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Defining “” and “”: From to the by: Bruce M. Tharp Defining “Culture” and “Organizational Culture”: From Anthropology to the Office / 04.09

The topic of organizational culture is Usually the domain of top executives and upper- increasingly understood as a , for most within an its culture remains implicit — often with only its effects asset that can be used to increase and implications discussed. Despite this, as decades of performance. While important, suggest, an explicit, integrated, accepted, and consistent organizational culture seems important in organizational culture is a slippery concept achieving long-term and other performance to concretely define. This paper deals with successes. Yet, as in most arenas of social the historical development and foundational where the intricate webs of various and varying influences exist, distinct and conclusive causal links are understandings of both the term culture, difficult to establish. Keeping this in mind, it is still very from anthropology, and its appropriation likely that the richness and dynamism of organizational activity—the life of an organization—may be seen, and by industrial organization researchers to therefore shaped and improved, through the lens of organizational culture. A foundational culture.

definition by Edgar Schein of MIT’s Sloan Anthropological Origins of “Culture” School of Management is arrived at as well as the notion that culture can be observed What exactly is culture? Unfortunately a fixed, universal understanding does not exist; there is little consensus at three levels of the organization: artifacts, within, let alone, across disciplines. Often “culture” is espoused values, and basic assumptions. applied so broadly, merely as “social pattern,” that it means very little. Highly specific, idiosyncratic definitions Contents: also abound where the term is used in various contexts in support of any agenda. • Anthropological Origins of “Culture” • Understanding Culture When “culture” first appeared in the Oxford English • Origins of “Organizational Culture” Dictionary around 1430 it meant “cultivation” or “tending the soil,” based on the Latin culture. Into the 19th • Understanding Organizational Culture century “culture” was associated with the phrase “,” meaning the cultivation or “refinement of mind, For some, culture is considered the “glue” that holds taste, and manners.” This generally held to the mid- when its meaning shifted toward its present an organization together and for others, the “compass” American Heritage English Dictionary definition: “The totality of socially transmitted behavior patterns, , that provides directions. beliefs, , and all other products of human and thought.” The culture of an organization eminently influences its myriad decisions and actions. A company’s prevailing Aspects of Culture ideas, values, attitudes, and beliefs guide the way in which its employees think, feel, and act—quite often INVISIBLE unconsciously. Therefore, understanding culture is . . ASSUMPTIONS . BELIEFS fundamental to the description and analysis of organizational phenomena. For some, culture is considered the “glue” that holds an organization VISIBLE BEHAVIORS: together and for others, the “compass” that provides ARTIFACTS: FINANCIAL REPORTING direction. These are but two of many such HIRING / (e.g., magnet, lighthouse, exchange-regulator, EMPLOYEE DRESS FIRING PRACTICES -regulator, need satisfier, sacred cow), illustrating PRODUCT LINE EMPLOYEE TRAINING that organizational culture is indeed very important, SIGNAGE RECYCLING PROGRAMS but whose definition is slippery and often contested. PUBLICATIONS INTERIOR FURNITURE

2 Defining “Culture” and “Organizational Culture”: From Anthropology to the Office / 04.09

While the dictionary definition helps to Understanding Culture In 1973 anthropologist close in on its meaning in general published, The Interpretation of parlance, the term is also used by many While the complexities of the culture , in which he writes: “Culture disciplines in unique ways. To move concept were being debated in the is the fabric of meaning in terms of toward a more specific and applied mid-20th century, surveys of its which human beings interpret their understanding of “culture,” anthropology different definitions yielded a few and guide their action” and can be helpful. It is this social scientific common threads that are helpful in that culture is “an ordered system of discipline that has contributed the most organizational research. Most simply, meaning and of in terms of to its practical application within the culture involves three basic human which social interaction takes place.” field of organizational research. activities: what people think, what This semiotic (symbolic or Originally the notion of culture people do, and what people make. based) notion of culture gained great described the , , , Further, several common popularity in the postmodern values, beliefs, and practices of distant arise: culture is shared, learned, movement of the 1980’s, when the peoples often in exotic places—the transmitted crossgenerationally, relatively mature discipline of objects of traditional anthropological symbolic, adaptive, and integrated. first began inquiry. Even within the field however, to talk broadly about “organizational numerous approaches to culture To speak of culture as being shared culture.” Geertz’s anthropological abound as evident in one seminal 1952 narrows the field of relevant activity to definition was the most cited in the study that identified 164 different that which is common and social. A at that time and still has great definitions. particular action is not cultural if it is purchase in contemporary research. unique to one or relatively insignificant British anthropologist Edward Tyler is number of individuals. Also, culture is Origins of “Organizational Culture” widely credited with the first (1871) learned (actively or passively) and is “modern” definition of culture: “that transmitted cross-generationally The field of organizational behavior and complex whole which includes through formal or informal social the related discipline of management , , arts, morals, , interaction—we are not born with the science began investigating custom, and any other capabilities and understanding that stealing is wrong or in terms of culture as habits acquired by as a member of that “diamonds show you care.” early as the 1930s. The final phase of .” Undoubtedly this definition the famous Hawthorne studies at the influenced the shift toward current One of the primary characteristics of Western Electric Company marked the dictionary definitions. human life, over animal life, is that we first systematic attempt to use a assign symbolic meaning to ideas, concept of culture to understand the behavior, and objects, as well as have work environment. While an important For some, culture is considered language and speech. We say that step forward in qualitative research, the have culture while animals do the “glue” that holds an investigation was rather blunt and the not. This is largely due to their inability understanding of organizational culture organization together and to ascribe arbitrary symbolic meaning remained fairly primitive during the to their world—a chimpanzee could following decades. Most mid-century for others, the “compass” that not designate his banana to signify attempts at understanding were honesty, for example. Culture is also provides directions. conducted by scholars steeped in adaptive in that it can and does change quantitative psychology and , in response to various influences and though by the 1970s researchers more conditions. No culture is truly static— explicitly and emphatically appropriated Subsequent to this new interpretation many aspects of American culture are the theories and methods of and vision of a “complex whole,” radically different in the wake of the anthropology. The late-century upsurge academics attempted to build upon , the dot-com bubble, and of interest in organizational culture is this by creating universal lists of all global terrorism. And finally, culture is credited largely to the economic of the elements of culture, the most integrated in the sense that it conditions of the 1970s when exhaustive of which (first published in permeates society and becomes international had 1938) lists 79 major divisions and 637 part of the social machinery. Culture heightened and more foreign subdivisions. While comprehensive and is the ever-present, ethereal medium were operating still useful for researchers in which members live and through in the . Specifically, the today, it is ineffectual for most general which they act. success of the Japanese in many applications as well as and industries sparked curiosity about other organizations.

3 Defining “Culture” and “Organizational Culture”: From Anthropology to the Office / 04.09

whether their differing corporate values, • Pascale and Athos, 1982, The of attitudes, and behaviors were responsible Japanese Management: Applications for for their often superior performance. American Executives

The 1982 publication of Peters & • Deal and Kennedy, 1982, Corporate Wasserman’s In Search of Excellence stirred Cultures: The Rites and Rituals of both popular and professional interest Corporate Life through its suggestion that organizations with strong cultures were more effective. Since the early 1980s, academic and applied exploration of organizational Corporate culture was offered as an asset culture has steadily increased and that could be managed to improve even now there is little indication business performance. While definitely of abatement as changes in data the most popular book on the subject management, work organization, values, (outselling all other non-fiction books for lifestyles, demographics, knowledge- the year), three others were seminal to intensive work, outsourcing, and a the development of the field: host of other social, economic, and technological factors continue to impact • Ouchi, 1981, Theory Z: How American the relationship between organizations, Business Can Meet the Japanese Challenge workers, and the .

CULTURE IS FOUND IN:

OBSERVABLE ARTIFACTS: ESPOUSED VALUES: Architecture & Physical Surroundings Those values championed Products by a company’s . Style ( - art - publications) Published Values / Mission Statements Myths / Stories / Rituals

BASIC ASSUMPTIONS: Underlying (often unconscious) determinants of an organization’s attitudes, thought processes and actions.

4 Defining “Culture” and “Organizational Culture”: From Anthropology to the Office / 04.09

Understanding Organizational Espoused values are those championed Culture by a company’s leadership and management. They are distinguished Definitions of “organizational culture” from enacted values, which are those are almost as numerous as those that employees’ actual behavior reflects of “culture”— a 1998 study identified 54 (just because the CEO claims that her different definitions within the academic company values its customers does not literature between 1960 and 1993. One mean that the employees necessarily helpful, though general, definition act accordingly). While the that offered by Edgar Schein of MIT’s Sloan values play in organizational culture is School of Management is that undeniable, many scholars claim that it organizational culture is: is erroneous to ascribe values, which are a pattern of shared basic assumptions inherently human and located only in that the group learned as it solved its individuals, to a corporate entity or to a problems of external adaptation and group of individuals. Such a position internal integration, that has worked well maintains that the values of a few enough to be considered valid and, particularly influential leaders are what therefore, to be taught to new members rally other employees and subsequently as the correct way to perceive, think, influences company behavior. Basic and feel in relation to those problems. assumptions are underlying, often unconscious, determinants of an Delving deeper, three common attributes organization’s attitudes, thought seem to arise across the varying processes, and actions. These perspectives within sociology, assumptions are central to its culture. psychology, anthropology, and Values that gain long-term acceptance . One is that the often become so ingrained and concept of shared meaning is critical; taken-for-granted that individuals are secondly, is the notion that organizational usually unaware of their influence. They culture is constructed socially and is usually provide a tacit sense of security affected by environment and . The and an unquestioned impetus for third common feature among the many perceptions and behavior. definitions is that organizational culture has many symbolic and cognitive Scholarly understanding the social layers—culture is thick and resides at and symbolic processes of the all levels. workplace continues to expand in breadth and refine in depth as To help understand these symbolic and organizational behavior and cognitive layers, Schein has categorized organizational management scholars the places where culture is found build upon social scientific theories and into three fundamental categories: . A function of observable artifacts, espoused values, type, national culture, environmental and basic underlying assumptions. factors, as well as the vision, , and Observable artifacts represent an strategy, an organization’s culture affects organization’s attitudes, behaviors, its structure, practices, policies, and and beliefs— how it sees things, what routines. Evaluating and understanding is important and meaningful. These organizational culture holds perhaps include the architecture and physical the best promise for corporate surroundings; its products; its leadership being able to influence technologies; its style (shown through individual and group performance, clothing, art, publications, etc.); facilities performance, organizational its published values and mission performance, and ultimately the statement; its language, , jargon, ever-important financial components and humor;its myths and stories; of business performance. and its practices, rituals, ceremonies, and taboos.

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