articles regarding this occurrence. With the increased geographical proximity of a newspaper to recent conflicts between the Canadian government and First Nations people, the overall constructions of First Nations people are increasingly negative. This is seen even in reports of minor events that are wholly unrelated to and removed from nearby disagreements. Where the readers of a newspaper are expected to be mostly Aboriginal, First Nations people are framed in a positive light while the government is portrayed negatively. Conversely, targeting non-Aboriginal Canadians tend to support government acts over those of First Nations people, who are generally portrayed unfavourably. The newspapers published within , near to the river diversion, depict Aboriginal people disparagingly. To exemplify the effect of location, readership, and proximity to events on writing choices, five articles will be examined. The first four, printed in the Herald, the Gazette, the Vancouver Province and the Journal, are all published by Can West Mediaworks Publications, a subsidiary Diverting an Old Man from Alberta: of Can West Global Communications Corporation. In Alberta both the There is a River Involved, but the Old and the have many readers in Man is Not in it (He is Reading His small towns and farming communities. The Local Newspaper) is published near Oka, where violent confrontations occurred shortly before the Oldman dam dispute. The readers of , on the other hand, were removed from It is not possible to get an entire story the dispute both emotionally and geographically. from one source. This is especially true with the The fifth article, from Windspeaker, is the mass media, where stories are organized and property of the Aboriginal Multi-Media Society selected to fit consumers' purchasing habits. In (AMMSA). Windspeaker is included for general 1990 a dam was being constructed on the comparisons between these large corporate Oldman River west of Lethbridge, Alberta, newspapers and a Canada-wide newspaper Canada. Those immediately effected by the written from an Aboriginal perspective. building of the dam were the Peigan First Nation The first clear indication of the "spin" and southern Alberta farmers. With the of a newspaper is the headline. Wording and completion of the dam, Peigan First Nation connotation are very important, because burial grounds would be flooded. The nearby "headlines have a particularly strong influence farmers would benefit from a controlled supply when the item itself is not read" (Hartmann & of water for irrigation. A group called the Lone Husband 2004:272). The Calgary Herald's Fighters from the Peigan First Nation responded "Injunction Puts Stop to Peigans - For Now" to the construction by diverting the river from its (Calgary Herald, 31 August 1990) is not a original course in order to bypass the dam site. declaration of certainty. The phrase "Puts Stop to On 31 August 1990, five different papers Peigans" may imply deviance from proper reported on a court injunction that was issued to behaviour by the entire Peigan Nation instead of the Peigan Nation with an order to stop the the Lone Fighters. However, in this article diversion. The geographical location of the authors Mate and Geddes continue on to write newspapers studied, the target reader audience, that, the Lone Fighters "don't have the support of and the potential effect of the river diversion on Peigan band leaders" (Calgary Herald, 31 readers all affected the composition of the August 1990). Having only read the headline, a

TOTEM vol 14 2005-2006 reader would be left with misinformation. The the result of the physical distance from the issue subsequent "For Now" leaves the question of at hand on the importance of the story to readers. future actions by the Lone Fighters and/or As Grenier points out, "like other business Peigan Nation unanswered, almost as a looming enterprises, newspaper enterprises must focus threat. The Edmonton Journal article uses the attention on maintaining and developing (and headline "Lonefighters Might Defy Oldman even creating) markets for their product" Injunction" (Edmonton Journal, 31 August (Grenier 2004:331). How much worth is 1990). To defy is defmed as to resist openly and attributed to various articles can, to a degree, be boldly (Butterfield et. al. 2003), and the use of determined by their location in the paper. The this word suggests an uncooperative spirit that is Oldman River injunction story is front-page not in agreement with the established social news in the Calgary Herald and the Edmonton order. When coupled with the word "might" this Journal. Both are Alberta-based papers with a defiance becomes indecisive, but remains an majority of Albertan readers. In both of these implied threat. A similar headline appears in Jim papers the possible effects of the river diversion Morris' Montreal Gazette article, titled "Peigans are mentioned. The Edmonton Journal states Ordered to Halt Diversion" (Montreal Gazette, that: 31 August 1990). Again, the entire Peigan if the Lonefighters were to Nation is implicated until further reading is done. succeed in diverting the river, The phrase "Ordered" evokes images of about 3,000 residents of small childishness or of stepping out of ones communities and irrigation designated place. The most neutral headline, farmers will suffer, but the effect "River Diversion Halted By Court" (The wouldn't be immediate because Province, 31 August 1990) is found in The water is stockpiled in reservoirs Province based out of Vancouver. Passive and crops are ready to be construction is used, eliminating the need to harvested. (Edmonton Journal, identify for whom the court injunction was 31 August 1990) passed. With this headline the reader is given no evidence of violent or volatile disagreement, or Therefore, even those readers who are not the major players in the story. Perhaps it is a less directly involved into the story should be gripping headline, but it is worth considering that fostering an interest in the outcome. The story is the article appears on page 35 of the paper where found on the front page of section B in the most readers would likely not be looking for Montreal Gazette, a position that would allow major stories. for fairly high readership. Compare the Windspeaker headline The front page of Windspeaker on 31 "Lone Fighters Divert Oldman" (Windspeaker, August 1990 is devoted to a full-page photo of 31 August 1990) with for example The Calgary the river diversion, while the second page Herald's "Injunction Puts Stop to Peigans - For contains the article. This is the only article that Now" (Calgary Herald, 31 August 1990) or the contains a photo. With violence taking place Edmonton Journal's "Lone fighters Might Defy throughout the month of August 1990 between Oldman Injunction" (Edmonton Journal, 31 First Nations people and the government at Oka, August 1990). While both the Calgary Herald it is not surprising that this new potential conflict and the Edmonton Journal focus on is given such a prominent place in the paper. inconsistencies and indecision, Red Crow and An interesting comparison can be made Wagg's Windspeaker headline, intended for between many of the statements in the different Aboriginal readers, focuses on the completed papers. Much of what is written is from the same success of the Lone Fighters, and specifies that it source. In a study of the media coverage of the is the Lone Fighters group that is responsible for Oka Crisis, Warren H. Skea found that "although the diversion instead of the entire Peigan Nation. [two newspapers] published an article that came The positioning of articles within a from the same Canadian Press release article, the paper is crucial to readership. Many readers are resulting article in each newspaper differed satisfied with perusing the front page of a markedly." (Skea 1994, 22). This can be newspaper alone, or the front section. The illustrated in this study by the fact that many of unsensational title of the article in The Province, the papers have quoted their source verbatim. and its location so far from the front of the paper One arena in which these differences can be may indicate that First Nations issues are not a found is in the various references to the Royal selling point for this particular paper, or may be Canadian Mounted Police's delivery of the

TOTEM vol 142005-2006 Copyright © 2006 TOTEM: The UWO Journal of Anthropology injunction. In the Edmonton Journal we read that an utterance by a Lone Fighters who says, "there the "RCMP served [the Lone Fighters] with a was a court injunction against the people at the court order" (Edmonton Journal, 31 August dam and you don't see any of them in jail" 1990), and that this court order was "delivered (Montreal Gazette, 31 August 1990). Later in the by about 50 Mounties." (Edmonton Journal, 31 same article we fmd a quote from Alberta's August 1990). Witness Glen North Peigan is Attorney-General Ken Rostad stating that "The quoted as saying, "'they just arrived here, handed Lonefighters Society was clearly breaking the the court order and left ...They were ready for law and because of that the RCMP were action. You can use your imagination. ", instructed to go in and serve an injunction order" (Edmonton Journal, 31 August 1990). This (Montreal Gazette, 31 August 1990). Later, version of the "serving" of the court order Band Chief Leonard Bastien "liken[ s] the appears again in the Montreal Gazette and The damage from the dam to tampering with the Province. In the Calgary Herald however, the sacraments of the Roman Catholic Church" "50 RCMP officers descended on the (Montreal Gazette, 31 August 1990). With all Lonefighters' river bank campsite ...to peacefully these sources the Gazette gives at least some deliver the injunction" (Calgary Herald, 31 mention of the opinions of the government, the August 1990). For fifty RCMP officers to band and the Lone Fighters. There is a good "descend" upon a camp only to peacefully balance of representation and the readers are left deliver the injunction is a striking contrast of with a sense that they have been fairly well lexical terms. One feels that the presence of each informed. of the fifty officers is necessary, despite the In other papers only one or two of these peacefulness of the encounter. The RCMP sources are listed. The Edmonton Journal officers are romantically portrayed as strong and approaches the story in a noticeably different their numbers necessary, and yet they are shown manner. The court injunction against the to be full of restraint. The choice to include or building of the dam is mentioned, but in the very not to include Glen North Peigan's quote is also last statement. This version of the claim may telling. Of the Can West papers, The Edmonton have more legitimacy in the eyes of the public Journal and the Montreal Gazette quote North because it is New Democrat Pam Barrett's Peigan, while the Calgary Herald and The remark. While Barrett, a Member of the Province do not. His statement implies that the Legislative Assembly, does have good reason to presence of the RCMP was imposing, and that higWight "the hypocrisy of the [Progressive the relationship between the First Nations people Conservative] Getty government" (Edmonton of the Peigan Nation and the RCMP is one of Journal, 31 August 1990), she is less directly fear. involved in the conflict than the Lone Fighters In Windspeaker, "Fifty RCMP officers are. Her statement is a political move, but her were reported to have gathered across from the remarks have more weight because of her Lone Fighter's camp" with orders to position in government. "immediately arrest anyone, who breached the Chief Leonard Bastien is also quoted in order" (Windspeaker, 31 August 1990). The the Edmonton Journal on his view of the difference between the Windspeaker and Calgary flooding of burial grounds, but also as saying Herald articles is impressive. The idea of things that would implicate the Lone Fighters officers "gathering" is less swift and orderly than and absolve the Peigan Nation itself of guilt. For a descent may infer. The order for the arrest of instance, the reader is informed that "the any noncompliant persons does not seem to Lonefighters 'insulted' the majority of Peigan match the "peaceful" intimations of the other elders by disregarding their wishes" (Edmonton articles, which are created through the omission Journal, 31 August 1990) when they carried out of this order in the reports of the event. their plan. There are also references to In the case of the 31 August 1990 environmental damages perpetrated by the Lone articles, there were printed intimations of guilt Fighters, and the need for environment officials on both sides of the conflict. Some papers to "move in and undo the work the Lonefighters printed both sides of the issue, while others have already completed" (Edmonton Journal, 31 printed only one. The Edmonton Journal and the August 1990). In the Calgary Herald article Calgary Herald included statements from both Attorney-General Rostad's comments are noted sides of the conflict, but with emphasis on the near the top. He claims that the "riverbed is guilt of the Peigan Nation instead of the Crown-owned and digging in it breaches The government. In the Montreal Gazette one reads Province's Water Resources Act" (Calgary

TOTEM vol 14 2005-2006 Herald, 31 August 1990). At the end of the because the Gazette and the Journal are also the article a counter opinion is given that challenges only two papers that mention that the "green Rostad's contention. A British Columbia lawyer valley around the river has been scarred by a is not certain how the riverbed is Crown land, deep, wide trench" (Montreal Gazette, 31 August and even alleges that perhaps a quiet 1990). The same theme of the future effects of expropriation by the province is the source of the dam diversion occurs in most of the papers. this land right. Both claims would appear to be In Red Crow and Wagg's article we read that uncertain, since they are in contradiction. "half the farmers are on [the Lone Fighter's] However, the lawyer's idea does not seem to side" (Windspeaker, 31 August 1990), and that follow mainstream ideas judging both from its "an 1981 agreement with the irrigation placement in the article and its absence from all district...assures water for about 133,000 acres of other articles. The near non-inclusion of the land and domestic water for about 900 farm assertion gives it less weight in the article than families and the towns of Picture Butte, Barons, that of Rostad. This is an example of how Nobleford, Iron Springs and Turin" "claims do not emerge in news stories without (Windspeaker, 31 August 1990). There is no first being reinterpreted or 'framed'" (Coleman mention of suffering or even of outrage, or of the 1996:181). The Province's article seems to be possible negative consequences of the actions of brief and factual. However, in its brevity The the Lone Fighters. At the same time, there is no Province makes interesting decisions about what apparent omission of facts about the purpose and to exclude. There is no mention of Peigan intended use of the dam. In the Calgary Herald legends, of the questionability of the Crown right the reader is informed that "Lethbridge area to the land, of the previous injunction against the farmers and seven small communities use the building of the dam, or of the flooding of Peigan irrigation weir and canal on the Peigan Reserve lands as a result of the dam. The only mention of to draw water from the Oldman" (Calgary a First Nations person is of Milton Born With a Herald). The Province mentions the purpose of it Tooth, the leader of the Lone Fighters. He is said in passing, stating that the dam "will provide to "[remain] defiant, declaring his members irrigation and drinking water to communities in would die defending the river diversion" (The southern Alberta" (The Province, 31 August Province, 31 August 1990). This mention of the 1990). In isolation, these claims about the use of militant Lone Fighters, without mention of the the dam seem almost entirely unbiased, and do wishes of Chief Bastien or context for Crown not seem to position any of the parties involved claims creates an anti-Native spin in an article in terms of their opinions or intentions. that at first glance seems neutral. However, it is important to remember that not The Windspeaker gives emphasis to the only specific phrases but also the contexts in Lone Fighters' lack of guilt instead of focusing which they are found are vital to uncovering on placing guilt elsewhere. To exemplify, the media spin. article begins with the "having diverted the Clearly, the paper that is most in Oldman River to its original creek bed" support of the actions of the Lone Fighters is (Windspeaker, 31 August 1990), an action that in Windspeaker. The headline higWights the this linguistic context would not be interpreted as progress of the group, and the location of the a crime. Any comments towards the govemment story in the paper is very prominent. Dealings within this article are more likely references to with the RCMP are described as excessive and past actions than present wrongs, with one even unfair. The innocence of the Lone Fighters statement referencing aka and another is emphasized. Finally, there is no mention of the suggesting that a law may have been fabricated negative effect of the dam diversion project on to give the government grounds to put a stop to the farmers in Southern Alberta. There is a the actions of the Lone Fighters. decidedly pro-Lone Fighter spin in this article, as The newspapers are also not equitable is likely concurrent with the majority readership in their written treatment of the people effected of the paper. This is not the case in the majority by the potentially non-functioning dam. The of the articles studied here. above quoted text from the Edmonton Journal Lisa Philips Valentine writes, "We find notes that "about 3,000 residents of small most likely places where First Nations peoples communities and irrigation farmers will suffer" will be constructed as the enemy are when their (Edmonton Journal, 31 August 1990). This is interests are perceived to flaunt or impinge on (a) identical to the Montreal Gazette article. The use mainstream members' personal property ,(b) of the term "suffer" is interesting, especially access to goods and jobs, and (c) legal standards

TOTEM vol 14 2005-2006 Copyright © 2006 TOTEM: The UWO Journal of Anthropology (both civil and criminal)" (Valentine 1997:407). information about Crown rights to the land, the In all of the papers Native people are wishes of the band chief and Peigan beliefs about negatively constructed to some degree. The Lone the Oldman River and the land surrounding it Fighters are seen to illegally impinge on Crown have similar effects. This article creates identity property and on the access of Southern Alberta not by what is directly stated, but through what is farmers to irrigation water for their crops. left unsaid. In the Calgary Herald this story The Montreal Gazette begins with receives a lot of attention, being front-page news. another generalization of the issue to the entire The headline is a misrepresentative Peigan Nation. The story figures in a prominent generalization on the entire Peigan Nation, and place in a secondary section of the paper. Glen has negative connotations concerning the North Peigan is quoted, giving balance to the respectability and trustworthiness of the Peigan representation of the RCMP. Most positively, the people. The RCMP are portrayed very positively, viewpoints of three of the major parties involved even heroically, in their delivery of the in the dispute are given, allowing the reader to at injunction - a portrayal that is not echoed in any least partially see the story from more than one other paper. Differing opinions are given on the side. However, the article highlights the validity of the Crown's claim to the riverbed supposed environmental damage of the dam land, but the pro-Crown statement is near the diversion and the dependence of local farmers on start of the article while a differing view is nearly the future irrigation water. A reader could at the very end. There is no mention of the therefore conclude that First Nations people are necessary suffering of farmers who would draw anti-development and work to hold back non- water from the dam reservoir for irrigation, but Native progress. taken into consideration with the rest of the The Windspeaker's positive illustration article in mind, the overall representation of First of the actions of the Lone Fighters was most Nations people is negative. likely due to the mostly Aboriginal readership of The Edmonton Journal article offers the paper, as well as its Aboriginal authorship perhaps the least favourable sketch of the Peigan and ownership. The geographical proximity of nation of all papers studied. Here the Peigan the Calgary Herald and the Edmonton Journal to nation is depicted as wavering and recalcitrant in the Oldman River dam and the potential effects the headline. The article is front-page news and of the outcome of the issue on readers and the includes comments that would draw general proximity of the Montreal Gazette to aka readers into the story, encouraging empathy for created environments in which negative the farmers involved. There is a balanced depictions of First Nations people were more description of the RCMP's involvement, likely. The geographical distance between the including a comment by a Lone Fighter about his Vancouver Province and the issue left a mostly experience. As in the Calgary Herald, pro- neutral although still biased representation. government information is given in the top As Sandra Lambertus, professor of section of the story while the opposite claims are Anthropology at Grant MacEwan College in given at the very end. There are also several Edmonton, Alberta, Canada writes, "In the larger comments of an environmental nature, pointing picture, it is Native people across Canada who blame at the Lone Fighters for their scarring of are most likely to experience long-term effects the earth. The local farmers are depicted as the from [these] damaging stereotypes"(Lambertus victims of a capricious and potentially violent 2004, 178). One of the most pervading group. stereotypes in these articles is one that frames Despite its mostly neutral take on the First Nations people as violent or potentially so. story, the Vancouver Province is still biased In each of the Can West papers, violence is towards the government. The passively mentioned or hinted at when no violence had constructed headline and late appearance in the occurred as of yet. Similarly, the Natives are paper are evidence of the lack of reader interest often romanticized with mentions of Peigan in the story. Mention of the purpose of the dam legend and sacred lands, positioning the Lone is brief and factual. Concerning the RCMP the Fighters as noble savages, in touch with the paper seems neutral again, but the choice to earth. Considering the size and scope of the leave out the quote of Glen North Peigan's CanWest Mediaworks Publications, far more negative experience with the officers is a choice Canadian people would have read the stories that leads to an article that favours the with negative portrayals and false stereotypes of government's interests. Decisions to exclude First Nations people than would have read any

TOTEM vo114 2005-2006 with positive connotations or those accounts written by First Nations people themselves. EdmEdmonton Journal. 1990."Lonefighters Might Defy In conclusion, the geographical location Oldman Injunction." August 31, p.A1. of a publication, the audience of the paper and the possible effect of the story covered on theGreGarnier, Marc 1994. Native Indians in the English- readers do affect the composition of any Canadian Press: The Case of the 'Oka Crisis'. newspaper article. The CanWest papers Media, Culture and Society. 16:313-36. constructed First Nations people negatively through use of stereotypes, mostly negativeHartHartmann, Paul and Charles Husband 1971. The headlines and the positioning of pro-government Mass Media and Racial Conflict. Race. 12:267- information at the top of their articles. The 82. differences between the articles are primarily the result of the variations in the readership of eachLamLambertus, Sandra. 2004. Wartime Images, paper. Where First Nations issues are concerned, Peacetime Wounds: The Media and the newspapers located near to the issue at hand or Gustafsen Lake Standoff. : University of near to other First Nations that are perceived as Toronto Press. threatening to non-Native people are the most negative, perpetuating stereotypes andMatMate, Susan and AsWey Geddes. 1990."Injunction misunderstandings. The papers create the idea Puts Stop to Peigans - For Now." The Calgary that First Nations people ought to be feared as Herald, August 31, p. AI. they both work against non-Native communities and are likely sources of future violence. WhereMorMorris, Jim. 1990. "Peigans Ordered to Halt the audience of a paper is removed from both the Diversion Indians Debating Whether to Obey issue at hand and other threatening situations Alberta Court." The Montreal Gazette, August articles about First Nations people are perhaps 31,p. B1. less biased against Natives but do not actively work to represent both sides of the conflict.TheThe Province. 1990. "River Diversion Halted by Short articles will give the minimum of facts, Court." August 31, p.35. and seem to consider Aboriginal viewpoints and beliefs to be "filler" and unnecessary. ArticlesRedRed Crow, Jackie and Dana Wagg. 1990. "Lone written from First Nations perspectives support Fighters Divert Oldman." Windspeaker, August Aboriginal actions and are critical of the 31, p.2. government. It would be interesting to research an incident at aka soon after 31 August 1990 asSk, Skea, Warren H. 1994. The Canadian Newspaper recorded in the same papers to note if the Industry's Portrayal of the aka Crisis. Native patterns continue. Unfortunately, the widest Studies Review 9(1): 15-31. group of Canadian readers is exposed to reporting on First Nations people that eitherValentine, Lisa Philips 1997. "Friends and Foes: Value confirms or creates existing stereotypes and Hierarchy and Presentation of First Nations supports conventional views of Aboriginal Issues in Mainstream Canadian Press." In people in Canada, as understood and Proceedings of the Twenty-Eighth Algonquian disseminated by non-Aboriginals. Conference. pp. 403-417. Winnipeg: University of Manitoba Press.

ButtButterfield, Jeremy et. al. (editors) 2003. Collins English Dictionary. 6th ed. Glasgow. HarperCollins Publishers.

ColeColeman, Cynthia-Lou. 1996."A War of Words: How News Frames Define Legitimacy in a Native Conflict". In Dressing in Feathers: The Construction of the Indian in American Popular Culture. Bird, (ed.). pp. 181-193. Boulder, CO: Westview Press.

TOTEM\'0114 2005-2006 Copyright © 2006 TOTEM: The UWO Journal of Anthtopology