practice Afri- can Traditional Religion exclusively. GDP growth rate 5.2% (2018)h Less than one percent of the popu- UNDP Human Development Index Rank 189 of 189 (2017)i lation is Christian; most are the descendants of European Corruption Perceptions Index Rank 114 of 180 (2018)j colonial families or immigrants k from other African countries. They Personal remittances, received (current US$) 282 million (2018) reside primarily in urban centers in a. “Population, total.” World Bank, 2018. Available at: https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/ the country’s southwest, as do small SP.POP.TOTL?locations=NE communities of Sikhs and Baha’is.7 b. Laya, Diouldé and Finn Fuglestad. “Niger.” In Encyclopedia Britannica Online, 1st ed. Encyclopedia Britannica, 2019. Available at: https://www.britannica.com/place/Niger Islam in Niger c. “Urban population (% of total population).” World Bank, 2018. Available at: https://data. worldbank.org/indicator/SP.URB.TOTL.IN.ZS?locations=NE Niger’s Muslim community dates d. “Population growth (annual %).” World Bank, 2018. Available at: https://data.worldbank.org/ back to the seventh century, when indicator/SP.POP.GROW?locations=NE merchants from North Africa first e. “Population in largest city.” World Bank, 2018. Available at: https://data.worldbank.org/ introduced Islam to people in urban indicator/EN.URB.LCTY?locations=NE f. “Population ages 0–14, total.” World Bank, 2018. Available at: https://data.worldbank.org/ areas. In subsequent centuries, the indicator/SP.POP.0014.TO?locations=NE religion gained converts among g. “GNI per capita, Atlas method (current US$).” World Bank, 2018. Available at: https://data. rural populations and members of worldbank.org/indicator/NY.GNP.PCAP.CD?locations=NE the upper class. By the 18th century, h. “GDP growth (annual %).” World Bank, 2018. Available at: https://data.worldbank.org/ indicator/NY.GDP.MKTP.KD.ZG?locations=NE Islam had become synonymous with i. “Human Development Report 2019.” United Nations Development Programme, 2019. local identity. Some Muslim leaders j. “Corruption Perceptions Index 2018.” Transparency International. Accessed February 4, 2020. invoked Islamic ideas to mobilize Available at: https://www.transparency.org/cpi2018 resistance against French colonial k. “Personal remittances, received (current US$).” World Bank, 2018. Available at: https://data. worldbank.org/indicator/BX.TRF.PWKR.CD.DT?locations=NE powers in the 20th century, while other clerics maintained close ties with colonial administrators.8 Islam continues to play a well-established Salafi presence in Niger, most notably significant role in the lives of everyday Nigeriens, with 86 that of the Izala Society (Jama’at Izalat al Bid’a Wa Iqamat percent of Muslims saying that religion is very important as Sunna, known as JIBWIS or simply Izala), a movement in their lives.9 founded in opposition to the Sufi presence in northern The vast majority of Niger’s Muslims are Sunnis who Nigeria. In recent years, there has been growing concern follow the Maliki legal tradition. Close to half of Muslims among religious and political leaders about the influence belong to a Sufi order, or confrérie. The largest of these is of Wahhabi and Islamist groups in the country, including the Tijaniyya confrérie, which claims around 34 percent Boko Haram. (For more detail on Islamist militancy, see of Niger’s Muslims. Niger is home to a prominent off- the box, “Religious Militancy in Niger”). Less than one shoot of the Tijaniyya known as the Niassène Tijaniyya, percent of Nigerien Muslims are Shia.10 brought to Niger by followers of the Senegalese spir- Muslim groups play an influential role in Nigerien civil itual leader Sheikh Ibrahim Niasse. Other confréries society. The Islamic Association of Niger (Association include the Qadiriyya and Sanussiyya. There is also a Islamique du Niger, or AIN), founded in 1974, established

World Faiths Development Dialogue | www.wfdd.us 3 RELIGION AND DEVELOPMENT IN NIGER an Islamic court system that, while not a part of the of- the vast majority of which are headquartered in Niamey. ficial judicial system, wields the authority to adjudicate They include Sufi confréries, chapters of the Izala Society, matters of family law, such as divorce and inheritance.11 and Muslim professional and women’s groups.13 This The AIN was the only state-recognized Islamic organi- diversity of Muslim voices has opened the door to intra- zation until the early 1990s, when the establishment of religious tensions and conflict, particularly between fol- multiparty democracy prompted the creation of dozens lowers of the Tijaniyya confrérie and the Izala Society.14 of new religiously-linked organizations.12 In 2011, there In 2006, the formed the Niger were 55 legally authorized Islamic associations in Niger, Islamic Council (Conseil Islamique du Niger) to oversee

BOX 2: Religious Militancy in Niger

Since the 1990s, several militant Is- ISWAP).c ISWA-led raids in December Izala Society. Religious and political lamist groups have gained a foothold 2019 and January 2020 claimed the leaders have taken numerous steps to in Niger. Chief among these is Boko lives of 71 and 25 Nigerien soldiers, address these concerns. Following the Haram, based in northern Nigeria.a respectively.d Charlie Hebdo-linked violence in early Cultural and linguistic similarities on Other Islamist groups with a pres- 2015, representatives from 10 different both sides of the Niger-Nigeria border ence in Niger include Al-Qaeda in the Muslim groups in drew have enabled the group to garner sup- Islamic Mahgreb (AQIM), the Al-Qaeda up regulations for preaching.e In 2017, port in Niger. Since the early 2010s, affiliated Jama’at Nasr al-Islam wal the Ministry of the Interior established Boko Haram has conducted numerous Muslimin (JNIM/GSIM), and the Islamic the Islamic Forum to formulate simi- raids on civilian and military targets State in the Greater Sahara (ISGS). lar regulations on a national level. f In in Niger’s southeastern Diffa region, These groups carry out attacks pri- March 2019, the Minister of Religious killing hundreds of people, destroying marily in Algeria and Mali, but they have Affairs and Humanitarian Action de- villages, and forcing locals to flee. By also targeted government and military nounced Muslim leaders who radical- 2015, almost a third of Diffa’s 600,000 in northern Niger. ized Nigerien Muslims and declared a residents had been displaced by these While many Islamist attacks are ban on preaching and broadcasting of attacks.b Following a split within Boko carried out by foreign nationals, there sermons that could disturb the public Haram in 2016, most border raids have is mounting concern about radical- order.g Regulations on religious speech been claimed by the faction aligned ization among Nigerien Muslims, remain difficult to enforce, however, with the Islamic State, known as the especially given the increasing pop- especially since many radio sermons Islamic State in (ISWA/ ularity of Salafi groups such as the are broadcast from northern Nigeria.h

a. “Niger.” L’Observatoire de la Liberté Religieuse. Accessed February 4, 2020. Available at: https://www.liberte-religieuse.org/niger/ b. “Around 25 dead in Boko Haram raid in Niger, clashes with army.” Reuters, November 12, 2015. Available at: https://www.reuters.com/ article/us-nigeria-violence-niger/around-25-dead-in-boko-haram-raid-in-niger-clashes-with-army-idUSKCN0T10PK20151112#iAR YBRH5XOVYPjFJ.97 c. Campbell, John. “Understanding the Threat Posed by ISWA in Nigeria.” Council on Foreign Relations, August 14, 2019. Available at: https://www.cfr.org/blog/understanding-threat-posed-iswa-nigeria; Akum, Fonteh and Habibou Souley Bako. “What doesn’t break Boko Haram in Niger makes it stronger.” Reliefweb, May 28, 2019. Available at: https://reliefweb.int/report/niger/ what-doesn-t-break-boko-haram-niger-makes-it-stronger d. “Niger army base attack: West African leadres call for more help.” BBC News, December 16, 2019. Available at: https://www.bbc.com/ news/world-africa-50800871; Paquette, Danielle. “Suspected Islamist militants kill 25 soldiers in Niger.” The Washington Post, January 9, 2020. Available at: https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/africa/suspected-islamist-militants-kill-25-soldiers-in- niger/2020/01/09/8110d496-3320-11ea-971b-43bec3ff9860_story.html e. Zalan, Kira. “In Niger, Christian and Muslim leaders push harder to counter creeping radicalism.” Christian Science Monitor, February 5, 2017. Available at: https://www.csmonitor.com/World/Africa/2017/0205/In-Niger-Christian-and-Muslim-leaders-push-harder- to-counter-creeping-radicalism f. United States Department of State. “Niger 2018 International Religious Freedom Report.” Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor. 2018. 3. g. “Ministère chargé des Affaires Religieuses et de l’Action Humanitaire: interdiction de prêches parallèles dans les mosquées.” Niger Diaspora, March 19, 2009. Available at: http://www.nigerdiaspora.net/index.php/component/k2/item/21011-minist%C3%A8re-charg% C3%A9-des-affaires-religieuses-et-de-laction-humanitaire--interdiction-de-pr%C3%AAches-parall%C3%A8les-dans-les- mosqu%C3%A9es h. Zalan, Kira. “In Niger, Christian and Muslim leaders push harder to counter creeping radicalism.” Christian Science Monitor, February 5, 2017. Available at: https://www.csmonitor.com/World/Africa/2017/0205/In-Niger-Christian-and-Muslim-leaders-push-harder- to-counter-creeping-radicalism

4 World Faiths Development Dialogue | www.wfdd.us Islamic organizations in the country.15 Eleven years later, the Ministry of the Interior’s Directorate of Religious Affairs established the Islamic Forum to address esca- lating Islamist militancy; with representatives from over 50 Islamic organizations, the Forum regulates the con- struction of new mosques, curricula at Islamic schools, and content of Friday sermons. The Forum has advised the Ministry of the Interior to incorporate these regula- tions into legislation that is currently in development.16 While the creation of these new groups has diminished the influence of the AIN on state affairs, the Association remains the primary channel for dispensing state sub- sidies to Islamic civil society groups.17

Christianity in Niger There was little Christian influence in Niger before the early 1930s, when the first Roman Catholic mission was established in Niamey.18 While Christians account for less than one percent of the total population, they rep- resent a wide range of denominations, including Roman Niger has a reputation for peaceful coexistence be- Catholics, Baptists, Seventh-Day Adventists, Jehovah’s tween the Muslim majority and Christian minority, but Witnesses, Assemblies of God, and numerous evangelical interfaith relations were strained in the 2010s due to the Protestant and African-initiated churches. growing influence of conservative Muslim ideologies With over 20,000 adherents, the Roman Catholic from northern Nigeria and the Middle East. A Pew-Tem- Church is Niger’s largest Christian denomination.19 The pleton survey described social hostilities as “moder- Church coordinates social outreach efforts through the ate,” in 2016, down from “high” in 2015, when violence local branch of Caritas International, CADEV Niger.20 broke out in the aftermath of the Islamist attack on the CADEV Niger’s initiatives promote health, education, Charlie Hebdo magazine in Paris.27 President Issoufou’s agriculture, economic opportunity, environmental expression of solidarity with the victims of the Paris conservation, non-violence, and gender equality. The attack sparked protests across Niger. In Niamey and also runs numerous preprimary and Zinder, demonstrations led to rioting, with participants primary schools, as well as vocational and technical burning down close to 70 Christian churches and looting training institutions.21 Christian shops; ten people were killed over the course of several days.28 However, many Muslim and Christian Religion, Government, and Society leaders argue that religious intolerance was not the Separation of state and religion is enshrined in Niger’s primary motivation for the violence, citing high youth constitution, which guarantees freedom of religion unemployment and widespread economic grievances.29 and prohibits discrimination on religious grounds. The government has yet to release an official report on The constitution also forbids political parties that align its investigation, and none of the people arrested in con- themselves with a particular ethnic or religious identi- junction with the attacks have appeared in court. ty.22 Faith-linked organizations must register with the Interfaith outreach efforts are coordinated by a Ministry of Interior’s Directorate of Religious Affairs; Muslim-Christian forum, which promotes dialogue and following a three-year review process, they may be peacebuilding efforts throughout the country. Following granted permanent legal status.23 the 2015 Charlie Hebdo-related riots, Muslim and Chris- The government regulates religious organizations to tian leaders established numerous local committees to some extent, earning it a moderate score on Pew-Tem- promote religious tolerance in their communities.30 In pleton’s measure of government restrictions on religion February 2019, close to 200 faith leaders met in Niamey (2016).24 Recent measures, such as a ban on public pros- to discuss tolerance and peacebuilding efforts through elytization, aim to curb religious radicalization among joint Muslim-Christian social outreach projects.31 While Muslims.25 In addition, the government of Diffa region moderate Muslim leaders have praised these and other banned full-face veils in 2015 as a precaution against efforts, some conservative imams reject cooperation suicide bombings by Boko Haram.26 with Christians.32

World Faiths Development Dialogue | www.wfdd.us 5 RELIGION AND DEVELOPMENT IN NIGER

Education 100% Preprimary Secondary Tertiary iger’s education system is ill-equipped Primary Tertiary to meet the demands of the country’s 80% Secondary N burgeoning population, half of which Primary is under the age of 15.33 Although primary and 60% secondary school enrollment rates have risen Preprimary steadily since the late 1990s, they are still well 40% below global and regional averages. In 2017, a third of primary school-age children and two 20% thirds of secondary school-age adolescents were out of school.34 While over 70 percent of 0% 1971 1976 1981 1986 1991 1996 2001 2006 2011 2016 enrolled children complete their primary ed- ucation, only around a quarter go on to lower secondary school, and a mere fifth of these FIGURE 2: Gross School Enrollment Rates, 1971–2018 graduate. Preprimary and tertiary enroll- Source: https://data.worldbank.org ment rates are even lower: 8 and 4.4 percent, respectively.35 Nigerien children face numerous obstacles 100% to accessing quality education, particularly Female Male in rural areas. Schools are disproportionally Male 80% Female located in and around cities, even though over Total 80 percent of the population resides in the 60% countryside. Students who must travel long distances to school are more likely to drop 40% out or not enroll in the first place; in 2011, the gross primary enrollment was 70 percent in 20% rural areas, compared to 81 percent in ur- ban areas. Furthermore, over 90 percent of 0% secondary school-age children who are not Preprimary (2018) Primary (2017) Secondary (2017) Tertiary (2018) attending school come from rural areas. Ed- ucational facilities in the countryside are also FIGURE 3: School Enrollment Rates by Gender less likely to have up-to-date infrastructure, equipment, and teaching materials compared Source: https://data.worldbank.org to urban facilities.36 Fewer girls and young women attend school than employment, as their skills are not always aligned with their male counterparts (except at the preprimary the needs of the labor market.39 level), and they graduate at lower rates.37 Child mar- The Nigerien government’s 2014–2024 Education Sec- riage is a major obstacle to girls’ education: over tor Program lays out guidelines for addressing these and a quarter of girls are married by age 15 and three other issues, with a special focus on strengthening the fourths are by age 18; nearly all leave school once mar- quality, management, and accessibility of rural educa- ried.38 Some girls leave at an even younger age or do tion and early childhood care.40 Budgetary constraints not attend in the first place, helping with housework are likely to pose a challenge for implementation, how- and childrearing instead. (For more detail, see the ever. In 2017, the Nigerien government spent 13.2 per- “Gender Equality” section.) cent of its government expenditures on education; this Niger’s fledgling technical and vocational training falls below the 15 percent benchmark set by the Abuja and education sector (Enseignement et formation tech- Declaration.41 niques et professionnels, EFTP) is unable to accommodate In addition to government-run public schools, numer- a large number of students. In 2010, only 21,000 people ous private educational institutions operate in Niger, in- were enrolled in formal EFTP programs, most of which cluding a number of faith-linked schools. According to one were based in Niamey. Furthermore, many students government report, close to 40 percent of upper secondary who graduate from these programs struggle to find students and a third of tertiary students attend private

6 World Faiths Development Dialogue | www.wfdd.us BOX 3: Religious Education in Niger

Like other francophone West African a country with over 11.2 million people These schools are typically affiliated countries, Niger is home to numerous under the age of 14 today, Franco-Ar- with Islamic community organizations faith-linked educational institutions. abic schools alone are insufficient to and/or mosques and are not regulated Franco-Arabic schools (Écoles Fran- meet the high demand for education. by the government.d co-Arabes) exist at the primary and Thousands of informal religious Despite heavy involvement by Is- secondary levels and offer classes primary and secondary schools lamic civil society in public education, in both French and Arabic. Since the operate in Niger, expanding over there is no formal coordinating mecha- opening of Niger’s first Franco-Arabic the past decades, particularly in the nism between Muslim leaders and gov- school in 1957, the government has wake of democratization in the 1990s. ernment officials focused specifically integrated these schools into the pub- Known as Islamiyya schools, they are on education. lic education system while allowing frequently sponsored by Islamic civil There is also a small number of them to include religious education in society organizations, and their cur- Christian schools in Niger, primarily their curricula. (Not all Franco-Arabic ricula typically center on religious ed- located in cities like Niamey and Ma- schools are public; private ones have ucation. Many Islamiyya schools have radi. In 2009, the Catholic Church existed since at least the 1970s.) In the transitioned to formal Franco-Arabic operated 7 preprimary schools, 12 past, education sector planning has schools in order to receive institutional primary schools, a vocational high focused on expanding Franco-Arabic accreditation and financial assistance school, and numerous other second- schools, as they are popular among from the state.b ary institutions.e Protestant mission- the Muslim population. In 2005, there Niger is also home to at least 50,000 ary organizations have also funded were over 650 of these schools in Niger, Qur’anic schools, which offer religious the construction of Christian schools with close to 90,000 students.a Yet in education to preprimary-age children.c throughout the country.

a. Villalon et al. “Religion, demande sociale, et réformes éducatives au Niger.” University of Florida, 2012. 2–3, 10, 14, 36. b. Idrissa, Abdourahmane and Samuel Decalo. Historical Dictionary of Niger. 4th ed. Lanham, MD: Scarecrow Press, 2012. 237.; Villalon et al. “Religion, demande sociale, et réformes éducatives au Niger.” University of Florida, 2012. 13, 27. c. Villalon et al. “Religion, demande sociale, et réformes éducatives au Niger.” University of Florida, 2012. 27. d. Ministry of the Interior and Decentralization. “Etude sur les Pratiques de L’Islam au Niger.” 2006. 56–7. e. Zakari, Maïkoréma. “Le Christianisme au Niger Contemporain.” Rivista trimestrale di studi e documentazione dell’Istituto italiano perl’Africa e l’Oriente 64, no. 3/4 (2017): 533. institutions.42 The extent of these institutions is difficult to have addressed the lack of local public schools by establish- measure, however. One reason for this is the large number ing community-operated schools, often with the support of informal, unaccredited schools that operate outside the of NGOs. While not officially recognized by the state, these public school system and are not included in enrollment schools continue to be popular throughout the country, data. Since the 1990s, some rural and nomadic populations and their numbers are growing.43

Gender Equality tark gender disparities persist in Niger; their the areas of reproductive health, empowerment, and causes are tied in significant ways to both cul- economic participation.45 S tural and religious beliefs and practices. While Despite constitutional provisions against gender-based the country has made significant strides in raising wom- discrimination, women face many challenges in achieving en’s life expectancy, decreasing maternal mortality, and equal treatment to men.46 Cultural barriers curtail wom- improving school enrollment rates among girls, it still en’s access to the judicial system, and the absence of a code lags behind most sub-Saharan African nations, including of family law means that issues of marriage, divorce, in- neighboring countries with similar cultural and eco- heritance, and custody of children are left to traditional or nomic backgrounds.44 In 2017, Niger ranked lowest in the religious courts, an arrangement that often disadvantages world on the UN Gender Inequality Index, which mea- women.47 In 2011, the transitional government abandoned sures a country’s loss in potential human development a draft of a code of family law after some Muslim leaders due to the unequal achievements of men and women in accused the document of anti-Muslim bias.48

World Faiths Development Dialogue | www.wfdd.us 7 RELIGION AND DEVELOPMENT IN NIGER

Fewer women are active in national poli- tics in Niger than in most other sub-Saharan 25 African nations: in 2018, women held only 17 percent of seats in the national parliament 20 (compared to 22 percent across sub-Saharan Africa).49 Women are likewise underrepre- 15 sented in the top echelons of business; only 11 percent of firms had a woman in a top manage- 10 ment position in 2017.50 These and other gen- der disparities arise from meager educational 5 opportunities for women and girls. In 2012, only 23 percent of adult women were literate, 0 Rural Urban Urban (Towns No Primary Secondary 51 compared to 29 percent of men. (Niamey) other than Education Education Education The high dropout rate among schoolgirls Niamey) or Above is closely tied to early marriage and moth- erhood. Niger has the world’s highest rate FIGURE 4: Median Age of Marriage for Nigerien Women of child marriage: in 2017, 28 percent of girls Ages 25–49 were married by age 15 and 76 percent by age Source: Niger National Institute of Statistics. “Enquête Démographique et de Santé et à 52 18. Prevalence rates vary significantly by Indicateurs Mutiples (EDSN-MICS IV) 2012.” 2013. 88. region; in Niamey, 33 percent of women aged 20–24 were married before their 18th birth- day, compared to 89 percent in Maradi region. 100% While the civil code sets 15 as the minimum age for girls to marry, customary law governs 80% most marriages, with some brides as young as 12 years old. Less educated girls and those 60% living in rural areas are especially vulnerable to early marriage.53 A third of married women 40% are in polygamous unions.54 Social and economic pressures drive up 20% rates of child marriage. Bride price can ease a family’s financial burdens, and many Nige- 0% Rural Urban No Primary Secondary Poorest Richest riens see early marriage as the only way to Education Education Education Wealth Wealth prevent out-of-wedlock pregnancy. Meager or Above Quintile Quintile educational opportunities likewise contribute to high child marriage rates; girls who wish FIGURE 5: Percentage of Women Aged 20–24 Married to continue their education but lack access before the Age of 18 to a nearby school face few viable options Source: “Child marriage in Niger.” Save the Children, 2018. outside marriage. Furthermore, community leaders frequently defend child marriage as a traditional of girls to 18; however, since most marriages occur un- practice, and some Muslim clerics claim that it is com- der customary law, this move will not necessarily alter patible with Islam. Given the authority and influence of current trends.58 In addition to advocating for stricter traditional and religious leaders, many politicians and laws, several local and international organizations have government officials are hesitant to speak out against sponsored community-based interventions to promote the issue.55 girls’ education and discourage early marriage.59 As of June 2018, the Nigerien government was devel- Gender-based violence is another widespread prob- oping the country’s first national strategic lem in Niger. According to a 2015 government survey, plan on child marriage.56 In July 2019, President 6 out of 10 Nigerien women experience some form of Issoufou reiterated his commitment to end the prac- violence in their lifetime: a third of women report phys- tice and called on community and national leaders to ical and psychological violence, while 13 percent report prioritize girls’ education.57 Activists and government sexual violence. Women in rural areas are more likely to officials have pushed to raise the minimum legal age experience violence than urban women, and the regions

8 World Faiths Development Dialogue | www.wfdd.us more detail, see the box, “Niger’s BOX 4: Wahaya: Trafficking of Girls and Women in Niger “Husband Schools.”) Religious and traditional leaders have also con- A small number of Niger’s child brides are known as wahaya, or “fifth wives.” vened culturally sensitive discus- These girls, many of whom are younger than 15, are sold to men who already sions to encourage girls’ education have four wives, the legal limit for polygamous unions. Without the official status as an alternative to early marriage, of wife, fifth wives are frequently treated as domestic and/or sex slaves. This while Islamic TV programming practice (sometimes referred to as sadaka), is most common in Tahoua region, highlights the adverse health im- although Nigerien girls are also trafficked into northern Nigeria and neighboring pact of marriage and pregnancy on countries to be sold as wahaya.a Despite several landmark legal rulings against young girls.62 However, there is no these marriages, including the top court’s official banning of the practice in March formal mechanism for faith actors 2019, Nigerien girls continue to be bought and sold as wahaya.b to coordinate with state officials and a. “Ten Facts about Niger’s ‘Fifth Wives’ or Wahayu.” The Child Labor Coalition, August 27, non-governmental organizations on 2013. Available at: http://stopchildlabor.org/?p=3603 gender issues.63 b. Peyton, Nellie. “No more ‘fifth wife’ sex slaves and maids, Niger’s top court rules.” Among Niger’s religious commu- Reuters, March 20, 2019. Available at: https://www.reuters.com/article/us-niger- slavery-court/no-more-fifth-wife-sex-slaves-and-maids-nigers-top-court- nities, the Niassène Tijaniyya con- rules-idUSKCN1R11TE frérie stands out for its commitment to women’s empowerment, due in large part to the efforts of Saida of Zinder and Maradi report the highest rates of GBV Oumou Khairi Niasse. Widely known as “Mama Kiota,” (98 and 83 percent, respectively).60 While there are legal Niasse is the daughter of Ibrahim Niasse, an influential mechanisms in place to address GBV, few cases make leader of the confrérie; she is also the wife of Sheikh it to the courts, as women face strong social pressures Aboubacar Hassoumi, who established the town of Kiota not to report incidents, opting instead for mediation by in southwestern Niger. Niasse is widely regarded as a family members and community leaders. spiritual leader in her own right; she leads a group of Female genital cutting (FGC) is uncommon compared over 2,000 Sufi women in Kiota. Working with them and to other West African nations: only 2 percent of Nigerien other local leaders in Kiota, Niasse has established Fran- women have undergone the procedure.61 co-Arabic schools with an emphasis on girls’ enrollment Numerous religious leaders and FIOs are involved in and retention. Niasse’s initiatives have also expanded advocacy efforts to promote gender equality and wom- the public role of adult women in Kiota through literacy en’s empowerment in Niger. Some have supported the es- courses, community gardens, and savings and lending tablishment of “Husband Schools,” which address child groups. In addition, Niasse has spoken in support of marriage and women’s health in their curricula. (For using modern contraceptives to space births.64

Health etween 1960 and 2017, life expectancy in Niger in 2017, while cholera is a recurring concern along the rose from 35 years to 62 years, thanks in large Niger-Nigeria border.69 Poor sanitary conditions and B part to improved programs for health care, the movement of people across the border can trigger nutrition, and hygiene. However, the current average cholera outbreaks, the most recent of which spread to lifespan is still ten years below the global average.65 Ma- four regions of Niger between July and December 2018, laria, diarrheal disease, and lower respiratory infections claiming 78 lives.70 Meningitis is another recurring issue; remain among the top causes of death.66 There were an an outbreak in 2015 involved 8,500 cases and close to estimated 7.7 million cases of malaria in 2017 alone, re- 600 deaths.71 sulting in over 17,000 deaths.67 That same year, there While HIV/AIDS prevalence is very low, at 0.3 percent, were over 14 million cases of neglected tropical diseases the virus still claimed the lives of over a thousand people (NTDs), including elephantiasis, blinding trachoma, and in 2017. Today, there are roughly 36,000 people living intestinal worms.68 (Mortality rates for NTDs are not with HIV/AIDS in Niger, of whom 20,000 are on antiret- readily available.) roviral therapy. Some 1,700 people were newly infected Infectious diseases pose another significant public with HIV in 2017. The virus has left around 53,000 or- health threat. Tuberculosis claimed over 4,000 lives phans (ages 0–17) in its wake.72

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Niger’s national health care system is ill- equipped to meet these and other challenges. 350 Neonatal (Niger) Neonatal (SSA) Under-5 (SSA) Most health facilities lack sufficient medica- 300 Infant (Niger) Infant (SSA) tion, equipment, and personnel to provide Under-5 (Niger) Under-5 (SSA) Under-5 (Niger) quality preventive and treatment services.73 250 Infant (SSA) While the majority of health facilities are 200 public, government financing accounts for Infant (Niger) only a small amount of health care expendi- 150 Neonatal (SSA) tures; of the average US $27 spent per person 100 on health care in 2016, only $7 came from the Neonatal (Niger) 50 government. In contrast, more than half of expenditures ($15) are paid out of pocket.74 0 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 Maternal and child health is a major con- cern. Niger has the world’s highest fertility rate (over 7 births per woman) and birth rate (46.5 FIGURE 6: Neonatal, Infant, and Under-5 Mortality births per 1,000 people).75 The more pregnan- Rates (per 1,000 live births) in Niger and cies a woman has, the more likely she is to ex- Sub-Saharan Africa, 1990–2018 perience birth-related injury or death: in 2017, Source: https://data.worldbank.org the maternal mortality rate in Niger was more than double the global average (509 deaths per 76 100,000 live births, compared to 211). Current 20 neonatal, infant, and under-five maternal mor- Married Women All Women All Women tality rates likewise exceed global averages. Married Women Early marriage and pregnancy increase 15 the risk of maternal injury and death, as a woman who marries early is likely to have 10 a greater number of children than one who marries later. (More than half of women mar- ried before age 15 have three or more children 5 by age 24, compared to less than 10 percent of women married at age 18 or older.77) Child 0 brides are less likely to receive medical care 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 during pregnancy (11 percent of women mar- ried before age 15 received care versus 43 FIGURE 7: Modern Contraceptive Prevalence Rates percent of women married at age 18 or older), (mCPR) among Nigerien Women, 2012–2018 and women under 20 are more likely to lose an infant or child than older women.78 Young Source: https://www.familyplanning2020.org/niger mothers are also particularly vulnerable to birth complications such as obstetric fistula. maternal and child mortality rates and population Children are at considerable risk of malnutrition growth trends. While the government has guaranteed and disease, so much so that 84 of every 1,000 children access to free modern contraceptive methods (MCM) die by the age of five.79 Acute respiratory infections since 2002, uptake has been slow.84 In 2016, only 19 per- and diarrheal diseases account for the vast majority of cent of married women and 16 percent of all women used these deaths.80 Measles is another common concern, MCM, while 21 percent of married women expressed with close to 8,000 cases reported in 2015.81 In 2019, 14 an unmet need for family planning. These statistics fall percent of children experienced acute malnutrition.82 In far below the Nigerien government’s goal of achieving a 2016, nearly a third of Nigerien children under age 5 were 50 percent prevalence rate among all women by 2020. underweight, over 40 percent experienced stunting (low Given current rates, it is highly unlikely that this goal height for age), and 10 percent experienced wasting (low will be met in time.85 weight for height).83 Misconceptions about family planning in general and In the past decades, access to safe and reliable family MCM in particular drive low usage rates. These miscon- planning has emerged as a key issue in reversing high ceptions include a rumor that family planning is a Western

10 World Faiths Development Dialogue | www.wfdd.us plot to reduce the global Muslim pop- ulation, as well as the notion MCM can lead to infertility.86 While prominent public officials such as President Ma- hamadou Issoufou have argued that family planning can be acceptable under Islam, some Muslim leaders have remained steadfast in opposing any form of contraception, even for the purpose of birth spacing.87 Recent trends have suggested that attitudes among the general population may be shifting in favor of family planning, however. A 2014 survey of Nigerien women found that the majority approved of using MCM in order to space, but not limit, births. Survey results attested to the influence of faith actors on attitudes toward fam- ily planning: most religious women closely considered the opinions of their religious leader(s) when decid- ing whether or not to use MCM.88 Given the considerable sway faith leaders hold on the issue of family planning, their contributions can be invaluable in promoting MCM as a means of birth spacing. In 2017, Ni- gerien faith leaders joined represen- tatives from the other eight Ouaga-

dougou Partnership (OP) countries to bontoux gérard user: Flickr advance an Alliance of West African Religious Leaders for Health and De- velopment, which aims to promote BOX 5: Niger’s “Husband Schools” dialogue and action around repro- In 2008, UNFPA piloted a project to improve maternal and child health outcomes ductive health and family planning by engaging men in communities across Zinder region. With the support of tra- in OP member countries.89 ditional and religious leaders, UNFPA established “Husband Schools” (Écoles International development des Maris) to educate local men on topics related to women’s health, including groups have also led initiatives to ed- the benefits of delaying marriage and pregnancy among girls, the importance of ucate men and women about family medical personnel to assist in childbirth, and the advantages of MCM for birth planning. In 2018, UNFPA launched spacing. In some areas, participants helped build new health facilities. By 2013, a campaign for female preachers in around 1,600 men were actively involved in these schools, of which there were Maradi region to raise awareness 130 in Zinder region alone. While the impact of the project has been difficult to about reproductive health, family measure, there have been reports of a rise in assisted births and use of family planning, and women’s rights issues planning methods in the region.a However, some evaluations undertaken to date among local women. In the follow- have failed to demonstrate that the schools have yielded significant results. ing months, more girls enrolled in school and more women visited a. “Schools for Husbands gaining ground in rural Niger.” UNFPA, June 17, 2014. Available at: https://www.unfpa.org/news/schools-husbands-gaining- nearby health facilities. Heath pro- ground-rural-niger; “Case study: ‘Husband schools’ in Niger.” Fatherhood fessionals also noted an increase Institute, July 31, 2013. Available at: http://www.fatherhoodinstitute.org/2013/ in the number of women inquiring case-study-husband-schools-in-niger/ about MCM.90

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Looking Ahead eligion is an integral component of Niger’s so- the opportunity of an education and heightening cial landscape, and faith-linked individuals and their risk of pregnancy- and birth-related injury R groups are in a strong position to strengthen de- and death. In recent years, prominent public figures velopment initiatives in the country (or, less positively, have disavowed child marriage, including President to hinder them). Leading religious figures and FIOs in Mahamadou Issoufou. International development Niger are quite active in advocacy and service deliv- groups have also made inroads in local communities ery in their communities, running schools and spear- by encouraging stakeholders, particularly men, to heading local efforts that address pressing issues such delay marriage in favor of girls’ education. However, as child marriage and maternal mortality. However, financial burdens on families, a lack of economic state authorities and international development groups opportunity for women, and cultural and religious have yet to systematically and effectively engage with justifications continue to reinforce early marriage faith actors. This brief has highlighted development as a social norm. Religiously-linked advocacy against in Niger in the fields of education, gender, and health child marriage, while gradual in impact, underscore in order to promote greater awareness of faith-linked the potential for religious groups to shape behavior contributions to these fields. The key findings below in favor of women’s empowerment. are intended to help initiate further discussion and • Family planning is gaining ground as a means of im- research about these topics. proving maternal health, but on-the-ground religious • Rapid population growth is the foremost challenge engagement on the issue is limited. While uptake of facing development in Niger. Current estimates pre- modern contraceptives has risen steadily, current dict that the population will nearly triple by 2050. prevalence rates (19 percent among married women High birth rates and rising life expectancy place and 16 percent among all women) fall far below the stress on already under-resourced public education government’s goal of 50 percent by 2020. Some Ni- and health care systems. A burgeoning population will gerien faith leaders have promoted family planning also fuel greater competition for access to shrinking for birth spacing, which they accept only as a means natural resources, stoking political and social conflict of promoting maternal health rather than curbing and the mass migration of economic refugees within population growth. However, religious leaders and Niger and across international borders. While modern FIOs have yet to develop a long-term strategy on this contraceptives are gradually gaining ground among issue, and many imams continue to reject all forms Nigerien women, current usage rates are unlikely of family planning as contrary to Islamic teaching. to make a substantial change in population growth. • Government ministries and civil society organiza- State-led and outside development initiatives would tions, including faith-inspired groups, could benefit benefit from adjusting their approaches so as to mit- from closer collaboration on development issues. igate the potential impact of high population growth While groups such as the Islamic Association of Ni- on service delivery, such as by investing in the con- ger have a formal relationship with the government, struction of schools and clinics, as well as training there is a lack of coordinating mechanisms between more teachers and health professionals. governmental and religious leaders in such sectors • Child marriage is a major obstacle to women’s as education and health. Given the expertise of faith education, health, and economic empowerment. actors on these issues, more streamlined communi- Three in four girls are married before the age of 18 cation and collaboration could help strengthen the in Niger. This percentage has changed little since implementation of policies and help to shape com- the 1990s, cutting off generations of women from munity behaviors in favor of these policies.

12 World Faiths Development Dialogue | www.wfdd.us Endnotes

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The World Faiths Development Dialogue (WFDD) is a not-for-profit organization working at the intersection of religion and global development. Housed within the Berkley Center in Washington, D.C., WFDD documents the work of faith inspired organizations and explores the importance of religious ideas and actors in development contexts. WFDD supports dialogue among religious and development communities and promotes innovative partnerships, at national and international levels, with the goal of contributing to positive and inclusive development outcomes.

This brief, authored by Luisa Banchoff, is a continuation of WFDD’s country mapping work. Additional information and publications can be found at https://berkleycenter.georgetown.edu/projects/mapping-of-faith-inspired-organizations-by-world-region-and-country. Address questions to WFDD ([email protected]).