112 วารสารวิจัยและพัฒนา ปีที่ 4 2555 Research and Development Journal. Vol. 4 2012
The Integration of Mon-Khmer Languages into Malay: A Study of Language Maintenance and Language Loss
Umaiyah Haji Umar Faculty of Languages and Lirguitics University of Malaya E-mail : [email protected]
Introduction hypothesis is that the more borrowings there are, This is a preliminary study which is part of a the more integrated the indigenous language is into research project on the Aslian languages of Peninsu- the dominant language. In other words, this would lar Malaysia conducted under a research grant from be evidence of considerable language change. the University of Malaya. The aim of the project is to study the genetic relationships and the typology Background of Mon-Khmer languages in Malaysia and Thailand In Peninsular Malaysia, there are about as well as to determine how these languages have 147,412 indigenous people or Orang Asli as they integrated into the dominant languages (Malay and are called by the local people. The indigenous lan- Thai) of the two countries. One of the objectives of guages are divided into three main groups: Negrito, this study is to look into language maintenance and Senoi and Proto-Malay. The three groups comprise language loss among speakers of the Aslian com- 18 smaller groups: Kensiu, Kintak, Lanoh, Jahai, Bat- munities studied. eg and Mandrig belong to the Negrito group; Semai, In this study, two Aslian languages are cov- Temiar, Che Wong, Jahut, Semaqberi, Semelai and ered, that is, Semai (S) and Mah Meri (MM). Semai Mah Meri belong to the Senoi group and the Jakun, is a Central Aslian language while Mah Meri is a Temuan, Seletar, Orang Kuala and Orang Kanaq be- Southern Aslian language (G. Benjamin, 1976:46). long to the Proto-Malay group.The Department of The term “Aslian” was first coined by Gérard Dif- Orang Asli Affairs of Malaysia (Jabatan Hal Ehwal floth to refer to “the Austroasiatic languages of the Orang Asli or JHEOA) has place Semelai in the Pro- Malay Peninsula, including the immediately relat- to-Malay group for administrative reasons. ed languages of the Negritos of South Thailand” From the 200 Orang Asli languages that existed in (1974). the Malay Peninsula, there are now only 18 left. Due to time constraints, the scope of this Eight of these ethnic groups have less than 1,000 study is limited to a preliminary investigation of speakers. Kanag, the smallest group, has only 80. the degree of integration, at the lexical level, of This is a clear indication that Malaysian indigenous the two indigenous languages into Malay which is languages are endangered. the dominant or mainstream language of Malaysia. According to the Center for Orang Asli Con- An adapted version of Swadesh’s basic word list is cerns (2003), the Aslian subgroup of Mon-Khmer lan- used for comparison of the three languages. Our guages have about 92,245 speakers (Negrito= 4,001; วารสารวิจัยและพัฒนา ปีที่ 4 2555 113 Research and Development Journal. Vol. 4 2012
Senoi= 81,826; Semelai= 6,418). Semai, with about is, “grandmother”, “grandfather”, “elder brother”, 43,892 speakers, is spoken in Perak and Pahang while “elder sister”, “knee”, “chest”, “nail”, “hot”, Mah Meri has about 2,986 speakers concentrated “house” and “moon” which we thought should be mostly along the coastal areas of southern Selangor. in the list. In this study, two Orang Asli communities The words from the two Aslian languages have been selected, a Mah Meri community in were divided into broad categories to facilitate Kampung Bukit Bangkong, Sepang, situated in the analysis of language maintenance and language state of Selangor and a Semai community in Sun- loss at the lexical level. The words were then gai Ruil, Cameron Highlands which is located in the compared in order to identify the cognates as well state of Pahang. Both are believed to belong to a as the loanwords from Malay. As for those words sub-group of the Mon-Khmer branch of the Aus- that are neither seen to be cognates or loanwords, troasiatic language family. they are put under the category of “suspected na- In terms of education, according to JHEOA tive words”. Similarities and differences from the officials, the opportunities for education are similar. point of view of phonetics were analysed to see All Orang Asli children have access to compulsory the degree of divergence in selected cognates. The primary education and at Sungai Ruil, a hostel is loan words were also analysed to see the types of provided for children of families living in the inte- language change when borrowing occurred. Finally, rior. The Mah Meri community, however, is consid- the results were compared in order to ascertain ered to be the most progressive of all the Orang whether there is language maintenance or loss with Asli groups and a number of Mah Meri have gradu- regard to certain categories of the lexicon. ated from institutions of higher learning. Analysis Methodology To facilitate analysis, the words are placed The data on Mah Meri were taken from under 11 categories: parts of the body, numerals research conducted since 2001 on the Mah Meri and words expressing quantity, personal pronouns, language in Sepang, in the state of Selangor, by animals, nature, plants, colours, family, verbs, ad- University of Malaya researchers. The results of this jectives, and others. research were a book on the Mah Meri language and a dictionary entitled “A Mah Meri-Malay-Eng- Parts of the Body lish Dictionary”, both published in 2006. The largest category of words collected is The data on Semai were collected from field on parts of the body which comprise a total of 20 work conducted this year in Sungei Ruil, Cameron words. Upon comparison, it was found that half of Highlands. A total of 106 words were included them are cognates. in our word list, most of them chosen from the Swadesh List. Ten more words were added, that In this study, two Orang Asli communities have been selected, a Mah Meri community in Kampung Bukit Bangkong, Sepang, situated in the state of Selangor and a Semai community in Sungai Ruil, Cameron Highlands which is located in the state of Pahang. Both are believed to belong to a sub-group of the Mon-Khmer branch of the Austroasiatic language family. In terms of education, according to JHEOA officials, the opportunities for education are similar. All Orang Asli children have access to compulsory primary education and at Sungai Ruil, a hostel is provided for children of families living in the interior. The Mah Meri community, however, is considered to be the most progressive of all the Orang Asli groups and a number of Mah Meri have graduated from institutions of higher learning.
Methodology The data on Mah Meri were taken from research conducted since 2001 on the Mah Meri language in Sepang, in the state of Selangor, by University of Malaya researchers. The results of this research were a book on the Mah Meri language and a dictionary entitled “A Mah Meri-Malay-English Dictionary”, both published in 2006. The data on Semai were collected from field work conducted this year in Sungei Ruil, Cameron Highlands. A total of 106 words were included in our word list, most of them chosen from the Swadesh List. Ten more words were added, that is, “grandmother”, “grandfather”, “elder brother”, “elder sister”, “knee”, “chest”, “nail”, “hot”, “house” and “moon” which we thought should be in the list. The words from the two Aslian languages were divided into broad categories to facilitate analysis of language maintenance and language loss at the lexical level. The words were then compared in order to identify the cognates as well as the loanwords from Malay. As for those words that are neither seen to be cognates or loanwords, they are 114put under the category of “suspected native words”. Similarities and differences from theวารสารวิจัยและพัฒนา point of view of phonetics ปีที่ 4 2555 were analysed to see the degree of divergence in selected cognates. The loan wordsResearch were and also Development analysed Journal. to see Vol. the 4 2012 types of language change when borrowing occurred. Finally, the results were compared in order to ascertain whether there is language maintenance or loss with regard to certain categories of the lexicon. Examples:
English Mah Meri Semai bone / : / eye / foot // // hair / :/ mouth / :/ //
ApartApart from from the the words words for “ear” for “ear” and “mou andth”, “mouth”, the rest/ of the/Numerals cognates have and similar Words features Expressing with the Quantity exception of the the restvowel of . the In Semai,cognates the wordshave similarfor “ear” features and “mouth” with are preceded The by numerals a nasal initial of Semai consonant and Mah/n/ Meri and /dom/ not the Apartexceptionrespectively from the of while wordsthe vowel.in for Mah “ear” Meri, In Semai,a thend “mouonset the th”,is wordsabsent. the rest forHowever, of thego cognatesthis beyond syllab havele - threeinitial similar consonant without features isborrowing foundwith the in otherexception from words Malay. of in the “ear”vowel Mahand. InMeri “mouth” Semai, (not inthe the are words data preceded presented)for “ear” by and and a “mouth”nasalis a common initial are featureprecededOur in findings Aslianby a nasallanguages. show initial that consonant the first three numerals are consonantrespectivelyNumerals / n/and/ andwhile Words in Mahm/ Expressingrespectively Meri, the Quantity onset while is absent. in Mah However, possibly this syllab nativele-initial to consonantboth languages is found while in other the words num in- Meri,Mah the Meri onset (not inis the absent. data presented) However, and this is asyllable- common featureber in “four” Aslian languages.is borrowed from Malay. As for words of initialNumerals consonant and Words is found Expressing in other Quantity words in Mah quantity, both languages have borrowed the word2 MeriThe (not numerals in the ofdata Semai presented) and Mah Meriand dois nota common go beyond threefor “all”without while borrowing the word from Malay.for “many” Our findings is most show prob that- featurethe first in Aslianthree numerals languages. are possibly native to both languagesably while native. the number “four” is borrowed from Malay. As for words of quantity, both languages have borrowed the word for “all” while the word for “many” is most probably Examples:native. Examples: English Mah Meri Semai one // two : three / four / many / :
Personal Pronouns (1976: 121), was found in one of the Semai PersonalBoth PronounsSemai and Mah Meri have retained their dialects for the “we (inclusive)”.Semai, like Malay, pronouns,Both Semai most and of Mah which Meri arehave cognates. retained their In apronouns study , mosthas of different which are words cognates. for Inthe a study “we” by inclusive Geoffrey Beandnjamin the by Geoffreyentitled “Austroasiatic Benjamin entitledSubgroupings “Austroasiatic and Prehistory Sub in -the Malay“we” Peninsula”, exclusive, (1976while: 121Mah), Meri doeswas foundnot differenti in one of- groupingsthe Semai and dialects Prehistory for the in “we the (inclusive)”Malay Peninsula”,Semai, like Malayate between, has different the wordstwo. for the “we” inclusive and the “we” exclusive, while Mah Meri does not differentiate between the two. Examples: English Mah Meri Semai I / ɲ you / :/ we (exclusive) / :/ we (inclusive) / :/
Animals Four cognates are found in the animal category, that is, the words for “bird” /(MM) and /:(S); “dog” /(MM) and /(S); “fish” /(MM) and /:/ (S); “louse” /(MM) and /:/ (S). Mah Meri has borrowed Malay words for “feather”, “meat” and “tail”. Nature Two cognates are found in this category: “earth” /(MM) and // (S). Many are loans from Malay, for example, the words for “ashes”, “sand” and “stone” in both languages. Mah Meri has borrowed from Malay while Semai seems
3 //
Apart from the words for “ear” and “mouth”, the rest of the cognates have similar features with the exception of the vowel. In Semai, the words for “ear” and “mouth” are preceded by a nasal initial consonant respectively while in Mah Meri, the onset is absent. However, this syllable-initial consonant is found in other words in Mah Meri (not in the data presented) and is a common feature in Aslian languages. Numerals and Words Expressing Quantity The numerals of Semai and Mah Meri do not go beyond three without borrowing from Malay. Our findings show that the first three numerals are possibly native to both languages while the number “four” is borrowed from Malay. As for words of quantity, both languages have borrowed the word for “all” while the word for “many” is most probably native. Examples: English Mah Meri Semai one // two : three / four / many / :
Personal Pronouns วารสารวิจัยและพัฒนาBoth Semai and ปีที่Mah 4 Meri2555 have retained their pronouns, most of which are cognates. In a study by Geoffrey Be115njamin Research and Development Journal. Vol. 4 2012 entitled “Austroasiatic Subgroupings and Prehistory in the Malay Peninsula”, (1976: 121), was found in one of the Semai dialects for the “we (inclusive)” Semai, like Malay, has different words for the “we” inclusive and the “we” exclusive, while Mah Meri does not differentiate between the two. Examples:Examples: English Mah Meri Semai I / ɲ you / :/ we (exclusive) / :/ we (inclusive) / :/
Animals Animals words (See Table for words relating to colours). This Four cognates are found in the animal category, that is, the words for “bird” /(MM) and /:(S); “dog” Four cognates are found in the animal category, is a clear case of language loss. Our hypothesis is / / / / : / / / : / that is, the(MM) words and for “bird”(S); “fish” (MM) and(MM) and that(S) ;the“louse” Mah Meri,(MM) due and to their closer(S). Mah contact Meri has to (S); borrowed“dog” Malay (MM) words and for “feather”, (S); “fish”“meat” and (MM)“tail”. speakers of Malay, were influenced by the domi- Nature and (S); “louse” (MM) and (S). Mah nant language. The Semai people, on the other / // MeriTwo has cognates borrowed are found Malay in this words category: for “earth” “feather”, (MM)hand, and due to(S). their Many relative are loans isolation, from Malay, have for managed example, the words for “ashes”, “sand” and “stone” in both languages. Mah Meri has borrowed from Malay while Semai seems “meat” and “tail”. to maintain their native words.
Nature Family 3 Two cognates are found in this category: In this category, there are two cognates: “earth” (MM) and (S). Many are loans “child” (MM), (S) and “father” from Malay, for example, the words for “ashes”, (MM) and (S). The rest are all suspected “sand” and “stone” in both languages. Mah Meri native words. There is no evidence of borrowing has borrowed from Malay while Semai seems to from Malay. have retained its native words, for the following words: “cloud” (MM) and (S); and Verbs “moon” (MM) and (S). Most of the verbs in both languages are sus- pected native words. The cognates are for words Plants like: “bite” (MM) and (S); “burn” Only one cognate was found: “fruit” (MM) and (S); “eat” (MM) and (S). Mah Meri has borrowed the (MM) and (S), “tie” (MM) and words for “bark” and “leaf”while (S), and “stand” (MM) and (S). the words for “root” and “tree” are suspected Mah Meri has borrowed the words for “come”, “lie native words. (on the floor)”, “say”, “swim” and “throw”. Semai has borrowed the word (pandai) “clever” Adjectives (Colours) from Malay to mean “know” while Mah Meri has This is the most interesting category because its own word which is The rest of the all the Mah Meri words for colour are borrowed words in the list are suspected native words. while all the Semai words are suspected native 116 วารสารวิจัยและพัฒนา ปีที่ 4 2555 Research and Development Journal. Vol. 4 2012
Adjectives Malay Loanwords in Mah Meri Only one cognate was found for the word The highest level of borrowings is found in “long”: (MM) and (S). Mah Meri the category of adjectives where the percentage has two words for “bad” referring to “bad is 100% for words of colours and 63% for adjec- behaviour” and to mean “ugly” or “dirty”. tives on the whole. Adjectives are used to describe Mah Meri has also borrowed words for “cold”, nouns and this is essential for effective commu- “dry”, “good” and “hot”. Semai, however, has re- nication. Being more exposed to the mainstream tained its native words. The word for “small” is a (Malay) community, there is a tendency to “adopt” suspected native word for both languages: words that are commonly used in everyday com- (MM) and (S). munication. On the other hand, no borrowings were de- Others tected for terms of address for family members In this category, the word for “woman, female” and the personal pronouns. It is likely that these is a cognate: (MM) and (S). In Mah words are used within the community and thus Meri, “man, male” is The word is have been preserved. This is evidence of language probably borrowed from the Malay gelar “title”. maintenance. Semai has its own words for “man, male” and “name” The rest of the words are con- Malay Loanwords in Semai sidered to be suspected native words. Malay words that have entered the Semai language are found in three categories. These are Findings and Discussion words of nature and words expressing quantity. From the findings, it can be concluded that There is only one Malay verb /paniy/ (pandai) Mah Meri has a higher degree of integration than among the borrowings. The Semai vocabulary is Semai. The results show that Mah Meri has 35% of largely preserved as there is less contact with the borrowings and Semai 7% only. dominant community. The Semai villages are situ- One of the factors that should be considered ated far from the urban areas. is the environment of the respective communities. The Mah Meri people in Kampung Bukit Bangkong, Numerals and Words of Quantity Sepang, live close to areas of major development. The concept of counting among aboriginal Most of them (50% of the women) have found em- peoples is known to be limited to the first three ployment in the Kuala Lumpur International Airport numbers. It is not surprising to find that both the and other industries nearby. The Semai people in Mah Meri and the Semai have numerals up to three Cameron Highlands are generally leading a rural and from four onwards, the words are borrowed way of life. from Malay. From ten and above, hybrid words On the whole, our findings can be summa- have been created, for example, rized as follows, under general headings: “eleven” in Mah Meri. วารสารวิจัยและพัฒนา ปีที่ 4 2555 117 Research and Development Journal. Vol. 4 2012
Phonological and Morphological Features for example “kill” (from “to make” It can be observed that many words in both and /dat/ “die” equivalent to the word “kill”) and languages end with the glottal stop or the velar “drive” (from “to make” and “walk’ plosive This is also common in Malay. equivalent the word “drive” [make the car walk]). The cognates between Mah Meri and Semai This is a very interesting observation and further re- can easily be identified but differences are found search should be done on Mah Meri and Semai to in the vowel phonemes. For example, the word for look into the morphological and syntactic features. “nose” is in Mah Meri and in Semai. For “house”, it is in Mah Meri and in Semantic change Semai. Evidence of semantic shift is found in bor- Phonological changes can be seen in words rowed words like (MM) and (S) that are borrowed from Malay, and the pattern is which means “dust” in Malay (the Semai word for quite clear, for example the word kering “dry” and “dust” is ) but has come to mean “ashes” in jantung “heart” become and the Aslian languages. Other examples are in Mah Meri. The ending in Malay is systemati- “mist” in Malay but in Mah Meri it means “cloud”, cally changed to in Mah Meri. The only differ- the same applies to /paniy/ and (see Compa- ence is found in berenang “to swim” and kuning rison Tables). “yellow” where the final is maintained. It is pos- sible that these words are newly borrowed and the Conclusion Mah Meri nowadays have no problem pronouncing It is apparent, even in this preliminary study Malay sounds as a result of having access to edu- on language maintenance and loss at the lexical cation. Words ending in take a ending, for level, that Mah Meri has lost its words for colours example, bulan “moon”, daun “leaf” become as well as other adjectives. Mah Meri is a small and community compared to Semai. Although the pop- Semai, like Mah Meri, tends to add a glot- ulation is increasing due to better health care, it tal ending to borrowed words ending in an open is an endangered language. Semai, a much larger vowel, for example, batu “stone” becomes group, seems to be maintaining its language better and matahari “sun” becomes The word than Mah Meri. matahari “sun” is a hybrid loanword of “eye” in It is clear from this paper that further re- the native language and hari “day” in Malay: search should be conducted on Aslian languages (MM) and (S). to look at language change at the different linguis- Occasionally, more than one form of the tic levels. More studies need to be conducted to word have been discovered, especially in Mah Meri, look at language maintenance and loss by compar- for example, “bite”, ”eat”, ing the indicators of ethnolinguistic vitality (Crystal, and “two”. In Semai, an example 2000:144). One of the indicators is the extent to found is “one”. It is observed that which a language can resist influence by a domi- there are prefixes, such as added to verbs nant urban language. From the data collected, it 118 วารสารวิจัยและพัฒนา ปีที่ 4 2555 Research and Development Journal. Vol. 4 2012 is evident that at the lexical level, Mah Meri shows [9] Burusphat, Somsonge. Dialect Geography. (In Thai) more influence from the dominant language and is Bangkok: Institute of Language and Culture for therefore ethnolinguistically less vital than Semai. Rural Development, Mahidol University. 2000. [10] Carmel Heah Lee Hsia. The Influence of English References on the Lexical Expansion of Bahasa Malaysia. [1] Arlotto, A. Introduction to Historical Linguistics. Kuala Lumpur: Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka. 1989. [11] Choi Kim Yok. The Mah Meri of Malaysia. Heri- Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company. 1972. tage Asia, April-June 2007, Vol. 4, No. 3, Pages [2] Asmah Haji Omar. The Malay People of Malay- 22-27. sia and Their Languages. Kuala Lumpur: Dewan [12] Crystal, David. Language Death. Cambridge: Bahasa dan Pustaka.1983. Cambridge University Press. 2000. [3] ______. The Phonological Diversity of [13] Dentan, Robert Knox., Suny Buffalo., Kirk Endi- the Malay Dialects. Penerbitan cott., Alberto G. Gomes., and M.B. Hooker. Ma- Ilmiah No. 2, Kuala Lumpur: Dewan Bahasa laysia and the Original People: A Case Study dan Pustaka. 1977. of the Impact of Development on Indigenous [4] ______. (ed.), Bahasa Mah Meri. Kuala Peoples. Massachusetts: Allyn and Bacon. 1997. Lumpur: University of Malaya Press. 2006. [14] Duncan, Christopher. (Ed). Civilization the Mar- [5] Benjamin, G., and Cynthia, Chou. (Ed.) Tribal gin Southern Asian Government Policies for Communities in the Malay World Historical, the Development of Minorities. Singapore: Cultural and Social Perspectives. Singapore: Vetak Service. 2008. Seng Lee Press Pte Ltd. (2002). [15] Dyen, I. (Ed.), Lexicostatistics in Genetic Linguis- [6] Benjamin, G. On Pronouncing and Writing tics: Proceedings of the Yale Conference, April Orang Asli Languages: A Guide for the Perple- 3-4, 1971. The Hague: Mouton. 1973. xed. Part 1. Orang Asli Studies Newsletter 1986, [16] ______. Linguistic Subgrouping and Lex- 4: 4–16. Department of Anthropology, Dart- icostatistics. Paris: The Hague. 1975. mouth College, Hanover NH, USA. [17] Faculty of Languages and Linguistics. A Mah [7] ______. An outline of Temiar Grammar. Meri-Malay-English Dictionary (in Malay). Kuala Lumpur: City Reprographic Service. 2006. In: N. Jenner, Laurence C. Thomson and Stan- [18] Fatan Hamamah Yahaya. Pendidikan Masyara- ley Starosta (Eds.), Austroasiatic Studies: Part kat Orang Asli (In Malay). In Ma’rof Redzuan 1 Honolulu: The University Press. 1976. Pages and Sarjit S. Grill (Eds.), Orang Asli: Isu, Transfor- 130-186. masi dan Cabaran. Serdang: University Putra [8] ______. Austroasiatic Subgroupings and Malaysia. 2008. Pages 162-203. Prehistory in the Malay Peninsula. In: N. Jenner, [19] Haugen, E. The Analysis of Linguistics Borrow- Laurence C. Thomson and Stanley Starosta ing Language. Vol. 26, 1950 pp. 210-231. Re- (Eds.), Austroasiatic studies: Part 1. Honolulu: printed in The Ecology of Language (Collected The University press. 1976. Pages 37-127. and introduced by A.S.Dil). Stanford: Standford University Press. 1972. Pages 78-109. วารสารวิจัยและพัฒนา ปีที่ 4 2555 119 Research and Development Journal. Vol. 4 2012
[20] Kobkua, Suwannathat-Pian, The Sam-Sams: A [29] Umaiyah Haji Umar. A Classification of Thai- Study of Historical and Ethnic Assimilation in Kedah Dialects using Phonological Characteris- Malaysia. Journal of Social Issues in Southeast tics. Kuala Lumpur: Allwrite Sdn. Bhd. 2003. Asia. Vol. 9 No.1. 1996. Singapore: Institute of [30] ______. The Assimilation of Southeast Asian Studies. Bangkok-Melayu Communities in the Bangkok [21] Lehmann, W.P., Historical Linguistics: An Intro- Metropolis and Surrounding Areas. Kuala Lum- duction. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, pur: Allwrite Sdn. Bhd. 2003. Inc. 1962. [31] Weera, Ostapirat, Proto-Kra. Linguistics of the [22] Ratanakul, Suriya, Languages in Southeast Asia Tibeto-Burman Area 23.1 (monograph), Berke- Part 1: Austroasiatic and Sino-Tibetan Language ley. 2000. (In Thai). Institute of Language and Culture for [32] Wheatley, P. The Golden Khersonese: Studies Rural Development, Mahidol University: Thai- in the Historical Geography of the Malay Pen- land. 1994. insula Before AD 1500. Kuala Lumpur: Univer- [23] Reynold, Craig J. Seditious Histories Contesting sity Of Malaya Press. 1961. Thai and Southeast Asian Pasts. Singapore: Sin- [33] Winzeler, Robert. (Ed). Indigenous Peoples and gapore University Press. 2006. the State Politics, Land, and Ethnicity in the [24] Montesano, M.J., and Patrick, Jory. (Ed.) Thai Malayan Peninsula and Borneo. Connecticut: South and Malay North. Singapore: Mainland Yale University Southeast Asia Studies. 1997. Press. 2008. [34] Yunus Maris, Malay Sound System. Kuala Lum- [25] Muhamad Aidi Mat Yusof, Rohani Mohd Yusof, pur: Mimeograph. 1963. and Noor Hasnoor Mohamad Noor. Leksikon- [35] Zainal Abidin Hj. Ali. Peranan Jabatan Hal statistik Bahasa-Bahasa Melayu-Proto (in Malay). Ehwal Orang Asli (JHEOA) Dalam Pembangunan Paper Presented at the International Seminar Masayarakat Orang Asli. (In Malay). In Ma’rof on Austronesian Dialects in Nusantara III, Brunei Redzuan and Sarjit S. Grill (Eds.), Orang Asli: Darulsalam, 24-26 January 2008. Vol. 2 Pages Isu, Transformasi dan Cabaran. Serdang: Uni- 137-159. versity Putra Malaysia. 2006. Pages 1-43. [26] Nicholas, Colin. The Orang Asli and the Con- [36] Zide, H. Norman, Studies in Comparative Aus- test for Resource Indigenous Politics, Develop- troasiatic Linguistics. London: Mouton and Co. ment and Identity in Peninsula Malaysia. Co- 1966. penhagen: Vinlin Press. 2000. [27] Premsrirat, Suvilai et.al Ethnolinguistic Maps of Thailand. (in Thai). Bangkok: Khurusapha Press. 2000. [28] Swadesh, M. (edited by Sherzer, J., forward by Hymes, D.), The Origin and Diversification of Language. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul. 1971. 120 วารสารวิจัยและพัฒนา ปีที่ 4 2555 Research and Development Journal. Vol. 4 2012
Electronic Resources http://www.lc.mahidol.ac.th/Documents/Pub [1] Aslian. (n.d.). Retrieved October, 10, 2009, from lication/MKS/33 /hajek2003evidence.pdf http://people.anun.edu.au/~a108009/languages [10] Lecture Series: Mon-Khmer Languages. (n.d.) /aslian_langs.htm Retrieved October, 10, 2009, from http://peo- [2] Austro-Asiatic. (n.d.) Retrieved October, 20, ple.anun.edu.au/~a108009/languages/aslian_ 2009, from http://www.uiowa.edu/ ~linguist/ langs.htm faculty/beckman/lotw01/languages/austro- [11] Matisoff, James A. Mon-Khmer of the Malay asiatic.html Peninsula. Retrieved September, 20, 2009, [3] Austro-Asiatic Language. (n.d.) in Wikipedia. Re- from http://stedt.berkeley.edu/pdf/JAM/ trieved October, 10, 2009, from http://en. ASLIAN.pdf wikipedia.org/wiki/Austro-Asiatic_languages [12] Walther, Markus. (2000). Temiar Reduplication [4] Burenhult, N. (1999). A Bibliograpyu Guide to in One-Level Prosodic Morphology. Retrieved Aslian Linguistics. Retrieved October, 15, 2009, September, 10, 2009, from http://adsabs.har- from http://www.lc.mahidol.ac.th/Documents/ vard.edu/abs/2000cs...... 8015W Publication /MKS/29/burenhult1999 bibliographi- [13] Wegener, Claudia.(n.d.). Semnam: An Orang cal.pdf Asli Languages of Perak, Peninsular Malaysia. [5] ______. (2001). Loanword Phonology in Retrieved October,10,2009, from http://lingweb. Jahai. Retrieved August, 25, 2009, from http:// eva.mpg.de/jakarta/seals_xviii/abstracts/ luur.lub.lu.se/luur?func=downloadfile?fileO niclas_burenhart.pdf Id=624429 [6] Center for Orang Asli Concerns. (2003). “Orang Asli population breakdown” Retrieved October 20, 2009, from http://www.coac.org.my/ code- navia/ portals /coacv2 code/main/main_art. php?parentID=11374494101180&artID=11600 257781189 [7] Diffloth, G. (1977). Mon-khmer Initial Palatals and “Substratumized” Austro-Thai. Retrieved September,10, 2009, from http://www.lc.mahi- dol.ac.th/ Documents/Publication/MKS/6/dif- floth1977mon.pdf [8] ______. (n.d.). Expressives in Semai. Retrieved September, 10, 2009, from http://sealang.net/ sala/archives/pdf4/diffloth1976expressives.pdf [9] Hajek, J. (2003). Evidence of Tonal Activity in Aslian. Retrieved September, 12, 2009, from