A Deadly Cycle: Ethno-Religious Conflict in Jos, Plateau State, Nigeria

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A DEADLY CYCLE: ETHNO-RELIGIOUS CONFLICT IN JOS, PLATEAU STATE, NIGERIA

By Jana Krause www.genevadeclaration.org Photo X Nigerian troops provide security in Jos, Nigeria, January 2010. © Sunday Alamba/AP Photo

Geneva Declaration Secretariat c/o Small Arms Survey 47 Avenue Blanc 1202 Geneva Switzerland WORKING PAPER GENEVA DECLARATION

A DEADLY CYCLE: ETHNO-RELIGIOUS CONFLICT IN JOS, PLATEAU STATE, NIGERIA

By Jana Krause A DEADLY CYCLE 2 Published in Switzerland by the Geneva Declaration Secretariat © Geneva Declaration Secretariat, Geneva 2011 prior permission in writing of the Geneva Declaration Secretariat, or as as or Secretariat, Declaration Geneva the of writing in permission prior the without means, any orby form inany ortransmitted, system, a retrieval in stored reproduced, be may publication this of part No reserved. rights All side the scope of the above should be sent to the Publications Manager at at Manager Publications tothe sent be should above the of scope side the out- reproduction concerning Enquiries organization. rights reprographics appropriate the with agreed terms orunder law, by permitted expressly Cartography by Jillian Luff, MAP JillianLuff, by Cartography Linnegar John by Proofread Tania by Inowlocki Copy-edited Switzerland 1202 Geneva 47 AvenueBlanc Survey c/o SmallArms Geneva Declaration Secretariat below. address the ISBN: 978-2-9700771-0-7 Geneva nbmedia, by Printed ([email protected]) Jones Richard by inMeta Typeset Copyright grafix Further information about the the about information Further of the United Nations Programme. Development support the with Kingdom, United andthe Thailand, Switzerland, Spain, pines, publications is available at www.genevadeclaration.org. at isavailable publications Guatemala, Indonesia, Kenya, Morocco, the Netherlands, Norway, the Philip- the Norway, Netherlands, the Morocco, Kenya, Indonesia, Guatemala, Finland, Colombia, includeBrazil, members group Core 2015. by security inhuman improvements andtangible violence armed of burden global in the reductions measurable toachieve states upon calls Declaration The practices. best of knowledge andtodisseminate programmes, reduction violence armed of effectiveness the toevaluate andvulnerabilities, risks toassess violence, armed of costs andeconomic social, human, the tomeasure intended initiatives tosupporting signatories commits writing, this of as countries 109 than more by endorsed and Development, Violence on Armed Declaration Geneva The The Geneva Declaration Geneva The Ge neva Declaration, its activities, and its andits activities, its Declaration, neva II I IV III THE GENEVA DECLARATION 3 A DEADLY CYCLE 4 I. Historical background and socio-economic characteristics andsocio-economic background Historical I. III. Violent events in Jos and rural Plateau State Plateau andrural inJos events Violent III. Introduction Executive summary Acknowledgements theauthor About List ofabbreviations List II. Root and proximate causes of the violent conflict theviolent of causes andproximate Root II. The 2002–04 killings and the state of emergency of state andthe killings 2002–04 The Spatial and demographic characteristics anddemographic Spatial The regional dimension of the Jos crisis Jos the of dimension regional The Competing historical interpretations and political claims andpolitical interpretations historical Competing The current situation current The conflicts land Rural The 2010 crisis crisis 2010 The The 2008 crisis 2008 The The 2001 crisis 2001 The background Historical Early warning warning Early The religious dimension religious The Citizenship and indigene rights andindigene Citizenship LGA North Jos of creation The characteristics andeconomic Social ...... Contents ...... 28 24 40 44 46 24 24 36 38 22 33 27 25 35 16 16 12 19 31 8 6 9 7 2. Plateau State, Nigeria State, 2. Plateau 4. Bibliography Conclusions 1. Typology of violence prevention and reduction efforts andreduction prevention violence of Typology 1. Tables 1. Jos Maps 2001–10 State, inPlateau casualties of estimates Conservative 1. Figures 1. Boxes efforts andpeace-building prevention IV. Violence 3. Present-day Nigeria Present-day 3. 3 2. Rise of violent clashes in Jos andenvirons inJos clashes violent of 2. Rise Endnotes 4. Jos: the spread of violence and religious segregation andreligious violence of spread the Jos: 4. 5. Plateau State: the spread of violence of spread the State: Plateau 5. 2. . Peace efforts around the 2010 Sallah celebrations Sallah 2010 the around efforts . Peace Nigeria’s citizenship crisis citizenship Nigeria’s Women victims andperpetrators victims Women Dadin Kowa: the peaceful community peaceful the DadinKowa: The 2004 Peace Conference Peace 2004 The Civil society efforts society Civil The 2002 Peace Summit Peace 2002 The Security forcesSecurity Community initiatives Community Inter-religious dialogue Inter-religious Reports of the Commissions of Inquiry Inquiry of Commissions the of Reports ...... 60 62 64 48 46 20 26 42 49 34 58 50 56 52 43 47 37 18 57 55 13 51 15 II I IV III CONTENTS 5 A DEADLY CYCLE 6 LGA JNI DPI PDP CEPID CAN CALM ANPP USAID STF Jama’atu Islam Nasril Damietta Damietta Peace Initiative Special Task Force Special Local Government Area Government Local People’s Democratic Party Christian Association of Nigeria of Association Christian All Nigeria People’s Party People’s Nigeria All Conflict Abatement through Local Mitigation Local through Abatement Conflict Centre for Peace Initiative and Development Peace for Initiative Centre United States Agency for International Development International for United States Agency List of abbreviations of List of Armed Forces inof Armed Geneva. Control Democratic the for Centre the andfor Institute Graduate the at building Previously, she worked for the Centre on Conflict, Development andPeace- Development Conflict, on Centre the for sheworked Previously, Indonesia. inYogyakarta, University Mada Gadjah at Studies andPeace rity Secu- for Center the andat Yale at University andViolence Conflict Order, on Program the at fellow research avisiting Shewas Nigeria. andinJos, Indonesia, inAmbon, conflicts ‘religious’ incommunal communities andresilient gies strate- prevention violence local on focuses thesis doctoral Her Switzerland. inGeneva, Studies andDevelopment International of Institute Graduate the at Jana Krause is a PhD Candidate in international relations and political science science andpolitical relations ininternational Candidate isaPhD About the author the About II I IV III ABOUT THE AUTHOR 7 A DEADLY CYCLE 8 remains solely the author’s. the solely remains errors potential as well as expressed andopinions allviews for Responsibility analysis. andbalanced aneutral topresent strives report The and suggestions. comments valuable their for andYakubu Joseph, Ostien, Philip Higazi, Adam reviewers, external tothe thanks extends also author The report. this ing of writ- the throughout guidance provided Martino De andLuigi Muggah Robert assistance. andtranslation hisresearch for DPI of Dachet toGaius go thanks Special Nigeria. (DPI), Initiative Peace Damietta the of research in Jos was partly facilitated by Sister Helena McEvilly and Maji Peterx Peterx andMaji McEvilly Helena Sister by facilitated partly was inJos research The views. their toshare time the took who activists peace and volunteer officials, government representatives, NGO leaders, andreligious community journalists, the as well as Jos of residents tothe grateful ismost author The Peace and Conflict Resolution, and the Konrad Adenauer Foundation. Adenauer Konrad andthe Resolution, andConflict Peace for Institute the andDevelopment, Democracy for Centre the Foundation, CLEEN the Foundation, Ebert Friedrich the of offices Abuja-based the from andadvice support logistical with author the by undertaken was study This Acknowledgements The year 2010 is one of the worst on record, with more than 1,000 lives lost. lives 1,000 than more with record, on worst the of isone 2010 year The 700. least at killing in2008, again Jos of city the rocked youths and Christian of Yelwa in southern Plateau State (HRW, 2005). Clashes between Muslim Muslim between Clashes 2005). (HRW, State Plateau insouthern Yelwa of town the on inanattack killed hadbeen people 700 about after in2004, gency emer- of astate declared government federal the when only toahalt came Jos crisis are crucial to understanding the protracted nature of the current current the of nature protracted the tounderstanding crucial are crisis Jos the of dimensions andreligious regional, historical, the finds that study This and trade. transportation, business, residency, of patterns alter areas’ ‘no-go segregated, religiously become neighbourhoods As settlements. rural many and Jos reshaped have anddisplacement Violence destroyed. to livelihoods due loss amassive suffer sides All city. the of parts inmany streets the litter remnants andblackened burned been have inJos houses 2010a). Numerous (IRIN, clashes the fleeing people 18,000 inabout resulted in2010 violence while displaced, were 10,000 than more riot, 2008 the After 2005). (IRIN, displaced people upto220,000 with in2004, peaked since2001 persons displaced internally of number The isimmense. violence the of humancost The smaller towns and villages in Plateau State escalated into violence. The killings killings The violence. into escalated State inPlateau andvillages towns smaller within tensions long-standing Subsequently, 2001). (HRW, lives 1,000 least at claimed riot Jos 2001 The hit. worst areas the of isone Nigeria belongs, State Plateau since violence communal towhich in region, Belt’ ‘Middle 2010a). The (HRW, in1999 rule tocivilian killed returned been have people 13,500 than More violence. large-scale future of risk real tothe allpoint Jos within fatalities ingun rise sharp andthe weapons, of proliferation the areas, inrural groups armed well-organized of presence The mix. anexplosive into amalgamated have rights land andcontested domination, religious of fears competition, electoral resources, of allocation inthe rooted groups ethnic Tensions between city. the in calm afragile ensures forces andpolice military of presence heavy the only later, Ten inJos. years out broke decades three than inmore majorriot first the when 2001, sincelate killed been have 7,000 as many people as sibly andpos- 4,000 least At state. the of parts most affecting conflict communal aprotracted into developed has State, Plateau of capital inJos, representation Over the last decade, the political crisis over ‘indigene’ over crisis political the decade, last the Over Executive summary Executive 1 rights and political andpolitical rights 2

II I IV III EXECUTIVE SUMMARY 9 A DEADLY CYCLE 10 fear that any minor incident could set the town ablaze again. again. ablaze town the set could incident minor any that fear residents that tense isso situation The since2010. exploded have killings andrevenge reprisal small-scale inJos, But protests. violent by rocked were states northern andother Bauchi, Kaduna, neighbouring while elections, andgubernatorial 2011 national April the during calm remained State Plateau fact, In times. election during instigation political deliberate by only sparked longer no are clashes violent crisis, Jos the of tragedy the Compounding today. worst their at are Plateau the on tensions efforts, peace numerous Despite internalized. narratives conflict andone-sided polarized strongly become have identities Religious traumatized. residents many left Jos around 2010’s massacres of brutality extreme andthe confrontations violent of Ten place. years taken has dimension andnational regional of crisis areligious into rights indigene over conflict aonce-localized of reframing Athorough conflict. protracted tothe contributed decade past the over violence andrural urban large-scale of escalation The situation. the toaddress will political of alack been has Yet there publications. inseveral rights indigene of problem the elaborated have scholars Nigerian understood. well are conflict the of causes root these principle, In conflicts. andrural urban inboth andFulani Hausa Muslim and the indigenes Christian mostly the between boundaries the reinforces Religion herders. andFulani farmers indigene between use land over claims contested in resulted has toriverbanks andaccess ofland scarcity increasing The areas. inrural tensions with interlink dynamics conflict urban The constituency. its among decline socio-economic as felt iswidely elite political the of fraction environment characterized by strong patronage networks, exclusion of one asocio-political Within areas. government local over control political to secure boundaries group foster that accounts historical of reciting selective and the labelling of politics the for floodgates the opened arrangement This status. indigene on decide andtherefore certificates these issue governments local Only service. civil the within andpositions representation topolitical access ensure certificates Indigene Hausa. andthe tribes native the between tested con- fiercely are status to‘indigene’ andclaims Jos of Today, ownership the Jos. inearly group numerous most the far by constituted north the from migrants Hausa today. But rights ‘indigene’ defend vocally most andthey tribes largest the of one were Berom the these, Among Plateau. the of tribes ‘native’ tothe transferred was power political Later, structures. emirate northern on relied initially rule indirect of legacy colonial The administration. colonial the andwith mines inthe towork Nigeria of allparts from migrants attracted It times. colonial during miningactivities tin around established was Jos of city The south. Christian mostly andthe north Muslim predominantly the between Nigeria, of centre inthe lies Jos Geographically, situation. conflict ence is no durable solution. ence solution. is no durable pres- military Aheavy crisis. Jos the totackle need will andAbuja inJos elites munity. The managed city to stay calm during the 2011 elections, but political com- their from response militant amore for call andmosques churches the within Many communities. among trust torebuild difficult it making dialogue, inter-religious of suspicious tobe tend People communities. their protect to pressure under feel leaders religious tenor, mid-level their echo initiatives grassroots While fully. down trickle not does message the but and tolerance, Top-level lives. people’s daily in many entrenched become have that identity toreligious threat existential of tions percep- the invalidating for responsibility totake have will leaders Religious privileges. indigene exclusive from down tostep first the tobe willing not are and marginalization with threatened feel indigenes Plateau’s group. ethnic ous exclusion of the Hausa–Fulani in Jos. The latter constitute Nigeria’s most numer- to justify states Muslim predominantly innorthern, Christians fellow against discrimination tothe point only need indigenes Christian own. its on solution adurable at arrive hardly will State Plateau Nigeria, allover isendemic rights indigene over conflict the that given However, divide. indigene–settler the totackle need will crisis State Plateau andwider Jos tothe solution A long-term religious leaders have preached peace havepreached leaders religious II I IV III EXECUTIVE SUMMARY 11 A DEADLY CYCLE 12 within Plateau State, who speak Fulfulde and constitute a separate group. aseparate andconstitute Fulfulde speak who State, Plateau within herders cattle Fulani tothe incontrast Hausa, speak also who Fulani urban to as ‘settlers’. The term Hausa–Fulani refers to the amalgamated Hausa and to as ‘indigenes’ of Plateau State, and the Hausa–Fulani, commonly referred referred groups ethnic the among are who Afizere, andthe Anaguta the by ported sup- Berom the between confrontation apolitical initially was crisis Jos The lives. 1,000 least at claimed fighting of week one than Less 2001. September in offices topolitical appointments over inJos out broke riots Large-scale displaced in 2004 (IRIN, 2005). (IRIN, in2004 displaced as ‘a fight to finish’. The year 2009 was one of uneasy calm. Renewed fighting fighting Renewed calm. uneasy of one was tofinish’. 2009 year ‘afight as The violence tothe referred Residents restored. fully been never has that communities the between andexchange communication trust, of ina breakdown resulted It deep. went riot 2008 the of impact psychological The ground. to the razed were neighbourhoods Entire violence. of days two injust died people 700 elections in Jos. This time destruction within the was city massive. At least government local with inconnection 2008, inNovember resumed Rioting in Plateau State. of emergency state month in Jos and smaller cities and villages in Plateau State over the past decade. decade. past the over State inPlateau andvillages cities andsmaller in Jos killed been have people 4,000 least at estimates, toconservative According information from the Plateau State government, about 220,000 people were were people 220,000 about government, State Plateau the from information toofficial According 2005). (HRW, Yelwa of city inthe people 700 mated ofanesti- massacre inthe culminated State Plateau insouthern violence 1). The Figure (see in2002–04 killed were people 1,000–2,000 estimated an yet toobtain, difficult are numbers casualty exact environment, rural the Given andvillages. smalltowns attacking repeatedly groups militia local with hit, worst was State Plateau of region southern The confrontations. violent into escalated conflicts land rural long-standing inJos, riot 2001 the After Christians. against Muslims Muslim Hausa–Fulani soon took on a strong religious dimension, pitching mostly andthe indigenes Christian predominantly the between struggle The irrelevant. Youirrelevant. cannot be peaceful anymore. become values religious the of much slaughtered, family your see you When Introduction 5 This situation led to the imposition of asix- of imposition tothe led situation This 3 4 ons have also proliferated within Jos and all over Plateau State. In addition, a addition, In State. Plateau andallover Jos within proliferated also have ons weap- illegal crisis, Since the Nigeria. allover isendemic arms Trading inillegal 2002). (Obateru, others among Dariye, Joshua governor andformer Jang Jonah naming Governor specifically allcommunities, of good common the for ate andcooper- differences’ their to‘bury andelders leaders political had urged Committee State’s Inter-Religious Plateau of leader Christian the riots, 2001 the Following allsides. from lamented been has crisis the toresolve will political of lack The decade. last the over scene the on been have crisis perpetuated inthe actors mainpolitical The worsened. only has State inPlateau situation the society, of levels various by undertaken efforts peace of ahost Despite 2011). 2011 (HRW, andApril January between killed were people 200 least At 2011. into well lasted that killings andrevenge fighting of round another yet sparked The They toJos. anovelty were explosions Bomb Eve. Christmas displaced. 18,000 than more and culminated of bombs events in killed violent series of the detonation on several were people 1,000 least at Jos: for worst the as 2010 mark city tothe close invillages majormassacres two and neighbourhood, ‘wrong’ in the discovered individuals of killings’ ‘silent attacks, small-scale Numerous attacks. andrevenge reprisal of cycle a deadly into plummeted has region the since, Ever violence. 2008 the during destroyed hadbeen that ahouse of rebuilding the over 2010 inJanuary inJos out broke Jos in communities local from received memoranda and information unpublished (2011); Krause 2011); 2010c; 2010b; 2010a; 2008; 2006; 2005; (2001; HRW Sources: 2008–10. in 2,000 another and 2001–04 in killed people 5,000 estimated an with decade, past the for people 7,000 least at of toll death atotal calculates (2011) Higazi estimates; higher list sources Other newspapers. international and local in under-reported been have may attacks rural for numbers Victim Notes: 2010 2009 2008 2007 2006 2005 2004 2003 2002 2001 Figure 0 0 0 0 ,0 1,200 1,000 800 600 400 200 0 1

Conservative estimates of casualties inPlateau State, 2001–10 II I IV III INTRODUCTION 13 A DEADLY CYCLE 14 and development organizations. and development cultural, religious, via communities local as well as rulers ortraditional individuals, wealthy politicians, militias, andreligious ethnic by andsupplied financed are Arms attack. next the for andpreparing weapons acquiring for eachother blame communities Local locally. manufactured are weapons of number significant with local residents, community and religious leaders, local NGO staff, jour- staff, NGO local leaders, andreligious community residents, local with 70interviews than more conducted author The 2011. andJuly 2010 December and inNovember inJos out carried research field on isbased report This decade. over past the donors and international actors, society civil government, the by pursued efforts andpeace-building prevention violence of anoverview provides report the finalsection, its In violence. and rural urban of characteristics the andinvestigates episodes violent the on focuses then analysis The situation. current the of perceptions population’s local the anddocuments conflict the of causes andproximate root the analyses part second The State. to Plateau characteristics andsocio-economic background historical the outlines part first The city. the of face the reshaped that lence ofvio- spread mapsthe It conflict. protracted ethno-religious into awider transformation andits inJos conflict of causes root the examines report This violence. political framed giously toreli- region the of vulnerability the underlined states, andBauchi Kaduna inneighbouring particularly states, northern inthe violence subsequent The ruler. military former anorthern Buhari, Muhammadu Gen. against race inhis Christian, asouthern Jonathan, Goodluck President of insupport state northernmost the as emerged State Plateau rioters. into turned have could who protesters todisperse used was Tear gas responses. rapid for and allow protests tomonitor city the over flew Helicopters amajoroutbreak. prevented hell’.bloody be ‘2011 will that warned inJos residents 2011 elections, tothe run-up the In incirculation. arms illegal of number alarming tothe testifies riots Jos and 2010 cited anonymously. anonymously. cited are respondents interview All decade. past the over efforts peacemaking and incidents violent of reporting newspaper on draws report the review, toaliterature addition In activities. peace community inlocal active were who residents several with held also were Discussions match. soccer interfaith toan subsequent discussion peace clubandagroup school ahigh such as activities, peace outreach youth visited author The strategies. prevention violence community on held were discussions group Two focus Jos. of hoods neighbour- poor worst-affected inthe held mostly were residents local with nalists, university researchers, ward heads, and local politicians. Interviews 7 This time, security forces were on high alert and successfully andsuccessfully alert high on were forces security time, This 6 The sharp rise in gun fatalities in the 2008 2008 inthe fatalities ingun rise sharp The Map 1 Map STATE LOW LOW COST FEDERAL COST 1km Plateau State Government House/Office

Jos RANTYA DADIN KOWA VILLAGE KUFANG ADAMU ADAMU JENTA JENTA

R u

HWOLSHE k ANGLO Fatima CatholicChurch u Fatima CatholicChurch

JOS b Tud Hill Station Hotel un a W ad R a o R a

o d a

To d TUDUN WADA BUKURU BUKURU APATA

Z KATAKO

a Central Mosque Central Mosque

University of Jos ALI KAZAURE Old Airport Rd Airport Old r i Bus Terminal Bus Terminal a Teaching Hospital

ABBATOIR

Bale y y

ANGWAN

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e ROGO

a a

a St a

afawa s s

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F i d Plateau S Plateau Specialist Hospital e Clu l b R i Motor Motor Plateau Plateau State House of Assembly s

d DILIMI RAYFIELD Park Park R Gbong Palace Gwom d Gbong Palace Gwom

Old Airport

ECWA Hea ECWA Headquarters

GANGARE h m

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RUSSIA W Jos Main Market Jos Main Market CONGO S a y

tat D Beach Rd

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GWOM n LEGEND: u RIKKOS

dquar c Hospital

D h

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Assembly o Mosque Church suburbs Neighbourhoods/ Built-up area Selected roads Junction Junction a d DUTSE UKU Rukuba Market Rukuba Market Tina Tina Eto Baba Junction II I IV III INTRODUCTION 15 A DEADLY CYCLE 16 harmonious communal relations. relations. communal harmonious life Until parks. the regime change in 1999, it also was for known relatively its andwild- waterfalls, spectacular hillsides, its for known are surroundings Its elites. andretired visitors foreign both attracted long andhas climate perate atem- offers Jos altitude, high its Given plains. the from arising formations rock gigantic with beauty, scenic isof region The lowlands. savannah into off falls plateau the andsouth-east, To plain. south the surrounding the over metres 1,000 than more rises that plateau amountainous on islocated Jos characteristics demographic and Spatial economic characteristics economic socio- and background Historical I. Congress was formed as a political party in opposition to the dominant dominant tothe inopposition party apolitical as formed was Congress of the Middle Belt emerged during the 1940s, when the United Middle Belt concept The Belt’. ‘Middle the as region totheir refer groups ethnic Christian smaller, largely the contrast, In north. the of part tobe states and surrounding Plateau the consider still in1967. states northerners Many federal into split was system regional The inKaduna. capital its with times, colonial during that emerged Region of the Northern part were historically states These states. the Yoruba include a sizeable Muslim minority. includeasizeableMuslim Yoruba the Christians, majority are they while country; the of south the dominate Igbo the and Yoruba n.d.). The (CIA, population country’s the of one-third roughly tute consti- together andFulani Hausa Muslim predominantly The cent). per (40 andChristians cent) per (50 Muslims between split evenly isalmost inhabitants 155 million approximately of population Nigeria’s south. andChristian north Muslim predominantly the of juncture the at country, the of centre inthe lies Jos North-Central Zone includes Benue, Kogi, Kwara, Nassarawa, Niger, and Plateau andPlateau Niger, Nassarawa, Kwara, Kogi, Benue, includes Zone North-Central the (Abuja), Territory Capital Federal tothe addition In zones. geopolitical six of one Zone, North-Central the of ispart State Plateau terms, administrative In A daytime view of Jos and the surrounding hillside, 2010. 2010. hillside, surrounding the and Jos of view A daytime 8

© Thomas Mecha © Thomas II I IV III HISTORICAL BACKGROUND AND SOCIO-ECONOMIC CHARACTERISTICSINTRODUCTION 17 A DEADLY CYCLE 18 Aﬁzere, the Igbo, the Yoruba, and the Hausa–Fulani. the Anaguta, the Berom, the are inJos groups mainethnic p.2). The 2009, (Blench, 40languages than more with communities smallethnic relatively of concentration ahigh hosts region 2007, The p.4). (Best, groups ethnic 58 than more with states, federal diverse most the of isone State Plateau p.53). 2008, (IPCR, states northern the by domination to political inresponse in1960, independence gained Nigeria after support widespread in the city refer to themselves as Jasawa (‘people of Jos’). The name is meant meant is name to the north. The Jos’). of (‘people Jasawa as to distinguish them the from Hausa–Fulani population in the states farther themselves to refer city the in dominantly Christian. Owing to their long residence in Jos, many Hausa–Fulani pre- andare inJos groups mainindigene the as recognized are and Aﬁzere Map 2 Map gained identity Belt Middle aseparate ideaof The Congress. People’s Northern routes often take them beyond Plateau State. The majority of the population population the of majority The State. Plateau beyond them take often routes grazing andtheir herders cattle remained mostly have Fulani The inJos. Hausa KADUNA KADUNA STATE STATE Bassa B NASSARAWA assa RIYOM NASARAWA STATE STATE

Riyom Riyom SOUTH SOUTH BASSA Plateau State, Nigeria JOS JOS JOS BARKIN Bokkos LADI BOKKOS NORTH NORTH 10 Bukuru JOS The term Jasawa is also used for political representation of the the of representation political for used isalso Jasawa term The Barkin Ladi Barkin Ladi QUA’AN PAN EAST MANGU JOS Angware Ba’ap Mangu Pankshin Pankshin PANKSHIN Shendam PLATEAU PLATEAU SHENDAM STATE STATE BAUCHI MIKANG STATE KANKE KANKE BAUCHI Kwali Yelwa LANGTANG LANGTANG NORTH NORTH Amper LANGTANG SOUTH Langtang Langtang Dengi 9 Wase KANAM The Berom, Anaguta, Berom, The Anaguta, LEGEND: WASE Bashar LGA HQ State capital Area (LGA) Local Government State boundary TARABA TARABA STATE STATE 5okm The Census of 2006 estimated the population of Jos North LGA at 429,300 429,300 at LGA North Jos of population the estimated 2006 of Census The centre. urban one into Bukuru with merged largely andhas North Jos beyond expanded has Jos of city The inBukuru. headquarters with LGA, South Jos and LGA North Jos into divided was 2). Map LGA Jos (see (LGAs) Areas ment served within the colonial administration. Others worked as craftsmen orin craftsmen as worked Others administration. colonial the within served Nigeria of south in the education aWestern hadreceived who Those period. same the during to Jos migrated also tribes smaller of andmembers Yoruba, Igbo, of numbers Significant mines. inthe worked that group ethnic numerous most the constituted Hausa p.6). The 2009, andRikko, (Dung-Gwom 40,000 exceeded population miner andthe Plateau the on built hadbeen ing camps min- 200 than more mid-1940s, the By Nigeria. allover from workers migrant attracted miningindustry The farmland. of destruction further toprevent tions miningopera- todisrupt attempted Berom the 1940s, the During Europeans. and migrants Nigerian of influx tothe hostile were groups indigene Some mining. intin interest little with farmers mostly of consisted Plateau the on tion popula- indigene The mining. tin of commencement the with established was 2007, p.17). Jos (Best, tonobody belonged that land’ ‘virgin on established of the Plateau. The Hausa–Fulani contest this claim and hold that the was city that the was city founded on land that belonged to them as the native people argue groups indigene andother Berom The in1915. founded officially was Jos background Historical p.6). 2011, (Higazi, movements reform Muslim attracted andhas orthodoxies traditional Muslim established more lacks it centres, urban northern tothe proximity inclose city young arelatively As societies. missionary several of headquarters African West the housed even and Nigeria of north entire the for activities missionary Christian for location animportant was It organizations. andIslamic Christian several of quarters head- the housed long has city hub.The andhighway amajorrail as served also Jos ago, Decades country. the of andsouth north the between centre acommunication as served long has Jos position, strategic city’s the Given 5). p. 2009, Rikko, and (Dung-Gwom plex com- urban Jos–Bukuru the for inhabitants million one than more at number 2006). the A (Nigeria, recent more estimateputs respectively inhabitants, and85,602 306,716 with populated, less were East andJos South Jos people. Govern- ismadeupof17 Local State Plateau 2006). (Nigeria, State Plateau for 3,178,712 of population atotal recorded 2006 of Census Nigerian The majority. the constitute Fulani lacking (HRW, 2001, p. 5). Within the centre of metropolitan Jos, Muslim Hausa– are breakdowns religious accurate although isChristian, State in Plateau 11 II I IV III HISTORICAL BACKGROUND AND SOCIO-ECONOMIC CHARACTERISTICSINTRODUCTION 19 A DEADLY CYCLE 20 influence of the jihad movement and emirs came to reign in Wase andDengi. inWase toreign came andemirs jihadmovement the of influence the under came State Plateau of lowlands the Only rule. colonial and after during toChristianity, turned andlater animist remained thus Belt’ ‘Middle at the mountains surrounding the Jos Plateau. Most of the ethnic groups of the the of groups ethnic the of Most Plateau. Jos the surrounding mountains the at stopped was jihadexpansion the that out point Christians palpable. remains movement danFodio the of legacy the State, Plateau p. 70). contemporary In 2005, (Paden, system emirate the with experience haddirect states federal 36 current the of Fourteen emirates. 30 about andcomprised Africa colonial inpre- entities political largest the of one was Caliphate (1754–1817). The UsmandanFodio of movement reform Islamic the during emerged It Nigeria. northern incontemporary in1804 established hadbeen which Caliphate Sokoto the of part was Emirate Bauchi The Jos. toadminister Emirate Bauchi bouring neigh- the of structures political the on relied initially rule colonial British 1967, (Plotnicov, 1930 and1960 p.36). between steadily grew population andthe rapidly expanded city the miningactivities, tothe Owing commerce. Source: adapted from a map by Jasper Dung, University of Jos Department of Geography and Planning Planning and Geography of Department Jos of University Dung, Jasper by amap from adapted Source: Map 3 Map originally title The community. their Jos) of torepresent (Chief Jos’ ‘Sarkin of title tothe members their of one elected to1952 they 1914 From area. rural surrounding andthe inJos communities inself-governing settled Hausa The and the Oklahoma State University Department of Geography of Department University State Oklahoma the and BENIN OGUN O LAGOS Guinea OYO Y O 200km Gulf KEBBI KEBBI

of Present-day Nigeria Present-day OSUN K KWARA W ONDO ONDO Ilorin

NIGER SOKOTO ARA

NIGERIA

EKITI N

B BAYELSA

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Y e r ZAM ZAMFARA ELSA DELTA EDO F ARA RIVERS RIVERS K KOGI

g OGI Ni er Minna TERR. TERR. FE FED. C CAP. Lokoja IMO K KATSINA A D NIGER A P . . TSI KADUNA N Abuja NASSARAWA N A ASSAR BENUE KANO Lafia Lafia Makurdi A W Jos A JIGAWA PLATEAU BAUCHI B A UCHI ANAMBRA CROSS RIVER EBONYI ENUGU AKWA IBOM ABIA TARABA

B GOMBE e GOMBE n u e YOBE A ADAMAWA D LEGEND: AM A W CAMEROON A region boundaries Western andEastern Old Northern, geo-political zone North-Central State capital Capital city State boundary boundary International BORNO BORNO Chad Lake CHAD

The country’s three regions were split into 12 states in 1967. of states number 12 into split The were regions three country’s The State. Plateau of boundaries the of andadjustments changes toseveral led This emerged. structure federalist Nigerian the 1990s, tothe 1960s the From pp.2–4). 2003b, (Blench, 1990s late inthe only practices farming adopted modernized Some developments. these slow to recognize which was population, indigene the over advantage economic arelative at them placed began gardening during this period. The Hausa–Fulani’s vast trade networks and land bought also herders cattle Fulani Some colonialism. of ending the (Plotnicov, 1967,(Plotnicov, p.42). spot’ trouble apotential considered be always must population polyglot its ‘with city the that in1954 noted administration colonial The privileges. their groups’ each within over ward and preserving fought representation totribal proportional were members Elected 1950s. the during ineffective Council Town Jos the rendered This community. own their for representation andpolitical traditional of privilege the claimed Hausa The Jos. Sarkin the of position the over Hausa the with also but andAfizere, Anaguta the with what is now Plateau State commenced in late 19th century and intensified with with andintensified century 19th inlate commenced State Plateau isnow what to adopt dry-seas Fulani first the were capital city of Abuja, vegetable farming became profitable. very The Hausa– the of creation andthe in Jos population expatriate the of expansion the With 1967, pp.36–39). (Plotnicov, regions Nigerian other with city the connecting infrastructure the andneglected Jos from away developments andother industrial, commercial, diverted Region Northern the of party ruling the response, In party. sition oppo- the of infavour voted hadrepeatedly city The Region. Northern the of part southern the within lay Jos period, this During facilities. education higher and schools of range andawide codes, andsanitary housing improved roads, andpaved service, telephone facilities, care health includinggood amenities, urban of range awide was there inJos, Europeans of number large tothe Owing inNigeria. city cosmopolitan most the was Jos in1960, independence Upon to the Berom. The appointment of a Berom to the Gbong Gwom led to tensions totensions led Gwom Gbong tothe aBerom of appointment The Berom. to the transferred gradually was power political Authority, Native andBerom Council Tribal Berom the of establishment the Following installed. was Jos, Gwom Gbong the Jos, of ruler paramount traditional the of 1947,In institution the 1950s. early the until population indigenous the for reach beyond remained control Administrative town. the of affairs everyday the tomanage came Jos Sarkin different ten years, the Over workers. migrant Hausa for mainly town native andthe Europeans, andother clerks Nigerian southern educated ship for town- the foreigners, andother Europeans for Areas Reserved Government the into divided was Jos of city the rule, town’. British Under ‘native tothe referred 13

on farming. The Fulani movement into The on farming. II I IV III HISTORICAL BACKGROUND AND SOCIO-ECONOMIC CHARACTERISTICSINTRODUCTION 21 A DEADLY CYCLE 22 to this day. to this ispresent rulers traditional with organization clan acomplex areas, rural In andintegration. exchange social of localities as served associations ethnic as well as andmosques 2007, Churches p.614). (Last, migrants of number alarge with population toanurban networks inproviding institutions religious of significance tothe pointed has Last activities. commercial andother trade in strong traditionally were andHausa Yoruba, Igbo, because city inthe life maintained a sense of closure of asense maintained Hausa the traditions, Muslim linewith In LGA. North inJos representation Anaguta, and Afizere and the Hausa–Fulani in their over struggle political Berom, the between boundaries the reinforces also It confrontations. national and regional tobroader tensions local linking layer, addsanother dimension religious The State. inPlateau relations inter-communal characterized long have divide indigene–settler the along groups ethnic Tensions the among 15). p. 2011, (Higazi, riots 2001 inthe than mobs andBerom Hausa by perpetrated easterners andother Igbo the against pogroms 1966 inthe died people more notes, Higazi As conflict. violent from free isnot history its regions, neighbouring ulation (Plotnicov, 1967, p. 61). The migrants also dominated the economic economic the dominated also 1967, (Plotnicov, migrants ulation p.61). The pop- city cent ofthe per two than made upless indigenes the while migrants by dominated was Jos period post-colonial andearly colonial the During characteristics economic and Social State in 1996 further reduced Plateau State insize. State Plateau reduced further in1996 State Nassarawa neighbouring of creation The in1976. State Benue–Plateau former the of out carved was State Plateau to36. sinceincreased has states federal this (HRW, 2001; 2011). 2001; (HRW, this demonstrate amply attacks violent during faiths different of neighbours their hiding andprotecting people of testimonies many The decades. over relations inter-communal good enjoyed families andmixed Muslim, Christian, many that noted be also should it tensions, social general these Despite 2008). (Griswold, back’ brought forcibly be man‘must aMuslim with caught women that todeclare as far so went pastors Some violence. vigilante occasional andsparked boundaries religious established newly the toenforce men young of patrols encouraged positions Such men. Muslim marrying from women prohibited explicitly pastors Christian areas, some In violence. communal of onset the with increased marriages inter-religious over tensions Social p.4). 2006, (Danfulani, day tothis continues that apractice Christians, marry to forbidden often were women Muslim meanwhile, toIslam; had converted who women andindigene men Muslim between mostly occurred marriage Inter- communities. indigene the among resentment caused approach This 15 Although Plateau State was long considered more peaceful than than peaceful more considered long was State Plateau Although 16 and largely viewed Christians as ‘infidels’. ‘infidels’. as Christians viewed andlargely 14

by deterring tourists from visiting the Plateau’s resorts and wild parks. parks. andwild resorts Plateau’s the visiting from tourists deterring by situation economic the worsened also conﬂict communal protracted The p. 5). 2011, employment people (Fwatshak, mainly where state’ seek government sion (Blench, 2003b, p. 2). Plateau state is often described as a ‘civil service service a‘civil as described isoften state p.2). 2003b, Plateau (Blench, sion the Sub-Saharan African average (UNDP, n.d.). average African Sub-Saharan the above slightly andstood countries 169 of out 142 ranked was it writing, this At indicators. humandevelopment its on stagnated has awhole as Nigeria 2010). andYila, Thapa 2005; andAlexander, (Pasquini production agricultural for consequences negative with erosion, soil signiﬁcant from suffers mines the around land the of one-third about Plateau: the of parts affected badly has mining Tin opportunities. employment limited isoffers there industry little The agriculture. on rural Plateau State’s based been economylargely has mines, tin the of closing Sincethe Nigeria. within zone poor arather generally 17 Large numbers of cattle have caused further degradation andero- degradation further caused have cattle of numbers Large

The ‘MiddleThe region is Belt’ II I IV III HISTORICAL BACKGROUND AND SOCIO-ECONOMIC CHARACTERISTICSINTRODUCTION 23 A DEADLY CYCLE 24 legacy, although most people in Jos speak Hausa fluently. fluently. Hausa speak inJos people most although legacy, Hausa the toerase andstreets areas torename indigenes the among trend the in findsexpression also Jos of history 2007, p.19). contested (Best, The Jos around area plateau high the for administration aseparate introduced British 1926 In the Jos. toadminister Emirate Bauchi the of structures the on relied initially rule indirect of policy British the above, noted As jihadexpansion. the resisted actively people plateau because jihadmovement danFodio the by conquered never was plateau high the that emphasize indigenes The Emirate. Bauchi the under tobe used today State isPlateau what of parts that out point also leaders 2007). Jasawa (Mohammed, township inthe group ethnic to demonstrate that back then the Hausa constituted by far the most numerous tion circulating among the Hausa–Fulani cites the 1930 Jos Township census publica- Arecent city. amodern into it andnurtured Jos founded tohave claim leaders argue that there was no Jos when they arrived on the Plateau. They They Plateau. the on arrived they when Jos no was there that argue leaders ofcity Jos, to indigene and rights, to political representation. Hausa–Fulani tothe claim their tojustify records tohistorical point selectively sides Both claims political and interpretations historical Competing Gen. Ibrahim Babangida, the Hausa–Fulani actively lobbied for the estab- of administration military the Under decades. two least at back dates Fulani The contemporary political conflict the between indigenes and the Hausa– LGA North Jos of creation The ries made the Berom, Anaguta, and Afizere minorities within Jos North LGA. LGA. North Jos within minorities andAfizere Anaguta, Berom, made the ries bounda- new The LGA. North Jos of creation the with granted was request their 1991, In predominant. be would they inwhich government alocal of lishment not belong’ (Danfulani, 2006, p. 1). 2006, (Danfulani, not belong’ ‘does who acategory as ‘other’ the stereotype or stigmatise describe, to Nigeria in daily used are others many [. ..]among ‘non-indigene’ ‘indigene’, ‘migrant’, ‘immigrant’, ‘non-squatter’, ‘squatter’, element’, ‘stranger foreigner’, ‘native ‘foreigner’, community’, ‘host ‘non-native’, ‘native’, ‘settler’, as such Labels violent conflict II. Root and proximate causes ofthe claim indigene rights there. Human Rights Watch refers to such settlers as as tosuchsettlers refers Watch Rights Human there. rights indigene claim Fulani settlers in Plateau State have no ancestors in these states and cannot andcannot states inthese ancestors no have State inPlateau settlers Fulani Although the Hausa–Fulani dominate the Muslim northern states, many Hausa– amajority. constitute would group ethnic their where toaplace origins their back trace andcannot generations several for localities their within lived have settlers many however, practice, In against. citizen would discriminated be no therefore, theory, In there. certificate an indigene anddemand origin’ of tohis‘place return can settler any that claim rights indigene of Proponents ago. generations there settled community their that fact the despite status, indigene toreceive them for impossible almost become has it 1990s early sincethe that complains population Jasawa The networks. patronage existing erodes offices political from elite group’s one of exclusion Long-term benefits. andeducational economic, political, toimportant islinked since it especially contested, highly is therefore status indigene The groups. religious and ethnic favoured totheir certificates indigene of issuing the over decide authorities government Local settlers. non-indigene for perpetuated is thus representation political of lack The service. civil the into recruited be cannot and fees, anduniversity school higher pay scholarships, university from L andeven states within indigenes the favour to continue regulations strong Nevertheless, orreligion. ethnicity on based citizens against discriminating from government the andprohibits country the within anywhere tosettle right the citizen every grants constitution Nigeria’s Citizenship and indigene rights population Hausa tothe anLGA over control political full togive strategy ate adeliber- as LGAs andSouth North Jos into LGA oldJos the of split the view They toit. consented hadnot they andthat consulted been hadnot they that arguing North, Jos of creation the protested vehemently groups three The tained that the position should go to an indigene. Four people were killed 2007, pp.54–55). (Best, destroyed killed were andmosque school were people Four anIslamic as well as areas market indigene. several of an andparts to protests the during go should position the that tained main- They appointment. the protested strongly groups indigene and other Berom The Council. Government Local North Jos the of chairman as candidate aHausa of appointment the in1994 over occurred crisis minor Afirst genes. indi- andthe Hausa the between tensions strong by accompanied been have appointments andpolitical elections LGA, North Jos of creation Since the Jos. of Gwom leader,Gbong the traditional indigene the of palace the suchas offices, andtraditional mainpolitical the as well as Jos of centre commercial the comprises LGA North 2007, Jos pp.51–53). (Best, GAs. Non-indigenes are excluded excluded are Non-indigenes GAs. 18 II I IV III ROOT AND PROXIMATE CAUSES OF THE VIOLENT CONFLICT 25 A DEADLY CYCLE 26 2006, p. 42). Indigene politicians add that the problem is one of assimila- of isone problem the addthat politicians p.42). Indigene 2006, (HRW, non-indigene remain would they years, 1,000 than more for State Plateau in hadbeen Hausa ifthe even that stated leader Berom traditional the later, years 2007, Afew p.35). (Best, andAfizere’ Anaguta, Berom, the by inhabited andisindigenously JERUSALEM isour Jos but land, Berom on isJos only ‘not that promise over the Hausa–Fulani settler status. In 2001, Berom elders stated tocom- willing not are they that andagain time reiterated have elders Berom same the during there moved ancestors Their LGA. North inJos ‘settlers’ also are communities andYoruba Igbo the of Christians many However, service. civil status in another state is of little use for employment within the Plateau State indigene there, certificates receive can ifthey even But orBauchi. Kano from (HRW, 2006, p. 38). Many Hausa–Fulani are now seeking to obtain certificates forces police orthe military, the service, civil inthe orjobs education higher to access no andhave disadvantaged gravely are who citizens’ ‘stateless Jasawa problem’ (Ostien, 2009, p. 11). A Muslim elder in Jos stated that if a a if removed. be would State inPlateau conflict that violent for potential stated Jos in elder Muslim the of cent per 95 A rights, indigene over 11). conflict tothe found be could p. solution 2009, (Ostien, problem’ Jasawa isa problem settler city’s ‘the that concludes Ostien administration. military former the andunder British the under offices political held elite Jasawa the contrast, In city. the of politics inthe dominant been never andhave rights time period as the Hausa–Fulani. groups These settler do not claim indigene apart. Indigene status is an important tool in the politics of identity and label- and out. isleft who identity and belongs of who of politics the boundaries the in mark to applied are tool history local of interpretations Differing ling. important an is status Indigene apart. country the tear to threatens zones geo-political six all in non-indigenes against Source: discrimination the groups, ethnic 250 than more of acountry Within federation. the of part another in citizens’ ‘second-class becoming risk origin of state their leave who Those residency. over descent local privileges constitution The crisis. or an citizenship indigene face federation Nigerian of the states Most State. to Plateau peculiar is in no way rights and indigene citizenship over conflict The B ox 1 domiciles in a state other than his own (Ojukwu and Onifade, 2010, p. 176). p. 2010, Onifade, and (Ojukwu own his than other astate in domiciles or resides one long how for matter no [...], origin of state his in only citizen Nigerian a is one practice, in But origin. of places their in reside they not or whether and birth their of circumstances the matter no equal are citizens Nigerian all principle, In

Golwa and Ojiji (2008) Ojiji and Golwa Nigeria’s citizenship crisis crisis citizenship Nigeria’s 20

19 against the Muslim Fulani, who responded with reprisal attacks. reprisal with responded who Fulani, Muslim the against anger their turned communities village Some tensions. aggravated further practice This burial. for village home totheir back corpses brought Christians many in2001, inJos riot first the p.9). After 2005, (HRW, villages Christian the mostly on of counter-attacks with responded who Fulani, the from stolen were rustling to rise gave claims cattle of numbers Large communities. Fulani on These andattacks cattle valuable population. indigene the of land the on tograze cattle their allowing of accused been have Fulani pastoral The 2003b, pp. 4–10). (Blench, andherders farmers between interaction the andchanged stock live- their for towater access herders’ cattle the reduced farming of increase The contested. became andgrazing farming for land decades, past the over production agricultural of expansion the Yet means. with toviolent recourse having without tensions most settled leaders community local Indeed, states. neighbouring insome as high as levels reached hadnot State inPlateau herders and farmers between conflicts crisis, 2001 the Before times. colonial during reported already were land andgrazing farming over confrontations violent Sporadic crisis. 2001 September the before long inJos existed conflicts Land conflicts land Rural andWase. Yelwa, Namu, suchas State Plateau of towns smaller within sincereverberated has control andpolitical rights indigene to claims over discourse Urban p.24). 2009, (Ostien, 2008 28November of unrest Jos the into Inquiry of Commission Judicial Ajibola Bola Prince to the complaint official of aletter andsent toBauchi’ out them to‘chase intended he that complained Afizeres office, assumed Jang After Jang. Jonah candidate (PDP) Party Democratic People’s against elections local 2008 tothe lead-up inthe Jasawa the with hadsided Afizere The manipulated. are indigeneity of notions easily how underline Afizere andthe Berom the between tensions recent Indeed, andprivileges. Jos of ownership the over themselves among fighting be would andAfizere Anaguta, Berom, the enemy, acommon as Fulani However, several respondents also stated that if it were not for the Hausa– control. political toBerom submission demanding effectively thus pp.42–43), 2006, (HRW, settlers as themselves identify they Berom, as themselves identify not do Hausa the as long as tion: flict isflict ongoing. con- violent p.9). The 2005, (HRW, 2004 and May 2001 September between cows 160,000 than and more members tribe 1,800 least at lost tohave claim 21

22 The Fulani The II I IV III ROOT AND PROXIMATE CAUSES OF THE VIOLENT CONFLICT 27 A DEADLY CYCLE 28 are also available to form and train militias based on existing vigilante groups. groups. vigilante existing on based militias andtrain toform available also are individuals These toweapons. access with ex-soldiers of numbers large host (IPCR, 2008, p. 54). Several states, such as Benue and Plateau, are reported to to reported are andPlateau, Benue suchas states, Several p.54). 2008, (IPCR, representation political andover rights andgrazing land over conflicts rural with plagued zone’ conflict isa‘hyperactive North-Central The Plateau. the surrounding states Belt’ ‘Middle inthe isendemic issue indigene–settler The regionalThe dimension ofthe Jos crisis of sharia criminal law, with at least 2,000 people having been killed. been having people 2,000 least at with law, criminal sharia of introduction the over andChristians Muslims between violence communal massive suffered city Kaduna 2000, In andChristians. Muslims between tions confronta- violent by infected also are states andBauchi Kaduna addition, In State. Plateau for isworrisome states inneighbouring hire for andthugs tias mili- of presence p.129). The 2003, (IPCR, years several for trend an alarming as recognized been has Zone North-Central inthe arms of proliferation The The Shere Hills landscape near Jos. Jos. near landscape Hills Shere The © Jana Krause © Jana 23 Smaller Smaller II I IV III ROOT AND PROXIMATE CAUSES OF THE VIOLENT CONFLICT 29 A DEADLY CYCLE 30 tions of politicians in Maiduguri. inMaiduguri. politicians of tions andassassina- inAbuja, Nations United the of headquarters the of bombing including the attacks, bomb several with headlines news inthe remained Haram 2011 In Boko inMaiduguri. achurch at Christians other and several apastor killed Islamists alleged 30 some Eve2010 Christmas On targeted. between clashes during sincebeen killed have worship of places Christian forces. were andsecurity sect the people of hundreds when 2009, July in re-emergence of Boko the Haram re-emergence the by plagued been has Borno State. inBorno Maiduguri of town northern inthe churches on Islamists extremist by attacks alongside occurred Jos in bombings Christmas 2010 The development. regional significant another isyet states northern inthe fundamentalists militant of emergence The moment. the at agenda the on isnot which constitution, Nigerian tothe anamendment require would solution national a that know they However, federation. the throughout communities ethnic other by enjoyed widely privileges on tocompromise first the be not will they that argue They problem. tothe solution anational demand inJos sentatives was that contest World’ ‘Miss the over time this in2002, again place took riots to reprisal attacks following violence in Plateau State. Other indigene repre- indigene Other State. inPlateau violence following attacks to reprisal and discrimination of forms tomany subjected been have inKano Christians p.178). 2010, andOnifade, (Ojukwu inKano’ space political any dominated never non-indigenes that toensure just areas dominated Hausa at andplaced divided ‘were but area government alocal granted been never have there Non-Hausa rights. indigene isdenied that population Christian asignificant hosts Kano of city ancient the instance, For inJos. community Jasawa the of exclusion inpolitical wrong no see andtherefore states northern Muslim-dominated in Christians fellow against discrimination tothe point inJos Christians Many validity. their toassess isdifficult it State, Plateau in clashes toviolent madesubsequent ofarrests smallnumber the Given widespread. very are accounts andNiger. These Chad from as well as north, farther states andother Bauchi from mercenaries receiving of accused quently isfre- inJos community Muslim 2011b). The (BBC, killed were and 16people attacked was village aChristian-dominated 2011, inMay instance, For nities. commu- inrural dimensions religious with clashes by rocked been repeatedly has Bauchi 2011. inApril protests Muslim by hit badly also was State Bauchi arrangement. separated this of fragility the demonstrated riots 2011 post-election April the but since2002, peaceful remained has city Kaduna part. northern andaMuslim southern a Christian into segregated islargely today city the aresult, As inNigeria. place totake set 24 sect despite sect a major crackdown security have Nigeria, they have Africa.’ have they Nigeria, have ifthey And Nigeria. have they Jos, have Muslims the ‘If stated: respondents Christian Several continent. African the on influence Islamic and expanding Nigeria over control political winning towards step afirst as is portrayed scenario This awhole. as State Plateau control soon will they LGA, North Jos over control win ifMuslims that fear They politics. andnational regional with interlinked become have conflict Jos the of perceptions Christians, Among inJos. communities religious between tensions exacerbating andatrocities, discrimination tation in Jos. Generally, religion has become entrenched in Nigerian politics politics inNigerian entrenched become has religion Generally, inJos. tation confron- the of dimensions religious tothe contributed have factors Several religiousThe dimension contemporary political crisis in Jos into lesser account. lesser into inJos crisis political contemporary the of causes the taking Plateau, of mountains the on toahalt came which jihad, danFodio 19th-century the of extension adirect as LGA North Jos over situation. current the to explain and‘terrorists’ ‘jihad’ terms the and journalists—invoke academics, leaders, religious high-level them Christians—among many Still, dimensions. international of confrontation areligious as LGA North inJos pation partici- political over conflict local the portray that togeneralizations credence peace-building, stated subsequent to the 2008 riot: riot: 2008 tothe subsequent stated peace-building, ininter-faith role active hisvery for known Kaigama, Ignatius Archbishop (CAN), Nigeria of Association Christian State Plateau the of chairman former the example, For disputes. election after institutions political than rather gious reli- of destruction tothe pointed They confrontation. religious to abroader conflict Jos the linked leaders Christian many crisis, 2008 tothe response In Kano and Bauchi, into Plateau State. Plateau into andBauchi, Kano suchas states, northern the from out tomove Christians of number tive asubstan- led development This andKaduna. Kano of cities inthe violence inter-religious indeadly resulted sharia over Disputes cities. in northern minorities Christian against anddiscrimination life protest public of Islamization major provoked 2001 and aprogressive as 2000 perceived they towhat in objected Many Christians. from states northern 12 in code criminal sharia the of introduction the Specifically, inJos. communities religious the between trust eroded further which states, innorthern Christians and Muslims between conflicts violent by followed was republic fourth the of birth The fervour. anew factor religious the lent in 1999 change regime National pp.2–3). 1998, (Falola, lines religious along tovote followers their urging leaders andreligious politicians both with mid-1970s, since the 27 Several Christian representatives and NGOs understand the struggle struggle the understand andNGOs representatives Christian Several 26 Other Christian respondents refused to give togive refused respondents Christian Other 25 They brought with them stories of stories them with brought They 28

II I IV III ROOT AND PROXIMATE CAUSES OF THE VIOLENT CONFLICT 31 A DEADLY CYCLE 32 election by a clear margin. aclearmargin. by election the won Jang Governor voters. andindigene Christian among chances her damaged inJos Jasawa the with Tallen’s that cooperation confirmed pattern voting likely. The isvery fabrication unclear, deliberate remains but origin Its message. text the for responsibility confirmed not has Ulama of Council The that she was an instrument within the collective Hausa aspirations to rule Nigeria: claiming inJos around sent were messages text vote, the Yet before Jang. days Jonah Governor against race inher support Jasawa TallenPauline hadsecured Vice-Governor Former more. once surfaced conflict Jos the of framing regional and religious the elections, gubernatorial for 2011 campaigns the During stated: they Ummah, Muslim North Jos the nameof the In crisis. 2008 the of framing religious the protested vehemently inJos leadership Muslim The ‘To all Muslims: we must reclaim Kaduna, install a Muslim governor in Taraba, governor a Muslim install Kaduna, reclaim we‘To must all Muslims: ( elections of guise the under act[s] pre-meditated but political, not was it premises and of property innocent civilians destroyed? We strongly feel that Nigeria. Council of Ulama, Northern Nigeria’ (Owuamanam, 2011). (Owuamanam, Nigeria’ Council Northern of Ulama, Nigeria. Central capture Wemust Plateau. in change) of weapon anecessary she’s but instal in Benue, governor aplant deputy business the were Why conflict? apolitical were it if attacked not offices party political and politicians were Why killed? and attacked Clergy and churches were why are minds our bog that questions The executed. and planned carefully were attacks The killed. Clergy and faithful our of some and attacked were property and churches our of some way the at surprised Wewere so. isnot it indications all from Muslimall, regardless North Ummah, of faith, were (Jos destroyed 2009a). of needs common the serve that places other and markets houses, Residential Schools, also so mayhem, the in destroyed were Churches and Mosques that goals. socio-political attaining for vehicle as keep to or reasons selfish for manipulate and power political capture to groups ethnic by conclusion; struggle the to point only one inevitable adduced by all parties far so reason the and actors principal the circumstances, the antecedents, its ramifications; all in ethno-political was Jos in violence 2008 November The but political, was it Wethought Jos. in events of turn the by aback taken We were This Day , 2008).

l a woman as governor (which is Haram isHaram (which governor as l awoman

[. . .] We cannot deny the fact fact the deny [. ..]Wecannot for fear of being outnumbered by Christian or Muslim armed mobs. armed orMuslim Christian by outnumbered being of fear for areas poorest the into deeply too toenter unwilling are andmilitary police the among Many topolice. difficult are slumareas the out, breaks fighting Once through. get barely can amotorbike that narrow so often main streets the behind pathways with populated, densely are areas central poor The neighbourhoods. these of parts insegregated live mostly Christians remaining The and2010. in2008 violence recent sincethe Muslim predominantly become have but mixed tobe used Gwom andNassarawa Kazaure today. Ali visible remains destruction extreme the riots; 2008 the during ground tothe razed mostly was neighbourhood, aChristian Congo-Russia, 2001. Igbo—after Christian—mainly exclusively became Apata side, other the On peaceful. remained therefore and has riots 2001 sincethe Muslim exclusively become has Rogo, Angwan Jos, of University the around settlement The andRikkos. Kazaure, Ali Congo-Russia, latter years of the crisis. Parts of the large neighbourhood of Tudun of Wada neighbourhood large the of Parts crisis. the of years latter the during violence experienced andBukuru Jos between settlements mixed of Anumber 2010. inJanuary hit badly particularly was It decade. past the over aflashpoint been also has LGA, South Jos of centre urban the Bukuru, are the large central neighbourhoods Nassarawa Gwom (including Dutse Uku), Uku), Dutse (including Gwom Nassarawa neighbourhoods central large the are violence by affected most areas The Dilimi. of streets market andthe building, market burnt-out the around markets the area, terminus the around centre commercial city’s includethe These 4). Map (see LGA North Jos of bourhoods neigh- poor populated densely inthe lies violence of epicentre urban The Jos North and Bukuru. These middle-class settlements include State and include State settlements middle-class These andBukuru. North Jos between located are Areas Reserved Government former populated Sparsely Road. Airport Old at barracks army tothe main road the via toflee managed population Muslim the of Most 2010. inJanuary Jos Anglo andlooted attacked Kufang of village Christian neighbouring the from groups youth However, street. the topatrol meant were groups youth mixed and peace topreserve hadagreed leaders andreligious Elders 2010. January until peaceful toremain managed Jos Anglo Mixed killed. Muslims of numbers large with and2010, in2008 fighting massive saw but crisis 2001 the escaped Plateau State State Plateau III. Violent events in Jos and rural 29

II I IV III VIOLENT EVENTS IN JOS AND RURAL PLATEAU STATE 33 A DEADLY CYCLE 34 Map 4 Map STATE LOW STATE LOW LOW COST LOW COST FEDERAL FEDERAL COST COST 1km Plateau State Government House/Office

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RUKUBA d RUKUBA RUKUBA

Assembly o Junction Junction a d DUTSE DUTSE UKU UKU Ruk Rukuba Market Tina Tina uba M Eto Baba Junction arket Angwan Rogo, Bauchi Road, Congo-Russia, Dogon Dutse, Gangare, Nassarawa, Nassarawa, Gangare, Dutse, Dogon Congo-Russia, Road, Bauchi Rogo, Angwan Rimi, includingAngwan North, inJos areas central from permanently non-Hausa Many indigenes accuse the Hausa–Fulani population of aiming to displace the leave the state entirely. state the leave or centre, city congested already the into move andthus city the of areas outer out entirely Plateau from State. Many Hausa–Fulani no longer feel safe in the them todrive want politicians indigene that claim inturn, Jasawa, The margin. awide by LGA North Jos contested highly the of elections future win would displacementand Rikkos. This strategic would ensure candidates that Jasawa 4). 4andMap Box (see isDadinKowa to date peaceful entirely remained has that andBukuru LGA North Jos between hood According to testimonies collected by Human Rights Watch shortly after the the after shortly Watch Rights Human by collected totestimonies According fighting. violent into turn easily would provocations where aplace therefore was neighbourhood Congo-Russia Christian predominantly to the entrance the at mosque 2007, The pp.66–67). (Best, years several for had existed prayers Friday during street the of blocking Tensions the over congregation. the through topass tried woman aChristian when out broke Abrawl prayers. Friday during blocked hadbeen Amainstreet neighbourhoods. dominated Muslim- by surrounded area poor acentral inCongo-Russia, out broke Fighting ventive measures. pre- significant any undertake didnot government the NGOs, several from andwarnings clearindicators p.6). Despite 2001, (HRW, erupted violence the before State Plateau of governor tothe exchanges andwritten memos threatening clearly hadsent association youth Jasawa andthe youths Berom the that reported Watch Rights Human appointment. the protested strongly indigenes the Nevertheless, Obasanjo. Olusegun of presidency the under government federal the by appointed was Coordinator Eradication Poverty however, time, National This new the to public office. of aappointment Jasawa the over aconflict as began crisis 2001 the 1994 troubles, unlike the Not crisis 2001 The Rayfield. of outskirts the on area apoor Adiko, inMai place took families Muslim of Killings violence. toavoid agreed leaders andcommunity houses, class middle- tomany isavailable security private present, were forces Security place. took fighting large-scale no where andRayfield, Rantya, Cost, Low Federal people off if you catch any of them’ (a Jos resident, quoted in HRW, 2001, p. 14). p.14). 2001, HRW, in quoted resident, (a Jos them’ of any catch you if off people these ‘Finish saying: loudspeaker, mosque the on announcement an I heard 30 The only religiously and also socio-economically mixed neighbour- mixed socio-economically andalso religiously only The II I IV III VIOLENT EVENTS IN JOS AND RURAL PLATEAU STATE 35 A DEADLY CYCLE 36 ‘new Jerusalem’ (Danfulani and Fwatshak, 2002, p.253). 2002, andFwatshak, (Danfulani Jerusalem’ ‘new andthe line’ ‘sharia the as identified strongholds the with Jos, of centre city guns’), and locally madeguns. andlocally guns’), (‘Dane firearms obsolete pistols, shotguns, and double-barrel single- rifles, 4 Mark G3 rifles, guns, andsub-machine machineguns AK-47s, included used weapon of maintypes The pp.3–4). 2008, (Higazi, bush’ the with arity andfamili- knowledge local excellent with groups well-armed mobile, highly small, generally were mainprotagonists ‘the toHigazi, According Wase. lating iso- andLangtang, Wase between road the toblock managed groups militia years two almost for example, For lowlands. in the violence of escalation the during absent largely been tohave appear forces security state The groups. militia well-armed by ordestroyed damaged, attacked, hadbeen villages 100 than more 2004, By lines. andreligious ethnic along mobilization facilitated groups vigilante local of presence The control. andpolitical boundaries trict dis- over conflict inopen resulted districts new of creation The in Shendam. Yelwa of town inthe crisis toapolitical subsequent out broke clashes Violent the 2011). Given (Krause, and2004 2002 years the between people 2,000 and 1,000 between killed fighting Rural clashes. fewer experienced LGAs andPankshin Mikang, Kanke, Kanam, suchas areas Other LGAs. and South North andLangtang Wase, Shendam, were hit Worst violence. of brunt the bore State Plateau of lowlands southern The andfarmers. herders between erupted clashes Numerous areas. rural into over spilled violence riots, 2001 the After killings 2002–04 The and the state ofemergency communities. Hausa–Fulani have been threatened and are not entirely safe within their andChristian indigenes Muslim Yet both identity. ethnic over decisive been has identity religious selection, target of terms In pp.10–16). 2001, (HRW, crisis the during scores private tosettle opportunity the took neighbours as individuals of targeting selected tothe point testimonies Many groups. both between abattleground became Kazaure Ali of neighbourhood mixed andthe Apata of out anddriven attacked were Muslims Muslim. exclusively become has settlement entire the Since then Rogo. toAngwan next area, university the around attacked were p.10). Christians 2001, (HRW, night’ the throughout toprayer calls Muslim were andthere ringing were bells ‘Church day: first the from clashes violent the underlined dimension religious A strong p.9). 2001, (HRW, lines front improvised along place took Fighting andguns. machetes, sticks, arrows, included These weapons. homemade with eachother faced youths andMuslim Christian riot, poor accessibility of rural villages, exact numbers are impossible toobtain. impossible are numbers exact villages, rural of accessibility poor 31 The 2001 crisis resulted in religious segregation within the the within segregation inreligious resulted crisis 2001 The 33 32 2005, p. 60). p. 2005, (HRW, incidental’ was [. ..] looting to kill out just were ‘they time this vated, moti- religiously than economically more been have might violence when in Kano, violence of outbreaks unlike previous that, commented journalist AMuslim 2005). (HRW, inKano lives Christian 200 least at claimed killings Reprisal neighbourhood. immediate the from Christians only involve did not and andcoordinated planned thoroughly was attack The inYelwa. Muslims 700 about killed groups well-armed fierce: was later months two groups tian Chris- from retaliation The andfirearms. machetes with victims their killed and slogans, religious shouting inpick-up trucks, arrived attackers The compound. achurch within killed were them of Many Yelwa. of small town inthe Christians 75 least at killed Muslims armed 2004, February 24 on that found Watch Rights Human aninvestigation, conducted Having Yelwa. in groups militia Christian by attacks inmassive culminated killings The 5 Map KADUNA KADUNA STATE STATE Bassa B NASSARAWA NASSARAWA assa RIYOM STATE STATE

Riyom Riyom SOUTH SOUTH BASSA Plateau State: the spread of violence of spread the State: Plateau JOS JOS JOJOS S BARKIN Bokkos LADI BOKKOS NORTH NORTH BukurBukuru JOS Barkin La Barkin Ladi u QUA’AN PAN EAST MANGU JOS di Angware

Ba’ap Mangu Pankshin Pankshin PANKSHIN Shendam PLATEAU PLATEAU SHENDAM STATE STATE BAUCHI MIKANG STATE KANKE KANKE BAUCHI Kwali Yelwa LANGTANG LANGTANG NORTH NORTH AAmper LANGTANG mper SOUTH Langtang Langtang Dengi Wase KANAM LEGEND: WASE violent clashes LGAs worsthitby Area (LGA) Local Government State boundary Bashar TARABA TARABA STATE STATE 5okm II I IV III VIOLENT EVENTS IN JOS AND RURAL PLATEAU STATE 37 A DEADLY CYCLE 38 for cash (AFP, 2004b). The amnesty programme offered large sums of money money sumsof large offered programme amnesty 2004b). The (AFP, cash for inexchange communities rural from firearms illegal toretrieve efforts serious made Hisadministration administrator. as inplace put was Alli Chris Gen. Maj. of another round of violent clashes. of violent of round another outbreak animminent feared residents Jos andagain, Time years. following the over continued Jasawa andthe indigenes the between confrontation The unaddressed. completely inJos conflict political the left emergency of state The 2005). (IRIN, inBauchi resettled permanently Yelwa from displaced Muslims Many andvillages. towns totheir returning of fear for states Nassarawa and Bauchi in neighbouring incamps remained refugees thousand Several 220,000. about at state the within persons displaced internally of number total the estimated government State Plateau the 2004, September In 2006a). ( people 100 least at toYelwa), (close killing inShendam Namu of town inthe erupted clashes violent and2006 2005 In tense. remained area the but crisis, Yelwa the after receded State inPlateau violence of level The retrieved. were weapons many unclearhow remains It 2004). (Xinhua, towns andsmall invillages undertaken were searches house-to-house results, few yielded carrot cash the When months. three of aperiod over arms for and suspended was Dariye Joshua Governor State. Plateau for emergency convinced that Jang and the PDP could never win Jos North LGA (Ostien, 2009, 2009, (Ostien, LGA North Jos win never could PDP andthe Jang that convinced were supporters ANPP that reports Ostien platform. (ANPP) Party People’s Nigeria All the on Afizere the with allied Jasawa the ticket, PDP the on paign cam- political their for churches of support the secured indigenes the While p.28). 2009, (Ostien, LGA North inJos Jasawa’ andthe Jang between down [. ashow- ..] as set was stage ‘the place, took elections government local State Plateau the when that hestates when situation sumsupthe Ostien support. Muslim without tocampaign andplanned Jasawa the with tocooperate refused Jang years. several over Jang Jonah Governor with community their for offices and inclusion political broader about innegotiations hadbeen elite Jasawa 2007, (Mohammed, p.18). The community Jasawa the by protests despite concerns due tosecurity area riot-hit inthe elections suspended ernment gov- state The 2008. November until place took elections government local No in2002. office left in1999, elected was who North, Jos of chairman The crisis 2008 The of state asix-month declared Obasanjo President killings, Yelwa the After vote only for a Christian or a Muslim candidate, respectively: respectively: candidate, oraMuslim aChristian for only vote to congregations their on called strongly andmosques churches p. 30). Both 34

This Day, This

Rikko, 2009, p.7). 2009, Rikko, According to CAN, at least 10,000 people were displaced (Dung-Gwom and (Dung-Gwom displaced were people 10,000 least at toCAN, According p.9). 2009, (HRW, them executed andsummarily ground the on victims up andlined tosafety, toflee trying men andkilled chased homes, in their citizens unarmed down gunned who forces, security by perpetrated killings inextra-judicial died 118 people pp.266–70). 2010, least At (PSJCI, killed were Yoruba and31 Igbo 118 Christian that states report Commission the addition, In pp.259–63). 2010, PSJCI, 2010b; 2010a; Foundation, (Stefanos North inJos burnt houses andTudun and330 Wada, area, Mangu Sarki the Rikkos, Nassarawa, deadinCongo-Russia, 103 Christians reported Foundation Stefanos The crisis. the following established was which Commission’), (‘Ajibola Inquiry of Commission Judicial State Plateau tothe andmemoranda numbers victim with the Jang government. Their leaders complain about the governor’s governor’s the about complain leaders Their government. Jang the with orcommunication contact hadno have Jasawa the violence 2008 Since the Muslim of cent per 90 Almost 23). 2009b). p. Ummah, Muslim North (Jos 2011, gunshots of died victims (Higazi, riot 2001 previous the in than used widely much more were guns that andsuggests isstriking ties fatali- gunshot of number the notes, Higazi As killed. was eachvictim how lists shops burnt or destroyed (JDPC, 2010). Christian communities submitted submitted communities 2010). Christian (JDPC, ordestroyed burnt shops and houses 600 least andat killed 23people reported community Catholic 2009b). The Ummah, Muslim North (Jos destroyed’ buildings residential 891 and burnt 22mosques destroyed, [. ..] schools 20 Islamic injured, 5000 over ‘632 lost, lives reported alone community Muslim The killed. were people 850 than more andpossibly 700 least at victims, of counts tolocal According pp.31–32). 2009, (Ostien, neighbourhoods central in the andlooting burning, killing, city, the through rampage the on went gangs youth long, Before police. the by dispersed forcibly were they Eventually, results. the of announcement the for centre collation new the at waited groups youth both when Tensions rose lost. be would votes their that Jasawa the among suspicions fuelled This it. about informed properly sidehadbeen neither and relocated hadbeen centre collation LGA North Jos the However, votes. their to‘guard’ centres collation tothe boxes ballot of transportation and the collection vote of stages the following groups hadyouth parties both fully, 2009, went and smoothly p. process peace- itself 7). the election Although (Ostien, ‘outrigged’ been have simply would party losing The LGA. North Jos to win practices rigging of allforms of tomake use prepared were sides Both unbeliever (Ostien, 2009, p. 30). any for vote Don’t place. the Islamise to want They us. over ruling them have not must we and infidels are Muslims the Muslim, any for vote not must they that vote, to out go should everyone that churches the in preaching were pastors The 35 The detailed memorandum by the Jos North Muslim Ummah Ummah Muslim North Jos the by memorandum detailed The II I IV III VIOLENT EVENTS IN JOS AND RURAL PLATEAU STATE 39 A DEADLY CYCLE 40 area. They maintain that the owner of the house brought hundreds of armed armed of hundreds brought house the of owner the that maintain They area. inthe uptrouble tostir apretext just was project reconstruction the that argue Christians centre. city the within Uku, inDutse crisis 2008 the during down burnt hadbeen which hishouse, reconstructing while attacked was aMuslim that claim Muslims disputed. remains violence of outbreak the of context aSunday. The 17 of January, morning the on erupted crisis 2010 The crisis 2010 The Jos. of population indigene the for exclusively a government leading himof accusing andChristian, aBerom both as mindset’ ‘extremist not engaged in any kind of dialogue forum since the election-related riot. riot. election-related sincethe forum dialogue of kind inany engaged not whom they fear would otherwise ‘finish them’. ‘finish otherwise would fear they whom ‘enemies’, their upagainst standing for governor the praise many Christians, the Among them. against violence promoted actively himtohave suspect Fulani 37 The Jasawa leadership has has leadership Jasawa The 36 Many Hausa– next violent outbreak. As a Hausa man in Bukuru noted: ‘Most of our people people our of ‘Most noted: Bukuru 2010b). in (IRIN, crisis’ next man the for knives their sharpening are Hausa a As outbreak. violent next the until time of amatter only was it said Yet people many andBukuru. in Jos and destruction. violence by affected heavily also was city Jos of south tothe Bukuru tion. and destruc- looting, sites battles, became of violent Jos, Anglo such as 2008, until peaceful hadremained that Neighbourhoods centre. city the beyond out spilled crisis the Again, anddestroyed. attacked apparently was church anearby afterwards, Shortly toabrawl. led situation The failed. escalation an toprevent insoldiers headortocall ward the through dispute the to solve Attempts p.24). 2011, (Higazi, Jesus”’ for andfight to“come out people asking and awhistle blowing mobilised, ‘Christians owner, house Muslim the with interview toHigazi’s According again. hishouse down toburn threatened and house the of roof finishingthe himfrom toprevent tried Christians that contends house the of owner Muslim 2010). The (CMG, them attacking and passers-by Christian insulting site, hisconstruction on towork men 38 The fighting was quelled by a heavy military deployment deployment military aheavy by quelled was fighting The neighbourhood of Anglo Jos. © Jana Krause ©Jana Jos. Anglo of neighbourhood The destroyed market place in the mixed mixed the in place market destroyed The II I IV III VIOLENT EVENTS IN JOS AND RURAL PLATEAU STATE 41 A DEADLY CYCLE 42 Number of violent events Figure killers. Graphic photographs of corpses circulated within the city. Since then, Since then, city. the within circulated corpses of photographs Graphic killers. the of cruelty extreme the out topoint Nahauwa orDogo Karama toKuru refer often sides Both Jos. of population the on heavily weighed massacres both of trauma The killed. were tohideorescape manage didnot who elderly and the children, allwomen, places both In 2010c). (HRW, 2010 on7March Nahauwa inDogo died Christians 200 least at attack, 2010b). areprisal In (HRW, Mangu, inBassa, andvictims LGA, Ladi inBarkin 144 LGA, South inJos 578 LGA, North inJos include206 numbers 2010). Ummah, These Muslim State (Plateau in2010 killed were Muslims 968 of atotal victims, of andplaces names the lists that toamemorandum According however. numbers, much higher reports inJos community Muslim The 2010a). (IRIN, displaced were 18,000 than andmore 2010 inJanuary died to have estimated are people 400 least At (2011)Krause Source: violence that appear or in out. to criminal have nature be private been interpersonal purely left of incidents recorded; are conflict political and rift ethno-religious the to related clashes Only for the 2007–09. years particularly violent incidents, of rural may implyThis an under-reporting the by author. have in that newspapers not incidents have Violent Nigerian been considered. not been reported LexisNexis on research and Dataset Events and Location Conflict Armed the by collected newspaper on reporting based 2010, during outskirts) its and (Jos LGAs South Jos and North Jos in mostly occurred attacks that revenge and reprisals, clashes, small-scale numerous of trend current the illustrates figure The Notes: 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 of the city. On 19 January 2010, at least 150 Muslims were killed in Kuru Karama Karama inKuru killed were 150 Muslims least at 2010, 19 On January city. the of outskirts the on place took massacres andweeks, days following the During side. Christian the on exist numbers detailed equally No numbers. these of accuracy the toassess difficult remains thus It orhidden. graves, inmass buried inwells, dumped allegedly were bodies Many LGAs. and Riyom 2 0120 0320 2005 2004 2003 2002 2001

Rise of violent clashes inJos andenvirons 0620 0820 2010 2009 2008 2007 2006 indigenes and predominantly Fulani on the Muslim side are well documented. well sideare Muslim the on Fulani andpredominantly indigenes both by formed groups militia well-organized by attacks areas, and inrural Jos of outskirts the On straightforward. is not youths these among perpetrators and victims between Distinguishing andcounter-attacks. inattacks involved been clearly have youths These defence. local for network ayouth vided pro- riots 2001 the before groups vigilante neighbourhood of presence The 2). Figure (see steeply rose innewspapers reported events smallviolent of number The control. of out almost spiralled has State inPlateau situation the 2010 and bodies are seldom recovered for burial. Recent newspaper reports reports newspaper Recent burial. for recovered seldom are andbodies 2010 sinceearly missing going men report sides Both development. new alarming an are neighbourhood ‘wrong’ inthe discovered people of killings’ ‘Silent andburned. machetes by down cut being risk neighbourhood wrong the in trapped Those identity. religious todetermine victims uptheir and beat ‘interrogate’ mobs youth when escape isno There Christians). by attacks of (site Road Ring andBauchi Muslims) by ofattacks (site Road Bauchi suchas streets, onmajor ofroadblocks mounting isthe violence inurban practices destructive most the of One neighbourhood. their of defenders as also but looting, for opportunities expect who joiners as ﬁghting the into drawn often are youths local out, breaks violence Once leaders. andgang youths of presence the fear neighbourhoods poor central inthe residents Many groups. militia of movement such inhibits forces security of presence heavy the centre, city the Within violent than the men of the gang. the of men the than violent more even were him attacked who women the that recalled aroadblock at mob aChristian by himself killed almost was who respondent AChristian killing.’ Source: more machetes.with than participated men. They Women a participated lot in Gwom recounted: women ‘The were helping the men with the bullets, with stones, Nassarawa of resident female One thing’. a‘hush-hush as istreated that nomenon phe- signiﬁcant yet isanew participation female that claim respondents Muslim 2007, p.18). (Higazi, 2001 as early as participated rioters female Berom, the Among in Jos. in killings the many participated women that report sidesalso Both clashes. violent repeated the during destroyed been have Bukuru and Jos in women by run be to used that businesses small many as aggravated isfurther situation The alone. children their of care take to them left which sons, older and husbands of loss the suffered also women 2007, Many p.18). (Higazi, crises the during sides both on occurred women against violence sexual Jos, of University the at written athesis to According B ox 2

Author interviews with two residents of Jos North LGA North Jos of residents two with interviews Author Women victims and perpetrators andperpetrators victims Women 39

II I IV III VIOLENT EVENTS IN JOS AND RURAL PLATEAU STATE 43 A DEADLY CYCLE 44 fore reach well beyond 1,000. there- may victims of number actual The violence. 2010 andMarch January the for numbers victim higher claim representatives andChristian Muslim both 2011), while (HRW, 2010 for victims 1,000 than more estimates also Watch Rights Human victims. 1,000 exceeds certainly 2010 tollfor death total the killings’, ‘silent inthe died people many how toestimate difficult is it While bombings. Christmas 2010 andthe massacres, Nahauwa Dogo At least 857 people died in the January 2010 Jos riot, the Kuru Karama and Karama Kuru the riot, Jos 2010 January inthe died people 857 least At 2011. of months first the during followed bombings attempted of andanumber blasts war. bomb Smaller local this of feature aregular become could they that isreal threat andthe anovelty, were Evebombings Christmas 2010 The Jos. of centre the within fighting communal inter- renewed by followed swiftly were bombings The worrisome. been has investigation serious of lack apparent andthe identified fully never were has been reported over the years. past has been reported groups community by acquisition andtheir region whole inthe arms of eration prolif- The attacks. fresh for preparations andmaking weapons collecting of other the accuses regularly Each sides. two the between trust ( islittle There high very appear numbers these that noted be should it 2011; inJanuary and7,000 stolen cows killed 219 members hadabout State that Fulani of stated Nigeria in Association herders Plateau Breeders Allah Cattle turn into settlements dominated by the other religious group. religious other the by dominated settlements into turn awrong taking after attacked being vehicles andprivate clashes, ing violent spark- transactions simplemarket identity, toreligious according and killed selected being andpassengers stopped being buses public of cases report newspapers into continued 2011. incidents Nigerian violent Small-scale situation current The and residents in Jos doubt the authenticity of this claim. this of authenticity the doubt inJos and residents journalists, clerics, Islamic officials, State bombings. the for responsibility claimed Haram, Boko Maiduguri-based the nameof official isthe which WalJihad, Awati Lidda’ Jama’atu Ahlus-Sunnah itself calling group Islamist An 2011). (HRW, wounded were people andnumerous attacks, bomb inthe died people 107 Watch, Rights toHuman According festivities. the for purchases final making were residents when areas, market Christian predominantly in detonated that Evebombings Christmas the with ended 2010 year The 2011 into ( well continued killings silent that suggest to prevent small deadly clashes, silent killings, or bomb attacks completely. completely. attacks orbomb killings, silent clashes, smalldeadly to prevent isunable STF the But escalating. from clashes small-scale prevents (STF) Force Task Special police andriot military joint the of deployment andrapid presence the Only self-defence. of banner the under purchase their for money collect ties communi- local that seems it cases insome But arms. of purchase the sponsor 42 Many residents believe that ‘big men’ men’ ‘big that believe residents Many Nigerian Observer 40 Weekly Trust Weekly The perpetrators perpetrators The 41 The Miyetti Miyetti The , 2011). 2011). , , 2011). 2011). , ing on the Yelwa massacre. massacre. Yelwa the ing on report- media and detailed broad the despite delivered was statement The stated: Akinola, Peter Archbishop president, CAN national the 2004, inYelwa in killed were Muslims 700 about inwhich massacre, deadly most single tothe inreference example, For areas. andrural inurban leaders, militia and gang both perpetrators, against intervention prevents largely tation in ‘self-defence’. their engaging as youth and Muslim—defend interpre- This Christian communities—both Local insuchaccounts. entrenched is deeply ‘self-defence’ practising andonly attack’ under of‘being understanding The numbers. casualty toexaggerate community own the of victims as presented ‘wrongly’ were community religious other the of members deceased that claim even Some numbers. victim inflating of group religious other the accuse that circulate Stories sides. both on problems remain preaching andhate Prejudice Jos. of city the reshaped have displacements andforced Voluntary group. religious own their by dominated areas into move voluntarily destroyed been not have houses whose Today, families even faith. another of neighbours their among again once peacefully live could they that trusting time, orthird ond asec- for houses destroyed uptheir tobuild willing still were residents some riot, 2008 the After segregated. became routes traffic terminal, bus Jos the around attacks several later,following months five Just activities. commercial out tocarry group religious other the by dominated neighbourhoods into toventure begun hadagain residents blasts, bomb Christmas the before 2010, of end the At rapidly. isproceeding communities of segregation The in 2010: in 2010: place took that adiscussion recalled member church AChristian significant. are andrevenge retaliation for calls youths, the Among safety. their improve to taken being measures tosee want People peaceful. toremain need ing the advocat- when pressure under findthemselves communities Religious speakers. loud- mosque through streets the on broadcast being sometimes preaching hate with side, Muslim the on aproblem also are attitudes Uncompromising supporters. findsmany aneye’ for ‘aneye of principle the Christians, Among Christians are struggling for survival in their land (HRW, 2005, p. 36). p.36). 2005, (HRW, land their in survival for struggling are Christians Some turn. to cheek other isno there now but cheek, other the turn says church The attack. to deliberately out going groups Christian of records have I don’t testimony. Christian our change attack, under are we because cannot, we testimony, too Christian isour what no, that thought were people Some we us. for fight and that militant, down more come to going be isnot God to prayer. on relying just naïve, too were we needed that stupid, churches the that felt people Some 44 43

II I IV III VIOLENT EVENTS IN JOS AND RURAL PLATEAU STATE 45 A DEADLY CYCLE 46 gramme orinitiative. gramme and rural Plateau State or to provide an exhaustive analysis of every pro- every of analysis anexhaustive ortoprovide State Plateau and rural inJos initiatives prevention andviolence peace-building toevaluate study It is the scope beyond of this backgrounds. religious munities of different com- andlocal individuals among andcooperation communication improve that initiatives grassroots courageous several are there Nevertheless, Jos. of people the among anddisillusionment frustration aggravated has initiatives peace-building publicized widely state-sponsored, of failure The results. dialogue or multi-stakeholder system warning anearly suchas instruments, well-designed many why understand complete picture of the situation in Jos and the rural areas of Plateau State. Plateau of areas rural andthe inJos situation the of picture complete a generating towards step afirst as efforts andpeace-building reduction In order to comprehend the current situation in Plateau State it is important to to isimportant it State inPlateau situation current the tocomprehend order In worsened. only has conflict protracted the will, political of lack overall duetothe Yet, effects. positive important but hadlimited have may initiatives these of Some in2001. majorriot first sincethe place taken have andworkshops conferences, efforts, andpeace-building prevention lence vio- numerous Indeed, 2001). News, (Africa versa’ orvice area, dominated inaChristian- tolive Muslim average any convince will efforts peace governor’s the for praise no toKaduna, similar yet resolution, conflict on and workshops seminars of aseries host would Jos ‘new ahead:the developments potential the of picture accurate analltoo painted journalist aNigerian in2001, Back the risk of violent escalation in early 2001. Human Rights Watch has recorded recorded has Watch Rights Human 2001. inearly escalation violent of risk the of aware were NGOs local Afew violence. ethno-religious for potential real the reflect anddidnot informal mostly were forces security andthe cials, offi- government local leaders, andreligious community between Contacts inJos. inplace was system warning early formal no crisis, 2001 the Before warningEarly discussing how to co-exist peacefully. But it didn’t really help really it didn’t But peacefully. how to co-exist discussing other, the after forum dialogue one been has there violence, 2001 the Since building efforts building IV. Violence prevention and peace- 46 Instead, this report offers an overview on violence violence on overview an offers report this Instead, forums, have not achieved sustainable sustainable havenotachieved forums, . 45 Table 1 Table arrangements Rural community arrangements Urban community ot estzto Local NGOs (including Youth sensitization al ann US Agency forInterna- Early warning building initiatives Government-led peace- oiigSpecial Task Force (STF) Policing yeAtr Notes Actors Type

Typology of violence prevention and reduction efforts andreduction prevention violence of Typology leaders Traditional andreligious elders, residents religious leaders, Local community and Inter-Faith Foundation) Community Peace and Young Ambassadors for Peace/Caritas, andthe tice Development and Mediation Centre, Jus- Initiative, Interfaith the Damietta Peace project with local NGOs tion (CALM),2005–10, a through Local Mitiga- Conflict Abatement tional Development’s representatives ers, womenand youth nity andreligious lead- security forces, commu- ment, civil servants, Plateaugovern- State and military forcesand military comprising mobilepolice x x x x x x x x x x x x x as inBokkos LGA prevention of violent escalation, flict management andresolution, Peace agreements andlocal con- nonviolent Dadin Kowa, forexample, remained lishment of mixed youth patrols and conflict management; estab- ances of nonviolence; negotiation Local peace agreements andassur- on violence-pronecommunities Too early toassess overall impact trators, thugs,andgang leaders ficulties inreaching routineperpe- and personal transformation; dif- Participants repor matches, and othersocial activities Workshops, youth camps, soccer by security forces response toearly warning signals Lack of adequateand timely functional system has Early warning andresponse relevant community stakeholders no engagement with themost sion of conflicts andgrievances; for failing toorganize opendiscus- 2004 Peace Conference: criticized with strong failing toengage stakeholders 2002 Peace Summit: criticized for improved security situation vention in2011andanoverall Recent appraisal for violence pre- general brutality; lack of neutrality fleeing clashes; arbitrary arrests; firing liveammunition onresidents response; extra-judicial killings; Severe criticism of STF fordelayed rural outskirts lack of violence preventiononJos in preventingillegal arms trade; of perpetrators; limitedefficiency ‘silent killings’; lack of prosecution small-scale violent clashes and lating; littleeffect Quells riots;prevents violence esca- grassr never become fully inpreventing oots support t positive effects II I IV III VIOLENCE PREVENTION AND PEACE-BUILDING EFFORTS 47 A DEADLY CYCLE 48 gating violence because the other side might strike first in‘self-defence’. first strike sidemight other the because violence gating insti- of accused being of fear for group religious other the of or colleagues out to the author that even if they hear pointed have residents Local networks. communication damaged further activities andpeace-building warning early of failure repeated The and 2008. in2001 lacking entirely was aresponse Such forces. security by response andadequate istimely system warning early afunctioning of aspect A core summarizes: report Christian andthe Participation, Popular for Action Community Organization, Liberties Civil the crisis, 2001 September the preceding days the during that the 2008 crisis, an STF comprising military (Nigerian army, navy, andair navy, army, (Nigerian military comprising anSTF crisis, 2008 the After Plateau. inSouthern particularly weapons, illegal madetocollect were efforts in2004, emergency of state the During curfews. dusk-to-dawn of tion declara- andthe police, toriot inaddition forces military of deployment the been has unrest toviolent government state the of response immediate The Security forces ing, and rapid response’ (USAID Nigeria, 2009, p. vi). For Plateau State, the the State, Plateau For p.vi). 2009, Nigeria, (USAID response’ and rapid ing, report- analysis, gathering, information for and protocols processes, policies, clear with “system” designed afully into program CALM the through evolved not has warning early ‘conflict findsthat agency the report, evaluation term mid- p.v). its In 2009, Nigeria, (USAID conflicts’ violent for responsible tors fac- the toaddress society Nigerian of capacity the strengthening by conflict andreduce prevent ‘to were objectives project CALM The efforts. reduction violence states—in Nigerian other State—among Plateau supported (CALM) Mitigation’ Local through Abatement ‘Conflict project (USAID) Development International for USAgency the to2010, 2005 from emergency, of state the After 2007, p.82). ahead(Best, trouble of signs amplewarning despite abroad, travelled hadeven governor pp.6–7). The 2001, (HRW, ill-prepared were police andthe warnings tothe torespond failed forces security andthe authorities the Unfortunately, topeace. threats imminent as perceived they towhat authorities andgovernment police state alerted andEquality Justice Social for Foundation early warning and response system (USAID Nigeria, 2009, pp. 24–25). pp. 2009, Nigeria, (USAID system response and warning early effective an for need pressing the illustrate amply Jos in riots election-related 2008 November the as failed, seemingly mechanisms response and warning analysis, the important, most perhaps And, unreliable. and isintermittent organizations community and youth of network information critical the with Communication rumours, they are afraid to call friends friends tocall afraid are they rumours, out to the population with messages of peace and tolerance. andtolerance. peace of messages with population tothe out toreach campaigns media several organized also government p. 86). The 2007, (Best, establishment’ its after forum the about and heard known was little ‘Very impact: significant hadany tohave seem didnot forum the design, by promising Although officials. government andlocal rulers, traditional heads, andvillage ward suchas leaders, grassroots with communication tofacilitate designed forum aninteractive established also Dariye governor Former andstudents. groups women’s of andyouth and representatives leaders, andreligious community madeupofelders, was It Committee. ation In 2002, the government established the Plateau State Peace and Reconcili- Peace State Plateau the established government the 2002, In Summit Peace 2002 The ( biased as perceived they which STF, the of presence the against demonstrated in black dressed women Christian 2011, January 31 On riots. full-blown into turning from fighting small-scale keeps presence heavy their although forces security of withdrawal the demanded even have residents Christian population. the among fears andfosters forces security of effectiveness the undermines further in attacks violent of uniforms fake use The Christians. supporting for officers police blame Muslims Muslims; sidingwith of soldiers accuse Christians problem. the of andpart partial being for blamed been long have andsoldiers officers Police forces. security the of impartiality the affects also communities religious between zation polari- the Nevertheless, locality. immediate the from drawn not usually are officers their institutions, federal are military andthe police the Since both calm. anuneasy tosecure city the within remained presence military heavy aconstant 2010, In leadingtoJos. roads the on checkpoints at searches ons inweap- engaged STF The unrest. further toquell city the within flashpoints well-known patrolled regularly It established. was forces andpolice force) and identify trouble spots for rapid intervention ( intervention rapid for spots trouble and identify clashes tomonitor city the over hovered also helicopters Two military areas. instrategic quickly relatively mobs the dispersed teargas with forces security of intervention heavy the injured, were people of andanumber inJos testing pro- started also supporters Buhari Although places. other among states, andBauchi Kaduna neighbouring rocked violence post-election However, calm. largely remained andJos alert high on were forces security the 2011, April in elections national the during protests violent of expectation tothe Owing shot at individuals scenes fleeing violent 2008). (HRW, and have reportedly killings arbitrary for feared are police andthe military the 2011a). Both (BBC, soldiers of removal the against acounter-protest held inwhite clad women Vanguard, Leadership 2011). 2011). , 2011). Muslim Muslim 2011). , II I IV III VIOLENCE PREVENTION AND PEACE-BUILDING EFFORTS 49 A DEADLY CYCLE 50 areas undertook their own small peace initiatives. smallpeace own their undertook areas government local 2007, several p.91). Meanwhile, (Best, conclusions ment toimple- will political no was there andthat communities intheir had astake commissions surrounding the Peace Summit did not engage the people who who people the engage didnot Summit Peace the surrounding commissions ( ‘the nerve centre of Christianity in Nigeria’ (AFP, 2004a). The CAN secretary secretary CAN The 2004a). (AFP, inNigeria’ Christianity of centre nerve ‘the isconsidered which State, inPlateau a ‘jihad’ of waging the toresist and vowing emergency of state the during governor local the ousting for Obasanjo demning con- language, strong with responded leaders Christian leaders. religious of criticism stark voiced also but Dariye, Governor former of conduct the on crisis Plateau muchofthe blamed Obasanjo climate. the poisoned further Obasanjo President then with leaders religious Christian between confrontation The 2005). (IRIN, deeply’ more even divisions entrenching andifanything, residents state Plateau the of representative truly not definitely but good, ‘superficially hadbeen conference the that mented com- Yelwa of town the from Arepresentative LGA. North Jos of indigenes as recognized are andAfizere Anaguta, Berom, the only that reiterates report finalconference The unaddressed. completely remained grievances their that lamenting it, tosign refused representatives (JNI) Islam Nasril and Jama’atu Ha solutions. durable provide didit nor andactors, main issues the address didnot it relations, peaceful for need the underlined niqué that meetings and workshops and attended by a broad range of stakeholders. of range abroad by andattended andworkshops meetings Summit Peace the attending from prevented was Association, Breeders Cattle Allah Miyyeti the of chairman Boro, Useni representative, Fulani the stakeholders, of range abroad toengage intended was summit the Although anddestruction. tofighting andanend peace for need the muniqué affirmed finalcom- The coexistence. peaceful for solutions with forward and tomove andgrievances conflicts todiscuss was objective The personnel. security and leaders andyouth women as well as leaders, andcommunity religious and politicians, elders, with held were andconferences meetings of series of Kaduna made this statement: ‘Obasanjo went out of his way to attack the the to attack of hisway out went ‘Obasanjo statement: madethis of Kaduna acommu- produced it While flawed. was conference peace the of set-up the that agree commentators many But resolution. peaceful towards conflict the totransform potential the with instrument a well-designed was it principle, In to the 2002 Peace Summit, the conference was preceded by several smaller smaller several by preceded was conference the Summit, Peace 2002 to the Similar to21September. August 18 from inJos met which Conference, Peace State aPlateau organized Alli Gen. emergency, of state 2004 the During Conference Peace 2004 The a wake, its In organized. was Summit Peace 2002 year, the same the Within Daily Trust, 2002). Best criticizes the fact that the various workshops and workshops various the that fact the criticizes 2002). Best usa–Fulani 47

building efforts. These include traditional leaders, NGOs, religious organiza- religious NGOs, leaders, includetraditional These efforts. building andpeace- prevention violence of amultitude pursued have actors society Civil Civil efforts society excluded: were concerned ties communi- tothe connections strong with stakeholders actual the while tune’ ‘dance totheir would who representatives community inviting deliberately of government the accused respondents Muslim escalating. violence of round another andprevent safety their toimprove undertaken are measures concrete what wondering left are people many television, on broadcast are dialogues these of some While communities. tolocal communicated fully never were suchmeetings madewithin agreements that complained They bringi coexistence. shops talk than more little were efforts peace government-sponsored the said respondents interview Many 2004). (Madugba, Nigeria’ todestroy devil the by used he is being appears It God. of Church Development (CEPID) organized radio and television announcements topro- announcements andtelevision radio organized (CEPID) Development and Initiative Peace for Centre NGO Jos-based the majorriot, first the Before indetail. initiatives alltheir tocapture report this of scope the isbeyond It organizations. andcommunity-based agencies, relief humanitarian tions, community engagement, and trainings. Staff members of the Jos-based NGO NGO Jos-based the of members Staff andtrainings. engagement, community andtol- peace on workshops out carried also CEPID 2001). (HRW, Initiatives Transition of Office USAID’s of support the with coexistence, peaceful mote organized social activities to bring together youths of different religious religious different of youths together tobring activities social organized Foundation andInter-Faith Peace Community for Young Ambassadors The 2004). (Ityavyar, communication toimprove forces andsecurity leaders, nity commu- officials, government tolocal visits advocacy undertook Inter-Gender workshops, offered also inNigeria Advancement Peace for Centre NGO based Jos- The officers. and security grassroots between communication improve to agencies security visited inLagos, headquartered Organization, Liberties Civil Nigerian The conflict. Jos the on andpublications toresearch contributed and events 2001 September the after faiths both of leaders youth for erance solve a problem when you don’t call the stakeholders. the call don’t you when aproblem solve can’t you so And crisis. the with connection or link direct any have that people the actually not are invited people the meetings, these of all almost in Because situation. the worsening helps it fact, In impact. positive any made not have They gatherings. such of many of amember been Ihave peace. on had we workshops and conferences dialogues, of number accurate the you give can anyone think I don’t ng lip service to the idea of peaceful peaceful ideaof tothe ng lipservice 48 II I IV III VIOLENCE PREVENTION AND PEACE-BUILDING EFFORTS 51 A DEADLY CYCLE 52 not to join in the fighting. DPI also facilitated the establishment of women’s of establishment the facilitated also DPI fighting. tojoininthe not them toencourage toyouths out andreach communication, facilitate agents, peace local as act members Group past. inthe fighting inheavy engaged have that communities two Gwom, Nassarawa neighbouring from Muslims with Congo-Russia from Christians together brings currently group notable One strategies. management conflict inbasic facilitators andtrained groups community mixed upseveral built has (DPI) Initiative Peace Damietta based Pretoria- The Jos. of city the within march apeace andheld backgrounds The clubs met regularly to discuss matter todiscuss regularly clubsmet The schools. concept of‘peace the insecondary clubs’ promoted 2010). USAID (IMC, 2010 inJanuary riot latest the after Jos inmetropolitan leaders youth community together brought Centre The 2006). (Smock, declaration peace a towards worked they where Yelwa, suchas State, inPlateau towns other and Jos visited repeatedly Centre Mediation Inter-Faith Kaduna-based The population. youth the andreach grassroots tothe dialogue interfaith top-level the istocarry objective Their and CAN. JNI the from leaders youth two upby set Initiative, Youth Dialogue Christian Muslim– isthe initiative new 57). Arelatively page 4on Box (see prevention violence of insupport DadinKowa, of neighbourhood mixed inthe groups Source: Soraya and Mujab B ebrations. Mujab and Soraya are Muslims from Nassarawa Gwom, one of the the of one Gwom, Nassarawa from Muslims are Soraya and Mujab ebrations. cel- Sallah Islamic to Eid-el-kabir the for join them Congo-Russia neighbouring from Christians invited had they 2010, mid-November In initiative. peacemaking 107 people and injured many more. more. many injured and people 107 killed bombs several after end abrupt an to came celebrations Eve Christmas 2010 the Sadly, territory. ‘wrong’ the earlier. entering when killed’ ‘silently being decade of a do to used Jos in danger real the despite proclaimed, me’, people Mujab invite they many anywhere go will ‘I as Christmas, during friends Christian their visit to planned both initiative, courageous their for publicity such by Exhilarated television. the on Soraya and Mujab recognized family and came to and film many media joint the National crews of celebration friends their holiday. a religious during stronghold aMuslim entered Christians when recalled proudly both worried’, really were soldiers ‘The dancing out in Congo-Russia. gone had regularly youths Muslim earlier, Ten years neighbourhoods. two the divides that area’ ‘no-go the through Congo-Russia from Christians 39 escorted had they Initiative, Peace Damietta the from staff by Supported 2010. and 2008, 2001, in clashes violent the of worst the experienced neighbourhood Their Jos. in areas poor central ox 3

Author interview with two local peace activists, Jos, December 2010 December Jos, activists, peace local two with interview Author Peace efforts around the 2010 Sallah celebrations Sallah 2010 the around efforts Peace 49 were excited when they recalled details of their latest s relating to inter-community rela- tointer-community s relating biased and distort facts and information. For example, a Christian NGO leader leader NGO aChristian example, For andinformation. facts anddistort biased often are situation current the of anddescriptions crisis the for Explanations group. religious own their by perpetrated violence regarding omissions major by characterized often are accounts Their incidents. violent of tives narra- one-sided internalized have activists many aimsandobjectives, their Despite actors. society civil affect negatively also violence of impact matic trau- andthe segregation, spatial relations, communal of deterioration The suchworkshops. into andtointegrate toidentify difficult are Jos of outside andvillages insmalltowns based groups militia orfrom city the within from members gang Core inrioting. part taken actively have who toyouths out toreach isdifficult it that admit also activists Most activities. response emergency of particularly coordination, better for information toexchange servants andcivil agencies, relief NGOs, other with meetings stakeholder regular organized It gap. communication this toaddress tried has from as early as 2001, marking the violence as ‘religious’. as violence the marking 2001, as early as from clashes violent during constantly loudspeakers oftheir madeuse mosques and churches both that stated who residents by contradicted clearly was ment state- This loudspeakers. church oruse bells church ring not would Christians that but andnight, day prayer for calls play would mosques the city, the within clashes violent the during that inaninterview author tothe explained office andPeace/Caritas Development Justice the Since2009, violence. by affected worst are that areas inpoor groups youth alltarget They peace. for andworkshops sensitization youth of programmes similar very pursue Many initiatives. peace andgrassroots NGOs between andcoordination nication commu- little tobe appears there First, challenges. several face NGOs Local centre. city the of areas poor from youth and the Ambassadors for Peace organized soccer tournaments for at-risk at-risk for tournaments soccer organized Peace for Ambassadors and the andPeace/Caritas, Development Justice DPI, suchas initiatives local response, In soccer. muchprefer who youths, Nigerian among sport apopular not was basketball that complained p.1). Locals 2009, Nigeria, (USAID competitions’ and training basketball during self-discipline andtopractice others with (BB4P)’ programmes to offer youths ‘opportunities to bridge differences differences tobridge ‘opportunities youths tooffer programmes (BB4P)’ Peace for ‘Basketball established also 2009). USAID Nigeria, (USAID school secondary State Plateau clubsinevery peace of establishment the ordered sensationalist reporting. sensationalist tocurb years few past the over inJos place taken have conflict communal the to inrelation journalists for workshops training Several bias. without report to difficult andfindit such tendencies with struggle also journalists Local andcooperation. communication hampering further activists, society civil of work the affects communities religious of tions, religious issues, and tolerance. The Plateau State government then then government State Plateau The andtolerance. issues, religious tions, 51 Nevertheless, both sides have fiercely criticized criticized fiercely have sides both Nevertheless, 50 The polarization polarization The II I IV III VIOLENCE PREVENTION AND PEACE-BUILDING EFFORTS 53 A DEADLY CYCLE 54 an initiative established after the January 2010 riots, claims that: claims riots, 2010 January the after established an initiative Group, Monitoring Citizen’s The victimized. been have Christians extent what to tounderstand failed media international the andthat under-reported, were deaths Christian that one-sided, are andreports articles that claimed Christians study, this for conducted interviews In reporting. international condemned strongly Christians while accounts, newspaper local insome bias of complained Muslims crisis. Jos the of coverage news andinternational local (CMG, 2010, p.8). 2010, (CMG, initiators the been have they outbreaks violent of instance every in [while] State Plateau from out sent and killed hated, are they that world the forms misin- machine that propaganda an effective have produced Muslims Hausa here are saying: “you cannot change our religion for us.”’ for religion our change cannot “you saying: are here As one journalist explained the current situation to the author: ‘People down down ‘People author: tothe situation current the explained journalist one As died in 2010, held these posts. Both religious leaders toured through the state, state, the through toured leaders religious Both posts. these held in2010, died who Wase, of Emir late andthe Kaigama Ignatius Archbishop years, first the During Wase. of Emir andthe State inPlateau CAN of chairman the by chaired isjointly committee The crisis. 2001 the after State inPlateau Harmony and Peace for Committee Inter-Religious upthe set government state The Inter-religious dialogue awhole. as andNigeria State Plateau over jihadtotake aMuslim as conflict the of reframing prominent tothe subscribe also journalists Christian Some A destroyed house in one of Jos’s central central Jos’s of one in house A destroyed poor neighbourhoods. © Jana Krause ©Jana neighbourhoods. poor 52 II I IV III VIOLENCE PREVENTION AND PEACE-BUILDING EFFORTS 55 A DEADLY CYCLE 56 the outbreak of violence (Higazi, 2008, p.128). 2008, (Higazi, violence of outbreak the to prior tensions the tostem and meetings patrols vigilante that mixed religiously noted also Higazi 10). p. organized initially communities 2003b, mixed many areas rural and other in Wase (Blench, Vom or Riyom, Miango, as such not areas, were held in violent of most some the Such violence. Jos meetings the of effects spill-over the from communities their toguard such messages upon follow would leaders community Often, violence. from torefrain nities commu- their andurged peaceful toremain agreed They meetings. arranged leaders community andHausa indigene many in2001, crisis Jos first to the response In Jos. of South LGA inBokkos example for meetings, consultative in exchange for cattle. Peaceful communities are notably marked by regular regular by marked notably are communities Peaceful cattle. for in exchange years ortwo one for herders Fulani tothe groups indigenous from boys young of sending isthe practice p.8). 2003b, Along-established (Blench, century have established good relations in many parts of Plateau State over the past past the over State Plateau of parts inmany relations good established have andherders farmers notes, Blench As peaceful. toremain managed have communities rural many areas, rural inthe resources on pressure Despite initiatives Community Emir. late the of son the Wase, of Emir new andthe Rev. Dafes, Philip chairman, CAN current the by chaired was Committee Inter-Religious the writing, this At and nonviolence: tolerance preaching actively in leaders religious community of responsibility the emphasized also ents respond- interview Some trusted. be not sidecould other the that feared who people ordinary among muchsuspicion with met were efforts peace-building grassroots-level impact. During interviews they stated that inter-religious the about optimistic less were staff andNGO leaders religious other But 2006). (Moses, politicians’ mindsof the tosinkinto yet was message mony, the inhar- tolive allpeople for need the andunderstand toappreciate had come grassroots the manat common the ‘while that out hepointed riots, 2001 the of anniversary five-year the On elite. political local the criticized repeatedly Kaigama Bishop communities. tolocal out andreaching peace preaching and mosques. churches into deep eaten has corruption even corruption, of isalot there also, then And religion. that of teachings true the teach must they leaders, religious the of religion. So most people say it’s a religious crisis. Well, whatever it is on the part part the ison it whatever Well, crisis. areligious it’s say people most So religion. from it divorce cannot you crises, the all at Looking preach. we what practice to seen be must we And preach. we way the in alot do to need leaders religious Our 53 State. Christian indigene groups demanded in 2001 that all Hausa–Fulani Plateau within rulers traditional Hausa accept not do city inthe indigenes Many lages. vil- inthe people displaced of return the facilitated often leaders Traditional came to attack Muslims in Dadin Kowa, a local pastor successfully pleaded with with pleaded successfully pastor alocal Kowa, Dadin in Muslims attack to came settlements neighbouring from When youth groups outside attackers. against settlement the guard to groups vigilante mixed into youths local organized Elders community. the to out read was that declaration’ a‘peace on agreed and elders several with together met imams and Pastors prevention. violence of measures undertake to and violence any forbid to them with pleaded and leaders gious reli- their to went women these 2010, January in again out broke violence When Source: violated. be not could and time prayer Christian refused on the grounds that the same early morning time represented a core pastor The prayers. morning early Muslim during loudspeakers its use to not church the ask to soldiers sent had residents Muslim that said pastor A Christian and at mosques times churches. prayer during over loudspeakers hold grievances sides both example, For evident. are tensions Everyday massacres. Nahauwa Dogo and Karama Kuru the after months and weeks for other each face not could of women the Some volatile. remains Dadin to Kowa date, peaceful Although violence. averted and them DPI. from training short-term hadof received them several after own their on meetings regular their managed largely groups women’s each other. with The dialogue and establish problems to address smaller groups several in met regularly women the gathering, the After violence. by affected be also soon could community their that worried women Many tensions. increased persons displaced of influx The loss. and atrocities of stories as well as grief their them with brought They businesses. their and houses, their children, and husbands their lost had Kowa Dadin in security found had who women the of Some areas. violence-affected from Kowa Dadin to fled had families Christian Many crisis. ongoing the of background the against challenges everyday and issues discussed and met They violence. future potential regarding fears their voice to tating 2008 crisis, more than 200 women came together with support from DPI devas- the After community. the in peace keeping in role amajor played Women centre. its in settlements poor of streets crammed and outskirts the on houses large with status, social and economic of terms in ismixed population The minority. of Dadin Kowa’s population is there is although Christian, a significant Muslim majority The Jos). Anglo as (such clashes violent and Rayfield) as (such killings radic spo- seen have some settlement; the surround communities mixed Several date. to peaceful remained LGA—has in South Jos of Dadin Kowa—located community The B ox 4 54 However, the institution of traditional rulership is itself contested. contested. isitself rulership traditional of institution the However,

Author interviews with residents in Dadin Kowa and other neighbourhoods in Jos in Dadin and Kowa neighbourhoods residents other with interviews Author Dadin Kowa: the peaceful community peaceful the Dadin Kowa: II I IV III VIOLENCE PREVENTION AND PEACE-BUILDING EFFORTS 57 A DEADLY CYCLE 58 and Onifade, 2010, p. 178). While the Ajibola report was released to the public, public, tothe released was report Ajibola the p.178). 2010, While Onifade, and (Ojukwu so’ todo power constitutional the lacked Yar’Adua president the that ground ‘on the Ajibola, Bola Prince under inquiry, of commission own its lished estab- it Therefore, community. Jasawa the sidingwith of Yar’Ardua accused inturn, Jang, Jonah under government state The Abisoye. Emmanuel Gen. retired by headed inquiry of committee administrative upthe set Yar’Adua, tensions returned to the fore. The federal government, under then President President then under government, federal The fore. tothe returned tensions ethno-religious andnational local of reinforcement the crisis, 2008 the After 2010). (R2K, state inthe firearms of possession illegal the totackle government the on calls it Further, hatred. religious andinciting illegal as and mosques churches by loudspeakers of use the condemns also It services. prayer Muslim and Christian both for roads public of blockage the banning recommends it To tensions, communal Commission. reduce Fiberesima the of mendations andrecom- findings the confirms report The State. Plateau of peace fragile the endanger would report the publishing that claimed government state The 2007, p.87). (Best, Commission tothe evidence ororal memoranda to present effort hadmadethe groups many as resented was report ofthe shelving The riots. the Tobi investigated Commission Niki Justice the crisis, 2001 the After complicity in the riots’ (R2K, 2010). (R2K, riots’ inthe complicity and activities ‘belligerent for Association Development Jasawa the indicts It LGA. North Jos of indigenes real the are Afizere andthe Anaguta, the Berom, the that understanding the reinforces report The seriously. actors society civil by transmitted andrumours warnings take forces andsecurity cials offi- government that demands also It forces. police for equipment improved and offices political of allocation andtransparent afair recommends report Commission Fiberesima similar. The largely are recommendations various report on the 2001 riots, and the Ajibola report on the 2008 clashes. 2008 the on report Ajibola andthe riots, 2001 the on report Tobi Niki the 1994 crisis, the on report Fiberesima the of release the saw 2010 year The years. for public tothe closed remained have and recommendations Results bias. of accused been always have andfindings members Their Jos. in clashes sincethe established been have Inquiry of Commissions Several Inquiry of Commissions the of Reports p.10). 2003b, (Blench, escalation violent unabletostop as seen increasingly are they as elders traditional of position the undermines This state. the from response the isgenerally inaction andconflicts, tensions of government the warn they when that complained have rulers traditional p.6). Hausa 2001, (HRW, chieftancy titles be scrapped and replaced with indigenous traditional titles 55 The ing estates, clinics and modern schools’ (PSJCI, 2010, para. 7.4(i)). Crucially, 7.4(i)). Crucially, para. 2010, (PSJCI, schools’ andmodern clinics ing estates, hous- suchas andinfrastructure [. ..] roads by city amodern create ‘to Dilimi and Kazaure Ali of andparts Rikkos, Katako, Gangare, Rogo, Angwan Rimi, Angwan slumssuch as acquire should government The policing. and improve to counter centre slum development city the within development structure majorinfra- andrecommends further goes report The loudspeakers. church and mosque of use the andon hours worship during streets blocking on ban the toenforce government the on Tobicalls it Niki Commission, the Like inquiry. of commissions various the of allreports of release andthe tion andparticipa- inclusion political promoting recommends report Ajibola The inJos. tensions toease didnothing clearly andpresident ernor gov- between confrontation The notmadeavailable. was report Abisoye the violent clashes according to ethno-religious identity. identity. toethno-religious according clashes violent after displacement orforced voluntary the with interlink directly measures development urban Yet,ifmishandled, decade. past the over infrastructure inany invested hadnot government the that author tothe complained Rogo inAngwan Muslims ininfrastructure. investment serious need areas poor these sion the from centre city and relocation without compensation. It is clear that expul- massive fear who Jasawa, the by inhabited mostly are slumareas these II I IV III VIOLENCE PREVENTION AND PEACE-BUILDING EFFORTS 59 A DEADLY CYCLE 60 formed into standing gangs with citywide command structures. structures. command citywide with gangs standing into formed fully tohave appear not do groups these clashes, numerous Despite groups. self-defence community into transformed been have that networks vigilante neighbourhood along isorganized violence youth the muchof Jos, Within dwellings. their from villagers toexpel used were gunshots while machetes, with andmurdered attacked been commonly have members community Jos, of outskirts the On riot. 2008 since the violence urban of afeature become have fatalities gunshot andmachetes, knives with perpetrated was 2001 who do not recite the correct religious verses. While much of the killing in killing the muchof While verses. religious correct the recite not do who individuals of killing selective andthe major streets of blocking isthe riots during practice urban Acommon andthugs. gangs youth of battles and street counter-attacks, attacks, by characterized are violence urban of dynamics The efforts. andpeace-building prevention violence hamper severely segregation and violence, for sideispreparing other the that accusations tensions, of level high The communities. religious between andcommunication trust of down break- inasevere resulted has This population. local the on impact matizing hadatrau- has years two past the over killings the of brutality increasing The developments. political andnational toregional linked confrontation religious a as conflict the tounderstand come have residents Many divide. religious overarching the along clusters conflict different reinforced have violence of cycles andrural Urban exploded. andsmall towns areas inrural tensions inJos, clashes toviolent Subsequent dimension. religious astrong with conflict communal aprotracted into groups ethnic different of elites political between confrontation aonce-localized of transformation inthe resulted inJos efforts resolution conflict sincere of lack the findsthat study This time. any at erupt may clashes violent as alert high on remain agencies andrelief Humanitarian andtransportation. trade, business, inresidence, segregation religious by characterized Today, islargely Jos city. the reshaped has violence communal of Adecade worship. of houses and areas inmarket safety toresident threat areal constitute explosions Bomb underground. continue killings’ ‘silent violence, collective overt prevent to tends city the within presence military heavy the While tense. extremely remains elections andgubernatorial 2011 national sincethe inJos situation The Conclusions Regional Council Regional The interim chair of the Plateau State Conflict Management and Mitigation andMitigation Management Conflict State Plateau the chairof interim The fighting. the tostop inevitable be may Hausas the with acompromise term long inthe that torealize come have Some politicians. indigene among tested uncon- isnot andhissupporters Jang of position the However, real. remains riots further of threat the Meanwhile, elites. Jasawa andthe indigene the between game azero-sum as politics local of term another for set tobe appears LGA North Jos insight. isnot representation andpolitical rights indigene With the re-election of Governor Jonah Jang, a solution to the struggle over over struggle tothe asolution Jang, Jonah Governor of re-election the With demonstrate. amply fatalities and wounds gunshot numerous the as incirculation, remain weapons of number alarge general, In emergency. of state the during disarmed adequately the current constitution to prioritize citizenship over indigene rights. rights. indigene over citizenship toprioritize constitution current the on an amendment to agrees federation cannotState until Nigerian the wait groups have been formed over the past nine years. They have received military- not were They states. inneighbouring also but inPlateau, received tosafety threat have They years. nine asignificant constitute groups These mobile. past highly andare training the style over formed been have groups and national dimension of the issue into account. At the same time, Plateau Plateau time, same the At account. into issue the of dimension and national regional the totake need will representation andpolitical rights indigene over conflict tothe 2010b). Asolution (IRIN, problem’ yesterday’s that’s happen, will it but deadbody”, my “over say ‘People accepted: tobe needs North Jos In contrast, within areas of rural Plateau State, well-armed temporary militia militia temporary well-armed State, Plateau rural of areas within contrast, In 56 argues that Hausa economic and numeric dominance in dominance andnumeric economic Hausa that argues II I IV III CONCLUSIONS 61 A DEADLY CYCLE 62 Thesefigures arebased on victim number 2 Theterm ‘indigene’ refers to Nigerian c 1 SeetheCIA World Factbook onNigeri 8 with local Author interview residents, Jos. 7 with Authorinterviews civil society rep 6 However, aspokesperson alsoindicated th 5 Theauthorthanks PhilipOstienforpointingthis out. 4 with alocal Authorinterview resident, Jos. 3 2 The author thanks PhilipOstienforpointing 12 SeealsoPaden (2005)foranoverv 11 OtherHausa groups states innorthern have theirowndesignations, such10 as the Other, larger indigene ethnic groups onthePlateau includetheNgas, Goemai, 9 19 Author interview with aMuslim elder, Authorinterview Jos. 19 SeeHRW details. (2006)forfurther 18 However, Pasquini andAlexander (2005)alsopoint out that farmers inPlateau 17 SeeLast (2008)onthenotionof ‘mental closure’. 16 SeeBlench et al.(2006) foranoverview of traditional Nigeria. rulers innorthern 15 For acomprehensive overview onthehistory of Nigerian federalism ingeneral, 14 SeeBlench et al.(2006,pp. 59–67), Best (2007,13 pp. 17–21), andPlotnicov (1967, that at least 700 peoplediedin2008andat least 1,000in2010(HRW, 2008;2011). munities, as discussed inthis generations. See alsoBox 1. many so-called ‘settler’groups have lived in contrast tothe‘settlers’. Who qualifies as notion is meant toapply toindividuals andgroups by local governments andwhoreside inthestate that issued thecertificate. The more detailed information onillegal arms (IRIN, 2005). given that limitedregistration of internally displaced persons had taken place Caliphate, seeLast (1967) andPaden (2005). of Jos. ments inthenorth. See Plotnicov (1967, pp. 28–39) onthehistorical significance Kanawa inKano. The authorthanks AdamHigazi forpointingthis out. and Tarok. mates apopulation of 158,423,000 for2010(UNDESA, n.d.). the PopulationDi and ethnic groups n.d.). Estimates (CIA, forthetotal population of Nigeria vary; managed to adapt farming practic and of Plateau State inparticular, see Suberu (2001,pp. 91,102). in Jos andthepolitics of loc detailspp. 42–48)forfurther onthetransition fromcolonial topost-colonial rule Endnotes vision of the UN Department ofEconomic the UNDepartment al traditional leaders. Working Paper es inresponse tosoil degradation. iew of Muslimidentities andreligious move- a fordetailed numbers ontotal population itizens whohold ‘indigene resentatives, Jos. See al proliferation inPlateau State. s reported bys reported members of thelocal com- in theirplaces of residence forseveral an indigene is highly contested because at thesefigures werenot fully reliable, this out.For background onthe Sokoto . Human Rights Watch alsoestimates that arenative toafederal state, and Social Affairs esti- so Blench (2004) for certifica tes’ issued 28 Authorinterviews, For instance,27 formerChristian Association of Nigeria chairman Rev. Yakubu Pam Jo Authorinterviews, 26 See,forexample, HRW (2001,p. 5) 25 Boko24 Haram means ‘Western education is sin’; For details23 ontheKaduna riots in2000and2002 and victim numbers,seeHRW 22 Theauthorthanks Yakubu Josephforpointingthis out. Blench alsoprov 21 20 SeealsoHRW (2006). 29 with Authorinterviews residents LGA. fromJos North 4 See,forexample, 34 Paragraph based onHigazi (2008).For moredetails33 ontherural violence, seealso SeealsoBest (2008)fordetails32 with Authorinterviews aresident and 31 with30 Authorinterviews residents, Jos;the 1 SeeAdinoyi (2011a;2011b);HRW (2011). 41 40 For example, see This Day (2010);Al Jazeera (2010). For details, seeHRW (2005)onthe Yelw39 SeeHigazi (2011,pp. 26–28)fordetails onthe violence38 inBukuru andtheoutskirts Both views featured strongly in 37 with Authorinterviews 36 representati Dung-Gwom andRikko (2009, p. 7) cite theCANMemorandum35 totheHouseof 6 Te Council The 56 For details, seeR2K (2010). 55 For adetailed study on theroleof traditional54 rulers inthePlateau andnorthern with aMuslim resident, Authorinterview Jos. 53 with ajournalist, Authorinterview Jos. 52 See,forexample, Best and Saidu (2007). 51 See,forexample, HRW50 (2001). 49 Names have beenchanged. 48 with aMuslimcommunity Authorinterview leader, Jos. SeeDanfulani (2006)fordetails onthe peace47 conference. 46 Seealsothedocumentation of peace by efforts Best (2007, p. 80). with aci Authorinterview 45 with achurch Authorinterview 44 activist, Jos. with residents, Authorinterview Jos. 43 with Authorinterviews 42 civil society r linked theJos conflict totheterm ‘jihad’ (Best, 2007, p. 43). (2003). Foundation (n.d.). dents andcivil society members. See also,f dents, civil society members,and (2004, pp. 33–34). HRW (2005).For main types of weapons ci Muslim Ummah (2010). analysis, seeBest (2008)andHigazi (2008;2011). of Jos. civil society members inJos. also confirmed by theMuslimCommunity; MuslimUmmah seeJos (2009a). North Representativ Nigeria, seeBlench et al.(2006). Blench (2004). was establi e AdHocCommittee ontheJosCr ides moredetails oninter This Day Jos. This s. This shed with support from US shed withsupport vil society representative, Jos. (2006b). type ofstatement type ofstatement author interviews withauthor interviews residents, journalists, and on violence insouthernPlateau State. religious leaders inJos. ves of theJasawa community, Jos. epresentatives andjournalists, Jos. See also a civil society representative, Jos. a attack; seealsoACLED(n.d.). For academic findings areconfirmed inPlateau State rculating inPlateau State, seeBlench actions betweenherders andfarmers. or example, publications by the Stefanos wasmadebyseveral wasmadebyseveral isis. This boko AID via the 2005–10CALMproject. is Hausa, number ofdi haram Christianresi- Christianresi- is Arabic. splaced is II I IV III ENDNOTES 63 A DEADLY CYCLE 64 Bawa, Idrisand V Ambe-Uva, Terhemba Nom.2010 Best, Shedrack Gaya. 2001.‘Religion and Religious Conflicts Nigeria.’ inNorthern Best, Christina andAbu —. 2011b. ‘Nigeria: Deadly Attack onNorthern Village.’ 7May. BBC (British Broadcasting Corporation). 2011a.‘Nigeria: Police Ban Demonstrations in Africa News.2001.‘FromKaduna toJos.’1November. —. 2004b. ‘Cash-for-gun Carrot Dangled AFP (Agence France-P ACLED (ArmedConflict Location andEvents Dataset). n.d. Website. Blench, Roger. 2003a. ‘The Transformation of C —. 2008. —. 2007. Report onImpunity and State- 22 May. 16 February. in Nigeria.’ Sponsored Violence inNigeria. ogwu. 2002.‘The ogwu. ench.info/Conflict/Herder-farmer%20conflict%20 d-africa-13322307> This Day Before Warriors inNig les/2002/09/1231/nigeriareport0802.pdf> lud inJos as 12AreKilled.’ African Journal ofHistory and Culture (AJHC), an Crisi Centre forLawEnf onflict Between Pastoralists andCultivators Southern Zone ofPlateau State, Nigeria cs andtheJosCrisis: illed-as-jos-boils-again/86672/> , Vol. 2,No.3.December. (Lagos) for Reconciliation andCentre for s: Christian Y Jos Crisis.’ In Pen andPeace: ThePlateau State or-guns-carrot . 22February. . Ibadan: Spectrum Books orcement Education, erian Strife-tornState.’ outh Lea Geneva andLagos: Hope Betr Evidence, Lessons This Day -dangled-before- 52536363 der Att ayed? A (Lagos). acks 3.html> .

—, et al.2006. ‘TheRole of Traditional —. 2009. ‘Recent Research onthePlateau —. 2004. ‘Improving theKnowledge Base on Small andCentral Arms inNorthern Nigeria.’ —. 2003b. CMG (Citizens’ Monitorin CIA (Central Intelligence Agency). n.d. ‘The World Factbook: Nigeria.’ Accessed June 2011. Golwa, JosephH.P. andOchinya O. Ojiji,eds.2008. Fwatshak, Sati Umaru. 2011. Falola, Toyin.1998. Dung-Gwom, John Y. andLaraba S. Rikko. — and Sati U.Fwatshak. 2002. ‘Briefing: The September 2001Events inJos,Nigeria.’ —. 2011. Griswold, Eliza. 2008. ‘God’s Country.’ Nigeria.’ PreparedfortheUK Depa Gerhardt, March 2004. proceedings of theHamburgmeetingtom Nigeria. Unpublished paperpreparedf Nigeria University of Jos. Durham, NC:Carolina Academic Press. Ideologies logical Association Housing Confer and Housing Markets inJos,Nigeria.’ P African Affairs, Friedrich Ebert Stiftung. African Institute, Lowlands of Plateau State, Central Nigeria.’ Rule tothe2007 Elections). aux élections de2007’ (ThePolitics of Urban Abuja: Institute for The Jos Crisis:ARecurrent NigerianTragedy. (Abuja). 2002. ‘Fulani Leader B Access Rights andConflict over C . September. . New York: University of Rochester Press. Vol. 101,No.403. April,pp. 243–55. Violence inNigeria:TheCrisis ofReligious Politics andSecular Vol. 78,No.1.January, pp. 107–35. Peace andConflict Resolution. g Group).2010.‘Pl Revision VI. 27May. African Entrepreneurship inJos,Central Nigeria,1902–1985 Politique africaine or theUK forInternational Department Development, .ascleiden.nl/Pdf/paper-Danfulani.pdf> Jos: ACity Torn Apart evelopment/Nigeria/Conflict%20resolution/ Rulers inConflict PreventionandMediationin rtment forInternationalrtment Development. Atlantic ence, Glasgow, 1–4 September 2009. 9137/Plate politique àJos (Nigeria), ations/the-world-factbook/geos/ni.html> 2009. ‘Urban Violence andEmergingLand arred fromMeeting.’12August. Languages of Central eiden andJos:African Studies Centre and aper presentedat theInternational Socio- ommon Pool Resources on the Jos Plateau, ateau under ark theretirement of Professor Ludwig de/pdf-files/buero olence: Vigilantes andMilitias inthe (Washington, DC).March. Africa: Journal of the International Violence inJos,Nig au-Under-Attack-Jo , Vol. 106. June, pp. 69–91. Dialogue onCitizenship inNigeria Discussion Paper No.2.Abuja: . Vol. 13, No.9(A).December. Attack! Jos Nigeria.’ Submitted for de la périodecoloniale s/nigeria/07812.pdf> eria: FromColonial Crisis Crisis s-Crisis 2010: -2010> . . II I IV III BIBLIOGRAPHY 65 A DEADLY CYCLE 66 Krause, Jana. 2011.‘Plateau State Viol —. 2003. —. 2009b. ‘Muslims Massacred MuslimUmmah. Jos North —. 2005. —. 2009. —. 2008. ‘Nigeria: Arbitrary Killings by Sec —. 2006. ICG (Internation —. 2011.‘Nigeria: New Wave of Violence Leaves 200Dead.’ 27 January. —. 2010a.‘OurLives Will NeverBe the Same Again.’ 22January. IRIN. 2005.‘Nigeria: Plateau State IDPs Face Daunting Obstacles toReturn to“Homeof —. 2008. of International Studies. Appendix tounpublished doct State Local Government Council Elections.’ Memorandum. No. 13 (A).July. New York: HRW. Central Mosque,and Sheik Khalid A. Brothers.’ Memorandum signed by Sheik Bala States the November 28–29, 2008 Violenc hrw.org/en/news/2008/12/19/nigeria-arb of Nigeria:Consolidated Inter-Gender. Peace and Tourism.”’ 21 February. Abuja: IPCR. the November 28 The ‘Miss World Riots’:Continued Impunity for Killings inKaduna Revenge in the NameofReligion:TheCycle of Arbitrary Killings by Security Forces: Submission to the Investigative Bodies on Strategic Conflict Assessment ofNigeria: ‘They DoNot OwnThis Place’: . Vol. 17, No.8(A).May. New York: HRW.

No. 168. Dakar andBrussels: ICG. 20December. e-reports> al Crisis th Crisis Crisis Group). 2010. . Vol. 18,No.3(A).April.New York: HRW. 2009a. ‘TheNov and Zonal Reports in Jos North Local Go in JosNorth e). 2010. ‘Newsletter2ndEdition.’ Massacre, Step UpPatrols.’ 8March. 2010. ‘Records of Catholics Affectedby . Abuja: IPCRandthePresidency. 4/they-do-not-own-place-0> uscript. Geneva:Gra uscript. vernment Are rabe Daud,Deputy Chief Imam Jos Consolidated andZonal Reports massacre-st -curbing-jos-violence> violence-leaves-200-dead> Violence inPlateau andKano Strategic Conﬂict Assessment otect-survivors-fully-investigate- -violence-in-jos,-nigeria.aspx> isis: Appealto killings-security-forces-0> ep-patrols> a.’ Memorandum. th , 2008,Post Plateau . New York: HRW. duate Ins ourChristian . Vol.15, . Africa titute . Moses, Ezulike. Mohammed, Zarah.2007. McGarvey, Kathleen. 2009. ‘MuslimandChristian Women inDialogue: The Case of Madugba, Agaju. 2004. ‘Kaduna CANCondemns Obasanjo’s Utterances.’ Lewis, Peter. 1999. ‘Nigeria: AnEndtothePermanent Transition?’ Nigeria. 2006. ‘2006Population Census.’ Abuja: National Bureau of Statistics. Ostien, Philip. 2009. ‘Jonah JangandtheJasa PSJCI (Plate Plotnicov, Leonard. 1967. Hausa– Nigeria.’ Northern 18 May. Vol. 10, No.1.January, pp141–56. 1 February. (Lagos). 12 September. 26 April. Interests.’ Agricultural Development.’ Jos Plateau: The NeedforIntegr Table, University of Pittsburgh Press. 2010, JosandEnviro mission ofInquiry Main Report Vol. 96,No.392. October, pp. 605–16. (Abuja). 2011.‘Jangin Tears as Female au State JudicialComm

Fulani inJos North. African Journal ofInternational andComparative Law , Vol. 4,No.5.May, pp. 173–80. isis in Vanguard 2006. ‘BishopBl . 2011.‘Task Force Raises Alarm over Secret Killings inJos.’8April. The Sokoto Caliphate Perspective.’ ‘Nigeria: Cleric Muslim Civic Cultures and Religions andDiscourse ns Crisi (Lagos) Strangers to the City: Urban Man inJos, Nigeria Who Owns Jos NorthLGC? TheHistorical Background of the urity in Muslim Northern Nigeria.’urity inMuslimNorthern Geographical Journal, s.’ Memorandum. . ames Politic , Vol. 78,No.1.January, pp. 41–63. Web edition African Journal ofPolitical Science andInternational ission of . Vol.1. ating “Empirical” and“Scientific” Knowledge in Blames Plate . Washington, DC:Brookings Institution Press. . London: Longman. com/08042011/news/f . August. onflict-in-Jos-Nigeria/Ostien_Jos.pdf> a.com/stories/200609121140.html> Inquiry). 2010. Inquiry). wa: Ethno-Religious Conflict in Jos,Nigeria.’ ians overPlateauCrisis.’ . Massacred Toll Recorded 17 January 22July. , Vol.42. Conflict Resolution:TheChallenge of Students, Women Protest Jos Attacks.’ au Crisis Vol. 171. June, pp112–24. on Elders’ Selfish Political Plateau State JudicialCom- Africa: TheJournal of the oreignnews4.html> Journal ofDemocracy , Vol. 13, No.2. Daily Champion This Day . Pittsburgh: The Round (Lagos). (Lagos). th

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