Yagub Mahmudov

HISTORY OF

EARLY

(Second half of the IX‐early XIII centuries)

London ‐ Los Angeles, 2011

Scientific editor: Yegana Gozalova PhD of History, assistant professor

Editors: Nazila Mammadova Gunay Talibova

Translated by: Adila Agabeyova

M 31 Yagub Mahmudov. . Period of early Renaissance (second half of the IX‐early XIII centuries)

The book deals with political, economic and cultural revival having begun with arising of the local states after the decline of Arab in Azerbaijan. The author is the pioneer to describe the early Renaissance as the period of Azerbaijan history – the revival begun with spreading of the epos «Kitabi‐Dede Gorgud» in all country territory and with formation of the Azerbaijan people which lasted till the beginning of the XIII century.

CONTENTS

EARLY RENAISSANCE Early renaissance of our history...... 5

POLITICAL RENAISSANCE 1. The weakening of the Arab Caliphate and revival of Azerbaijan states: Azerbaijan states in the II half of IX ‐mid of the XI centuries ...... 8 2. The Seljuki Turks and Azerbaijan ...... 27 3. Azerbaijan states at the beginning of the XII‐ XIII centuries ...... 33

ECONOMIC REVIVAL 1. Agriculture ...... 45 2. Land property and taxes ...... 49 3. Handicraft. Trade. Cities ...... 54 4. The economic revival at the beginning of the XII‐XIII centuries and the prosperity of cities...... 70 5. Caravan ways and international trade relations...... 77

RENAISSANCE IN CULTURE 1. «Kitabi‐Dede Gorgud» is the history chronicle of the land...... 82

3 YAGUB MAHMUDOV

2. Science and school...... 93 3. Literature ...... 96 4. Architecture and other areas of trade ...... 112 5. Azerbaijan Turkish language...... 115

APPENDIX: MAPS...... 119

BIBLIOGRAPHY ...... 127

4

EARLY RENAISSANCE

I devote this book to my wife Almas Suleiman gizi, who shared my painful days of life which lasted in struggling, pressure and pursuit!

Early renaissance of our history

Early renaissance takes a significant place in Azerbaijan history. This is the period of development of our statehood, military and political power, craftsmanship, trade and cities, and revival of our culture. This is the florishing period of our deeply rooted magnificent history tree... Azerbaijan passed a great evolution period since the ancient time of history to early renaissance. Ancient and rich statehood traditions emerged in the end of IV millennium – beginning of the III millennium B.C., began to revive during the political existence of Azerbaijan that had embeded in the world history during the rule of Manna, Iskit‐Massaget kingdom, Atropatena and Albania, and after the collapse of Sasani and Caliphate tyranny. Even Persian and Arab tyranny that lasted aproximately for 600 years could not destroy the old state system traditions, liberty ideals, ancient, rich and unique civilization of Azerbaijan. On the contrary, Azerbaijan dropped out of the hard turns of history, long lasted decisive battles against the enemies, foreign tyrants, and bloody conflicts with more powerful enemies, unequal wars, in short, glorious struggle trials stronger and firm. The people movement led by Babak weekened the Caliphate. The Arab tyranny ended.... 5 YAGUB MAHMUDOV

After the collapse of the Caliphate the Islamic period of our history began. The Turkish sword rose in defence of in all Near East, as well as in South . Turk‐Islamic Unity took the eternal and steady place on the Azerbaijan land. We grew much more powerful. We united, became a single nation. Azerbaijani Turkish language turned to be the powerful means of communi‐ cation in entire Caucasus. The epos «Kitabi‐Dede Gorgud», the masterpiece of our folklore was spread from the borders of Diyarbakr to the pass of Darband, to the lands of Trabzon and Abkhaz situating on the coasts of the Caspian and Black Seas. Formation of our nation ended. Azerbaijan became the source of the Turk‐Islamic world... Our greatest achievement that started with Islam was the revival. As a natural consequence of the freedom movement against the Caliphate a new political rebirth took place in Azerbaijan in the middles of the XIX century – there appeared the local states ruled by the dynasty of , Sajis, Salaries, Ravvadies and Shaddadies and governors of Shaki. This was a political revival. But this was not a political unity. Division of the country into many states, political destruction made our country helpless before the predatory attacks of the Byzantine, Armenian and Georgian feudals that atarted simultaneously with the of the West European feudals against the Eastern nations... THE SELJUK MOVEMENT began during the insidious plans that were prepared against Azerbaijan, the only strongpold of the Turk‐ Islamic world in the South Caucasus. Armenian and Georgian feudals who seized the western territories of our country and Byzantine that defended them were destroyed. The Seljuks were the support of Azerbaijan. The state system of Azerbaijan and its political revival became firm. Eldegiz (Ildigiz) Empire, the great Azerbaijani state embeded in the world history. All, the north and south territories united in one political circle. Joining in the single front the Turkish‐Islamic people of Azerbaijan, as well as Caucasus

6 EARLY RENAISSANCE fought heroically against the attacks of the , Armenian and Georgian feudals and the Slavic people. Azerbaijan became the staunch stronghold of the Turk‐ Islamic world in the Caucasus. So the plans to annihilate Azerbaijan as a political figure turned vain. Consequently the Turkish – Islamic factor became a decisive issue. The relations with the Turkish – Islamic world, as well as with other foreign countries broadened. The great political revival caused the economical progress, the development of agriculture, craftsmanship and cities, the enlargement of internal and foreign trade realtions and finally, it caused an unexampled flourishig in culture. Early Renaissance culture of Azerbaijan was formed and this culture rose to the peak of its Nizami. Today, patriots of Azerbaijan, that are famous in the world, the Azerbaijani soldier who stands on the guard of the honour and self‐esteem is the past of every pupil, young student, every men whose heart beats with Azerbaijan. The Early Renaissance history is your sublimity, the Nizami peak of our culture! This is your history, the Great Azer‐ baijan Renaissance which is raised on the base of Early Renaissance and raised to the peak of ! Read and study this history, possess your past, return your pride and keep your head upright! Do not forget: history is repeated... As in the Early Renaissance today Azerbaijan still fights against the inexhaustible mischievous plans of insidious enemies. Fight means to wake up, to get to know friend and enemy, to become purified, to be courageous and finally it means to revive. Bright future begins after the hard periods and dark nights. Our revival has begun so during the Renaissance. Our native land, independent Azerbaijan that develops day by day again makes a noise in the world!

7 POLITICAL RENAISSANCE

1. The weakening of the Arab Caliphate and revival of the Azerbaijan states: Azerbaijan states in the II half of the IX ‐mid of the XI centuries

In the IX century the military and political power of the Arab Caliphate considerably weakened. Due to the streghtening of the feudal relations, the position of the great feudals became stronger, the independence of province rulers increased. Struggle against the feudal tyranny and people’s independence movement in the occupied lands gained wide scope. Gradually increasing feudal anarchy shook the government. Small feudal states – emirates were founded in the outskirts of the empire. These states were governed by seperate leaders, the former Arab rulers. As time passed, these feudal generations lost their Arabic origin and became closely linked with local nation. The collapse of Abbasi Caliphate approached. The independence trend in Azerbaijan, one of the main centers of the people’s freedom movement against the Abbasi Empire was stronger. The big feudals, who gained wide land properties and various privileges as a result of development of the feudal relations and during the struggle against the Arab occupation, became the independent local rulers. Their dependence from the Abbasi caliphate was formal. Seperate provinces of Azerbaijan actually were ruled by different feudal dinasties. , , Urmia, Mughan, Aran, , Beylagan, Shaki, Sanariya, Gabala, Darband was governed by the different feudal dinasties. Though some of these feudal dinasties were of Arab origin, they intermingled with local people.

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THE SHIRVANSHAHS STATE. In the course of the collapse of the Abbasi Caliphate, one of the independent and relatively strong feudal states formed in Azerbaijan was the Shirvanshahs. Shirvan before was a small province in the north‐east of Azerbaijan. It cove‐ red Azerbaijan land in the coast of the from Darband to the Kur River. The capital of the province was Shirvan city which situated on Shamakhy‐Darband trade way in the coast of the Caspian Sea. Then wide areas in the north of Azerbaijan occupied by the Shirvanshahs were also called «Shirvan». This state was governed by the Mazyadi dinasty. The Mazyadies dinasty is called as Sheybanis or Yezidies in history literature as well. The Mazyadies were originated from the Arabic tribe named Rabia. Salman ibn Rabia, who occupied Aran during the period of the caliph Osman (644‐656), was the representative of this tribe. Mazyadies generated from the Seybanis kin of Rabia tribe, started to gain strength from that period. Yezid ibn Mazyad, the notable representative of the Mazyadies, was the ruler of South Caucasus province, as well as Shirvan during the period of caliph Harun ar‐ Rashid (786‐809). Yezid ibn Mazyad played a significant role in the development of in South Caucasus, as well as, in Azerbaijan; and became a famous leader in the battle fought in this area. In order to support the caliphate in Azerbaijan, he brought many Arabs to this land from Rabia, as well as and . Arabs settled mainly in Aran, Shirvan and Darband. Yezid ibn Mazyad occupied many land properties in these areas. The Mazyadies founded half independent feudal state – the emirate with the capital Barda in Aran for the first time. That period Barda was the center of Arab government in all South Caucasus. The residence of Yazid ibn Mazyad, the Arab governor of all Azerbaijani territories, as well as Aran, Shirvan, Darband, etc. was in Barda. He ruled these lands as a deputy of Shirvan. Yazid ibn Mazyad, who lived in Azerbaijan till the end of his life, died in 801 in Barda and was buried there. After death of Yazid ibn Mazyad his sons Asad,

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Khalid and were appointed in turn the governors of South Caucasus. In 859 Muhammad ibn Yazid moved his residence to Ganja after its restoration. The independence of the Mazyadies increased. They became more powerful in Azerbaijan. As the time passed the Arab Mazyady dynasty became closely linked with the local people. As Aran, as well as Barda was captured by the Sajies the representatives of the Mazyady moved to Shirvan; the Arabic generation that adopted Turkish habits settled basically in Shirvan territory. The Mazyady dynasty lost its Arabic origin like the most Arab generation during the process of conversion into and formation of the single Azerbaijan Turkish people. In 861 Haytham ibn Khalid, one of the representatives of the Mazyady dynasty, declared the independence of Shirvan and accepted the Shirvanshahs title. In 917 the neighbour Lahijanshahlig was added to the state of Shirvanshahs. In connection with this, in 918 after the reconstruction of the ancient, suitable from the military and strategic view point Shamakhy city, Shirvanshah Abu Tahir (917‐948) moved the capital from Shirvan, situated on the coast of the Caspian Sea there. Since that time the capital of the Shirvanshahs was called Yezidiyya. The independence of the Shirvanshah state increased and its territory enlarged. During the rule of Abu Tahir and other representatives of Mazyady dynasty the adding of small feudal states on the north of Azerbaijan to the Shirvan state was continued. The Shirvanshahs army seized Gabala (981‐982), Barda (982) and Shabran (983). The Darband Emirate, founded on the crossing between the and the Caspian Sea, the important strategic point of Azerbaijan during the weakening of the Caliphate, and governed by the Hashimy, a feudal dynasty with Arabic origin, was also added (988) to the Shirvanshahs state. This event was of a great historical importance. Darband, where the Azerbaijani Turks lived all together and due to this was called «Demir gapi» (Iron Gate), was one of the ancient regions of Azerbaijan. After the Shirvanshahs

10 EARLY RENAISSANCE captured Darband, they reconstructed and strengthened the Darband Wall and the fortress walls of the city. Besides Darband, Khursan and Tabarsaran also became dependent of the Shirvanshahs. During the weakening of the Abbasi caliphate emergence of independent Shirvanshahs state in the north‐east territories of Azerbaijan was a progressive historical moment. The establishment of this state positively affected the revival of the old statehood traditions in other regions of Azerbaijan. Besides, the strengthening of the Shirvanshahs state and the maintenance of Darband pass facilitated the struggle against attacks of the Alan, the Sarir, the Slavic and other foreign aggressions towards Azerbaijan from the north. THE STATE OF SAJIS. The state of Sajis was one of the powerful feudal states that were founded in Azerbaijan during the period of struggle against Arab oppression. The Azerbaijan state of Sajis was founded by the Turkish dynasty of Sajis (879‐941). As a rule the representatives of the dynasty used to go under the nickname Afshin. Sajis were arisen from the Turkish kins in the province Asrushan (Usrushana), . A lot of famous commanders of the Arab army including Afshin Heydar ibn Kavus were from this stock. The Azerbaijan state of Sajis was based on real ethno‐political ground. The fact was that after the seizure of eastern part of Asia Minor (East ), and South Caucasus, including Azerbaijan by the caliphate the position of the Turkic tribes which had lived in these places since the ancient times and had adopted the Islam religion consolidated here. During the protracted wars between the Caliphate and Byzantine during the reign of Arab caliphs Mehdi (775‐785), Harun ar‐Rashid (786‐809), Mamun (813‐ 833), Motasim (833‐842), especially under Mutavakkil (847‐861) with the purpose of fortification the Caliphate‐Byzantine boundaries the new Turkish kins were moved from Central Asia to Azerbaijan and Eastern Anatolia. Turkish brave spirits became the important part of the Caliphate army. The Islam‐Turkic unity including the Azerbaijan

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Turks played an important part in the struggle against the Byzantine Empire which became more active in the result of weakening of the Arab Caliphate and acting in concert with it the unique Christian bloc consisting of Armenian and Georgian feudals which strove to seize the Azerbaijan lands. The military operations of the Arab Caliphate led against Byzantine were headed by Vasif at‐Turki, Faraj at‐Turki, Khalaf of Fergana, Toganoghlu Ahmad, Abu Sabit at‐Turki, Yazman, Busr Afshini, Kayi oghlu Ahmad, Burdu oghlu Rustam, Munis and other distinguished Turkic warlords. According to the sources the founder of the Saji dynasty Abu Saj Divdad was one of the famous Turkic warlords which were serving in the caliphate troops then. He headed a lot of most difficult military operations of the Arab armies, and held important posts at the Caliphate. Azerbaijan being one of the largest and the richest provinces of the Caliphate was given to Sajis as a real property for their services before the state. Governing Azerbaijan independently, Sajis gave taxes to the Caliphate treasury in the amount of 120 thousand dinar. Muhammad ibn Saj and Yusif ibn Saj, the sons of Abu Saj Divdad were the notable warlords. During the government of the Sajis (879‐930), the south regions of Azerbaijan became the independent states. Benefitting from the political anarchy during the collapse of the Abbasi Caliphate, this state often defeated the Armenian and Georgian rulers who tried to occupy the western regions of Azerbaijan and made them dependent. Sajis which left the subordination of Caliphate had its own coins. At the end of the IX century (898‐900), they began to mint coins on behalf of Muhammad ibn Saj. After death of Muhammad ibn Saj, the state of Sajis became more powerful in the period of his brother Yusif ibn Saj. Since 912, they stopped completely paying taxes to the treasury of the Caliphate. Yusif ibn Saj repeatedly defeated troops of the Armenian and Georgian rulers. He occupied territories where lived, Tiflis and Kakhetia. The Armenian and Georgian

12 EARLY RENAISSANCE rulers, who tried to expand their territories on the account of the Azerbaijani lands, became dependent from Azerbaijan. Sajis made the Shirvanshahs’ state dependent as well. Thus, in the beginning of the X century the Azerbaijan state of Sajis covered the Azerbaijan territories from Zanjan to Darband. The east boundaries of the Sajis began from the coasts of the Caspian Sea, and the west one reached to the cities Ani and Dabil (Dvin). In order to fortify the north boundaries of the state, Yusif ibn Saj restored the wall of Darband. He reconstructed the destroyed part of the wall in the sea. Minting coins in Barda, Maragha and on behalf of the Saji ruler shows that Azerbijan was an independent state, and did not depend on the Abbasi Caliphate. The capital of the Saji state at first was Maragha, then the city of Ardabil. The unification of all Azerbaijan territories in the content of the common Azerbaijan Turkish state – the Sajis during the 80s of the IX century and 40s of the X century, that is during the historical period for more than half a century affected positively to the development of economic and cultural relations in the country, to the elemination of the ethnic differences, expediting the establishment process of single Azerbaijan Turkish nation. THE STATE OF SALARIES. The State of Sajis did not stand long due to the political anarhy in the Near and Middle East occured as a result of the collapse of the Caliphate. Benefiting from the feudal groups in Azerbaijan ibn Muhammad, Deylam (Gilan) ruler defeated Deysam, the last ruler of the Sajis and in 941 occupied the city Ardabil, the capital of the country. As Marzban ibn Muhammad (941‐957) was from the dynasty of Salaris (941‐981), this state was known as the State of Salaries in the history of Azerbaijan. Capital of the Salari state was Ardabil. Soon the Salaris made the north‐west lands of Azerbaijan and Shirvanshah state their dependent and seized Darband. Besides,

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Marzban ibn Mahammad made Armenian and Georgian feudals dependent and added their land to his areas. Thus, the Salaries became a great state covering the territories from the Darband pass in the north, to the rivers of Euphrates and Tigris in the south, from the coasts of the Caspian Sea and Gilan in the east, to Trabzon and Abkhaz land in the west. Thus, Azerbaijan territories united as a single state during the government of the Salari dynasty. This positively influenced to the development of economic relations, prosperity of art and trade, improvement of foreign trade relations. During the government of Salaries, the trade ships of Azerbaijan began to sail on the Caspian Sea. The process of formation of Azerbaijan‐Turkish nation was deepened. The economic, military and political role of Azerbaijan developed in the Near and Middle East. The mixture of different ethnic groups with the Azerbaijan nation increased. However, after the death of Marzban ibn Muhammad (957), the internal war for power between his sons, as well as his brother Vahsudan caused the development of feudal anarchy and the weakening of central government. The exposure to frequent invasions of the Slavic people to the territories of Azerbaijan in the Caspian coasts, especially, the pillage of Barda and the terrible massacre of the local people quickened the collapse of the Salaries. THE STATE OF RAVVADIS. In 981 one of the big feudals of Azerbaijan – the ruler of Tabriz, Maragha, Ahar – Abulhija, who became more powerful during the weakening period of the Salaries, dethroned Ibrahim ibn Marzban (962‐981), the last ruler of the Salaries and founded the Azerbaijan state of Ravvadis. Ravvadis were the rulers of Maragha, Tabriz, Garadagh and Ahar, the great feudal dynasties who fought against the Arab slavery and tried to gain independence in Azerbaijan. The root of this feudal dynasty belongs to one of the ancient Arab dynasties. During the occupation of Caliphate, many Arab people were moved to the south regions of Azerbaijan. For instance, during the government of Caliph (656‐

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661), some Arab tribes of and were resettled in the south regions of Azerbaijan, as well as Ardabil. One of these dynasties was Azdi. The founder of the dynasty was ar‐Ravvad al‐Azdi of Yemen birth. Like other Arab tribes who were moved to Azerbaijan, the Ravvadis also intermingled with the local people. Being half‐ independent feudal state in the south of Azerbaijan at the end of the VIII century, the Ravvadi emirate from time to time became completely independent and almost took all south regions of Azerbaijan under its control. After the defeat of Salaries, the Ravvadis joined the south regions of Azerbaijan under its government. Besides, the Ravvadis defeated Sipahbud, the ruler of Mughan, and made this feudal state dependent. During the government of the Ravvadis, the Oghouz Turks consolidated their position in Azerbaijan. In 1028, after the serious attack of Mahmud Gaznavi on Khorasan Oghouzes, approximately 2000 Oghouz family was moved to Azerbaijan and on permission of Vahsudan, the ruler of Ravvadi (1020‐1059) they settled there. They intermingled with their compatriots – Azerbaijani Turks. Soon after the new flows of Oghouz Turk tribes came to Azerbaijan. Due to them, the position of Azerbaijan Turks that fought against the Byzantine Empire and the Armenian‐Georgian feudals supported by this Christian state gained strength. The Ravvadis moved the capital of the country from Ardabil to Tabriz. This was a progessive step, because Tabriz located in the suitable position for the unification of Azerbaijan lands from economic, political and cultural view point. Being situated in the junction of international caravan roads which joined countries of the East with the Mediterranean and , as well as regions along the River and Eastern Europe through Darband pass, Tabriz enlarged and flourished under the Ravvadis. THE SHADDADIES STATE. In the 70s of the X century, a new feudal state – the Shaddadies emerged in the north of Azerbaijan.

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The Shaddadies, feudal dynasty of Azerbaijan lived in the outskirts of Dabil (Dvin) which was in the content of the Salaries. Benefiting from the weakening of the Salari state Muhammad ibn Shaddad took possession of Dabil in 951 and founded the independent feudal state – the emirate of Dabil (Dvin). This Azerbaijan emirate governed by Muhammad ibn Shaddad and his heirs is known as the Shaddadi state in the history. Futher, the Shaddadies benefited from the weakening of the Salari state in 971 occupied Ganja and founded the Shaddadi State in Azerbaijan. Then, the Shaddadies consolidated in Barda, and other areas of Azerbaijan; they expanded their territories to the west. Under Fazl ibn Muhammad (985‐1030), the Shaddadies became even more powerful. He eliminated all small feudal properties near Ganja and developed the central government. Fazl ibn Muhammad added Dabil, the Shaddadies ancestors’ land to his state. Van‐ Armenian ruler was obliged to give taxes to the Shaddadies. Furthermore, Fazl ibn Muhammad fought against the Georgian feudals and . The bridge Khudafarin (1027) built for military purposes during his reign on the river Araz (Araxes) played a significant role in broadening economic and cultural relations between the northern and southern lands of Azerbaijan. In the years of Fazl ibn Muhammadʹs ruling arose close relations between the Shaddadies and the Shirvanshahs. Between the both Azerbaijan dynasties were ties of blood. The Shaddadies were in friendly terms with other Azerbaijan rulers – Ravvadies which were ruling in the South of Azerbaijan and emir of Tiflis Abulfazl Jafar ibn Ali. Settling of new Oghouz kins in the Azerbaijani lands in the north of the Araz River in the 30s of the XI century even more increased the military power of the Shaddadies. To Byzantine‐ Armenian troops which strove to seize Dabil was struck a heavy blow (1037). Efforts of Byzantine and Georgian joint forces to liquidate (1038) the Tiflis Moslem emirate did not succeed either. The courageous Oghouz brave spirits took an active part in all these

16 EARLY RENAISSANCE fights. In Abulasvar Shavurʹs (1049‐1067) time the Shaddadi state strengthened even more. Wars were waged with and its ally – the state of Shirvanshahs. Being daunted by strengthening of the Shaddadi state and tried to seize the Tiflis Moslem emirate ruled by the Jafari dynasty at the time the Georgian tsar Bagrat IV concluded treaty with the and in 1062 created conditions for Alans passing through the Darial pass to attack Azerbaijan with the help of Georgia. Meanwhile Shavur doubled the defence of Ganja against the strangers. He enclosed and digged ditches around Ganja and (1063) constructed sturdy city gates. The famous gates of Ganja city were made by Ibrahim ibn Osman. The Shaddadies aiming not to abandon Dabil –their ancestorʹs land, as well as to save their independence, another Shaddadi area – the Ani emirate instantly fought against the Armenian feudals and the Byzantine Empire which helped them. The main blowing strength of the Shaddadi troops which were fighting against the joint military forces of the Byzantine and Armenian feudals in the east of Asia Minor were the Oghouz Turks. Later on more powerful ally of the Shaddadies in this fighting became the Seljuki Turks. The Byzantine emperors that were leading the policy – to add the South Caucasus to their sphere of influence always supported the coreligionist Armenian and Georgian rulers. Armenian and Georgian feudals striving to take possession of the western land of Azerbaijan relied on the Byzantine Empire. The Shaddadies were acting against the joint forces of the Byzantine Empire, Armenian and Georgian rulers in concert with different Oghouz kins, including the Seljuki Turks. And this played the important part in defence of the Azer‐ baijani lands from the Armenian, Georgian and Byzantine aggres‐ sion. THE SHAKI GOVERNORSHIP. One of the politically revived centers of Azerbaijan in the time of decline of the Arab Caliphate was Shaki. The town Shaki that located in the north‐ west of the country and surrounding Azerbaijani lands close to Arab occupation were

17 YAGUB MAHMUDOV the basic centers of the ancient Albanian‐Azerbaijan culture. Since the VIII B.C. the Kimmers, Iskits, Saks and from the beginning of our era , Khazars and other Turkic kins played the important part in ethno‐social and economic life of the Shaki region. But on the eve of occupation by the Arab Caliphate and in the following period the position of the Oghouz Turks had gained strength in the region. This process was not going without religious‐tribal confrontations. But foreign aggressors, Byzantine being in the head strived to occupy the region. In this complicated historical condition rulers of Shaki could keep their independence. The Shaki region could keep relative independence in the time of the Caliphate occupations. In ruling Shaki the Caliphate gave definite privileges to representatives of the local Mehrani dynasty. At the time Shaki was an important trade and handicraft centre. This city located on the trade ways which connected North Azerbaijan with Tiflis – one of the big cities of Albania, as well as the cities Darband and Shamakhy. Shaki governors ruled their land as the heirs of the state of . The local governor Grigor Hammam seizing power in Shaki in 887/88 restored the collapsed state of Albania. In the time of Grigor Hammam and his son Azernarsa the state of Shaki‐Albania gradually became stronger, and towards the end of the X century governors of Shaki took the governance of the ancient land of Albania‐ which stretched up to Tiflis Moslem emirate in the west to their hands. At the time Sanariya (later on ), the historical territory of Albania was also governed by the governors of Shaki. About in 960 the head of the independent Albanian church crowned the Shaki governor Sanakarim with Albanian crown and since then in the north‐western Azerbaijan territory emerged the independent state of Shaki ‐Albania. But soon this state underwent to continuous attacks of Abkhaz‐Georgian feudal lords supported by Byzantine. Sometimes Byzantine‐Abkhaz interventionists were acting in concert with Gypchag Turks that were converted into and other Turkic ethnoses. Nevertheless, Oghouz Turks,

18 EARLY RENAISSANCE the leading military political force in the region were fighting heroically to defend north‐western Azerbaijan territories from the enemy. Heroic fighting of the Oghouz Turks in Shaki region with the beginning of the Seljuk flows to the South Caucasus has been reflected in the epos of «Kitabi‐Dede Gorgud», in numerous Oghouz‐ Turkic toponyms as well. In the course of time the Islam religion strengthened in the territory of the state, and north‐western Azerbaijan became one of the important centers of the Turk‐Islamic culture. THE TIFLIS MOSLEM EMIRATE. The state of Shaki‐Albania was sharing the same borders, with the Tiflis Moslem emirate in the west. The Tiflis Moslem emirate emerged in the north‐west land of the former Caucasian Albania. Arisen in the time of the caliphate’s decline and ruled by the Jafari dynasty since the IX century the city Tiflis was the center of this Moslem state. There is interesting information in the Arab sources of the time about the city. Arab authors noted Tiflis (as well as Barda and Darband) one of three biggest cities of North Azerbaijan and they called it as the boundary city of the Arran. It is interesting that these authors recorded Georgia as «the mountainous country ruled by Azerbaijani governors». Tiflis was respected as the city having very fruitful land and was famous for cheap prices, comfortable markets, and healing bath‐ houses. Ibn Havgal writes that Tiflis population was Moslem and served the Sunnite faith. Tiflis located on the international caravan road connecting other cities of North Azerbaijan – Darband, Shamakhy, Shaki and Barda with coasts of the Black Sea. Suitable location for trade and military‐ strategic position favored the city to become an important political centre. Tiflis Moslem emirate was living its raising period in the time of Abu‐l‐Fazl Jafar ibn Ali. At the time the emirate was keeping close friendly relations with other Azerbaijani state – the state of Shaddadies against the Byzantine and Abkhaz‐Georgian

19 YAGUB MAHMUDOV interventionists. Blood relationship existed between the emirs of Tiflis and the Shaddadies. Shaddadi Lashkari II married with Tiflis emir ibn Ali’s daughter. Emirs of Tiflis like the Shaki governors in the condition of difficult fight protected their independence against the Abkhaz‐ Georgian interventionists and Armenian‐Gregorian missioners supported by Byzantine. With the beginning of Seljuk flows to South Caucasus the military‐political strength of Tiflis emirate added. Between the Tiflis emirate and the Seljuks arose close friendly relations against the Byzantine, Abkhaz‐Georgian and Armenian interventionists. In 1068 the Jafaries vowed to be obedient to the Great Seljuk and they accepted vassalage of the Seljuks. But Byzantine and its handy men who tried to weaken the Turk‐Moslem factor in South Caucasus had not given up their invasive plans against the Azerbaijani lands. Targeting to shake the Azerbaijan‐Seljuk union in 1117 and 1120 years as the continuation of Georgian attacks to Shirvan in 1121 the Iberian tsar David IV not far from Tiflis in Didgori battle heavily defeated the Seljuks with the Azerbaijan ruler shahzadah (prince) Togrul being on the head. A year later in 1122 Tiflis which had been under the authority of Moslems for more than 500 years was occupied by the , and was put an end to the Tiflis Moslem emirate. In the time of the Eldanizes Tiflis was again added to Moslem lands. Ibn al‐Asir wrote: «Lands of the Eldanizes’ stretched from Tiflis to Mekran». So Turk‐ Islamic unity at that time was the basic condition for preserving the state independence of Azerbaijan. ATTACKS OF THE SLAVS TO AZERBAIJAN. Feudal dispersedness, political disorder, and for the reason the unique powerful state lasting and covering the territory of all country was not formed impeded the struggle of Azerbaijan against the continuous attacks of foreigners. Moreover, Armenian and Georgian feudals getting into contact with aliens and using good opportunity from their attacks to

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South Caucasus tried to take possession of the western lands of Azerbaijan. Beginning from the end of the IX century Azerbaijan underwent new attacks of foreigners. The Slavs which had created before commercial relations with Azerbaijan through Don‐Volga‐the Caspian Sea, then passing from the Azerbaijani lands with the Caliphate, including soon began to organize predatory marches to coastal provinces of the Caspian Sea. In the Arab sources Slavs that made marches to Caspian coasts and Azerbaijan, military armed detachments of the Kiev Russian state were noted under a common term «the Russian». It was not accidental, because at that time members of military squads of Kiev princes were called «Russian». In the past a considerable part of military forces of the Kiev Russian state consisted of hired Norman knights – Varangian of Scandinavian origin. By the lapse of time, the base of the royal armed detachment, later on the entire detachment began to be assembled from local fighters. Military armed detachments of the Kiev prince at first was kept on the account of the spoils of war and of the tribute collected from the occupied territories. Therefore the Slav armed detachments were always in the predatory marches. The Slav attacks having begun in the second half of the IX century expanded from the beginning of the X century and became continuous. They entered the waters of the Caspian Sea in 909 with 16 ships. Taken possession of Abaskun Island in the south of the Caspian Sea, they began to plunder the coastal areas. But the native people defending their land heavily defeated the Slav armed detachments. The following year added in number the Slavs attacked these places again. In the islands of Sary (Sara) and in the shore points they procreated fires and robberies. Together with captives and spoils of war they attacked the Iranian shore of the Caspian Sea. But colliding with Gilanshahʹs military forces they were defeated. This time the receded Slavs were put to rout by the Shirvanshah troops. In the time that we dealt with the

21 YAGUB MAHMUDOV

Russian state’s interest to Caspian coastal countries, including to Azerbaijan was increasing. The Slav merchants having given the tax «onda bir» (one tenth) to the Khazar Khagan and passed through the territory of the state were coming to the Caspian shore to trade. Joining the trade caravans going from Azerbaijan to other trading centers of the East they even reached Baghdad. In 914 year the Slavs again campaigned to the Caspian shores. Unlike the previous one, this campaign was a great and regulated military one. 500 ships with 100 fighters on each board entered the Caspian Sea. As they passed through the territories of the Khazar khaganate they promised the Khagan half of the trouphy gained from the Caspian shores. So, the peaceful population that had never undergone attacks from the side of the Caspian Sea suddenly faced the plunder of the great military force consisting of 50.000 men. The Slav armed detachments reached the shores of and they pitched a camp in nearby islands. They usually consolidated in outskirts of Baku and in the islands located in Azerbaijan shores of the Caspian Sea: in Pirallahy, Sahilan (Shahilan), Zira (Qum Zira), Kichik (Minor) Zira, Boyuk (Major) Zira (Nargin), Zanbila(Duvanny), Khira Zira, Sary (Sara), and attacked the shore points. During the campaign of 914 settlements in the Caspian shore of Azerbaijan for months had been plundered by the Slav armed detachments. They punished mercilessly the peaceful inhabitants. They captivated the women and children. The Slavs plundered the shore points, gained great number of trouphies and sent a part to the Khazar Khagan as they had promised. But in the north shores of the Caspian Sea a severe fight took place between the Moslem‐Turkish troops consisting of approximately 15.000 men and armed detachments of the Slavs which were coming back from the robbery. According to sources, Moslem population of the Khazar khaganate addressed to the Khagan: «Allow us to settle a score with this people. They have attacked our Moslem brothersʹ land and have shed their blood, captivated their wives and children». According to Arab

22 EARLY RENAISSANCE historian Masudi, in this three‐day battle Slavs’ armed detachments were destroyed completely, but only a small group consisting of five thousand men could escape. According to sources, Khorezm, Khazar, Burtas (Mordva) and Bulgar Turks made active participation in this fight against the Slavs. After this battle for a long time the Slavs did not dare to attack the Caspian shore of Azerbaijan. Thirty years passed. In 944 the Slav armed detachments were seen again in the Caspian shores. This time they came to take possession of Barda – one of the big and rich trade and handicraft centers of Near and Middle East, «the biggest city of the Caucasus», «The chief city of Arran», and this time they had come to consolidate in Azerbaijan for ever. The Slavs consisting of armed detachments of Kiev prince Igor (912‐945) and of hired troops in ships reached the outfall of the river Kur and from here began to move towards Barda. According to the Arab historian Ibn Miskaveyh, they pitched a camp near the city Barda, in a place called Mubareki. The Slavs left their ships with 300 guarding men here and attacked Barda. Military forces of Barda ruler which was in the structure of the Salari state this time could not put up resistance much more with approximately 5.600 men because the alien forces outnumbered them. Barda was seized by the Slavs. Population was put to the sword and the city was plundered severely. But Barda dwellers were continuing to resist the strangers for liberating the native city from the enemy. When the Slavs made sure that were not able to keep Barda population in obedience, deman‐ ded them to leave the town within three days. When the time was up the foreign conquerors again put to the sword the Barda dwellers who could not leave the town. Those who survived and the wealthy men of the city were gathered to the Mosque. They were demanded 20 dirham money per head for purchasing their lives. Those who had money were able to save their lives, but the rest were punished ruthlessly. New robberies, slaughters began in the city. Women and children were captivated.

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According to the sources, in total, 20.000 men had been killed in Barda at the time. The Salari ruler Marzban ibn Muhammad who in hard days came to help Barda, surrounded the city with 30.000 men. Though the Azerbaijani ruler playing a military trick struck a heavy blow to the enemy, he could not take possession of the city. At this time got the news that military forces of Mosul ruler Abu Muhammad Nasiraddovla having violated the South boundaries of Azerbaijan taken possession of Khoy and Salmas Marzban ibn Muhammad had to do nothing, but to move with his main military forces towards the South of Azerbaijan. But few military forces of the Salaries consisting of 4.000 men continued to siege Barda. While the time lengthened the Slavs which suffered more loss and died from infectious diseases, could not keep the city in their hands. The Slavs could not break out of the encirclement in the day‐time fights, in one of nights having taken valuable things they plundered fired the rest and left the city. Then embarked the ships waiting in the shore of the river Kur in a place Mubareki, put to the Caspian Sea and came back to their country. But after attack of 944, Barda – the chief city of Arran, the biggest city of the Caucasus at that time, could not regain its previous might once again. Half a year the city remained in the hand of the Slavs and underwent a terrible robbery and destruction. Handicraft and trade fell into decay. The famous Barda market lost its importance in former times. Minting of coins was stopped in the city. The Salaries did not further pay attention to the restoration of the city. Soon after the tragedy of 944 the Shaddadies created an independent state in the north land of Azerbaijan and made Ganja the capital of the state. It much more speeded the decline of Barda. Afterwards the Slavsʹ attack to Azerbaijan continued. Azerbai‐ jan rulers instead of uniting against the common enemy for solving discords among them rather preferred to call the Slav armed detachments. They created suitable conditions for the country to fall under the slavery of foreign conquerors. For instance, in 987 the

24 EARLY RENAISSANCE

Darband ruler emir Maymun ibn Ahmad asked for help of the Slavs which at the time were going to attack Darband with 18 ships against the group of local aristocrats which strove to overthrow him. After strengthening authority he kept a group of guards consisting of Slavs. Another analogous event happened in 1030; the Slav armed detachments which attacked the Caspian shore in 38 ships after defeating the Shirvanshah’s troops not far from Baku and in the junction of the Kur and Araz rivers began to move up along the river Araz. The Shaddadi ruler Fazl ibn Muhammadʹs son Musa giving much money called the Slavs to help with defeat his brother Askuya which had rebelled in Beylagan at this time. Having won his brother and punished the Beylagan dwellers mercilessly, he rewarded the Slavs with presents. The Slav armed detachments passing through the Byzantine territory came back to the country. In 1032‐1033 Shirvan underwent one more devastating attack. The Alans, Sarirs and Slavs moving in the union with them taken possession of the city Yezidiyya (Shamakhy), the capital of Shirvanshahs within ten days plundered it ruthlessly. During this attack about 10.000 Shirvan dwellers were put to the sword. But the people who rose to defence of the country drove out the foreign conquerors from Azerbaijan. Darband ruler emir Mansur ibn Maymun heavily defeated the Alans, Sarirs and Slavs who having robbed Shirvan were returning. Next year – in 1033 the Alans and Slavs attacked to take revenge from the ruler of Darband, but suffered a defeat again. Apparently, since the IX century for the first time in its history Azerbaijan began to face dangerous encroachment from the side of the Caspian Sea. Attacks from the sea gradually were getting much more dangerous and regular. But none of the Azerbaijani rulers neither in the mentioned time, nor then cared for creation of powerful navy to defend the Caspian coastal lands of Azerbaijan from foreign attacks, cared for Azerbaijan to become the powerful sea state either.

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So, the struggle against the Arab feudalsʹ tyranny ended successfully. A number of local states arose in Azerbaijan territory then. After Sasani and Arabian yoke which had lasted for six hundred years arising of the local states – the states of Shirvanshahs, Sajis, Salaries, Ravvadies, Shaddadies and Shaki governorship was of great importance from the view point of reviving the ancient statehood traditions of Azerbaijan. Being of Islam the official religion in all these states played the important part in the ethnic evolution of the Azerbaijani people, in the development of the single language and culture. In the time when Azerbaijan had not united in a single state yet the Islam religion played a progressive part in joining the Turkic tribes which played essential role and non‐ethnic groups intermingled with them as a common force against foreign aggressors in the formation of all Azerbaijan people – our nation: Plan of taking possession of the Azerbaijani lands by the unique Christian front consisting of the Armenian, Georgian and Byzantine aggressors turned out to be a vain hope. The Slav interventionists could not strengthen in Azerbaijan either. Nevertheless, as none of the IX‐X century Azerbaijan states could have become the unique and powerful country so lasting political stability did not arise in the country. The period of dispersedness and of intestine feudal wars began. Governing of the different historical provinces of Azerbaijan traditionally by some feudal families deepened the feudal dispersedness, and made the country to be helpless in fighting against the attacks of the strangers. Azerbaijan rulers fighting with each other often for solving the home problems called foreign forces to help. But strangers using from this strived to be consolidated in Azerbaijan and to rob its wealth. Rich natural resources of Azerbaijan, its location on the junction of international caravan roads and very important military‐strategic position were always in the focus of attention of strangers; they underwent continuous attacks and aggressions. And it often disturbed the harmony of the social and economic development and deepened

26 EARLY RENAISSANCE the political sparseness. Progressive‐minded statesmen of Azerbaijan gradually perceived clearer the necessity of creating the powerful and centralized unique Azerbaijan state covering all the country.

2. The Seljuki Turks and Azerbaijan

In the middle of the XI century an important period of turn began in the history of the Near and Middle East. The Great arose on the vast territory covering the areas from Central Asia to Mediterranean shore and from Darband pass to the Persian Gulf. This state, in general, the Seljuki Turks’ flows had influenced the course of world history, had lasting trace in ethnic, military‐ political and social‐economic history of the Near and Middle East, including Azerbaijan. The Seljuks were Oghouz Turks. The Seljuki Turks which played the important part in all Turkish history were called so on behalf of the famous Turkish commander Seljuk. Seljuk himself formerly had been the head of one of Oghouz‐Turk kins – ginig (kinik), but after accepting the Islam religion in the X century he headed the Oghouz‐Seljuk tribes. The Seljuki Turks were living before in the land along the river Syr‐Darya. But as they were oppressed here by Garakhanies and Gaznavies, soon they began to flow towards the west. Like other former Turkic tribes the Seljuki Turks had targeted main attacks on Byzantine lands. By order of Togrul bey, his brother Chagry bey the tribe head of the Seljuki Turks was sent as a reconnaissance against the Byzantine in 1015. The Seljuk cavalrymen passing through the Iran and Azerbaijan lands stepped the Byzantine territory. Chagry bey gained a victory over the Byzantine troops and seized the basin of the . and the Azerbaijani lands around it were taken under his control. But Chagry bey could not continue the military operation against Byzantine with a few forces consisting of roughly 5‐6 thousand cavalrymen, returned Maveraunnehr in 1021 and reported to his brother Togrul bey about his trip. He offered to

27 YAGUB MAHMUDOV launch attack against Iran which lived the period of political disorder after the decline of the Caliphate, South Caucasus, including Azerbaijan and Byzantine rather than to collide with such powerful neighbors like the Garakhanies and the Gaznavies. So, was made a decision to begin new marches towards Asia Minor. With this, the mass‐scale flows of the Seljuki Turks began towards the west. At first, in the early XI century they settled in Khorasan being under the authority of the Gaznavies. The first Seljuk state arose just here Nishapur being the capital city. Grandchild of Seljuk Togrul bey (1038‐1063) was declared sultan. The Seljuki Turks gained strength in the years of sultan Togrulʹs ruling. On May 23 (according to data, on August 26), 1040 in the fight of Dandanakan military forces of the Gaznavi state was put to rout. After Dandanakan victory in a big congress gathered immediately in the city Marv was decided to begin new conquests in the East and tn the West. Capital of the state was moved from Nishapur close to Tehran to Rey (1043). Seljuk troops launched marches in three directions from here – towards , , and Azerbaijan. But Seljuk troops launching attack in the direction of Hamadan‐Isfahan were headed by Ibrahim Yinal, on Gilan by Kutalmish and Rasultekin, and troops moving towards the south lands of Azerbaijan were headed by Hassan and Yaguti. Oghouz‐Turkic tribes which had settled in Azerbaijan, Iran, South Caucasus and Eastern Anatolia before them also took an active part in the Seljuk marches. Soon Seljuk troops headed by Ibrahim Yinal who had seized all western Iran, including Hamadan and Isfahan, put out to the shores of the river Tigris. And Kutalmish having seized the southern lands of the Caspian Sea, including Gilan getting across the river Araz stepped Aran. The Seljuks which had consolidated in the north of Azerbaijan joining with the Shaddadi military forces delivered heavy blows to the united forces of Byzantine, Armenian and Georgian feudals. But South regions of Azerbaijan passed under the control of Seljuk commander. Joined Seljuk‐Azerbaijan troops beginning their

28 EARLY RENAISSANCE military operations in Eastern Anatolia on September 18, 1048 destroyed the united forces of the Byzantine, Armenian and Georgian feudals. Byzantine was obliged to make peace with Seljuks. So, in the time of sultan Togrul Khorasan entirely (1038‐1044), Khorezm (1043), Western Iran (1042‐1051) was conquered by the Seljuki Turks. , including Baghdad was conquered in 1055. Now the Abbasi Caliphate was dependent on the Seljuki Turks. The Abbasies were obliged to recognize sultan Togrul as the ruler of the entire East and West. In the years of authority of Sultan Alp Arslan (1063‐1072) and Malikshah (1072‐1092) Seljuki Turks spread to wider territories. Put to rout the military forces of the Byzantine Empire in the fight of Malazgird (on August 26, 1071) and captivated emperor Roman Diogenes Alp Arslan roughly conquered all Asia Minor entirely. Later on the territories of Syria, Palestine, Western Azerbai‐ jan and Georgia, and the lands between the rivers Maveraunnehr‐ Amu Darya and Syr Darya in Central Asia became dependent on the Seljuki Turks. In the result such a powerful state with wide territory as the Great Seljuk Empire arose in the political map of the Near and Middle East. In the II half of the XI century all Central Asia, Iran, South Caucasus, Iraq, Syria, Asia Minor and was under the authority of the Seljuki Turks. Seljuki Turks easily occupied Azerbaijan which was living the time of feudal sparseness and had not united yet in a single and powerful state. The Azerbaijan Turks, including different Oghouz kins which lived there were the countrymen of the Seljuki Turks. They, as well as Moslem population of all South Caucasus considered the Seljuks as their natural ally against the Byzantine, Armenian and Georgian aggression. Moreover, states of Ravvadies, Shaddadies and Shirvanshahs that were colliding with each other could not join together put up strong resistance against the Seljuk troops. Sultan Togrulʹs military forces approached Tabriz in 1054. The Ravvadi ruler Vahsudan on seeing that to put up resistance was vain announced his obedience to the Seljuk sultan. Resistance of

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Khoy and Salmas dwellers did not yield any results. After Tabriz, Sultan Togrul attacked Ganja. The Shaddadi ruler Abulasvar Shavur also surrendered to the Seljuks without any resistance. At the time the Seljuk sultan and the Shaddadi ruler came to an agreement. They came to such an agreement that the two rulers would act in concert against the Armenian‐Georgian feudals who often attacked Azerbaijani lands with instigation of the Byzantine emperor. Seljuki Turks headed by Garatekin attacked Shirvan in 1066. The Shirvanshahs put up strong resistance to the Seljuks. But it did not yield any results. Shirvanshah Fariburz I obeyed the Seljuk sultan Malik . Shirvan rulers were deprived of the title «Shirvanshah». Azerbaijan became dependent of the Shirvanshahsʹ state and was completely added to the Great Seljuk Empire. Seljuki Turks did not play similar role in the following histo‐ rical development of all nations and countries fallen under their authority. Unlike neighboring countries and peoples the Seljuk period played an important part in historical destiny of Azerbaijan and Azerbaijani people. It should be noted that long before the flows of the Seljuki Turks and arising of the Great Seljuk Empire Azerbaijan was a part of the common place where ancient Turkic kins, including Oghouz Turks lived. Roughly during the historical period covering six hundred years of the Sasani and Arab caliphate’s supremacy, continued the intermingling process of all these Turkic kins, as well as non‐Turkic ones as a single nation. Joint fight against the Sasani and Arab oppressors influenced to this positively. In the time of weakening of the caliphate Islam‐Turkic ethno‐ political factor had been doubled in Azerbaijan; as the furtune of fighting against the unique Christian bloc consisting of Byzantine Empire and Armenian‐Georgian feudals was being decided in the Azerbaijan front. Basic stronghold of Turkism which had become a decisive military‐political factor in all Islamic world against the

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Byzantine when caliphate collapsed was Azerbaijan. For a long histo‐ rical period Azerbaijan had been a rear for different Turkic tribes which began to the conquest of Anatolia. On the ground created by all these ethnic and military political factors, on the eve of Seljuk flows, the process of formation of the single Azerbaijan Turkish people had already been ending. Adoption of the Islam religion played the important part in forming of the unique people of different Turkic kins, as well as non‐Turkic ethnic groups living in Azerbaijan territory. Joining of Azerbaijan to Great Seljuk Empire played the decisi‐ ve part in the process of formation of the Azerbaijan people. New groups of the Turkish kins began to settle in Azerbaijan in the time of the Seljuk flows. Having the same roots and converted into Islam the Oghouz‐ Seljuki Turks and Azerbaijani Turks soon intermingled. The process of formation of the Azerbaijani Turkish people ended. In the result of the Seljuk flows the Oghouz‐Turkic kins became the basic ethnic factor in all South Caucasus and Asian Near East This factor played the important part in all following history of the Near and Middle East. Seljuki Turks which had made crushing blows to the crusaders during the predatory wars – crusades of feudals from Europe with the purpose of occupying the East iernlands at that time did not give chance to feudals of Western Europe to change the political map of the Middle East on their favor. Flows of the Seljuki Turks destroyed the Byzantine Empireʹs policy on consolidation in South Caucasus, as well as Armenian and Georgian feudalsʹ aggressive plans who relying on this Christian state strove to seize the western lands of Azerbaijan. Plan of dropping South Caucasus completely under the sphere of influence of the Christianity did not succeed. Factors of Turkism and Islam decisively gained strength in South Caucasus, including Azerbaijan. Like other big feudal empires of the Great Seljuk State could not exist for a long time. This large territorial Turkish feudal empire had arisen in the condition of supremacy of the natural

31 YAGUB MAHMUDOV economy. Commodity‐money relations had not become the form of basic economic ties yet. Despite of considerable wide relations among the big handicraft and trade centers of the country and very important international caravan roads passing through the territory of the empire close unification of rather vast territories and peoples around the unique political and economic center, its becoming a powerful centralized state was a hard thing at that time. Therefore, at first, in the time of continuous marches on other countries and states the Seljuk state had based on strong military‐ political unity of the Oghouz‐Seljuk society when the occupations stopped it began to fall into decline in the end of the XI century. Separate warlords, governors of provinces who the Seljuk once presented the whole provinces and mahals (districts) as an igta instead of their military services did not want to obey to the central authority. Besides during the First Crusade (1096‐1099) loss of very important territories in the Mediterranean shores – Asia Minor, Syria and Palestine definitely had influenced to the decline of the Great Seljuk Empire. Initiatives of Sultan Malik shah and his vizier, author of the famous «Siyasetnameh» Nizamulmulk to strengthen the central authority remained without success. In the years of ruling sons of Malik shah – sultan Mahmud (1092‐1094), sultan Borkuyarig (1094‐1104), sultan Malik shah II (1104‐1105) and sultan Muhammad (1105‐1118) the decline of the empire intensified mach more. The last Seljuk ruler sultan Sanjarʹs (1118‐1157) authority was practically formal. The Empire, in fact, had become broken to some independent states. These states were governed by atabeys (or leles) of the Seljuk sultans’ successors to the throne. One of the most powerful states arisen by the time the Great Seljuk Empire had begun to collapse was the state of Eldanizes ruled by the Azerbaijan atabeys.

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§3. Azerbaijan states at the beginning of the XII‐XIII centuries

THE SHIRVANSHAHS STATE. The ancient statehood traditions of Azerbaijan were saved in the time of authority of the Seljuki Turks. When the Great Seljuk Empire fell into decay the Shirvanshahs state was reviving in the north of Azerbaijan. Though Shirvanshah Fariburz I (1063‐1096) obeyed to Seljuk sultans, but had not been completely put an end to Shirvanshahsʹ authority yet. By the end of the great Seljuk ruler Malikshahʹs authority the Shirvanshahs had begun to gain strength again. At the time Fariburz I, then his sons Manuchohr II and Afridun I ruled the country independently. Fighting against the Seljuki Turks the Georgian tsars tried to be friends with the Shirvanshahs. Georgian tsar Creator David or David IV (1089‐1125) with this purpose married (1111) his daughter Tamar to Manuchohr III, son of the Shirvanshah Afridun I. Another reason of the relationship of Georgian feudals with the Shirvanshahs was connected with their intention to conquer the western lands of Azerbaijan. Georgian tsar having wide foreign policy plans married (1116) his other daughter to the Byzantine emperor Alexey Komninʹs son. And Tsar David IV aiming to have a powerful ally against the Seljuks married Gypchag Turks ruler Atrakʹs daughter. He moved from the north of Caucasus to Georgia more than 45.000 Gypchag Turk warriors together with their families against the Seljuki Turks. Moreover Georgian and Armenian rulers with mediation of the Byzantine Empire had created relation against the Seljuki Turks with European crusaders. It was quite insidious policy: Georgian and Armenian feudals relying on the Byzantine Empire and crusaders of Western Europe strove to do with Turk‐Moslem factor in Caucasus and share Azerbaijani lands among them. Nevertheless, the Shirvanshahs preferring to be on good terms with the Seljuki Turks that was more powerful adversary pursued a careful policy with them. Rather strengthened his troops on the

33 YAGUB MAHMUDOV account of Gypchag‐Turk fighters Georgian tsar using not joining of the Shirvanshahs to the union against the Seljuki Turks found a pretext and began to implementation of his plans concerning the occupation of western Azerbaijani lands. In 1117 son of David IV Demeter attacked Shirvan. Having defeated the Shirvanshah troops he returned with many trouphies and captives to Georgia. And in 1120 David IV with strong army twice attacked Shirvan. The Shirvanshah troops were defeated again. Georgian tsar plundering Gabala and surroundings with many trouphies, including gold and silver returned. In 1121 David IV gained more important victory not far from Tiflis in Didgori fight‐ joint forces of the Georgians, the Gypchag Turks, the Ossetians and the crusaders of Western Europe defeated Seljuk troops. In 1122 the Tiflis Moslem emirate was eliminated. Tiflis was occupied by the Georgians. Strengthening of Georgia influenced to the position of the Shirvanshahs. In the time of Manuchohr III (1120‐1160) a turn took place in Shirvanshah‐Georgian relations. At the time, adjoining with weakening of the Great Seljuk Empire, wife of Manuchohr III Tamar and her encirclement had played the important part in improving relations of Shirvan and Georgia. Manuchohr III who relied on the union with Georgian tsar and which did not properly estimate the essence of his policy relating to Azerbaijan broke traditional policy of the Shirvanshahs state and estranged from the Seljuki Turks. As a result the Shirvanshahs state left the union with the Great Seljuk Empire and refused from paying annual taxes in the sum of 40.000 dinar. In reply in 1123 the Seljuk ruler sultan Mahmud attacked Shirvan. But sultan Mahmud could not overcome united forces of the Shirvanshah, David IV and the Gypchag Turks acting in concert with him soon left Azerbaijan. Withdrawal of Seljuk troops and disturbance of relations between the Shirvanshahs and the Great Seljuk Empire yielded heavy results for Azerbaijan. A suitable condition arose for Georgian

34 EARLY RENAISSANCE tsar who waited for good opportunity to occupy the lands of western Azerbaijan and Shirvan. Using from the opportunity David IV made the decision: to add the Shirvan land to Georgia immediately and in 1123‐1124 repeatedly attacked Azerbaijan. He took possession of the castles Gulustan and Bugurd. Having placed strong garrisons in the important towns and castles he returned. But Georgian garrisons could not stay in Shirvan more than five months. They were compelled to leave Shirvan after death of David IV (1125). The plan of the Georgian tsar on occupation of Shirvan did not succeed. The Shirvanshah’s throne passed to Manuchohr III again. No military conflict between the Shirvanshahs and Georgia happened in the years of authority of Manuchohr III and Demeter (1125‐1155). The 30‐60s of the XII century were the most powerful time for the Azerbaijan Shirvanshahs state. It became the most powerful political factor in the South Caucasus. In 1160 with death of Manuchohr III the situation became much more complicated in Shirvan again. Among the sons of Shirvanshah began fighting for throne. The courtiers of Shirvan who had made effort for palace revolution still in live time of Manuchohr III activated again. Tamar used disorder in the palace. Relying on the Gypchag Turks with her little son and a group of Georgian phile courtiers made effort to add Shirvan to Georgia. But with intervention by the Azerbaijan state of Eldanizes this insidious plan was paid off. Akhsitan I (1160‐1196), elder son of Manuchohr III with support of Atabey Shamsaddin Eldaniz’s military forces took possession of the authority. Adding the north‐west lands of Azer‐ baijan and Shirvan to Georgia was paid off again. Tamar fled from Azerbaijan with her Georgian encirclement and she finished her life as a nun in the monastery. During the reign of Akhsitan I the Shirvanshah state gained much more strength. Unlike his father – Manuchohr III, he restored friendly relations with the Seljuki Turks. Akhsitan I relied on and kept friendly relations with the Azerbaijan state of Eldanizes which

35 YAGUB MAHMUDOV had helped him in ascending the throne till the end of his life. In the years of authority of Akhsitan I friendly relations were continued with Georgian king as well. Continuing the relationship traditions between Shirvan and Georgia he married to the niece of Georgian tsar George III. In 1173 the Shirvanshahs’ military forces passing through the territory of Shaki attacked Georgia and gave support to George III, his relative from the side of his wife, to suppress the revolt raised against the central authority. Moreover, in the years of Akhsitan I Darband governorship was done dependent on the Shirvanshahs again. Like his father Manuchohr III Akhsitan I and his heirs increased the power of the Shirvanshahs’ state as well. A great deal of defense installations – fortresses, towers, walls were constructed and restored in the territory of the country. In 1175 the Shirvanshahs state again underwent to the foreign aggression: Fleet of the Slavs consisting of 73 ships attacked Azerbaijan. Foreign invaders sailing into the outfall of the river Kur moved up to Lambaran. Meanwhile Gypchag Turks which launched an attack from the north seized Darband and Shabran. Shirvanshahs’ military forces destroyed the Slav navy and got back Darband and Shabran. Georgian troops headed by Tsar George III in both victory rendered assistance to Shirvanshah. To the point, the Byzantine prince Andronik Komnin also was in the camp of Georgian armed troops which came to help Azerbaijan. To the end of the authority of Akhsitan I the strong earthquake (1192) razed Shamakhy to the ground. A considerable part of the town inhabitants (including family members of Akhsitan I) perished. After this the capital of the Shirvanshahsʹ state was moved to Baku. Political stability arisen in the time of the Shirvanshah Akhsitan I and his heirs in the north of Azerbaijan, friendly policy of the Shirvanshahsʹ with the Azerbaijan state of Eldanizes and the Seljuki Turks, amicable neighborly relations with Georgia, strengthening of the defense of Darband pass positively influenced to economical development and progress of culture.

36 EARLY RENAISSANCE

THE STATE OF ELDANIZES. One of the independent Azerbaijan states emerged in the time of the decline of Great Seljuk Empire was the state of Eldanizes ruled by the Azerbaijan atabeys. This state is known in Azerbaijan history as the state of Ildanizes or Eldagezes. The territory of the State of Eldanizes before had been in the content of the Iraq Seljuk sultanate. Emerged in the time of collapse of the Great Seljuk Empire the Iraq Seljuk sultanate (1118‐1194) was covering Iraq, Iran, Azerbaijan lands in the south from the river Kur and a part of South Caucasus. Creation of the Azerbaijan state of Eldanizes is connected with the name of Atabey Shamsaddin Eldaniz, the founder of Eldaniz dynasty. This Azerbaijan rulerʹs life was very interesting. According to sources, being a child he had been purchased by a rich merchant with a group of slaves from the slave market in Darband and taken to Iraq. This ugly and weak child was given to his new owner by the slave trader for free. There was such a rule in the slave trade at that time: If any merchant bought 40 slaves from the place, then slave trader used to take money for 39, and the fortieth would be given as a present or in addition. Eldaniz – the youngest one out of 40 slaves was given to his new master for free. According to sources, as the weather was very hot, sleepy Eldaniz had fallen twice from the cart while being moved at nights from Darband to Iraq with caravan and they seated him to the cart again. When he had fallen for the third time his master left him there and continued his way without him. When little Eldaniz woke up the caravan had already outdistanced long ago. Towards evening quick‐witted Eldaniz reached the cara‐ van. At seeing him the caravanneer was rather surprised. When they reached Iraq the vizier of the Seljuk sultan Abu Hamid ibn Ahmad as‐ Suleyrami bought all the slaves, except Eldaniz. But as the little Eldaniz shed bitter tears the vizier bought him too. This quick‐witted and vigilant boy involved his masterʹs attention. Soon Shamsaddin Eldaniz who had began to the service in the Seljuk court gained the upper hand his coevals in riding, shooting arrow, and some years later

37 YAGUB MAHMUDOV he was a far‐famed statesman. Sultan Togrul II (1132‐1134) awarded him with a title of emir and appointed the atabey of his son Arslan. After Sultan Togrulʹs death he married his widow Momina khatun and Shamsaddin Eldaniz gained much authority in the palace. In 1136 he was appointed the ruler of Aran and was sent to Barda. With this was founded the independent Azerbaijan state of Eldanizes and of the dynasty which ruled this state. The prominent commander and far‐sighted political figure Shamsaddin Eldaniz liquidated some small feudal domains in brief period of time, and was able to unite all Azerbaijan under his authority. Besides Aran that was given him as an igta by the sultan he began to rule over all south areas of Azerbaijan, as well as Nakhchivan independently and to mint coins on his own behalf. Previously the capital of the state of Eldanizes was Nakhchivan city. Shamsaddin Eldaniz (1136‐1175) who operated as an independent ruler had a great authority in the palace of Seljuks and closely helped in state governing. In 1160 he was entitled as a «Great Atabey» and achieved his stepson Arslan shah (1161‐1176) to be declared sultan. Further Shamsaddin Eldaniz began to rule all Iraq Seljuk sultanates by himself. He appointed all his close relatives to supreme state posts. His elder son Muhammad Jahan Pahlivan became sultanʹs hajib. But the younger Gizil Arslan was appointed Supreme Commander‐in‐Chief of sultan troops. So, Iraq Seljuk fell under the authority of the Azerbaijan dynasty of Eldanizes. In fact, further Iraq Seljuk became the Azerbaijan sultanate. And the point was that all Azerbaijani lands in the south from the river Kur were united in the unique state – in the state of Eldanizes. The state of Shirvanshahs also became dependent on the state of Eldanizes. Thus Azerbaijan land actually became a united single state. Having become the most powerful state of the Near and Middle East the Azerbaijan state of Eldanizes was pursuing the policy of enlarging its boundaries on the account of neighboring areas. Dabil (Dvin) where the Armenians lived was also included to the state of Eldanizes.

38 EARLY RENAISSANCE

Shamsaddin Eldaniz made military marches on Georgia that got strengthened and repeatedly attacked Azerbaijan at that time. In the first years of his reign taken advantage from the 1139 year’s devastating earthquake in Ganja the Georgian tsar Demeter I attacked the Ganja city, plundered and took the famous doors of Ganja as a military trouphy to Georgia1. Ungovernable Georgian feudals that attacked the Azerbaijan boundaries made unparallel savageries. In 1161 Georgian troops attacked the Dabil town that was dependent of the Eldaniz state at the time, put about 10.000 people to the sword, drove the naked women and children to Georgia. Only after the protest of the Georgian women they were given clothes. Taken into account all these Shamsaddin Eldaniz increased attention to Georgian boundary, and a number of victories gained over the Georgian troops. Georgian tsars did not dare to break Azerbaijan borders so often as before in the years of his reign. Close to the end of the reign of Shamsaddin Eldaniz the state of Eldanizes covered very wide territories beginning from Darband pass till the bay of Iran. According to sources, very wide territories from Tiflis gates till Mekran: Azerbaijan, including Arran and Shirvan, the country of al‐ Jibal, Iraq, Hamadan, Gilan, Mazandaran, Isfahan and Rey were also included to the composition of the Azerbaijan state of Eldanizes. Governors of Khilat, Persian, Khuzistan, Mosul, and Tabaristan were also dependent on Shamsaddin Eldaniz. In the years of Azerbaijan ruler Shamsaddin Eldaniz the emirs, big feudal lords who refused of obeying to the central authority were subdued and the central authority was strengthened. Except the military forces of the emirs which had received big conditional lands ‐ igta from the central authority, the ruler had his own troops of 50

1 A leaf of the gate is being kept near Kııtaisi in the monastery of Gelat, but the other had been used when the monastery was repaired. 39 YAGUB MAHMUDOV thousand permanent regulated cavalrymen. The Great Azerbaijan state ruled by Shamsaddin Eldaniz caused revival in handicraft, trade and culture, and development of agriculture in the territories it covered. The state of Eldanizes gained strength in the time of Muhammad Jahan Pahlivan (1175‐1186), son of Shamsaddin Eldaniz. He was the Seljuk Sultan III Togrulʹs (1176‐1194) atabey. Tender age Togrul III was living under the patronage of the Azerbaijan ruler in Nakhchivan. When Muhammad Jahan Pahlivan came to power he moved the capital from Nakhchivan to Hamadan (1175). He took Tabriz from the Aghsunguries. He broke down the resistance of big Seljuk emirs who were longing for independence. He strengthened the central authority. In the time of Muhammad Jahan Pahlivanʹs authority Azerbaijan was ruled by his younger brother. Gizil Arslan also was his nephew, i.e. Muhammad Jahan Pahlivanʹs sons‐ Abu Bekr and Uzbekʹs atabey. Gizil Arslanʹs residence was in Tabriz. So, after Seljuk marches Tabriz again regained its former role as the econo‐ mical and political center of all Azerbaijan. To all important state posts Muhammad Jahan Pahlivan appointed his close relatives. Distributing to his supporters a lot of land properties – igta considerably strengthened the central authority. Like his father he had a strong regulated army consisting of 50 thousand cavalrymen. Muhammad Jahan Pahlivan broadened the boundaries of the state. He defeated repeatedly Georgian feudals who strove to seize western lands of Azerbaijan. Meliks of Ahar, Shirvanshahs, Khilat, Diyarbekr and Persian rulers became dependent on Eldaniz state. Territory of the Eldaniz state was considerably broadened on the account of eastern Anatolia. At the time Muhammad Jahan Pahlivan who had focused on the consolidation of western boundaries of the state was keeping friendly relations with Khorezmshah Tekesh (1172‐1200). In the result of wise foreign policy led by the Azerbaijani ruler even the Abbasi caliphs could not interfere to the home affairs of the

40 EARLY RENAISSANCE state of Eldanizes. Muhammad Jahan Pahlivan said: If the Caliph is , he has to perform namaz (Moslem prayer). Because namaz is the base of the faith and is the best thing. To forego and become an example for the people is enough for the caliph. This is the real realm. But there is no need for caliph to interfere in the temporary government matters. This kind of works should be allowed to the sultan. Close to the end of Muhammad Jahan Pahlivan’s life separate provinces of the Eldanizes Empire were divided among his sons. Governance of Azerbaijan was commissioned to Abu Bekr. Muhammad Jahan Pahlivan’s brother Gizil Arslan (1186‐1191) who succeeded him in the throne had to fight against the palace opposition for a long time and a group of big feudals rose to struggle for taking possession of the authority. Togrul III who had a formal title of sultan dissatisfied Seljuk emirs, Muhammad Jahan Pahlivan’s wife Inanj Khatun, his son Gutlug Inanj and others joined in the unique front against Gizil Arslan. Repeated bloody fights took place between Togrul III and Gizil Arslan. With the purpose of putting relations in order with palace opposition arisen against him and Seljuk emirs Azerbaijan ruler married Muhammad Jahan Pahlivanʹs widow Inanj Khatun. He reconciled with his nephews (also stepsons) Gutlug Inanj and Amir Amiran Omar. Then in 1190 he gained a bright victory in the Hamadan fight and captivated sultan Togrul III and his son Malikshah. With caliph an‐Nassir’s consent in 1191 he declared himself sultan. So, Azerbaijan atabeys who were ruling the Iraq Seljuk sultanate took possession of formal power, i.e. the title of sultan. Gizil Arslan who strengthened his position in the palace, soon taken opportunity from feudal intestine wars subdued the rulers of Rey, Isfahan, Persian and Khuzistan which threw the dependence on Eldanizes to the central authority again. Arose a suitable condition for economical and cultural progress of the country. But political stability created in the result of bold internal policy of Gizil Arslan did not last long. Big feudals and his wife Inanj Khatun displeased

41 YAGUB MAHMUDOV becoming stronger of the central authority attempted on his life in the bed. Intestine wars began on seizure of the central authority. Gizil Arslan’s nephew brought up under Gizil Arslanʹs care Abu Bekr (1191‐1210) seized the power in Azerbaijan. Provinces of Isfahan, Rey and a part of Iraq ruled by other sons of Muhammad Jahan Pahlivan Gutlug Inanj and Amir Amiran Omar were torn off from the state of Eldanizes. Fight for taking possession of the central authority expanded. Intestine wars and feudal fights speeded up the decline of the state. Taken opportunity from the weakening of the state of Eldanizes the Khorezmshah, Ayyubies, Abbasis, Shirvan‐ and Georgian tsars became more active. Escape of Sultan Togrul III from the prison in 1192 made the situation more complicated. In a brief space of time he seized Rey, Isfahan and Hamadan. Gutlug Inanj defeated by Togrul III addressed for help to Khorezmshah Tekesh (1172‐1200). Used from this Tekesh took possession of Khorasan, Rey and Hamadan. Togrul III was killed in the fight (1194) against the united forces of Tekesh and Gutlııg Inanj. Soon after between Tekesh and Gutlııg Inanj who tried to keep in the hands territories occupied by them a collide took place and Gutlııg Inanj was killed in this fight (1196). Though gained a number of victories over the military forces of the Khorezmshah Eldaniz Abu Bekr with the purpose of forestalling the approaching foreign danger joined the struggle, but to prevent the deepening feudal disorder was impossible. Shirvanshahs and the Georgian tsar used from the disorder in the palace of Eldanizes. Shirvanshah Akhsitan I married his daughter to Amir Amiran Omar and assisted him against his brother Abu Bekr with military force. Amir Amiran Omar at the same time addressed to the Georgian tsar Tamar. Georgian tsar used the good opportunity immediately. Joined troops of Georgia and Shirvanshahs heavily defeated Abu Bekr in Shamkir and Beylagan fights (1194). After this Amir Amiran Omar and Georgian commander David Soslarʹs military forces attacked Ganja. Ganja dwellers answered the Eldaniz shahzadah (prince) who betrayed the

42 EARLY RENAISSANCE native land decisively: «If you came alone we would surrender the city to you. But you have come together with a mass of giaours. Therefore we won’t surrender the city». But Amir Amiran Omar by trick could take possession of Ganja. After Georgian troops left Azerbaijan Amir Amiran Omar was killed by the Ganjavite. The city passed under authority of Abu Bekr again. Georgian troops heard about Ganja events passed Azerbaijan boundary again. Abu Bekr who was used to drink hard neglecting the defense of the state left for Nakhchivan, then to Tabriz. Georgian troops sieged Ganja. Georgian tsar Tamar for inspiring the troops came to the outskirts of Ganja. Akhsitan I demonstrating his loyalty to Georgian tsar came near Ganja to meet Tamar. But defenders of Ganja did not surrender… Georgian troops after 25 days siege could not seize Ganja plundered Dabil (Dvin) (1203) which was under authority of Eldanizes. A danger arose for adding western Aze‐ rbaijani lands to Georgia. In the arisen heavy situation Shirvanshahs being a real military‐political force did not rise to the defense of the west . On seeing Azerbaijan feudal lords’ inability the popular avengers, volunteer groups rose to the defence of the country and banished the strangers from Azerbaijan. The Georgian troops using this made more devastating attacks to Azerbaijan within 1210‐1211. They sieged Nakhchivan, could not take possession of it, then continued the attack in the direction of Tabriz after Nakhchivan and sacked Marand. Tabriz was sieged then. The city governor Zahida Khatun (Muhammad Jahan Pahlivanʹs wife) gave much money, jewels and handicraft products and saved the city from destruction. But outskirts of the city was ruthlessly plundered. Miyana was the next after Tabriz. But as soon as Georgian troops receded the Miyanaians rebelled and perished the Georgian garrison. In reply, the Georgian punitive squads which had attacked the town again put the city governor with all his family to the sword, having skinned them hung from the top of the minaret, then sacked and fired the

43 YAGUB MAHMUDOV city. Foreign armed robbers mercilessly dealt with the population of Zanjan, Gazvin and Abkhar. Another Georgian military force which attacked from Tabriz in the Ardabil direction plundered the city Uchan. Almost all wealth of Ardabil was sent on caravans to Georgia. 12 thousand Ardabil dwellers were put to sabre. The Georgian troops headed by Zakare Mkhragrzeli on their way back ruthlessly dealt with people, plundered and took the Azerbaijani wealth away. Abu Bekr who was not able to organize the defence of the country found no way except marrying the daughter of the Georgian tsar. In the years of reign of Uzbek (1210‐1225), Abu Bekr’s brother who succeeded throne after his death the decline of Eldaniz state speeded up. Thus, close to Mongol attacks none of Azerbaijan states – neither the Eldanizes, nor the Shirvanshahs were able to save the country from the serious foreign danger.

44 ECONOMIC REVIVAL

1. Agriculture

The liberation of Azerbaijan from the tyranny of the Caliphate, formation of the independent local states caused the quickening of the economic development. The ancient and rich production traditions of Azerbaijan began to revive. The colorful and propitious climatic condition, fertile land, the richest natural resources of the country, the ancient agriculture and production traditions of the people which developed for the centuries influenced positively the prosperity of various agriculture and art fields of Azerbaijan. The primary sources, especially, the famous Arabian geograp‐ her and travellers as well as historians of the IX‐XIII centuries confirmed that Azerbaijan was one of the most developed countries in Near and Middle East, generally in the Islamic world. While speaking about Azerbaijan, Al‐Istakhri, the Arabian geographer of the X century in his book «The book of the countries’ way» wrote: «Everything is abundant here and those who did not see this abundance can not believe this.» Ibn Havgal, other Arabian traveller who was the contemporary of Al‐Istakhri noted that «Azerbaijan is abundant with wheat cornfields. These fields do not lag behind the gardens, dwelling areas. On the contrary, it is rich with various resources and God’s gifts. The fruits are very cheap, the goods are almost free.» As it was during the Caliphate period and previous, the Azerbaijan people led sedentary life, and mainly dealt with the agriculture. During the previous periods of history, though irrigation

45 YAGUB MAHMUDOV facilities in the south regions of the country as well as in Mill, Mughan and Aran plain were destroyed as a result of the political and military conflicts in the Azerbaijan territories, life began to revive in these regions. The cultivation of the cereals as well as grain‐growing developed in coasts of Kur, Araz, Safidrud River, Shirvan and Shaki. The sources, especially, the Arabian travellers living in the IX‐XI century gave interesting information on the cultivation of all kind of grains (wheat, barley, paddy, millet etc), various technical plants (cotton, madder, flax, etc.) as well as different water‐melons. In some places the harvest was reaped several times a year. Both coasts of the Kur River consisted of cornfields and cotton fields. The people in Tabriz, Ganja, Shaki, Shamkir, Gabala, Baku and Shabran were occupied in agriculture, mainly in grain growing. Saffron and flax were grown in surroundings of Darband and Shirvan. The unique Azerbaijan saffron was exported to other countries. The valuable types of paddy were grown in and Shaki regions. Aran, especially Barda regions were rich with red insects which were used in getting valuable red color. Kitchengarden and vegetable plantation played great role in the agricultural life of the people. There are interesting information on cultivation of melon, water‐melon, cucumber, cabbage, bean, pea, lentil, eggplant, pumpkin, squash, lettuce, various types of plants in Azerbaijan. Ibn Havgal said that sweet, longish and grey pumpkins with red languid were cultivated in Maragha. Another fact proving the development of sedentary agriculture fields, especially, husbandry in Azerbaijan was the existance of about 4000 villages only in Aran regions of the country. Azerbaijan villages which were destroyed as a result of the long lasted wars of the Caliphate, and constant attacks of Armenian and Georgian feudals who relied upon the Byzantine Empire, began to revive. Abu Dulaf (X century) wrote that there were 5000 and even more destroyed villages together with Beylagan and Varsan cities in Balasagan plane where the Araz River runs. Most part of the villages of Azerbaijan as well as big cities was the center of the handicraft.

46 EARLY RENAISSANCE

As time passed, the cultivation activity of the people increased, the tools were improved. The earth was ploughed as usually by a plow yoked with pair of beast of draught namely oxen and buffalo. Thus, the terms such as plow, to go a plow was used instread of plough and go to plough, and a term ploughboy was used instead of farmer among people on those days. There were used ploughs with two, three, even four pair breast of draught in some regions of Azerbaijan. According to the information of Al‐Mugaddas, the earth in Ardabil region was ploughed with eight oxen which were ruled by four men. When the traveller asked: «What is the reason of solidness of such plough earth?» The plougher answered that is was due to snow. They explained the secret of the deep plough to the Arabian traveller. Immortalizing the ancestor’s traditions, Azerbaijan villagers preferred to plough the earth deeply against the drought. The drought did nothing to such damp sowing which was under carpet of snow and deep layer in winter. During the afore‐mentioned period, the number of watermills increased in the country. One of the highly developed fields of agriculture in Azerbaijan was gardening. The Arabian travellers who were in many countries of the world showed that colorful, beautiful and tasty fruits of Azerbaijan might not be met in other countries. The country was full of apple, pear, pomegranate, apricot, peach, fig, cherries, plum, cherry‐plum, cornel, walnut, hazel‐nut, mulberry, chestnut orchards. There were chestnuts more tasty and fruitful than Syria chestnuts, hazel‐nuts tasty than Samargand hazel‐nuts, as well as walnut, white mulberry, cornel and other fruits grown near Barda city. There were hazel‐nuts and walnuts orchards everywhere in fertile valleys between Ganikh (Alazan) River and Great Caucasus mountains, as well as in Gabala and Shaki. It was impossible to come across with unique pomegranates grown along the Araz River in other places. Tabriz, Maragha, Khoy, Salmas, Urmia were covered with orchards. There were more than 900 underground water‐pipes in Tabriz to

47 YAGUB MAHMUDOV water the orchards. However, as there were many gardens in Tabriz, these underground water‐pipes were not enough to water them. The grapes were cultivated in these places, as well as in Mughan, Shirvan and Darband. According to Ibn Havgal, there were approximately 40.000 grapevines in the vineyards between Darband and Samandar. In the IX‐XI, the silkworm breeding was developed in Azerbaijan. People put mulberry orchards in order to feed the silkworm in Shaki, Shirvan, Barda, Balakan‐Zagatala‐Gakh regions, as well as other regions of the country. Having the rich vegetable kingdom, most part of Azerbaijan regions were covered with forests. The forest was one of the important natural resources of Azerbaijan. On that time, «the coasts of the Caspian Sea were also rich with natural resources as other regions of Azerbaijan. While visiting Azerbijan, Abu Dulaf, the Arabian geographer who lived in the X century, came 80 farsakh ( 1 farsakh‐ 6‐7 km – Y.M.) way under the trees along the Caspian coast to reach Baku». The cattle‐breeding was one of the highly developed fields of the agriculture. The endless pastures, wide winter camps in Mill, Mugan and Shirvan planes, picturesque summer pastures in the Caucasus, Savalan and Talish mountains, and around Garabagh and Goycha lakes of Azerbaijan created suitable conditions for breeding and increasing various types of animals such as bovine cattle, flock of sheep, herds of camel and horse. The main type of cattle‐breeding was summer‐winter cattle‐breeding. The people from the bank of Kur River and the villages of Barda brought their cattle to the big island in the junction of Kur and the Caspian Sea by ship and took them back after they got fatten. The rich nature of Azerbaijan – its mountains, forests, plains, rivers, seas, lakes and propitious climate – created suitable condition for various animals, birds, fishes, other kind of animals to live and breed. While visiting Azerbaijan in the XII century, Abu Hamid Al‐ Garnati, the Arabian geographer, noted that there were many wild

48 EARLY RENAISSANCE animals and gazelle hunting in . The Caspian Sea was rich with various fishes. People living in the coast of the Caspian Sea, Kur and Araz River dealt not only with other agricultural fields, but also with fishing. According to Ibn Havgal, the Arabian geographer, fishes from the Kur and Araz Rivers were sent to Ardabil, Rey and Iraq. Al‐Istakhri wrote that fishes such as «as‐surmahi» (shamai), «az‐zaragan» and «al‐ishubat» were fished in the Kur River. Ibn Al‐Fagih wrote that the Araz River was rich with various fishes, and a «shurmahi» would not meet in other rivers. Confirming this information, Yagut al‐Hamawi (1179‐ 1229) said that shamai fish was seen in the Araz River once a year in certain period, generally, every month people observed new fishes in the Araz River which they did not meet before. Bee‐keeping, export of honey and beewax played an important role in the economic life of Azerbaijan. Azerbaijan was one of the richest countries of the world for production of various agricultural products in the IX‐XI century. Azerbaijan people had rich tradition for high husbandry culture and in the field of production of various agricultural products.

2. Land properties and taxes

The feudal relations developed in Azerbaijan very high in the IX‐XI century. The main producers of the society were the peasants. The Azerbaijani peasants were divided into two categories: uluches and free peasants. Uluches were dependent peasants. This peasant category was formed during the Arabian occupation period. Confronting with the threat of lossing the lands in the result of the heavy tax policy and the tyranny of the state officers, the Azerbaijan peasants were obliged to find shelter in the protection of the seperate Arabian feudals. As a result the land of these peasants was taken by the Arabian feudals and these lands were called ilcha (chief) lands.

49 YAGUB MAHMUDOV

The peasants living in these ilcha were called uluches. The uluches mainly lived in plain regions where husbandry was developed. They paid state taxes. But the independent peasants generally lived in the mountain regions. The Azerbaijani villagers led sedentary life. There was special property on the land (in the places where the husbandry based on the irrigation was developed, as well as on water). All fertie lands belonged to the big feudals. There were several types of the feudal land property. The widest of them was the real property lands. These lands which belonged to the different feudals were heriditary that is they were passed from generation to generation. The owners of these properties might sell and present them. The proprietor (owner), the owners of the property or landowners paid taxes to the state. Besides, there were common lands. These lands generally consisted of pasture, forest, marsh, etc. Sometimes, it was possible to meet sowing areas among the public lands. The public lands were under the property of the state. Thus, people using this land paid taxes to the state. Beside the land property and public lands, there were wide lands belonging to the separate rulers (caliphs, sultan, etc) and dynasties. These lands were called featured properties. The lands belonging to the state, the benefit of which went directly to the treasury were called divan lands. Beside all of these lands, the conditional land properties – igta system which was not widespread were developing in Azerbaijan. During the occupation of Azerbaijan by the Arabian caliphs, they distributed the land properties called igta for life usage instead of the military services in order to create political support. Later, in the IX‐ XI centuries, Azerbaijan rulers distributed igta lands to their relatives. However, the igta lands were not widespread instead of the military services as the troops were hired on that period. The owners of igta did not deal with the agriculture directly, as a rule, they leased their igtas. As time passed, the igtas became the special

50 EARLY RENAISSANCE properties of the igtadars (the owners of the igta). During that period, there were also vagf lands in Azerbaijan. These lands were given to the confessors, religious and charity institutions, mosques, religious school etc. As a vagf not only lands, but also orchards, mills, mines, forests, pastures etc. were given to the religious figures. The peasants living in these vagf lands paid taxes to the owners of the vagf or to their institutions. The taxes collected from the peasants against the use of the land were called ushr or ushur (one‐tenth) and then they were called duty. The duties were not taken from the products before. The rent paper given to the various people for collecting the duty was called gabala. The officers collecting the duties were called Mutagabbil or Amils, the financial inspectors were called Mutasarrif. While collecting the duties, the Amils increased the duty wilfully in order to burden the condition of the villagers. Thus, sometimes the half of the product belonging to the peasants was taken as a duty. It was interesting that Azerbaijani peasants paid certain part of the duty with money in the X‐XI century. This shows that commodity‐money relations were developed in Azerbaijan on that period. In his book on «Countries» written in 891, Al‐Yagubi, the Arabian historian lived in the XI century, noted that Arabians collected 4 million dirham duties from Azerbaijani villagers. Gudama ibn Jafar, the Arabian geographer, said this number was 4.5 million dirham. Later, after the formation of Azerbaijan state, the taxes became lighter. According to , 2 million dirham taxes were collected during the Sajis government. It was also like this during the period of Ibrahim, the Salaris ruler. Beside the taxes, the Muslim people also gave alms which were called religious tax and charity. Those who were not Muslims paid a life tax which was called jizya. It shall be noted that though the establishment of local states after collapse of the Caliphate tyranny caused the certain economic

51 YAGUB MAHMUDOV revival in the villages of Azerbaijan, the feudal disorderliness, the substitution of separate Azerbaijani dynasties, local wars, foreign attacks, impossibility of uniting Azerbaijan lands under common state, heavy feudal taxes overhelmed the Azerbaijan peasants not only from economical but from social and juridical point of view, and negatively influenced the development of agriculture. The great feudals who gained the wide land property and privileges during the period of struggle against the Arabian slavery became the independent rulers. Having grandious mansions, strong castles, wide arable lands, pastures, forests, herds, cattle, these local rulers led the splendid life; compete with each other for their fortune, clothes, carousal meetings, singers, dancers, famous cooks, pure‐ horses, and money. They collected gold, silver, glass and crystal wares, valuable things, ornaments, treasures. After paying the annual taxes defined by the central government, these feudals ruled their lands by themselves. The efforts of seperate Azerbaijan rulers to eliminate the anarchy of the local judges, to establish rules in the tax system were vain. For instance, Marzban ibn Mahammad, the Salari ruler, asked to prepare the special law for eliminating the disorder of the feudal judges who did not obey to the central government, and for establishing the rules in the tax system. However, efforts of the rulers of various feudal dynasty did not give results in such period when the common state covering the territories of Azerabaijan did not formed. The intensifying political disorderliness and feudal anarchy created serious obstacles in the revival of the agriculture. Establishment of the Great Saljuk Empire caused serious changes in the land property and tax system of Near and Middle East as well as in Azerbaijan. The Saljuk sultans shared the lands in the territory of the empire among Saljuk amirs instead of the military service in order to create military and political support for the central government. These lands were called igta. Only Sultan Malik shah shared igta among 46 thousand Saljuk . Sometimes, the close

52 EARLY RENAISSANCE amirs of Sultan got igta from great historical regions such as Aran, Shirvan and Darband. Thus, igta became the leading land property in Azerbaijan as well as in Near and Middle East during the flow of Saljuk Turks. Besides, the igta strenghtened the military and political government of the Saljuk Turks in the territories they settled. Owners of igta land satisfied with getting rent from the lands, and did not interfere the issues concerning the internal management and rural life. However, as time passed, the igtas were inherited and almost did not differ from other properties. The owners of the igtas that surrounded wide territories became the independent rulers, and their territories became the state not dependent from the central government. For instance, the territories of Aran which was given to Shamsaddin Eldaniz as a igta by Sultan Masud (1135‐1152) in 1136 later became the powerful Azerbaijan state – Eldaniz Empire. One of the types of the land property formed during the period of Saljuk was uj (border) lands. These lands belonged to the warlords protecting the borders of the empire. The establishment of such land property for strenghtening the borders of the empire in the Middle Ages was met in the history of other countries. There is historical similarity between the uj lands in the Saljuk period and the mark‐ counties established by the Great Karl along the border of the Frank Empire. Beside the traditional taxes, there were taxes taken on arms, vine, horseshoe for supplying the Saljuk fighters with arm, vine, and to shoe their horses. They began to collect natural taxes for the art products made by the vine craftsmen. Generally, it is determined that there were taxes, ushur, jizya, duties, fodder, nuzl, avariz, share, tayyarat, daraib and other taxes, duties and properties collected from the various strata of the population at the beginning of the XI‐XIII century. Nevertheless, during the Saljuk power, and the strenghtening period of Eldaniz adn Shirvanshahs state in Azerbaijan, the feudal tyranny, local wars and political anarchy was

53 YAGUB MAHMUDOV considerably prevented. The suitable conditions were created for the revival of the agricultural traditions of the people. The prosperity of the Azerbaijan cities, the rebirth of the handicract, the developing local and international trade relations positively influenced the development of the various fields of the agriculture.

3. Handicraft. Trade. Cities

The economic rebirth beginning after the collapse of the Arabian tyranny quickened the seperation process of the handicraft from the agriculture. The economic relations in the country expanded. The trade relations of the ancient cities of Azerbaijan with foreign countries became even more strengh. There were new cities which became the handicraft and trade center. Ibn Khordadbeh, al‐ Yagubi, Ibn Al‐Fagih, Gudama ibn Jafar and other Arabian travellers and geographers lived in the beginning of IX‐X century mentioned many cities and dwelling places such as Barda, Shaki, Gabala, Baku, Zanjan, Maragha, Miyana (Mayanij), Urmia, Mutavakkiliyya (Shamkir), Barzand, Khoy (Khuvey), Mugan, Masgat, Marand, Salmas, Janza, Sarab, Varsan, Ushnu, Ujan, Shiz, Jabravan, Bazz, Sisar, Barza, Saburkhast, Kulsara, Daharragan, Nariz, Bajarvan, Andarab, Darman, Karkara, Khunaj, Khunan, Mubaraki, Shirvan, Khursan, Lahijan, Niyal, Kirdman, Shabran. There are many interesting information on the development of handicraft and trade in Azerbaijan in the primary sources and the works of the Arabian travellers. The value og these information is that works of Arabian geographer and historians mainly based in their personal observations, that is they wrote what they saw themselves while visiting Azerbaijan. The prosperity of Azerbaijan cities and establishment of new cities in the IX‐X century was not occasional process. First of all, it was related with the intensification of the public labor division such as seperation of different handicraft fields from the agriculture. The

54 EARLY RENAISSANCE establishment of the local states and revival of productive forces created suitable conditions to the formation and prosperity of the handicraft fields. On other words, the political independence positively affected the emergence of cities, development of handicraft and trade. The rich vegetable and animal kingdom of Azerbaijan created an important opportunities for the development of various agricultural fields such as silworm breeding, cotton breeding, linen and madder cultivation, cattle breeding, especially sheep breeding, gardening, fishing, bee‐keeping, dyeing and other professions concerning the raw materials. Besides, Azerbaijan had very rich underground wealth. This caused the prosperity of very unique handicraft fields. Abu Dulaf, the Arabian traveller who was in Azerbaijan in the X century wrote that there were mines at the mountains near Shiz city in the south of the country where gold, silver, lead, mercury, arsenic, and jamast stones were extracted. According to the information of the traveller there were three types of gold extracted in Shiz. Abu Dulaf even witnessed the gold extracting technology of Azerbaijan craftsmen. According to the traveller, the local craftsmen poured water to the gold land and repeated this process till water cleaned earth and only gold remained there. Then, they gathered the fragments of gold with mercury. The red gold extracted by this way differed from others for its weight, purity, brightness, fire‐resistance, flexibility and softness. According to Abu Dulaf, people extracted gold in bullion in Shiz on those days. Arsenic of Shiz played role of valuable raw for making ornaments. The craftsmen from Isfahan highly appreciated the Shiz arsenic. Shiz mercury was better, heavier and pure than the mercury of Khorasan. Abu Dulaf then visited Arran city which was four farsakh (unit of measure) away from Shiz and show the mines where white, silver and red golds were extracted. There were also lead mines in Arran. The Arabian traveller even held the chemical experience here. He

55 YAGUB MAHMUDOV prepared lead acid and got the silver from the ore which was extracted from the lead mines with help of the acid. According to the sources, other regions of Azerbaijan was rich is minerals. There were gold, silver, copper, ocher in the mountains of Aran (Albania) in north of the country. Iron and copper was extracted in Ganja, Gadabey and Savalan. Savalan copper was famous for its purity. There were copper mines in Tabriz. There were also iron, copper as well as various minerals extracted from the mines in Darman region between Marand and Pishkin. Dizmar deposits were rich with the valuable stones. There were also ruby, lead, silver, arsenic, mercury and other minerals in different regions of the country. There were salt mines in Tabriz and Nakhchivan. Besides, there were high qualitative fine salt procured in Baku, where rich oil mines existed. There were rich raw resources in Azerbaijan to get nice and bright pigments for produce silk, woolen, cotton and linen fabrics, weave the decorated carpets, shawls and other weaving products. Thre were red alum mines in the mountains near the Bazz castle. Those alums did not only meet the needs, but also was exported to Yaman and Iraq, and was used there in the dyeing of wool thread. According to the information of Abu Dulaf, Bazz alum was more durable than the alum in Egypt. On those days, woolen fabrics produced in Vasit city, an important weaving center of Iraq, were dyed with Bazz alum. Besides, the craftsmen living along the Urmia Lake were skilful in the preparation of the red and yellow mineral dyes. According to the information of Ibn Havgal, these unique dyes were even exported to Iraq, Sham and Egypt and they gained much befenit from these dyes. Azerbaijan also was the land of the red insepts which were used in the production of the bright red color. It is interesting that the dye which was extracted from this red insect also was named red. Al‐Istakhri, the historian of the X century, wrote that the red dye was exported to the Indian countries and other countries from Barda. According to the information of that author, there was a

56 EARLY RENAISSANCE big island in front of the junction of Kur and the Caspian Sea. That island was rich with the red insects. People came to this region from Barda in order to collect the insects. Another Arabian traveller Ibn Havgal showed that the red insects were spread in the territories of Azerbaijan and confirmed the information of Al‐Istakhri about the exportation of the red insects to India: «There are red insects in Varsan, Barda, Bab al‐Abvab (Darband‐ Y.M.) regions and the island in the Caspian Sea. It was taken to Jurjan through the Caspian Sea and then exported to India by land. The red insects are avaible near Arran, Arras Rivers, in Jurzan region (Georgia‐ Y.M.) and everywhere from Bab al‐Abvab to Tiflis.» Al‐Mugaddasi, the Arabian geographer presented the red insect one of the miracles of the «ar‐ Rihab climate» and the wide territory of Azerbaijan. Besides, he showed that these insects were used in the dye technology. It is obvious from the information of the traveller that people boiled the red insects in the copper dishes and got red color from it. Al‐ Mugaddasi wrote: «There are red insects here. It is an earth insect. Women come here, collect the insects, put them into copper dish, and then put them to the oven where they baked the bread.» The navigation, fishing and many related professions were developed in Azerbaijan. The Caspian Sea, Kur and Araz Rivers, which were suitable for navigation, Urmia Lake and rich fish resources of the country created auspicious conditions for this. As the needs for the handicraft products increased, suitable conditions created for the craftsmen to life on the result of their labor. There was a great need to the products made by the Azerbaijani craftsmen not only in the local markets but also in the international scale. As the international caravan ways which connected the Volga regions and East Europe with the Near and Middle Asia, as well as India, and on other side the Middle Asia, China, India and Iran qith the famous trade centers in the and Black Sea was passed through the territories of Azerbaijan, it created auspicious conditions for the development of handicraft and trade. All these

57 YAGUB MAHMUDOV facts caused the emergence of the Middle age cities, many craftsmen and merchant places in the junction of the trade ways, as well as caravan ways and along the Caspian Sea, Kur and Araz River. Besides, the many ancient areas which were situated in the favorable geographic position became the great cities. BARDA. The Arabian travellers especially noted the role of Barda among the cities of Azerbaijan on that period. And it is not occasional as Barda was the great vicarate center of the Barda Caliphate in the South Caucasus during the Arabian oppression. The residence of the Arabic viceroys who governed all South Caucasus as well as Azerbaijan territories was situated in Barda city. It is natural that this fact played positive role in the developemnt of Barda in South Caucasus not only as a political center but also as the handicraft and trade center. In his book «The ways of the country» in 930‐933, Al Istakhri wrote that Barda was very big city. The width of this city was more that one farshakh and the length was also like that. It was a place with healthy weather, fertile land, arable land, and abundant fruits. There was not other fertile and favorable land in other places as it was in Barda except Rey and Isfahan between the Iraq and Khorasan. Many silk fabrics were exported from Barda. The silkworms were fed with the mulberry leaves. The mulberry trees belong to no one. Barda provided Persian and Khuzistan with silk. The treasury of the city (beyt Al‐mal) was in the mosque like in Sham. This treasury had iron doors, flat roof made from lead, and nine columns. The palace of the ruler was near the mosque, and the markets were in suburbs. Ibn Havgal, the famous Arabic geographer who wrote the book «Ways and countries» in 951, about twenty years later than Al‐ Istakhri, gave an interesting information about Barda. As it seems unlike Al‐Istakhri, Ibn Havgal wrote his book after Barda tragedy when Slavic troops burnt the city in 944. Though the traveller mainly repeated the information of Al‐Istakhri about Barda, in some point completed his ideas. Ibn Havgal wrote that Barda was the mother of

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Arran and was best city in this territory. The City was very big. The city was bright and in good condition. This was due to its clean weather, fertility, and riches of arable land, fruit, trees and rivers. People produce different things from the silk in Barda. They sent many silk to Iran and Khuzistan. There was a beautiful mosque in the city. The treasury was here as it was in Egypt and other cities during Amavis. The markets were in suburbs. Notwithstanding the destruction happened in the results of contunious attacks due to the war with Slavic, the pressure of the ruling centers and the management of the country by the misguided people, there were many markets, caravanserai and baths in Barda. Al‐Mugaddasi who lived in the same century with Al‐Istakhri and Ibn Havgal also wrote interesting information about Barda. Al‐Mugaddasi appreciated Barda as a Baghdad of ar‐Rihab climate (ar‐Rihab – Arabic word «wide area»), the wide area where all Azerbaijan territories as well as South Caucasus was included. In his work «The Best Division for Studying the Climate» written in 986, he wrote that Barda was big city. It was square for its structure. Ar‐Rihab was the main city of the climate. It was in the plain. There was grandious castle in Barda. The markets are covered. The mosque was behind the market. The houses in the city were very beautiful. They were built from the bricks and gyps. It was city rich with nice, beautiful fruits. Some columns of the mosque were made from the gyps and bricks but others from the wood. The river flew through the city. The Kur River passed through Barda in two farsakhs. There were other rivers flowing in the city. Barda was very wonderful city. Notwithstanding to this, Barda was losing its previous importance at the end of the X century, the period Al‐Mugaddas described. According to the information of Al‐Mugaddas, the rounds of the city were destroyed, the population was decreased, and the Barda Castle was in neglected condition on that period. ARDABIL. Ardabil was the biggest cities of Azerbaijan after Barda. Being the capital of Sajis and Salaris, two biggest Azerbaijan

59 YAGUB MAHMUDOV states formed after the collapse of the caliphate, it influenced the handicraft and trade center of Ardabil. While speaking about the territories of Azerbaijan in the south of the Araz, Al‐Istakhri, Ibn Havgal, Al‐Mugaddasi, the Arabic geographer and the travellers, appreciated Ardabil as «the biggest city», «the important region and the biggest city», «the main city of all climate», and described it as the capital of Azerbaijan (Sajis and Salaris). The palace of the ruler of Sajis and Salaris, the administrative buildings, military powers were situated in Ardabil. The city was surrounded with firm walls. Ardabil castle had three doors. The majority of the buildings in the city were built from burnt bricks and mud. The townspeople lived in the house with glass verandah. There was mosque in the Market square which was the busiest place in the city. Having the fertile lands, Ardabil was rich with garden. Every food necessary for human was abundant and very cheap in the city. As a city of the middle age, the household culture was very high in Ardabil. Al‐ Mugaddasi noted that there were many good baths in Ardabil on that period. Al‐Istakhri wrote that the length and the width of Ardabil were equal to one farsakh. The wide description of Ardabil was given by Ibn Havgal, the famous Arabic historian and traveller. He stated that Ardabil was even bigger city. According to his notes, the area of the city was equal to the thirty square farsakh. In his book «Ways and countries» (591), Ibn Havgal wrote that Ardabil was the most important and the biggest city of Azerbaijan on that period. The military camp and the palace of the king were in this city. The area of the city was the thirty square farsakh. The majority of the buildings in the city was built from mud and burnt bricks. There were firm castle wall surrounding the city. Weather of the city was very clean and the prices were cheap. There was Savalan Mountain near the city. This mountain was very high and rose to the sky from the west side of the city as if it was hung over the city. It was always snow in the top of Savalan. The city was very beautiful. The rivers flew through the city. There

60 EARLY RENAISSANCE were water wells. The bread was very abundant. It was possible to buy fifty lavash (bread baked of the thinly rolled dough) for one dirham. 1.5 pound of the meat costed one dirham. Honey, melted butter, nuts, currants and other foods were very cheap; they were already sold for nothing. Ardabil was leading city for its abundance, cheapness and the well living conditions in comparison with many famous cities.» DARBAND. One of the biggest cities of Azerbaijan in the IX‐XI century was Darband which situated in very suitable geographical and military strategic position in the north boundary of the country in narrow transition between the Great Caucasian mountains. Being situated in the coast of the Caspian Sea, Darband was the biggest seaport of Azerbajan on that period. Azerbaijan kept close relations with the Muslim and «Pagan» countries along the Caspian Sea through Darband port. The Arabic geographers and travellers gave detailed description of Darband in their work. Al‐Istaktri noted that Darband was greater than Ardabil. The city was surrounded with the castle wall from everywhere, especially from north and south. According to the information of Al‐Mugaddasi, only in the north walls of the city that is on Caspian side had three castle doors. There were several castle doors of Darband from sea side and south where Muslim lands were situated. The port was in the middle of the city. Darband port was surrounded with the firm walls, the famous Darband walls both from north and south. Being extended to the inner of the sea, these walls were built from the stone and the lead. According to Ibn Havgal, there was a chain in the entrance of Darband port as in was in Tir and Beirut. The chain was locked and the keys were in the guard. None of the ships were able to enter and leave the port without permission of port guard. Darband was also the famous handicraft center of Azerbaijan. The best linen fabrics not only in Azerbaijan, generally, but also in South Caucasian were produced in Darband. Darband was the only weaving center oin the South Caucasian in this field. Various ready

61 YAGUB MAHMUDOV clothes, especially street clothes made from the linen were exported to the foreign countries. Darband market was famous in near and Middle East. There was intensive slavery trade in Darband markets. Merchants from the various East countries came here to purchase slaves brought from the pagan countries. There was great mosque in the middle of the market square (This mosque with its spring is still famous –Y.M). The majority of the buildings in the city were built from the stone. As other middle age cities of Azerbaijan, Darband had also a highly developed household culture. It is obvious from the information of Al‐Mugaddasi that there was a sewerage system in Darband in the X century to let waste water to float. The suburbs were rich with arable lands and the vinayards. Ibn Havgal indicated that Darband was richer than Ardabil and there were much saffron here. MARAGHA. The Arabic travellers also note Maragha and Urmia among the biggest cities of Azerbaijan in the south of Araz. Being a small settlement before, Maragha became the middle age city with firm castle during the power period of Harun ar‐Rashid, the Abbasi caliph (786‐809). Maragha was also the important shelter of the Caliphate troops. During the collapse of the Arab Caliphate, Maragha became the capital of Sajis and developed even more. According to the information of Al‐Istakhri and Ibn Havgal, Maragha was second biggest city in the south territories of Azerbaijan after Ardabil in the X century. Ibn Havgal wrote: «Al‐ Maragha is the second biggest city after Ardabil. It was military camp and capital in the ancient time. The treasury and the administrative offices were situated here. Abu Gasim ibn Divdad ibn ad‐Divdast moved the capital from Maragha to Ardabil. Maragha was a city with fresh air. It was rich with gardens, orchards, rivers, water mining, tasty fruits, foods and other things.» URMIA. According to the information of Al‐Mugaddasi, the Arabic traveller of the X century, As Maragha, Urmia was also a city with clean weather, rich with foods, various goods and the trade

62 EARLY RENAISSANCE things, gardens, springs. The price was cheap; there were vinyards and the arable area in suburbs. However, it was small city in comparison with Maragha. While speaking about Azerbaijan, the Arabic travellers introduced the former Albania state that is the lands in the north of Araz as Arran. It is interesting that Arabs noted the name of Tiflis after Barda and Darband among the biggest cities of Arran. They wrote about Georgia as the hilly country ruled by the Azerbaijani rulers. For instance, Al‐ Istakhri wrote that there were not bigger cities in Arran rather than Barda, al‐Bab (Darband‐Y.M.) and Tiflis. Tiflis was the border city of Arran. Though it was not as big as Barda and Darband, it was very fertile land rich with fruits and rable land. The city was surrounded with the mud walls and there were castle doors from three sides. Tiflis was famous with its healing bath where water heated without wood. Arabic traveller Ibn Havgal also included Tiflis to the Arran cities and defined that this place was the important border city surrounded with the foes from everywhere. The city was situated upon the Kur River. Tiflis was much smaller than Bab‐al‐Abvab. The city was surrounded with two mud walls. The city had three gates. Tiflis was the city with fertile land, rich with goods. The prices were cheap in this city. As Al Istakhri, Ibn Havgal gave interesting information about the cure baths of Tiflis where water heated without wood. According to the traveller, there were water mills in Tiflis on that period. By emphasizing the fact that the population of Tiflis was Muslim, Ibn Havgal wrote that they defended the ideas of the Sunnite supporters based on the old theory. They dealt with the science on hadith and respected those who dealt with this science. As Al‐Istakhri and Ibn havgal, Al Mugaddasi, one of the greatest representatives of the Arabic geography in the X century defined Tiflis as one of the cities of Arran. The emergence of the local states in the territories of Azerbaijan cased the development of the cities which were the important handicraft and trade center during the Caliphate period and htey

63 YAGUB MAHMUDOV became the bigger economic centers. During that period beside Barda, Ardabil, Darband, Maragha, Urmia and other great economic centers, there were an important handicraft and trade centers in Tabriz, Shamakhy, Ganja, Shaki, Baku, Miyane, Khoy, Salmas, Marand, Barzand, Shirvan, Shabran, Gabala, Shamkir, Khunan, Lahijan, Ahar, Varzagan and other. As the primary resources confirmed, these cities were similar, did not differ for their greatness, and were rich with the fertile lands, trees, gardens, orchards, wheat cornfields, arable lands. TABRIZ. Some Azerbaijan cities which were not big before began to develop rapidly at the end of the X century. One of them was Tabriz. After being the capital of Ravvadis, Tabriz began to develop and left behind many traditional handicraft centers of the country. Uniting the trade borders of Azerbaijan and being situated on the junction of the international caravan ways, Tabriz became one of the biggest cities of Azerbaijan at the end of X century. Al‐ Mugaddasi, the famous Arabic geographer of that period, compared Tabriz with Baghdad and preferred it to Baghdad. The traveller assimilated Tabriz, the ancient and beautiful city of Azerbaijan which was rich with every kind of fruits, and where the prices were cheap, «with pure gold» and considered it with inadmissible miracle. MUGHAN. During the spoken period, there were two cities naed Mughan in Azerbaijan. One of these cities situated on the trade way Darband and Ardabil, at the coast of the Caspian Sea. At the end of the X century this city was declining. But, other Mughan which was surrounded with two rivers as noted by Al‐Mugaddasi was a city full of gardens as Tabriz. There were very nice orchards in the square of Mughan city. It was also the honor of ar‐Rihab climate as Tabriz. According to the traveller, there were eight days of travel from this city which was between Ardabil and Gilan to Barda. Al‐Mugaddasi wrote: «Mughan is beautiful city, the surroundings are cultivated; there are two rivers flowing in this city, the people are very beautiful as a ruby and coral. They are very generous and respectful.»

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VARSAN. There was a large medieval city named Varsan in seven farsakh from Baylagan city over the Barda and Ardabil trade way. Being one of the firm castles of Azerbaijan during the Caliphate, according to the information of Ibn Havgal, Varsan was bigger than Beylagan. It was expanded with much population and rich with market and trade goods. One may found everything in Varsan which were in other greater cities. There were solid walls surrounding the city. A special district was allocated for the market. BEYLAGAN. The medieval city of Azerbaijan was a settlement abundant with flowing water, orchards, and verdures. Ibn Havgal gave interesting information about the existance of water mills in Baylagan city which was situated over the rivers. According to Al‐ Mugaddasi, the people of Beylagan were very sincere and they cooked delicious sweets. BAKU. In the IX‐X century, the economic importance of Baku was increasing. The rich oil deposits of Absheron made Baku famous in the neughbor countries. Al‐Masudi, the Arabic traveller, appreciated Baku as oil land of Shirvan and coastal city in his work «The Gold Washing Places and Jewellery Mines». Of course, Baku was not very famous as a costal city on that period and was behind Darband city in this sense. However, Baku was well‐known for its oil. While speaking about white oil mines in Baku, Al‐Masudi noted that «Only God knows whether there were any other places rich with white oil in any regions of the world». Abu Dulaf, the Arab traveller, witnessed the white oil mines working in Baku all day. Arab travellers described the gas flames shining night and day in Baku, as well as in islands of the Caspian Sea and they compared them with Ethna volcano in Sicilia. Al Masudi gave information about this: «There is a volcano erupting in that place where oil is extracted. The flame is reached to the sky. There are islands in the sea in front of the coast. One of them is three day away from the coast. There is a great volcano erupting in different period of the year. Its fleam rises to the sky in height above the highest mountain. It lightens the most part of

65 YAGUB MAHMUDOV the sea. This volcano is about ten farshakh away from the coast. It looks like a volcano in al‐Burkan Mountain in Sicilia.» THE CITY LIFE. The medieval cities of Azerbaijan were similiar from the external point of view. Being situated in the suitable places that were on the caravan ways along the Araz and Kur River, at the coast of the Caspian Sea for sale of the handicraft products, or in the natural and geographic positions for the defence, these cities as a natural were surrounded with the firm castle walls. To defend against the feudal pillages and foreign attacks, sometimes people fenced a town with two walls, then surrounded them with wide and deep trenches and filled them with water. The castle walls were built from the stone, and sometimes from burnt and raw bricks. Depending on the direction of the trade caravans, there were several firm castle doors in several places of the city. Beside the handicraft and trade, the city population dealt with agriculture and gardening for providing various agriculture products and kept cattle. The Arabic travellers of the IX‐XIII century wrote that medieval cities of Azerbaijan were almost rich with gardens. Generally, the cities of the middle age consisted of two parts: Inner city and the outdoor city. The houses, gardens, stalls and other agriculture constructions of the townspeople were in the inner city. The arable land, as well as cornfields, water‐melons, pastures were in the outer city that is the outside of the castle wall. As time passed, the primary look of the middle age cities changed. As the people increased, the density was grewing as well: porches, floors were added to the old buildings, the verenda and balconies were stretched forward in the upper floors, the dark streets of the city looked like a dark tunnel. Old City in Baku, the unique gift of the far past, gives vivid description of the structure and the look of the middle age cities, namely, the inner cities of Azerbaijan. As time passed, the old castle walls became narrow for the middle age cities which developed into biggest handicraft and trade centers on the result of the expansion of the money and commodity relations, inner and foreign trade relations. The buildings

66 EARLY RENAISSANCE were built in the outside of the walls in outer city, the big handicraft and merchant districts were laid, the caravanserais and other public buildings were constructed, the previous appearance of the medieval cities was completely changed. The busiest place of the city was the city square or the market square. As a rule, the market square was near the mosque. This place was considered as a central part or main district of the medieval city. The city judge, confessor, rich merchants, mansions of the big feudals, closed markets, administrative bodies, religious schools, caravanserai, baths etc were in this district. First time, the main mass of the population of the city consisted of a small artists. The artists lived in the districts at the corner of the walls far away from the center of the city. The artists worked in their small workshops all day long and they were also the merchants as they sold their own products. In the early middle age cities, the merchantry did not completely separated from the mastery. The artists lived very hard during the first periods of the emergence of the Middle age cities as the need to the prepared products were not much. Thus, artists of the same profession that is colleagues formed their union. On the basis of these unions, the city artists lived in separate districts. There were jewelers, fabric sellers, confectioners, dyers, armourers, curriers, butchers, hatters, potters, saddlers, trunkers, braziers, blacksmiths, farriers and other areas belonging to the separate unions in the Middle Age cities of Azerbaijan. The artist who wanted to deal with any of these professions should become the member of the artist union. There was not labor division in these unions. In order to prepare nice cap or fine bed, every artist should do every necessary operation by themselves. Three public powers worked in these artist unions as usual: master, assistant of master, apprentice. The artist unions paid serious attention to the quality of the produced goods as they might lose their clients due to these worse goods and disgrace the artists. There was a control on the price and the quality of the products. The

67 YAGUB MAHMUDOV member of the union shoul sell the product on the price defined beforehand. The production of extra goods was prohibited as it might cause the decrease of the prices and the bankruptcy of the artists. The artist unions played great role in the production of the high qualitative handicraft products for certain period and caused the development of the productive forces. The unique handicraft products of Azerbaijani masters were famous not only in various countries of East but also in the markets of Europe and this brought great benefit to the artists. However, as time passed, the previous advanced importance of the artist unions began to loss and they turned to the conservative organizations. The artist unions who tried to keep this or other fields in their monopoly could not pay the needs for the products and became the serious problem in the way of prosperity. The skilful artists tried to teach their knowledge and the experience they gained through the years to their children or to their colse relatives. When their assistants and apprentice who were not their relatives became the skilful artists, they could not hold a good position and did not transfer to the mastery level. During the middle ages, the town‐building was developed in Azerbaijan. In order to let waste water float away, people established the underground sewerage system in some cities of Azerbaijan, as well as in the big villages which were the handicraft centers. The system of laying ceramic underground water pipelines to the handicraft centers from the surrounding and distribution of that water to different districts of the city with the same rule was wide‐ spread. Such systems are currently recorded in Azerbaijan, and even large villages. Besides, one can observe the remnants of the water pipes in various districts of the city, as usual, in the Kish River and Boyuk Koynuk village of Shaki region. There were baths for women. Sometimes, special days were defined for men and women in the city baths. In some cities of Azerbaijan, the baths were given to the power of the women in the afternoons and to men in the evening. Both Eastern and Western travelers, who visited Azerbaijan in different

68 EARLY RENAISSANCE times, gave interesting information on the city baths belonging to the middle ages. The medieval Azerbaijan cities seriously differed from the cities of the West for their renovation, cleanness and order. Thus, it was impossible to observe the diseases widespread in many cities of the Western Europe in the middle age in the cities of Azerbaijan. The medieval cities, generally the big settlements emerged in the places surrounded with the cure springs and rich water supplies beside all other conditions.This also played great role in the health of the city population. There is interesting information in the first resources as well as in the work of the Arabic authors. Abu Dulaf, the Arabic geographer who visited Azerbaijan in the X century, wrote that there were hot springs which cure the itch in Ardabil, Bazz and neighbor mountains. By swimming in the river flowing near Bazz, one was able to cure from the shivering or temperature. Grounding to the common opinion, the traveller appreciated Zaravand spring near Salmas which had hot treatment water as the best underground water in the world. Abu Dulaf took his friend to that spring and personally observed the miraculous power of that treatment water. According to information of the traveller, beside the itch, pain in his back, herpes, foot and joint aches, and temperature, that man was suffering from the arrow head in this body. After receiving treatment for three days, the arrow head got out from his body, from his side and the man recovered from all diseases. Such water, as well as springs which recovered people from eye, throat, and gastroenterostomy diseases was near many middle age cities of Azerbaijan. Besides, there were scientists who were familiar with the secrets of the medicine. One of the interesting notes of Ibn Havgal, the famous Arabic traveller, was as follows: «They had experienced, intellegent doctors acquainted with the science of medicine.» The prosperity of the handicraft and trade, the revival of the cities also stimulated the development of Azerbaijan culture. The interest to the nature sciences increased. The worldwide knowledges

69 YAGUB MAHMUDOV gave a push to the education system. The caravan trade which was expanding with many countries of the world improved the geographic knowledge, and positvely influenced the cognitive process. The cities in Azerbaijan became an important cultural center throughout East. Azerbaijan formed the primary historical conditions for the Renaissance culture. The revival of the city life, development of handicraft and trade, the prosperity in the various fields of the agriculture after the collapse of the Caliphate created a ground for the social, economic, political and cultural revival of Azerbaijan in XII‐XIII centuries.

4. The economic revival at the beginning of the XII‐XIII centuries and the prosperity of cities

Though the decline of the Caliphate tyranny and formation of the new states caused the revival of the economic life of Azerbaijan, impossibility of formation of unite and powerful Azerbaijan state which should surround the all territories of the country and eliminate the feudal sparseness, the absence of common money, measure, weight system created serious obstacles in the development of productive forces. The political dispersedness from the second half of the IX century to the mids of the XI century, substitution of the feudal dynasties which ruled different parts of the country, endless custom borders, continuous discords among the local rulers, political anarchy and the attacks of the foreigners damaged the development of the agriuclture and handicraft, expansion of the economic relations among various regions of Azerbaijan and caravan trades with foreign countries. However, beginning from the mids of the XI century, the situation was changed. The territories of Azerbaijan were included to the Great Saljuk Empire. Thus, a suitable condition created for the revival of the traditional trade relations of Azerbaijan with Near and Middle East countries, generally, development of mutual relations with Turk and Islamic world. The common money system applied in

70 EARLY RENAISSANCE the Great Seljuk Empire positively influenced the expansion of caravan trade both in Azerbaijan and in foreign countries. The establishment of powerful and wide Azerbaijan Eldaniz state in the XII century, as well as the strenghtening of Shirvanshahs state quickened the development of productive force in Azerbaijan. The agriculture, handicraft and trade made progress. The role of Azerabijan cities increased in the economic relations of state and in international trade. Besides being in the center of the social and economic growth of Azerbaijan cities which connected the trade borders of Azerbaijan regions and world countries, these states created a suitable ground for the formation of the Renaissance culture of Azerbaijan which gifted the world culture famous person such as Nizami. In his book «Dictionary about the countries», Yagut al‐Hamawi, the Arabian traveller who visited Azerbaijan twice and Tabriz, Maragha, Urmiya, Khoy, Sarab, Ardabil, Khunaj, Khalkhal, Miyana, Ushan and other countries at the beginning of the XIII century, wrote: «Azerbaijan is a great country and a big state. It is generally a hilly country; there are many castles, endless resources and fruit trees. I did not see such many garden and parterre, so many rivers and springs in other places of the world. There is no need for the traveller to take a water container as there are everywhere sweet and healthy water, cold as an ice.» Beginning from the mids of the XI century, the role of Ganja, Nakhchivan, Beylagan, Tabriz and Shamakhy increased in the economic life of Azerbaijan. There were ten thousand, sometimes even 100 thousand people living in these cities. GANJA. Ganja was one of the big cities of Azerbaijan during the Eldaniz power. The investigation proves that there were about 500 thousand people living in Ganja on that period. There were few big cities such as Ganja in east and west of the world during the mentioned period. One of the reasons of such rapid growth of the city was the fact that Ganja was one of the important military and

71 YAGUB MAHMUDOV strategic stations situated near the Islam world and Christian border. Ganja had significance in repulsing an attack of Armenian of Georgian feudals incited by the Byzantine Empire. The ancient Ganja was reconstructed and strenghtened by Muhammad ibn Yezid, the Arabian viceroy from the Mazyadis dynasty, in 859 and became significant military and strategical station in the west of Azerbaijan. Being the capital of the Arabian governor‐general’s which covered the territories of Azerbaijan and neighbor territories for long time, Ganja began rapidly develop after the destruction of Barda by the Slavs in 944. Being the Shaddadies and Seljuk governor‐general’s as well as Eldaniz state’s capital, and becoming a capital city in the lowland regions after the collapse of Barda positively influenced the development of Ganja city. Beginning from the second half of the IX century, the rulers of Azerbaijan and the governor‐generals of the Seljuks paid special attention to the strengthening of Ganja. The city was surrounded with the tall and solid castle walls, and deep trenches. Ganja people always bore arms against the unexpected attacks. The youth of Ganja was very skillful in shooting an arrow. Though arms were brought to the city from everywhere of the Muslim countries, Ganja itself was the significant center of the arm production in the South Caucasus. On the spoken period, Ganja was one of the silkworm breeding centers of Azerbaijan together with the neighbor regions. Raw silk, various silks and cotton fabrics, ready clothes, fur turbans, felt and other handicraft products of Ganja were exported to many countries of the world. There were copper and iron mines near Ganja. This factor positively influenced the development of the metal procurement, copper‐smithing, production of the weapons, as well as other fields related with the metal. Ganja was also an important center of pottery in Azerbaijan. The construction of Sultan palace, other palaces, mansions belonging to the separate rulers, religious figures, state figures,

72 EARLY RENAISSANCE mosques, religious schools, bath and other public buildings in Ganja, the capital of the country, stimulated the development of architecture and many art fields related with this. The majority of Ganja population consisted of craftsmen and merchants. On those days the people of Ganja had summer house in the mountain near Hajikand. They lived in these houses till weather got cold. Ganja was fertile and luxurious city of Azerbaijan rich with orchards, vineyards, water‐melons, arable land, springs and healing forests. However, on September 30, 1139, there was terrible disaster in the great handicraft and cultural center of Azerbaijan. According to the sources, Ganja was destroyed as a result of the earthquake happened at night passing from Friday to Saturday. It seemed like there was not a city there before. During the earthquake in 1139, approximately 230 thousand people of Ganja died. This number is 300 thousand people in other sources. On such hard days, next terrible disaster took place in Ganja. Georgian forces under the leadership of Demetre, the Georgian tsar, and Ivane Mkhragrdzeli, famous with the pillages in the west boundaries of Azerbaijan, attacked the city. Armless Ganja people who were in mourning and confusion was sabred. The Georgian troops collected the gold and silver among the heap of the dead bodies, robbed the Ganja treasury and sent everything to Georgia. The famous castle gates of Ganja castle which was not able to approach in an open war were taken to Georgia in that period. Black Sungur, the viceroy of Saljuk, went to Ganja when he learnt that the Georgian troops robbed Ganja and defeat them. The Georgian troops were withdrawn from Azerbaijan. City and its castle walls were reconstructed. NAKHCHIVAN. Nakhchivan was one of the great handicraft and tarde centers during the period of Saljuk and Eldaniz power. Nakhchivan was one of the capitals of Eldaniz State during the period of Atabey Shamsaddin Eldaniz. The most prosperity years of the city coincides with this period. Being the most important military and strategy station of Azerbaijan in the coasts of Araz River,

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Nakhchivan was surrounded with the castle walls. It was the center of the handicraft. The unique fabrics, chukha (long waisted outer garment), various kitchen utensils, especially, bowl, cup, products made from the iron tree, gold, silver and copper goods and other products of Nakhchivan did not only meet the local needs but also was exported to the foreign countries. There were many palaces, religious schools, mosques, mansions, tombs and other unique architectural pearls built in the city beside the residences of rich people and governmental buildings. Being full with garden and parterre, Nakhchivan was also famous with tasty fruits. Springs in Nakhchivan provided the castle with drinking water. Alinja castle and other grandiose castles built near the city strenghtened the security of Nakhchivan. BEYLAGAN. One of the cities of Azerbaijan making progress during the period of Eldaniz power was Baylagan. Being situated on the caravan way from Ganja to the south regions of Azerbaijan, Baylagan city was also an important military strategy station. On the eve of the collapse of the Saljuk Empire, Baylagan left the dependence of Saljuk Empire and became an independent city. Later, Baylagan reached to the pick of the prosperity in the dependence of the Eldaniz state. The city was reconstructed. Caravanserais, religious schools, mosques and many new mansions were erected. Those days the population of Beylagan was about 40 thousand people. More than 30 handicrafts and professional areas such as weaving, dying, armoring, the profession of a mason, pottery, jewelry, copper, carpentry, currier, the profession of a saddle‐maker, tailoring were developed in the city and there were several markets. Beside the neighbor regions, people from Darband, Shirvan, Shabran, Baku and other cities of Azerbaijan came to Beylagan to trade. Being situated on the caravan way, Beylagan kept the trade relations with foreign countries as well. One of the mints of Eldaniz state was located in Beylagan. TABRIZ. During the government of Eldaniz state, Tabriz expanded much. Being situated on the junction of the international

74 EARLY RENAISSANCE caravan ways, Tabriz was the capital of the state. The city was surrounded with solid castle walls. The international caravan ways from Darband to the Persian Guld and from East to Europe joined in Tabriz. Thus, Tabriz was very important international trade center between Asia and Europe. The markets of Tabriz were full with foreign merchants. Everyday, goods were sent from Tabriz to the countries of Asia and Europe through the caravan way. There was not such a handicraft field proper for the Middle Age cities that did not developed in Tabriz. The unique carpets, satin, khatai, taphta, siglatun and various silk fabrics woven by Tabriz masters, as well as ready clothes, curtains, shawls, and other products were exported to the world market. Tabriz was also a center of a significant science and culture in East. Calligraphs and bookbinders of Tabriz were known everywhere. There were several religious schools in the city. One of the main mints of Eldaniz state was situated in Tabriz. Yagut al‐Hamawi, the Arabian traveller who was in Tabriz at the beginning of the XIII century wrote: «Tabriz is the most famous city in Azerbaijan. This is a beautiful city surrounded with brick and limestone and had many population. There were many little rivers flowing through the city, it was surrounded with the gardens, and the fruit is cheap here... The houses in Tabriz are built from the red bricks and limestones and they look very beautiful... There are fabrics, siglatun, khatai, satin, and other materials woven in Tabriz. These materials were exported to east and west countries.» SHAMAKHY. One of the important handicraft and trade centers of Azerbaijan at the beginning of the XI‐XIII century was Shamakhy city. In connection with the strenghtening of the Shirvanshahs state on that period, Shamakhy, its capital, became one of the biggest trade centers in the East. Being located on the caravan way from Darband to Ganja nd Barda, as well as south regions of Azerbaijan, Shamakhy was also an important international trade center. Shamakhy rapidly grew as its foreign trade relations expanded. Those days, there were about 100 thousand people living in Shamakhy. Besides, Shamakhy

75 YAGUB MAHMUDOV was one of the famous silkworm breeding centers of Azerbaijan. As Shaki, Shamakhy people also had rich experience in breeding the silkworm. The merchants throughout the world came to Shamakhy to buy the row silk, various fine silk fabrics of Shirvan, as well as unique Guba‐Shirvan carpets. The row silk of Azerbaijan was exported to the North Italy and France from Shamakhy on that period. Being located on the international caravan way connecting the countries along the Volga River, and East Europe with the Persian Gulf, Shamakhy was becoming one of the biggest handicraft and trade centers of Near and Middle East. DARBAND. Located in the north border of the country, Darband played an important role in the economic life of Azerbaijan. The merchants from the East Europe and countries along the Volga River established trade relations with Azerbaijan through Darband. They passed through Darband to travel the East countries. Being the north gate of the country, Darband was also the leading sea gate of Azerbaijan for other countries in the Caspian Sea. Darband which played a significant role in the international trade remained the production center of cotton and linen fabrics as well as ready clothes in Azerbaijan in the XII‐XIII century as it was before. The saffron played an important role in the exportation of Darband. The hot trade life of Darband positively influenced the development of handicraft in the neighbor villages. By giving information about two villages covered with the Caucasus mountains near Darband, Abu Hamid Al‐Garnati (XII century) wrote that the people of these villages, even women, girls, children, slaves, housemaids, were able to make every kind of weapons: sword, dagger, helmet, bow, arrow and other tools from the copper. BAKU. At the beginning of the XI‐XIII century, the role of Baku as a second important port city aftee Darband increased. The export of oil to other cities of Azerbaijan, as well as neighbor countries from Baku expanded. White oil of Baku became more famous. Baku oil was used not only for lightening the houses, but also in the battle. Beside

76 EARLY RENAISSANCE the oil, Baku was also one of the important cities of Azerbaijan for its salt production. The different handicraft wares and moneys found during the archeological excavation held in Icharishahar show that Baku became the important handicraft and trade center of Azerbaijan in the XI‐XIII century. After the destruction of Shamakhy in the result of the earthquake in 1192, Baku became the capital of Shirvanshahs. Having rich oil deposits and becoming an important port city in the coast of the Caspian Sea as well as becoming the political center of Shirvanshahs increased the importance of Baku.

5. Caravan Ways and International Trade Relations

Progress of the cities was a cause for development of commodity‐money relations and expanding of the domestic economical links. Caravan ways linking Azerbaijani cities to each other at the same time create tense economical connections among Azerbaijani provinces, has a positive influence on the process of creation of unique domestic market. However as there was no powerful united state covering all Azerbaijani lands, none of Azerbaijani cities could turn to the unique centre that can link all territory of the country from economical and political viewpoint. At the IX‐X centuries Barda had important role in expansion of economical relations among separate cities and surroundings of Azerbaijan. According to information of Al‐Istakhri the caravan way was working in four directions from Barda: Barda‐Ardebil, Barda‐ Darband, Barda‐Tiflis, and Barda‐Dabil. Those caravan ways created economic links among Beylagan, Varsan, Barzand, Ardebil, Barzand, Shamakhy, Shirvan, Shabran, Darband, Ganja, Shamkir, Hunan and other cities. The given trade ways at the same time created trade links of Azerbaijan with Volga area and all Eastern Europe via Darband, with Black Sea basin via Tiflis, with trade centres in the Mediterranean via Dabil, with Central Asia and Persian Gulf via

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Ardebil, and had a positive impact on international trade relations of the country. The most important economical centre in the South regions of Azerbaijan was Ardebil city. Ardebil was keeping wide commercial relation with important trading centres, located in the north of the country like Barda and Darband. Moreover, three more caravan ways were from Ardabil to Zanjan, Maragha and Amid direction. These trade ways created trade links with Sarab, Khoy, Zanjan, Miyana, Khunaj, Khulsara, Maragha, Daharragan, Urmia, Salmas and other cities in the South of the country and also linked the given art and trade centres located on the trade ways of Ardebil‐Barda and Ardebil‐Darband with cities of Northern Azerbaijan: Ardebil‐Zanjan, Ardebil‐Maragha, Ardebil‐Amid caravan ways at the same time linked southern lands of the country with trade centres located in the basin of the Black Sea, Mediterranean and Persian Gulf, as well as with Central Asia. Moreover, Maragha‐Dabil way was playing the important part in the commercial links of the cities of Urmia, Salmas, Khoy and Nakhchivan. Shaki was playing the important part in the economical development of the north‐west regions of Azerbaijan. That time Shaki had wide commercial relations. Al‐Masudi was writing that even in the mid of X century Shaki population was engaged in trade. According to information of Arab travellers, «the king of Shaki country for the given period was Azer ibn Nabih ibn Mahajir». That time lands of Shaki feudal kingdom was stretched towards boundaries of Tiflis Moslem emirate controlled by Jafari dynasty, including region of present Balakan‐Gakh. Shaki, as well as Gabala town located nearby to it was keeping wide commercial relations with Shamakhy, Barda and Ganja. There was direct commercial relation between Shaki and Moslem emirate of Tiflis having the same border with it. The navigation had important role in creation of economical connections within the country, too. For instance, ships were sailing

78 EARLY RENAISSANCE between the west and the east shores of Urmia Lake. Ibn Havgal writes that there are many ships in the Urmia Lake. They sail among Urmia, Maragha, Tabriz provinces and Daharragan. Though to pass the length of the lake from North to South was possible for four days with riding on horse, its width of water between Maragha and Urmia was about 20 farsakh. According to information of Al‐Mugaddasi, Urmia was sailed across in boat for one day and one night. Owners of the ships that created links among the various shores of Urmia Lake were living on the islands inside of the lake together with their families. Middle Age travellers were noted that Kur and Araz Rivers were also useful for navigation, too. According to information of sources there was ship movement in the part of the Kur River from Barda till the Caspian Sea. The Caspian Sea was playing the important part in the foreign trade relations of Azerbaijan. The biggest port city of the country in the Caspian shore was Darband. Darband merchants were maintained commercial relations with peoples of Iran and Middle Asia, Volga area and Khazar Khagan through the Caspian Sea. When the wind was blowing in the direction of the movement of ships it was possible to pass the road from Darband to Tabaristan within one week. It took three days to reach Sarir kingdom from Darband and four days to Itil. And further from Itil took eight day more to reach Samandar city. The Caspian Sea was playing then more important part in maintaining commercial relations among Azerbaijan and other Moslem countries with Khazar Khagan. The role of Baku was increasing a port city besides Darband. Prominent Arab geographer of X century Al‐Mugaddasi even had evaluated Baku as «a sole port» of «Ar‐Rihab» climate. Location of Azerbaijan at suitable place for implementation of trade relations of Azerbaijan with Asia and Europe, passing of international caravan ways, linking the South with North, the West with East across the territory of country had positive impact in expansion of foreign trade relations. Raw silk, various silk, wool,

79 YAGUB MAHMUDOV cotton and flax goods, ready‐made garments, all kinds of rugs and another weaving, pillow, silk product of curtains, covers, lace, rare gems, jewellery and ceramic works, copper kitchen utensils, saffron, dry fruits, sweets, fish, rare red colour dye received from girmiz beetle, mineral colours, forbearing and mobile sex mules, cattle etc was exported to different countries from Barda, Ardebil, Darband, Tabriz, Ganja, Maragha, Nakhchivan, Shaki, Shamakhy, Urmia and other cities. According to information of Arabian traveller Al‐Masudi for first half of IX century, white oil (kerosene) was taken from Baku to different places. But other Arabian traveller of the X century Abu Dulaf had seen «mines with running white oil like tulip oil day and night» in Baku. Rent of one of these mines was about 1000 dirham daily. According to Ibn Havgal as shamai fishes caught from the Kur and the Araz Rivers were so «tasty» that it was even sent to Rey and Iraq besides the cities of Azerbaijan. There were very big international markets in Azerbaijan territory in two places. During certain months of the year, mainly at last spring many merchants rushed into these markets from all over the world. One of them was famous «Al‐Kurki» bazaar, which was near to famous «Gurd gapisi‐ Wolf gate». Arab travellers Al‐Istakhri, Ibn Havgal and Al‐Mugaddasi gave very interesting information about this bazaar. «Al‐Kurki» bazaar was surrounding about the territory of one square farsakh Merchants from various countries of the world, even from Iraq were trading actively in crowded «Al‐ Kurki» bazaar. «Al‐Kurki» bazaar had become so famous among people that even when they counted the days of the week they called Sunday simply as «Al‐Kurki day». According to writings of Al‐ Mugaddasi merchants from all countries were rushed into «Al‐ Kurki» bazaar. Silk fabrics and ready‐made clothes were sold in this bazaar. Various curtains were exported from Barda. Very good mules were also bought and taken away from here, too. Traveller writes: «They had no similarities with dyes called girmiz, gaytanlan,

80 EARLY RENAISSANCE khalchalan, covers, cornel fruits, fishes called kasbuviya and at‐ tirrikh, very qualitative figs and chestnuts». The second biggest international market in Azerbaijani territory was located on Ardebil‐ Maragha trade way between Khunaj and Maragha. According to Al‐ Istakhri this trade centre known as Khulsara bazaar was at distance of three farsakh from Khunaj and ten farsakh from Maragha. Ibn Havgal who was here «when he was young» writes that Khulsara «is a big palace with grandiose castle». At certain time of the year, in Kulsara market usually opened at the early of the month merchants representatives of the different people come here, used to buy from here various silk cloths made in Azerbaijan, India and another countries, gold, silver, copper items, perfume, vinegar, saddle, horse, mule, cattle, sheep and lambs etc. According to information of Ibn Havgal the trade of ten thousands sheep and lambs at once was going in Kulsara market among some merchants. International fairs like Al‐Kurki and Kulsara later on appeared in European countries (for instance, famous Champagne fairs in France, etc.), too. Such fact about general volume of the commercial relations of Azerbaijan with foreign countries creates enough clear impression. Arab traveller Ibn Havgal gives information that there was customs‐ house in Khunaj city, at the way from Azerbaijan to Rey. Just this customs‐house was earning about 100 thousand – 1 million dirham of income annually just from various commercial goods exported from country. The traveller was writing that «there was nothing similar in any country of the world». Development of the handicraft and trade had been a cause for opening of mints in different places of the country. Azerbaijani rulers were mint coins on their behalf. Gold and silver money was used in the turnover.

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RENAISSANCE IN CULTURE

The prosperity of the Azerbaijan culture had quickened in the mid of the IX century. There was a suitable historical basis for this. During the long period for six hundred years when Azerbaijan was under the leadership of Sasani and Caliphate, the close relations with cultural centers of Near and Middle East, the revival of the relations among the various regions of the country positively influenced the development of the culture. Azerbaijani thinkers participated closely in the cultural revival in the Caliphate Empire which covered great territories from the Middle East and India to Pyrenees peninsula, namely in the establishment of the culture named «Muslim Renaissance». The necessity of unite in the struggle against the Sasani and Arabian invaders during the centuries not only strenghtened the relations between various Turkic and non‐Turkic tribes living in the area of Azerbaijan, but also influenced the formation of union language and culture. Besides, the acceptance of the Islam religion played great role in the formation of the union Azerbaijan nation and positively influenced the development of the relations between Turk and Islam nations living in the territories of Asia and Europe. The revival of the ancient state traditions of Azerbaijan in the result of the collapse of the Arabian caliphate, the establishment of Shirvanshahs, Sajis, Salaris, Ravvadilar, Shaddadis state, and the political independence gained in the result of the persistent struggle of the nation against the strangers created the suitable condition for the rebirth of the material and mora culture. However, the tranquility formed for the prosperity of the Azerbaijan culture did not last long. A new threat surrounded the country. Being afraid of

82 EARLY RENAISSANCE the political revival of Azerbaijan, the Armenian and Georgian feudals became active. Benefiting from the weakening of the Caliphate and the conflict among Azerbaijani states, the enemies relied upon the Byzantine Empire. The aggression of the common Christian bloc consisting of the Armenian and Georgian feudals and the Byzantine Empire, their supporters, the attack of Slavs to Azerbaijan lands by Volga and Caspian, the policy of the foreigners on withdrawl of the Turk and Islam factors from the South Caucasus did not happen, in contrary, ethnic and political uninion strengh‐ tened in the territories of Azerbaijan, and the formation of the common language and culture was quickened. Azerbaijan became the main fortification of the Turkic and Islam world in the struggle against the Christian bloc under the leadership of the Byzantine Empire. Azerbaijan people protected its ancient culture in such serious condition of struggle against constant attacks from every geographical direction and enriched it with new pearl of art.

1. «Kitabi Dede Gorgud» is the history chronicle of the land

At the time when the Azerbaijan people could stand attacks of the Georgian feudals, Byzantine Empire and the Slavs the masterpie‐ ce of our national culture and common monument of brotherly Turkic people «Kitabi Dede Gorgud» had already been spread in the wide territory from Demirgapi Darband to outskirts of Diyarbekr and Mardin, from the Caspian to the Abkhazian land in the shores of the Black Sea and Trabzon. Lays (a part of saga, poem, etc.) of the «Kitabi Dede Gorgud» spread in the VII‐IX centuries by folk singers‐ashugs wandering the Oghouz country from hamlet to hamlet, from village to village, first of all, is a grandiose monument proving living of a great Turkish speaking people – the Azerbaijani people in the area where they were spread. Notwithstanding the enemies of the Azerbaijani people

83 YAGUB MAHMUDOV afterwards have changed hundreds of place names ‐the memory of our great history, and have created false «history» to them, our real history lives in «Kitabi Dede Gorgud», in the biography of Turkism. Lays of «Kitabi Dede Gorgud» proving and making the world to assert that Azerbaijan Oghouzes were spread in the vast area from Darband to the limits of Diyarbekr; from the Caspian Sea to the Black sea narrate to generations the real history of South Caucasus which was not falsified then. Masterpiece of our folklore «Kitabi Dede Gorgud» is at the same time our irreplaceable history chronicle. It occupies a particular place among the world peopleʹs heroic eposes as an historical source concerning . In arising and spreading of some lays of the epos had played the important part some Oghouz kins, as well as standing in the core of our people powerful Akkoyunlu tribes. The Akkoyunlues living in the areas beginning from the Darband pass and the foot of the Major Caucasusʹ mountain chain to the Araz (Araxes) river, around the Goyja Lake, in Nakhchivan, later in south regions of Azerbaijan still at the end of the VI‐early VII centuries, as well as the Garagoyunlues gained victory over their political adversaries, including the Armenian, Georgian and Byzantine feudals they had reached till the boundaries of Trabzon and still Syria. In lays «Ganli Goja oghlu Ganturali» is dealt with Oghouz Trabzon relations, as well as marrying of Ganturali to daughter of the Trabzon emperor (Seljan Khatun) from the Akkoyunlu kin of Oghouz. Oh, listen, my forty friends and forty comrades true, May my own head be sacrificed to you! Our God on high has shown to me the way, I took this path; those three wild beasts I slew. Seljan Khatun the yellow‐robed I won. Now bring this news unto my sire, and let him meet his son! To the point, descended from the of khans Bayandur khan later when the Akkoyunlues created an independent Oghouz state with Diyarbekr its capital was ruled initially by the dynasty of

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Bayandur. Some representatives of the Bayandur dynasty, including Gara Yuluk Osman bey, Turaly bey, Uzun Hassan and other notable Akkoyunlu rulers like their paternal grandfathers got married to daughters of the Trabzon emperors, made this Greek state their dependent, had reduced Trabzon to the important port city of the Akkoyunlues on the Black Sea shores. The struggle of Oghouz knights fighting against the Armenian and Georgian feudals, their supporters Byzantine, as well as Gypchag Turks acting in concert with Georgian rulers attacking Azerbaijan has been reflected in «Kitabi Dede Gorgud». The lays «Theft of Salur Gazanʹs house», «Baybourasʹ son Bamsy Beyrek», «Imprisonment of Uruz bey Gazan beyʹs son», «Gazilik Gojaʹs son Yeynek», «The lays where Salur Gazan was imprisoned and his son Uruz rescued him» and other lays are rich with pages of heroism about the struggle of Azerbaijani people against the overseas. As known, the Georgian kingdom becoming more active especially in the XI‐XII centuries having joined with Gypchags in the time of David strove to occupy the western lands of Azerbaijan. Became independent at the time the Georgian kingdom refused of paying taxes to the Oghouz. This historical truth was given very clearly in the lay «Bekil oghlu Imran»: «Nine tuman Georgiaʹs tributes were brought: One horse, one sword and cudgel». Bayandur khan was very disappointed. Dedem Gorgud came, played a cheerful tune, and made up rejoice. «Why are you sad, lady?» ‐he asked. How can I gladden? Every year gold and silver was brought, we were giving to the youth, beys, and they were pleased. Whom shall we give these now to make them pleased? We read in the lays that the head of the Oghouz for preventing the borders from the Georgian feudals’ attacks advised: «Khanim (lady), let us give all these three things to one of the brave spirits and let him guard the Oghouz people». Then Ogouz braves rose to the defence of the western borders of Azerbaijan, including the cities of Ganja and Barda. All of these lucky military operations of Oghouz

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Seljuk troops, Azerbaijan Eldanizes state made in the XI‐XII centuries against the Georgian aggressors who often infringed the boundaries of the country. This historical truth is shown in the epos very evidently. One of Oghouz heroes Bekil following Dede Gorgudʹs advice went and pitched a tent in the borders of nine tuman Georgia and watched over them. If a strange giaour came here he sent his head to the Ogouz people as a present. Lays of «Kitabi Dede Gorgud» prove that still at that time «infidels»– Byzantine, Armenian and Georgian feudals afforded to set Turks on each other and pursued the policy of defeating them with hands of each other. For achieving their insidious intention they even tried to set the Gypchag Turks on the Oghouz Turks, even strove to set Oghouz braves on each other. One of the most salient facts of this insidious policy is given in the epos in the lays of «Ushun Gojaʹs son Seyrek». In this lay is shown how black clothes giaours tried to collide Eyrek, captivated by them with treachery with his own brother Seyrek. But the leader of the Oghouz tribe Dede Gorgud did not give a chance to the enemy, he made the two brothers to embrace each other, they rode on the black‐gowned giaours and destroyed them. To the point, afterwards this policy of the giaours became more systematic and got a global character. The rulers of Western Europe could collide Emir Teymur with Bayazid, Uzun Hassan with Sultan Mehmed Fateh, Shah Ismail with Sultan Salim, Shah Tahmasib with Sultan Suleiman Kanuni... as a result the Turkic World weakened. It appears from Dede Gorgudʹs saying that whatever happened to Oghouz knights was because of their carelessness, not assessing the enemy and forgetfulness. The enemy always gained the upper hand over when they were in their sleep. As shown in the epos, Oghouz beys used to sleep seven days. Therefore the Oghouzes would say to the sleep little death. Enemy always could approach them in the time of this little death. Salur Gazan and other Oghouz beys were always captured by the enemy so while of this little death.

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Ushun Goja oghlu Eyrek also was captured by black‐ gowned giaours and was thrown to pigsty. Seyrek who came to save his brot‐ her in spite of being in enemy encirclement, for his inattentiveness «caught to this frightful illness of the Oghouz». But Dede Gorgud with the tongue of Eyrek gives admonition not only to his brother Seyrek but the people of all Oghouz: Oh, you brave, that jumping up from place and mounting beautiful horse ‐ black‐mained Gazlig, Oh, you brave, that passing over The Argubel and Aladagh at night, And crossing over boiling water How can a stranger sleep so soundly? Sleep in the pigsty like me, hands and feet tied together? The epos of «Kitabi‐Dede Gorgud» is rich with pages of heroism of the Azerbaijani people fighting against the overseas, as well as proves that our people had rich sedentary culture and highly developed tillage, weaving and other economy and handicraft areas in this land. From the lays of the epos is apparently seen, that the Oghouz kins lived a sedentary life. Cultivation of grain was their main occupation. The Oghouzes had water mill. They knew how to use flour and sieve it long ago. Country and land were the most holy conceptions. Land meant everything for the Oghouzes. After each victory over the enemy the Oghouz brave spirits were distributed lots of land. The Oghouzesʹ greatest attachment was for their native land, for their permanent homes. It is evidently seen from the fact that the Oghouz braves who had lived for ten years in strange country after long years returned home again. Empty houses, no man’s native land were the most terrible thing for the Oghouzes. Moan of the wolf of the left ownerless places was the most terrible one for the Oghouz. In hard times the love to their homeland even made the Oghouz beys to forget the offence among them and they united against the common enemy immediately. The lays of the epos

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«Bekil oghlu Imran» is very edifying from this view point. Offended with Gazan khanʹs doubted approach to his bravery, Bekil quarrels with Bayindir khan puts all his presents in front of him, leaves the divan (court) and returns to Georgian boundaries – to Ogouz land ruled by him. He goes to the hunting to dissipate his sad thoughts. He is badly wounded. Knowing about this the «black‐gowned giaours» prepared to attack the Azerbaijan boundary. Love to his homeland makes Bekil to forget old resentment, calls his son Imran and gives admonition: Mount on the beautiful black‐mained horse Gazlig. Climb over the sheer cliff mount Aladagh, Go to white foreheaded Bayindir khanʹs divan. Welcome Bayindir khan decently. Kiss the bey of beys Gazan khanʹs hands. Tell Gazan khan: «My old father is ill. Gazan bey should come at once» Tell him if he does not come, our country will be ransacked, Tell him «Our brides will be taken prisoners by the strangers». Some areas of economy made progress in the Oghouzes. Gardening, vine‐growing, wine‐making were the developed areas of economy and handicraft. In the lays of the epos «Dukha Goja oghlu Deli Domrul» Deli Domrul asking for quarter from the angel of death says: We have mountains with vast areas; We have vast gardens in those mountains; those gardens have black bunched grapes. They press that grapes and get red wine. Camel‐breeding, horse‐breeding, sheep‐breeding and connec‐ ted with this handicraft areas were highly developed. Oghouzes had lots of camel herds, lots of excellent horse and sheep flocks. Bayandir khan was spreading silk rug in thousand places when holding

88 EARLY RENAISSANCE military meetings of the Ogouz beys. As evidently seen from some lays of the epos at that time Azerbaijan had wide mutual relations with external world. Commercial relations were kept with Sham (), Rum (Byzantine), including Constantinople. It is interestingly that Azerbaijan merchants except the traditional way through Asia Minor, as well as used another one getting over Darband by land passing through the plains in the north shore of the Black Sea they were going to Constantinople. The Oghouzes had golden coins. Created a rich and specific culture the Oghouzes kept wide relations with different countries, spread their high culture among the neighbor people and kins; at the same time learnt much from other people .Unlike their giaour neighbors which had chaff bag mattress, half brick pillow, and hewn wooden God that they had relations with the Azerbaijan Turks were proud of their high culture. Oghouz was the land of wise men, ozan (ashugs) which immortalized the popular wisdom, craftsmen and the land of healers. The Oghouzes led frank policy against the neighbors. They never launched surprise attack on their neighbors and never broke their boundaries. But when enemy did treachery and made surprise attacks on Azerbaijan the Oghouz braves rose jointly to the defence of the country. Drum‐beats thundered, gold bronze twirling trumpets resounded. After driving the enemy out of the country boundaries the Oghouz braves forgave those who asked for quarter. To make a surprise attack, to gain a victory by trick, to cut the head of the sleeping person was odd to Oghouzes. The Oghouz young men who got into habit to ride horse, to rattle the sabre since childhood when reached to a certain age after displaying any courage became defenders of the country. The Oghouzes had a strict military discipline. All problems connected with defence of the country were considered in the military assembly called by khan of khans Bayindir khan. When Oghouz beys for revenging the enemy who gave no rest to the country, wanted to launch a military

89 YAGUB MAHMUDOV campaign they put faces on the earth and asked for permission. Oghouzes deeply esteemed the women. In hard days of the country the Oghouz women kept up with men in riding horse, in displaying courage, rattling the steel sword with the enemy. Mother was holy. Motherʹs right was equated to the Godʹs right. In the lays dealing with the theft of Salur Gazanʹs home all riches robbed by Shoklu Melik when Salur Gazan met enemy abated from everything‐ gold vaulted high houses, all wealth, plentiful silver, even from his son Uruz and his forty jigits, and his wife Burla khatun and her forty slender waist maidens, but did not abate from his mother: You giaour, have brought my old mother, Give my mother back. Iʹll recede without any fight. Gazan khanʹs son Uruz kept up with his father and highly esteemed mother. He considers his mother Burla khatun holy and is ready to sacrifice himself for Fatherʹs honor. in order enemies could not know his mother he is ready to be hanged, to be stabbed on the back, his white meat to be fried : Let them, my lady mother, to stab me with fork on the back . Let them fry my flesh and put before forty beysʹ daughters. When they eat once, you eat twice. Do not let the giaours know you. If only those repulsive religion giaours would not touch you with their dirty hands. If only you would not be their wine scooper. If only you would not cast a stain on Father’s honor. Virginity, honor, chastity were holy for Oghouz girls and women. Burla Khatun been captivated by Shoklu Melik in order not to be disgraced by a repulsive religion giaours; in order to defend her husbandʹs honor gives consent to eat Uruzʹs fried meat. As itʹs known, one of the first Turkish kins which accepted the Islam religion in the time of caliphate occupation was the Azerbaijan Turks. The Azerbaijan Turks were the first who accepted the Islam, besides they played the important part in dissemination of this religion. Connoisseur of the Oghouz Dede Gorgud lived almost in the time of the prophet Muhammad. Among the Oghouz brave

90 EARLY RENAISSANCE spirits were some seen the prophet supported him then. The process of stepping from the ancient faith to the Islam by the Azerbaijani Turks is obvious from the part of the saga. In some parts of the saga, the reading of azan by the bearded to Oghouz people who did not forget that their roots belong to the dog‐ lion of the white rock, the lion in the White saz, in the brave dog‐ wolf‐cub and in the Falco rusticolus, was like a cry of Tat gallants. Dare‐devil Domrul, son of old Dukha, fought with Azrail, the angel of death, who killed good gallants. As time passed, Oghouz people talked with Allah, the Greatest and Eternal Ruler, found shelter in God when they had difficulties, cherished for Allah, who created world from nothing, read the holy book Quran in their difficult trial periods, promised on Quran, began to fight on behalf of Mohammed: Give me your white feathered big arrow, To kill the foe you want. Give grey‐eyed three hundred gallants for me to fight in favor of Mohammed’s faith. It is clear from the parts of the «Book of Dede Gorgud» that black dressed pagans also began to be converted into Islam. The conversion into Islam not only positively influenced the formation of common nation of various Turkic tribes, but also played great role in joining Azerbaijan lands from the political point of view. Islam united Azerbaijan tribes which were fighting under the flag of Turk‐Oghouz against the strangers for so long time even more closely. Non‐Turkic tribes who converted to Islam also joined this unity. The Turk and Islam unity was formed. The common religion impacted positively to the power of the state. The power of Oghouz state increased. The right of Bayandir khan, the Khan of khans, expanded. The Oghouz people considered him as a shadow of Allah. It affected the outlook of people: A man will always loss if he acts against the monarch. As it is seen from the part of «Book of Dede Gorgud» the anciet

91 YAGUB MAHMUDOV tribe traditions and rites of Oghouz people were glossed during the formation process of common Azerbaijani nation and turned to the national traditions and rites of the country. Hospitality was the leading tradition of Oghouz world. Inhospitality was equalized with unlucky and misfortune in the sayings of Dede Gorgud: It is better for the big houses to be unhappy if they had not guests. While praising the best housewife who was the safety of the house took the hostility forward. A woman who accepted and saw off the guest with tender was considered luck for the Ogouz family. Ashugs included these wives to the group of Aisha and Fatima. The most favorable saying of Ogouz people, who alway say only treachery from the foes violating the boundaries of the land repeatedly during the centuries was the following: The bitterest enemy would not be a friend. While forgiving the guilty people among the Ogouz, they always passed under the sword.To shoot an arrow, to fence, ride a horse, wrestling became the mass festivals of people. The ashugs accompanied these festivals that held under sound of black zourna, drum. If Ogouz gallants killed in the battle on the inviolability of the land or died as a result of attack of betrayer from the back, the women and girls dressed black, gallants wore black, and cut the tail of the martyr’s horse. The Ogouz gallants promised to take revange of their hero and threw their turbans to the floor. After defeating the enemy, Ogouz people again held their festivals, played in drums, raised the gold and bronzse pipes, cut stallion from the horse, camel, sheep and ram and began to eat. The fesvital of victory coincided with the weddings.

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2. Science and school

Political revival which began in the result of decline of the caliphate gave important stimulated the development of the Azerbaijan science. The Azerbaijan rulers from the dynasty of the Shirvanshahs, Sajis, Salaries, Ravvadies and Shaddadies paid great attention to development of the education, gathered advanced people of the time to the palace, they competed in building mosques, bridges and the immense mansions. There were many medreses (religious schools of Moslem) in Ganja Barda, Shamakhy, Darband, Tabriz, Ardabil and other cities of Azerbaijan giving perfect education and famous in all the east. The Quran (Koran) was taught, primary knowledge about different areas was given to pupils in primary schools under the mosques. Azerbaijan cities which had created wide relations with external world since the time of Sassanid and caliphate were the important science and cultural centers of the time. Azerbaijan science was developing as a part of the so‐called unique Islam culture. Connected with internal economic relations and expansion of the international caravan trade, as well as with progress of different handicraft areas gradually interest to various fields of science increased in Azerbaijan cities. Adjoining with the Quran, shariat, logics, the eastern languages Need and interest was increasing to different natural sciences in medreses and mollakhanas (religious and ecclesiastic Moslem schools). Azerbaijan culture making progress in condition of mutual relations and influence with Turk‐Islam peoples was influencing positively to the development of the world culture. It was not an accidental process. Location of Azerbaijan‐ one of the most ancient centers of the world civilization‐ in the junction of international caravan roads connecting south with north, east with west expansion of these relations in the time of Sassanid and caliphate had

93 YAGUB MAHMUDOV influenced more positively to the development of culture .on the eve of decline of the caliphate Azerbaijan was one of the biggest cultural centers of this wide territory empire. Many great thinkers, including historian‐geographers al‐Biruni, Avicenna, al‐Farabi, Rudaki, Firdausi, at‐Taabari, al‐Balazuri, al‐ Mugaddasi, Ibn Khordadbeh, al‐Masudi, al‐Balkhi, al‐Istakhri, Kharezmi, Ibn Havgal, Battani, Abul Vefa, al‐Kindi, Ibn Roshd and a lot others famous in all the east, as well as in French1 countries in the IX‐XII centuries were not well‐ known in Azerbaijan. But a lot of them were directly connected with scientific and literary environment in Azerbaijan. In the afore‐mentioned period Azerbaijan which had presented to world culture Khaganies and Nizamies was one of the most important centers of the famous cultural renaissance called «the Moslem Renaissance. Azerbaijan scientists were the leaders in different fields of science in the world, including medicine, philosophy, astronomy, history and geography. At that time great scientists as Makki ibn Ahmad al‐Bardayi, Said al‐Azdi, Abdul‐Aziz al‐Bardayi lived and created in Azerbaijan. Afterwards works of Avicennaʹs student, the great Azerbaijan philosopher Bahmanyar ibn Marzban had been translated into many eastern and western languages and had played the important part in the development of philosophic thought. He deeply learnt the East‐Islam and ancient Greek philosophy, and made interesting investigations and generalizations in this direction. Another Azerbaijan philosopher was Eynalguzzat Miyanachi (1099‐1131). Assassinated by clergymen for his pantheist outlook in his 32 years Eynalguzzat Miyanachi was the author of many philosophical works and quatrains. One of bright personalities of the time was Khatib Tabrizi

1 Eastern Europe and Europeans were called with the name of the Frank Empire as ʺFirengistanʺ and ʺfirenghsʺ. 94 EARLY RENAISSANCE

(1030‐1109). After receiving his first education in Tabriz and travelling some Eastern countries, at last, he had come down in Baghdad. More than 40 years Khatib Tabrizi had worked as a teacher and made valuable investigations on philosophy, language, literature, logics and other fields of sciences in the famous religious school of «Nizamiyyeh». Having taken lessons from such famous scientists of the time as Abulala Maari, Khatib Baghdadi, Abul Fath Razi, Abu Tayyib Taabari, Abulgasim Tannukhi and others Khatib Tabrizi became one of the most prominent scientists of all Islamic world of time having the encyclopedic knowledge in the area of literature and linguistics. He had not forgotten native language during long‐term travels and when he lived in a foreign country. Itʹs interesting that his neighbor comes from Tabriz while was taking lessons from his teacher Abulala Maari in the mosque Maai‐Teyiʹan‐numan in Syria. Asked his teacherʹs permission Khatib Tabrizi began to talk and to ask after neighbor’s health in Azerbaijani. Abulula Maari who was an expert of the Arabic and Persian languages could not understand asked his student: «What language is this? « And Khatib Tabrizi answered: «This is the language of the Azerbaijani people». Abulula said to his student: «I do not know and I do not understand this language, but I have remembered all your conversation». Khatib Tabrizi writes: «Abulula Maari repeated all my conversation with my neighbor. I was rather surprised how he had managed to remember the thing which he did not understand. Other prominent scientists lived and created in Tabriz in the time of Khatib Tabrizi. Notable scientists lived and created in other cities of Azerbaijan. Physician and writer from Khoy Abu Miaz Abdayi, lawyer Abu‐Bakr Muhammad Shirvani of Shamakhy and others were among them. Born in Ganja and got his primary education here Omar Ganjavi acquainted with different scientific‐literary schools in the cities of Nishapur, Hamadan and and studied in religious school of «Nizamiyyeh» in Baghdad. Made valuable researches on

95 YAGUB MAHMUDOV linguistics and literary criticism as well as the author of beautiful poems Omar Ganjavi died in Merv. Omar Ganjaviʹs contemporary literary critic from Khoy Yusif ibn Tahir wrote commentary to famous Arabian poet of the time Abululaʹs divan (selected poems of the poet). The famous astronomer of the XII century Fazil Fariddin Shirvani all his life had devoted to studying of the heavenly bodies, had compiled a number of valuable tables on astronomy. Material culture patterns revealed during the archaeological excavations in different places of Azerbaijan proves great interest to astronomy in our country at that time. Development of the astronomy side by side with other factors was connected with very wide foreign trade relations of Azerbaijan, with development of the caravan trade directly countries of the Far East and the West.

3. Literature

In the IX‐ XII centuries a great revival happened in literature. Azerbaijan literature occupied one of the highest picks in world cul‐ ture due to great Nizami and literary environment which had brought him. Two trends were mostly striking in development of literature: folklore and classic literary examples of professional writers. The best example of the folk literature in the afore‐mentioned period was the epos of «Kitabi‐Dede Gorgud». Lays of «Kitabi‐Dede Gorgud» – the masterpiece of art were spread in all corners of Azerbaijan, in all territories where Oghouzes lived. Folk singers ashugs‐ozans used to travel Azerbaijan and neighbor countries inch by inch, in weddings, holidays, festivals and zorkhanas (place where people trained for athletes) sang folklore samples coming from millennia which revealed the spiritual world of people; brought their courageous past to nowadays; enriched it, passing from hamlet to hamlet, from country to country, from generation to generation they immortalized them.

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Folk art taken roots from their bitter and happy daily life of the Oghouzes, their heroic struggle against the foreigners was native and dear for people. People liked such literary examples because they were created in native Turkish and reflected the real life of the people; introduced everything as it were. To the point, lays of «Kitabi‐Dede Gorgud» are also a written literary monument to contemporary generations. Writing of this famous heroic epos at that time – in early Middle Ages by a concrete author proves that Azerbaijani Turkish language had had ancient written traditions of literature. Unlike the popular literature written literary samples mostly were occurring in the literary environment formed in some feudal rulersʹ palaces and in big cities. Therefore, this kind of works did not fully reflect the peopleʹs life as the folklore samples did. On the other hand, these samples of written literature, as a rule, were created in Arab and Persian languages. Written literature created in the Arabian language gradually decreased after Azerbaijan left the structure of the caliphate empire, but written literary samples in the Persian began to increase. If on the one hand, it was connected with orders of Azerbaijan rulers who preferred Arab and Persian languages and with literary environment dominating in the feudal palaces, on the other hand, with the interest of prominent Azerbaijan writers to keep close relations with wide literary environment of the Eastern countries where the Arabian and Persian were state languages. In the XI‐XII centuries generated such notable artisans of Azerbaijan literature as Omar Ganjayi, Yusif ibn Tahir, Eynalguzzat Miyanachi, Abulula Ganjavi, Falaki Shirvani, Izzaddin Shirvani, Mujireddin Beylagani, Givami Ganjavi, Gatran Tabrizi, Khatib Tabrizi, Mehseti Ganjavi, Khagani Shirvani and others which rose to the summit of great Nizami. The prominent linguist and scientist – philologist, talented poet Omar Ganjavi beside the native Azerbaijan was famous in Baghdad, Nishapur, in Hamadan, Merv, all the Near and Middle East. The following hemistiches coming off from the heart of the notable Azerbaijani poet which died in strange land‐ in

97 YAGUB MAHMUDOV the distant city Merv with regret to his country have remained as a memory to present generations: If you ride your camels and reach my country, Donʹt forget! Give my best regards to friends. Tell them how I miss for them, I hardly bear to live apart. Tell them how I am sick. Tell when I remember them, When the fragrant morning breeze Blow from the friendly lands, My heart goes pit‐a‐pat, And does not calm a bit. One of the prominent philosopher‐poets of the XII century was Eynalguzzat Miyanachi (1099‐1131). In his short life he created some very valuable philosophical works this rare personality left quite sweet quatrains, tender philosophical poems after him. The following hemistich of the poet will be an example to this: It should appear, there is not that It should be a shore to hope, there is not that. «Do patience»,‐ you say You will be OK! The soul will master it, there is not that. The notable poet Nizamaddin Abulula Ganjavi (1096‐1159) was one of the venerable poets of the time. He was born in Ganja. He had great authority among the poets till the time of Nizami. Living the rest of his life in the Shirvanshahs palace he was given the rank of «melikush‐shuara». Abulula Ganjavi was one of the most advanced intellectuals of the time. He was closely acquaintanted with creative activities of Abu Ali ibn Avicenna and other great thinkers. The following hemistich from the master poetʹs gassida «Andnameh» notifies the greatness of the poetʹs art:

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My heart like a cloud ready to rain, My words are pearls, but my soul is a sea. My tongue is a herald to this precious stone, But the time is too expensive to buy this kind of stone. Another prominent poet Abulula Ganjaviʹs contemporary Falaki Shirvani was one of the notable representatives of the Azerbaijan Renaissance literature. The poet who wrote odes to the Shirvanshah was ill‐fated, all his fortune was taken and he was put into prison. «Habsiyyeh (Imprisonment)» – the famous gassida of the poet written on this occasion brought him eternal reputation: No one is able to mitigate my grief, What can I do, Iʹm ill‐ fated. Iʹm impatient in expectation, But do nothing except waiting in grief. Falaki Shirvaniʹs creativity is typical for powerfulness of the humanist ideals. Besides Abulula Ganjavi, Khagani, Falaki Shirvani and others Amir Izzaddin Shirvani also had great services in the development of the XII century Renaissance literature. Unity of human with nature is sung in tender poetry of the poet. Mujireddin Beylagani who occupied a particular place in our XII century literature served in the palace of the Eldanizes and died in Tabriz. Mujireddin Beylagani who wrote his odes under the influence of great Khagani dedicated them to Eldaniz rulers Muhammad Jahan Pahlivan and Gizil Arslan. Created tender, cordial and lovingly poems Mujireddin Beylagani did not abstain from filing his attitude against injustice of the time: Like a lizard I can stay thirsty, I wonʹt lose my honor and live heartless. If water quells my inspiration And reproaches for service, I would die with thirsty, And never look at the water.

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One of the famous poets of the XII century was Givami Ganjavi. According to some information, this great poet was Nizami Ganjaviʹs brother or cousin. Indeed, democraticness, hate to palace life, love and deep respect to simple people, humanist ideals tanned by call to justice created an affinity between these two poets. Givami also like Nizami sympathized not with the Shirvanshahs, but the Eldanizes; in their poems they eulogized Muhammad Jahan Pahlivan and Gizil Arslan. Human, his beauty, real cares like other humanist masters is typical for creativity of Givami Ganjavi. The poet gradually raises objections against the ignorance, unjustness, hypocrisy, untidiness which is hindrance on the way of his ideal of humanist man: How strange the time is, There is no one sober from the ignorance There is believer ascetic, nor perfect scientist, There is neither a fair shah, nor a just judge. Like customers they avoid to meet one another, They are fearless from the Dooms Day, I donʹt know why. If things go so it wonʹt last long, The things will do topsy‐turvy. Gatran Tabrizi, Mehseti Ganjavi, Khagani Shirvani, at last, genius Nizami which created the rare pearls of world poetry occupies a particular place among the prominent masters of our XI‐ XII centuries Renaissance literature. Gatran Tabrizi (1012‐1086). Born near Tabriz in the village Sadiabad this master poet was one of the prominent representatives of Renaissance literature. Gatran Tabrizi, a poet to whom his contemporaries wrote: «All poets are drops in the ocean, and Gatran is the ocean itself.» We have inherited his Persian‐language legacy, the most noteworthy in which are the historical poems about the wars fought in the XI century, his poetry describing the earthquake in Tabriz, and his love and philosophical ghazals.

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No man can comprehend in its fullness the power of God, No man can comprehend in its fullness the valour of God. He makes gardens into barren hills and plains –such is his power, He converts barren hills and plains into rich gardens in flower. The great poet created the rare pearls of poetry expressing love to human, admiration to the nature in the palaces of Tabriz and Ganja. Besides his lyrical poemsʹ divan (collection of poems) Gatran Tabrizi is the author of the explanatory dictionary «At‐tefasir» in Persian. If palace life of Gatran Tabrizi who wrote odes to Azerbaijan rulers, passed outwardly pleasant, painful peasant life of the people did not leave him. He cannot be happy. He is in grief: How long shall I keep my secret inside? How long shall I long for delight? How long shall I stand the torture of lover? How long shall I see the evil as good? At last, the poet obviously stated his dissatisfaction against the aristocrats, rules who spent time with him, promised him an occupation of vizier and gave him gifts, in one of his odes. The odes of Gatran Tabrizi where he praise the Azerbaijani rulers are the valuable literary sources for studying that period. There are interesting and valuable information in the ode of Gatran Tabrizi devoted to the earthquake in Tabriz in 1042 and in other odes for studying the history of XI century. Make your way to Tabriz, learn how God’s mighty had cast it down, Make your way to Tabriz, learn the tale of that most tragic town. The city through the centuries raised its head to the sky, Through the centuries men raised its walls up on high. The town where men streched out their hands for a star, The town that raised towers to Saturn on far, Lost its pride and was crushed in the space of one hour, Death took a great toll in the span of one hour.

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Many women of beauty, like Kashmir’s most fair, Died in gardens of paradise‐still they lie there. The departed, entombed, shall rest evermore In once lovely homes in the earth’s ghastly maw. Men whose homes were once filled with rich goods of all kinds, Men whose stores were once filled with good things of all kinds, Had been felled by misfortune and roll in the dust. In his poems, Gatran Tabrizi called Azerbaijani rulers to friendship and union, and glorified their victories over the enemies. Gatran Tabrizi often used Turkish words in his poems, translated various national phrases into Persian and thus wanted to confirm that he was the Azerbaijani poet. While the deep sea holds pearls his crown to adorn, While men prefer poppies to thistles and thorn, May he live and rejoice in thousands of ways, And count in their thousands such fine festive days. This reality was confirmed by Nasir Khosrov, the famous philosopher and traveller, who met with the great poet in Tabriz in 1046. In his «Safarnameh», he wrote that he met with poet named Gatran Tabrizi. He wrote very good poems, but his knowledge on Persian was weak. He came to meet with me. He read the divan of Munjik and Dagiga. He asked he meaning of difficult words and I explained them. He read his poems to me as well. Mehseti Ganjavi. One of the famous representatives of the Renaissance literature of Azerbaijan was the outstanding Azerbaijani poetess ‐ a rare phenomenon in medieval Moslem East Mehseti Ganjavi. Her only works that have reached to us are philosophical and love quatrains, glorifying the joy of living and the fulness of love. Though you should be the lord of all, the people’s crowned head. One day you may be forced to cry from poverty instead. For people let your heart be moved, grow close to them and dear; And fear the day you’ll need their aid – in kind is payment made.

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More than 200 quatrains of the poet were investigated till today. As an artist of the Renaissance period, Mehseti Ganjavi also was interested in the real people, their wishes, feelings, love, joy and sorrow. The poem of Mehseti is the poem of love. A world there is for those in love with mines of precious stones, But bards select a different world as setting for their thrones. The bird that eats love’s magic grain lives on another planet‐ His nest beyond both worlds, ignoring riches, scorning fame. It was the poem which emerged from the real, sincere, simple, human relations and was far away from the religious dogma and ascetic. Poet devoted the majority of his quatrains to the people of various occupations such as hat‐maker, baker, weaver, carpenter, farrier, shoe‐maker, butcher, tailors and others. It was not only the specific fot the activity of the artists of the Renaissance culture, but on other hand was the real reflection of the hot artist and trade life of cities especially Ganja in the middle ages. The poetry of Mashati Ganjavi praising the labor love reached to its peak in the activity of Nizami. Khagani Shirvani (1126‐1199). One of the famous poets of the Renaissance literature was Afzaladdin Khagani Shirvani. Khagani Shirvani was born in Shamakhy, the land of poem and art. He was the first poet who wrote poem in Azerbaijan literature and raised the ode to the highest peak of the art. As other representatives of the Renaissance culture, human, reality of life, the struggle of evil and good, deep humanism feelings were the main point of Khagani’s creativity. It was not occasional as Khagani who was born in poor family witnessed the bitterness and sweetness of life. He was brought up by his uncle Kafietdin Omar ibn Osman. He studied the Quran, linguistics, literature, philosophy, mathematics and other

103 YAGUB MAHMUDOV sciences under the patronage of Kafiaddin Omer ibn Osman, his ungle who was the one of the intellects of that period. Khagani showed interest to the poem since his childhood and he was invited to Shirvanshahs palace sooner. He took the penname Khagani (belonging to Khagan) when he was in palace. Not standing the constraints in the palace life, the poet travelled to Iraq, Mecca and was arrested. He lived in Darband and Ganja. Eventually, after visiting Kaaba in 1176, he did not return to Shamakhy again. He lived in Tabriz. The poet did not accept invitations of various rulers to live in palace. All these events reflected in the work of the poet. Only the lyric poem divan of 17 thousand couplet, the poem «Tohfatul‐Irageyn» (A gift to the two Irags), and philosophical gassida «The Ruins of Madain» and prose letters of Khagani reached to our days. Pearls always have come from deep in the brine, But the savant found pearls in verses of mine. He told me: «Two things I would that I knew – In what land were you born? And whose son are you?» «A student am I, a man of the arts, From my town of Shirvan I came to these parts. My father served the true God on high, But a carpenter by my trade am I. For many a year in calamity’s cave I would suck from my thumbs the wisdom they gave.» It was Khagani who conquered the highest peak of the Renaissance literature on ode not only in Azerbaijan but also in the East. Deep humanism was specific for the activity of the poet who always was offended but never hurt anyone (I used to be offended but not offend since my childhood). Khagani was loyal to the specific features of his activity in his poems which he devoted to Shirvanshah Manuchohr, Akhsitan, Gizil Arslan, the ruler of Eldaniz, as well as

104 EARLY RENAISSANCE poems devoted to the important events and victories of that period. The poet was confused for praising various rulers in his poem in his youth and it was obvious from his couplet «My tongue was stained as I praised the kings before». He did not want to return those days and boasted himself for writting only the truth. Khagani was loyal to the humanity, truth, reality till the end of his life, had friendly relations with scientists, intellects and withdrew from the shahs, khagans, greedy and oppressive rulers. He noted that the tyranny and tyrant had no end and called every people to humanism. In this case, the ode «Ruins of Madain» of the poet is the reprimand treasury. The owl’s endless hoot makes my head ring as if with mad cries, To sooth my discomfort the tears will soon start from my eyes. All songs are elegies. Nightingales here are all owls, The cry Madain raised to heaven throughout the world files. The humanist poet who lives with the love of justice protests to the tyranny in his poem «Tohfatul‐Irageyn» while seeing the discrimination and wrote that even sun differs the foreign from the kindred. Don’t serve the unholy – don’t let them come near – But fling open the gates of the truth without fear. The last hope of the poet who was in the tyrants’ world and always confronted with the tyranny was the common people. He remembered his hard‐working father, mother, grandfather, uncle, his kindred and dear people, and compared his work with the labor of these common people. Teach men, Khagani, how fickle is fortune and life, And let the khagans come to you and by wisdom be led. Afzaladdin Khagani’s activity which was the unique event in the way of the raise of the Renaissance literature to the peak of Nizami influenced not only the poetry of Azerbaijan but the poetry of Near and Middle East as well. The might of Khagani’s poetry was proven by the couplet of great Nizami:

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I always told that Khagani would write an elegy for me, but it was me who wrote an elegy for Khagani. (1141‐1209). The Renaissance literature of Azerbaijan reached to the highest peak with the activity of Nizami. Loftily rising among the most unique personalities of the international culture, Nizami stimulated the development of East and World poetry. My ghazals reach the ear of the people in a wave of harmonous sounds, My ghazals are the colour of poppies and, like wine, lull the heart‐beats to sleep, All that moves in the far starry heavens, all is put into motion by me, And in Fortunes gold cup I’m the water, while the sky is the scoop of the deep. Even the artists of the Middle and Near East benifited from the endless poetry of genius Nizami and dedicated their best works to the great master. After the collapse of the caliphate, Nizami was grown in the prosperity of Azerbaijan which lived its political and economic revival. After the collapse of the Sasani and Caliphate Empire, Azerbaijan continued its close relations with cultural centers of Middle and Near East countries, Middle Asia, Iran, Iraq, Egypt and Syria. Ganja, the place where Nizami started to his activity, was one of the biggest art, trade and cultural center with approximately 500 thousand people before the birth of Nizami. Ganja also was the biggest science and education center of the East. Turkish and Islam rulers paid an important attention to the prosperity of Ganja which was one of the biggest strongholds in the border of the Islamic world and Christian. The most unique pearl of art, manuscripts throughout of the world were gathered in Ganja. Rare artists such as Abulula Ganjavi, Mehseti Ganjavi were from Ganja. Thus, Ganja was most suitable place for shining of Nizami’s talant. Namely it was Ganja

106 EARLY RENAISSANCE which reached Ilyas to the peak of Nizami. Studied in native Ganja, the genius thinker investigated the rare resources written in various languages before working over the new work, and then wrote his works. It is I who am peer of all knowledge, My renown of perfection is great. My genius is vast as the heavens, For I dominate earth, time and fate. My breath fills the earth, It resembles the resonant chimes of a bell. My pen is a banner of glory Called to conquer the earth and create. Investigating the scientific and philosophical heritages, studying the various sciences and languages, living in tireless conditions, Nizami was one of the greatest masters of the humanist literature. The yeast of Nizami’s activity was human. A human whom the poet met in his daily life, lived in the common cares and struggled against the good and evil; a human who was ascetic, lived in this world, who worked hard, lived, loved, and a human who was knelt with wise of beauty. The basis of the poetry world of the greatest humanist was a real man, and their real love. O radiant‐face beloved, whose cherished bride will you be? Whose dignity will you raise, whose honor and pride will you be? In the darkness of night you’re a lamp with bright light, God guard you from evil eye, Breath of life – o whose love to caress and embrace will you be? You are gone, how can poor Nizami live alone with his grief? He is down now, whose healer his pain to appease will you be? To the point, Nizami, one of the early representatives of the Renaissance literature, left behind not only his contemporaries but also greatest humanists who lived after him for his inimitable lyrics. Near the garden, to shy to go in, I was burnt by a flower, How I trembled... She laughed with her laughter of resonant

107 YAGUB MAHMUDOV power. And the emerald garden, it echoed the sweet rolling laughter, She smiling exceeded in beauty the flowery bower. In the morning, at dawn, fleecy cloudlets shed tears on the garden. And the jasmine laughed, and the violets smiled, revived by the shower. The immortal «Khamsa (Quintuple)» of Nizami («Storehouse of Mysteries», «Khosrau and Shirin», «Leyli and Majnun», «Seven Beauties» «Iskendernameh») brought the poet among the genius of the world literature and also glory to the nation. «Khamsa» begins with the fist great work named «Storehouse of Mysteries». Being devoted to the Fakhraddin Bahram, the ruler of Seljuk, this work was completed in 1175. There are 20 narrations on various fields of life, variegated public problems, the difficulties of human, tyranny and contradiction in the society in the work, namely, the real treasury describing the real life of people who work in this tyranny world was presented in the work. All these narrations demostrated the humanism and democratism of Nizami’s activity. The main problem the poet wanted to solve in «Storehouse of Mysteries» was problem of the nation and rulers. Contrary to his predecessors who praised the feudal judges, the poet made serious changes to the nation. The poet who defended nation in all dialogues written in the work, especially, «Dialogue of Nushiravan and Owls», «Sultan Sanjar and the old woman» and other narrations, did not satisfy with calling the rulers to justice, but also said their mistakes, tyrannies, crimes directly. The poet appealed to the rulers in his poem. O mighty shah! I writhe with dreadful pain, To God you’ll answer should my cries be vain. You have no mercy; you’re unjust, unfair, Your club‐law is a torture, hard to bear.

Be kind and just to crones, infirm and old, Attend to them; their words are more than gold.

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Refrain from ruining homes of innocent folk, They may take vengeance with fatal stroke.

This bear in mind: You are the key to peace, Is mankind born disaster to increase? You were made king to keep your folk from harm, to treat their wounds with vivifying balm.

To what your subjects say, o shah, give ear, To what their hearts demand give heed sincere. In the «Story of a Prince», the humanist artist demanded the destruction of the house of tyranny for triumph of justice, truth. In these lines, the poet destroyed the tyranny and injustice world with reforms made by the young prince and established the world he wished. Thus, the great humanist brought real human to the front plan, believed to the intellect, power of simple people, and respeced the common people. In this respect, the humanist philosophy of the poet tanned deep democratism. He always preferred the common hard‐working people, and appreciated the role of the people in society. «Suleiman and plougher, «The saga about the old brick moulder» and other stories in the «Storehouse of Mysteries» are very typical from this point of view. The second work in «Khamsa» was the poem of «Khosrau and Shirin». This work was completed in 1181 and was one of the unique pearl of world poetry. In «Khosrau and Shirin», the poet showed that love, affection laid the basis of the world with its miraculous poetical spirit and had leading power in this sense. Besides, Nizami gave deep philosophical content in his work. Real historical processes, hisotrical figures lived and struggled in this world stand in the basis of the love philosophy stated in the «Khosrau and Shirin». From this point of view, Nizami’s activity left behind the Renaissance of the West Europe for centuries. As in other works, in this poem Nizami kept the native land, namely, the history

109 YAGUB MAHMUDOV of Azerbaijan, its relations with the neighbor countries in the center of attention, and presented the history of nation to the future generation by analyzing it. In 1188, Nizami wrote his third poem «Leyli and Majnun» with the order of Shirvanshah Akhsitan. The poet held investigation in the Arabic and Persian sources to write this immortal love tragedy, tried to find the root of the subject, and then wrote this poem. As a result, a divine love tragedy of two youth who could not stand to the obscurantism, ignorance, tyranny, press of that period was established. Beside the «Storehouse of Mysteries», «Khosrau and Shirin», a new pearl was added to unique art samples – «Leyli and Majnun». The fourth work included to «Khamsa» was «Seven Beauties» poem (1197). Nizami wrote this work during the age of perfection of his life, when he already completed three great pearls of art, had rich creative experience, and when he reached to the peak of the views on scientific and creative investigations, and about human and fair society. «Seven Beauties» was the great success of the poet in investigation of new human typical for the Renaissance period. Bahram Ghur was not only a new character who was closed to its native land, people, who always took care of his people, mourned the death of the patriot as he felt himself guilty in his death, who knew language of people and animals, but also was a fair ruler. «Khamsa» is completed with «Iskendernameh». If Nizami is the peak of the Renaissance culture, «Iskendernameh» is the peak of Nizami’s activity, its magnificent and worthy result. Being consisted of two parts – «Sharafnameh» and «Igbalnameh», «Iskendernameh» is the historical chronicle of that period. It was not occasional as the great thinker investigated the sources in various languages in Ganja, where ancient art, trade, cultural centers was gathered and studied the history, scientific and philosiphical heritage of Azerbaijan, Iran, Greece and other countries, life and activity of the famous philosophers, warriors, rulers before writting the poem. The closeness of the poet to the native land is very typical for this poem.

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Iskender defeated the well‐known warriors, conquered the countries, won the bloody battles, but was in desperate situation in front of Nushabe, the ruler of Barda. However, Azerbaijan ruler did not kill Isgandar, by demostrating perspicacity and frankness. The greatest triumph of Nizami’s poetry, his scientific and philosophical view was that his fair ruler won not only with sword, and personal courage, but also with science, wise and intellect. Isgandar always gathered scientists around himself, translated books in various languages into Greek, appreciate the science, praise the scientists. At the end of the poem, Nizami took his hero to the ideal society to the land of the happy people. Nobody speaks lie; everybody helps helpless, humble people, the cattle and herds are grazed themselves, the doors are not locked, everybody works, they live in forgiveness in this land where the rightness and equility exist. There is not violence in this land. Vain blood is not shed. Gold and silver has no value. There are not voracious person. The residents of the happy land understand the world deeply. They do not wring their heart as they understand that there is no other way out from the death. As it is seen, the great thinker who benifited from the scientific and philosophical heritage of the ancient Azerbaijan, as well as nations, created the ideal state philosophy in the junction of XII and XIII century, long before Thomas Mor, Tommazo Campanella and other West European utopians by generalizing the fair society ideas which people longed for the centuries. After Nizami who influenced the development of the Medieval East poetry and strong social and philosophical ideas, there were many generations of well‐known thinkers who grew under powerful impetus of his creativity. Being one of the greatest figures of world’s cultural history, the rich heritage creative of the genius artist is still studied in different countries of the world today.

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4. Architecture and other areas of trade

There was a Renaissance in the architecture field in the IX‐XII century. This was time of the appearance of the most unique pearls of the world architecture in Azerbaijan. The Islam religion brought new method to the arhcitecture of Azerbaijan. There were grandious mansions, mosques, minaret, tombs, castles, towers in Nakhchivan, Barda, Ganja, Shamakhy, Shaki, Shamkir, Darband, Baku, Ardabil, Tabriz, Maragha, Urmia, Julfa and other cities, and settlements. The various Azerbaijan rulers, big feudals and the rich merchants compete with each other with building the splendid palaces, grandious and beautiful mansions, and involved the most skilful artists of that period to this work. The glory of Azerbaijan artists which played an important role in the development of the Islam architecture in Caucasia was spread to the world. The Azerbaijan architects participated in the creation of the unique art samples in the center of Middle Asia, Iran and Arabian countries, as well as Baghdad, Samargand, Isfahan and other art centers. The most notable representative of the Azerbaijan architecture in the Renaissance was Ajami Abubakr oglu, lived in the XII century. He constructed the Yusif ibn Kuseyir tomb (1162), Momina Khatun tomb (1186), Goshaminara (Double Minaret) (1187), Juma Mosque, Darulmulk (the palace of Eldaniz state) and other unique architecture monuments in Nakhchivan, the capital of the Azerbaijan Eldaniz state. The majority of the architecture pearls of Ajami did not stay till our day. The great artists enriched and improved the previous architecture traditions, established the complex architecture buildings which based on the mathematical accounts. The unexamp‐ led decoration harmony between the complex geometrical ornaments in Yusif ibn Kuseyir and Momina Khatun tombs which was written with the Cufic hand‐writings was the greatest achievement of the

112 EARLY RENAISSANCE architecture profession. While he was alive, he recieved the pseudonym of «Engineers’ Sheikh» and laid the foundation of the special architecture schools which was called Nakhchivan Architecture School after his death. The art of architecture of Ajami stimulated the east architecture. Tombs in Maragha (Blue tower), Urmia (Three towers) and near Julfa in the style of Nakhchivan school of architecture were built at the end of XII century. One of the most grandiose monuments of Renaissance architecture was famous Khudafarin (1027) bridge built over Araz River by Azerbaijani ruler Fazl ibn Muhammad (985‐1030) from Shaddadies dynasty. While building this rare art monument with 15 bridge spans the natural conditions were used skillfully. Thus rocks at the stream of the river were used as supports for spans of the bridge. Khudafarin Bridge had played important role in the linking of south and north of Azerbaijan during centuries from economical and military‐political viewpoints. Among architectural monuments of IX‐X centuries castles, towers and various defense structures occupied special place. Giz Galasi () (Baku), Gulustan castle (near Shamakhy), Galeybugurd (at banks of Aghsu River), Alinjagala, Oghlangala (Lerik), Mardakan castle and tens of other defense structures of the middle ages spread at all the territory of north and south Azerbaijan are from pearls of world architectural creation. Among defense oriented historical architectural monuments Giz Galasi (Maiden Tower) in Baku attracts more attention. The Maiden Tower which was erected by architect Masud Davud oghlu of XII century at the big rock washed by the waters of the Caspian Sea is of 28 meter height. The thickness of the 8 stored this defense structure with original shape was 5 meter at lower floors and 4 meter at upper floors. In general, at Maiden Tower included in the defense system of Baku‐Absheron defense system about 200‐300 warriors could take defense for a long time. It is interesting that besides Baku, in other places of Azerbaijan, in Shamakhy, Ismailli, Gabala, Shaki, Gazakh, Nakhchivan and Garabagh and in other

113 YAGUB MAHMUDOV regions, as well as at whole Caucasus, Black sea shores, Middle Asia, Iran, and eastern Anatolia such maiden towers were erected, too. It is possible to say that these historical‐architectural monuments built in same architectural style are supposed to have links with Oghouz‐Turk styles. It is supposed that the names of these famous grandiose maiden towers (or Oghouz towers) were undergone to changes by time passing and began to be named as maiden towers. By the way, once the Caspian Sea self was called with name of Ghuz (Oghouzes) as Ghuz Sea, too. Generally, the town‐building culture, construction of castles, establishemnt of different kind of defence system lived their prosperity period in Azerbaijan in the IX‐XII centuries. It is interesting thatthe big settlements, as well as villages of Azerbaijan were supplied with the underground earthenware pipes, and the waste water was flown from settlements through these pipes on that period. The progress of the art stimulated the development of various fields of the art related with it directly. The carved ornaments over the stones, unique national decoration samples, inscriptions, tombstones were the most beautiful samples of the Renaissance art. All territories of Azerbaijan from north to south were rich with such unique pearls of art at the IX‐XII centuries. The Azerbaijani masters were skilful in preparation of the unique metal products. Different dishes and weapon samples which were docorated on the basis of the extreme colorful and inimitable ornaments are the valuable memories of the Renaissance art. One of these pearls of the art was the famous Castle Gates of Ganja. These gates (1063) were founded by Ibrahim Osman oghlu, the famous master, on the order of Abulasvar Shavur (1049‐1067), the ruler of Azerbaijan who was from the Shaddadies dynasty, in the middle of the XI century. These unique pearls of art attracted the attention of the Georgian invaders in the attack to Ganja city in order to plunder city during earthquake in Ganja in 1139 and brought the gates to Georgia. During the Renaissance, many fields of the literary art were

114 EARLY RENAISSANCE developed in Azerbaijan. Engraving, percussion profession, wall decoration, carving had the rebirth period. The carpentry highly developed. Various handicraft products found in different regions of Azerbaijan during the archeological excavation, as well as decoration things made from gold, silver and copper, dishes, pottery product, etc are very important to learn the history of art of our country. The «Book of Dede Gorgud» sagas, works of Renaissance thinkers and poets, in particular the work of Nizami, highly developed the different fields of art, as well as music in Azerbaijan. The artists ‐ ashugs, and competitions, wedding, holidays, celebrations and other popular festivals with the participation of the ashugs played an important role in the creation of the folk traditions and their transfer from generation to generation.

5. Azerbaijani Turkish language

The most important achievement of early Renaissance was becoming of the Azerbaijan Turkish language since the beginning of this time the unique communicative means in all country territory. In the time of supremacy of the Sasani and caliphate emperorships having continued for more than six hundred years being of all Azerbaijan lands in the unique state structure influenced positively to expansion of economical relations among separate regions of the country. The protracted freedom struggle of united people against the Sasani and Arab invaders had speeded the intermingling process of Turkic and non‐Turkic population. Turkish kins were playing the important part in the formation of the unique people. Unlike other people and ethnic groups, Turkish kins had spread to all territory, north and South of the country and were in majority. Moreover, the Turkic language was the basic communicative means among the people in minority and ethnic groups living in Azerbaijan territory, especially between the south and the north. Adoption of Islam gave strong impetus to the

115 YAGUB MAHMUDOV forming process of unique people and language, and speeded it. Arising of the single religious unity among the Turkic and non‐ Turkic population of the land, caused to formation of single customs and traditions, to expanding of the ties of relationship, to more deepening the intermingling process in all country. In the mid of the IX century political revival which began in the result of decline of the caliphate‐ arising of the independent Azerbaijan states, joining of the Turkic and non Turkic population in unique Turk‐Islamic front and their freedom fighting against aggression of the Christian bloc consisting of the Armenian‐Georgian feudals and the Byzantine Empire, as well as against attacks of the Slavs speeded the formation of the unique people and language. Islam‐Turkish unity became the decisive factor in the South Caucasus, including Azerbaijan. In the beginning of the Renaissance, still in the IX‐X centuries the eposes of «Kitabi Dede Gorgud»‐ the masterpiece of Azerbaijan folklore was spread in the vast territory‐ from Demirgapi Darband to the boundaries of Diyarbekr, from the Caspian Sea to Trabzon and Abkhazian area in the coasts of the Black sea. The Azerbaijan Turkish language had become the powerful communicative means in this vast territory. With inclusion of Azerbaijan to the composition of Great Seljuk Empire by the mid of the XI century, new Turkic‐Oghouz flows to South Caucasus, including Azerbaijan and as the result of destroy of the Byzantine empire and their helpers – the military forces of the Armenian‐Georgian feudals ended the process of formation of the Azerbaijan Turks as a unique people. Azerbaijan Turkish became the only communicative means in all South Caucasus, including Azerbaijan territory. Simple and comprehensible Azerbaijan Turkish language replaced small local languages, as well as Arabian and Persian and became the lively national language in all the country. Samples of folklore disseminated from hamlet to hamlet, from village to village by folk singers‐ozans, ashugs paid way to the creation of rare literary works in native Azerbaijan Turkish.

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Afterwards Sheikh Izzaddin Hassanoghlu created rare poetry samples on the ground of «Kitabi‐Dede Gorgud». My burning heart knows no rest now‐ O, woe is me! My bright‐eyed beauty stays away‐ O, woe is me! And all night long I count the stars‐ O, woe is me! The day we met I’ll never rue‐ O, woe is me! O, tell me why she keeps afar? O, woe is me! Is there a remedy for love? O, woe is me! My love consumeth all of me‐ O, woe is me!∗ Thus began the period of shifting of Azerbaijani Turkish language into the literary one, eliminating the palace literature created in Arabian and Persian. It is one of the significant successes of the period of our early Renaissance history.

∗ All poems were translated by Gladys Evans, Tom Botting and Olga Moisseyenko. 117

APPENDIX: MAPS

AZERBAIJAN (IV century B.C. - III century A.D.)

Darial passage Ë Ì Ó À Ï À I É Ñ Å Å Ð ÈËÂ ÍS Ñ Äåðáåíä I Á Àðìàñòèêà S Ñ The Kaspi Gate Ý K Å Ú ur ËS À À Ý À Ë Ë I ëà Å À îðè çà G Å Á í S Ñà Ò À ìóð Ñ Ê À Ì Í S Í Á I Ñ Å Ï Í À Hóíàí Ä ß Û

Í À À ÊÀÁÀËÀ Ñ Êóð È À Ê À (GÀÁÀËÀ) Ç Í Ñ Å Í À È À Ë Á À Í I À Ñhaìàêùèéà

Ý Þî ( éÉ ú×ù J à ß Ù

ëà Ý êåÞ S Ë E Ö È Ó Ò Û ç S Àðà Ð

N I I A ç Ê Ï Í ðà À S À Á À Ð Ë À À Í G Êóð Ð

À ) À

G À

ó À

ñ

ð à

ð òó Ñ

à Í î Âàí ëàêå. G G Ð À Ê À Ä Ó Ñ S È E S Å

Á I

À Àùàð Ï

Ñ

( Ý Ó T Ê ( à À ÓÞ Ð ï à

ð Ì Ë â ò Ð À K ì àà Ö æ È - è ú Ì ù )û É à

à é ÝÅ Àò û à

í

à À Ò Ð Î Ï À Ò Å Í À

H ë

ë à à Ë ê

ê å Âåðà Ë

å

) E S

Ì Ê Ó ) ä Ò GÀÇÀÊÀ ó I ð ä À È ôè E À a Ñ S Ì ( Ò ä À ð Ð à Ç ì I Ä À S

É À

Í

À

À

À SAN ARIA Tiflis T GA Emirate AS C S H M Derbend TIFLIS E K I Emirate N S U A P R E A M A C

Y S

R

KAMBISENA AGabala

A S STATE OF T P A B G T oy E ch a l J SHIRVANSHAHS I a A O ke R S F Dabil AK -K HA S A CH A IN Beylagan J I SU I N S N IK S

C T A

A T A

S

u

E s

a

L r r

tu a o G G O

I F E

P B Marand A

H

U S

A r A A Sarab m jic ha i R L y

T a A l a Shahi R E Urmia k I e S

E n e z u l y d z ru y d fi G e S

Z

A

sparceness

AZERBAIJAN IN THE XV CENTURY

D A G E S T A N K A R T L I AZE RBA ur IJ K AN S T Ga Zagatala ni A SH kh T E E KI Gakh Guba

Gabala G ab K irr Gazakh ur y

N Agdash SHAMAKHY Surkhab

A

Chukhursad J

C H Dabil I U K GUS H HTAS U A FI R S Beylagan A A K Z D AR B H A E B Ku R a A r B k K A e H N r I i A JA R N G S U T M ( A G 1 T E 4 E Gafan 10 - O Julfa A 1 F 46 K Z 8 A D ) R u

A s Lankaran a

A K A r O G a Y A R U G N LU A ZE U R r Sardrud B m A ia IJ la A k Sarab N e ST (1 AT 46 E 8- O 15 F 0 AK 1) K O YU n N e L z u U l i z Saingala i G

Military marches of Jahanshah to Internal marches of Jahanshah THE AZERBAIJAN STATE OF AKKOYUNLU (1468-1501)

Black Sea K A R T L I

Tokat Batum S T Gakh A TE T STA E Kars SHAMAKHY O Goycha F lake Kur T E Beylagan Y M U Kharput R I

U

r m

i a

l Urmia a k e Merv

Ushnu Astrabad K H O R A S A N Aleppo Rakka Mashhad

Damask

Karbala

Yazd

A

R A

V

I A

N A Military marches of Sultan R K Yagub to Kartli E M THE AZERBAIJAN STATE OF SAFAVIS (UNDER THE REIGN OF SHAH , 1501-1524)

DAGESTAN Aral sea STATE

B lac C k s ea a Am of SHEYBANI KAR u TLI s D r a u Urgenj ry Batum K p a N STAT OMA E Jabani i Khiva TT Shamakhy a O n

s AN e S SAMARKAND Ahlat Archivan RA a O Akhsig KH Merv Urmia G izi luz Maragha en Astrabad Andkhod Rakka Saingala Mashhad

Kirkuk Almagulaghy o f M Ikhtiyaraddin A M E L U K Khurramabad E Farah Gamsha Kandahar Yazd

Kandabil

Bahrain

Safavi territories lost after the Chaldiran battle MODERN AZERBAIJAN REPUBLIC

G Derbend E O R G I A Balakan

Gusar ay Gakh rch sa y u Guba a G h c ra a G Gazakh Ga bi rry Gabala

y Ismailly Khizy a

h c Shamakhy m

a

y T a P h G Z i o e rs y a yc a U a h ch p t a k p l re e a r k u e K K a r a Aghdere b a Hajigabul k h Aghjabedi

c h Sarisu lake a n n e l

Khojavend

Kur

Jabrail G Gubadly a

r

a

s u Masally y Yardimly ha hc las Vi I R I Lankaran

Aghdere

Khojaly

Khojavend

Gubadly Jabrail

The Azerbaijan territories occupied by

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Note: All poems were translated by Gladys Evans, Tom Botting and Olga Moisseyenko.

131