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National Park Service U.S. Department of the Interior

Natural Resource Program Center

Mojave Network Vital Signs Monitoring Plan

Natural Resources Report NPS/MOJN/NRR—2008/057 ON THE COVER From upper left to bottom right: Eureka , National Park; Bighorn Sheep on Wheeler Peak, National Park; Bear Poppy, Mead National Recreation Area; Desert Tortoise, Joshua Tree National Park; Cholla Cactus Garden, Joshua Tree National Park; Photos taken by NPS Staff Network Vital Signs Monitoring Plan

Natural Resource Report NPS/MOJN/NRR—2008/057 Alice L. Chung-MacCoubrey Mojave Desert Network, National Park Service 601 Way, Boulder City, NV 89005

Robert E. Truitt Mojave Desert Network, National Park Service 601 Nevada Way, Boulder City, NV 89005

Christopher C. Caudill University of , Department of Fish and Wildlife Moscow, ID 83844

Thomas J. Rodhouse Upper Columbia Basin Network, National Park Service, Central Community College, 2600 NW College Way - Ponderosa Building Bend, OR 97701

Kathryn Irvine Montana State University Department of Mathematical Sciences P.O. Box 172400, Bozeman, MT 59717

Joel R. Siderius University of Washington College of Forest Resources Box 352100, Seattle WA, 98195

Victoria K. Chang Mojave Desert Network, National Park Service, Joshua Tree National Park 74485 National Park Drive, Twentynine Palms, CA 92277

With contributions from (in alphabetical order): David Bedford, United States Geological Survey (USGS) Menlo Park, ; Todd Esque, USGS, Henderson Nevada; Sean Finn, USGS, Boise, Idaho; Kristina Heister, National Park Service (NPS) Valley Forge National Historical Park; Debra Hughson, NPS, Mojave National Preserve; David Miller, USGS, Menlo Park, California, Scott Newbold, NPS, Mojave Desert Inventory and Monitoring Network; Craig Palmer, University of Nevada Las Vegas (UNLV); Vanessa Truitt, UNLV; Robert Webb, USGS, Denver Colorado. Layout and design: Barbara BC Gleason/BGleason Design & Illustration, LLC.

September 2008 U.S. Department of Interior National Park Service Natural Resource Program Center Fort Collins, Colorado SierraMojave Nevada Desert Network Network

The Natural Resource Publication series addresses natural resource topics that are of interest and applicability to a broad readership in the National Park Service and to others in the management of natural resources, including the scientific community, the public, and the NPS conservation and environmental constituencies. Manuscripts are peer-reviewed to ensure that the information is scientifically credible, technically accurate, appropriately written for the intended audience, and is designed and published in a professional manner. Natural Resource Reports are the designated medium for disseminating high-priority, current natural resource management information with managerial application. The series targets a general, diverse audience, and may contain NPS policy considerations or address sensitive issues of management applicability. Examples of the diverse array of reports published in this series include vital signs monitoring plans; “how to” resource management papers; proceedings of resource management workshops or conferences; annual reports of resource programs or divisions of the Natural Resource Program Center; resource action plans; fact sheets; and regularly-published newsletters. Views, statements, findings, conclusions, recommendations and data in this report are solely those of the author(s) and do not necessarily reflect views and policies of the U.S. Department of the Interior, National Park Service. Mention of trade names or commercial products does not constitute endorsement or recommendation for use by the National Park Service. Printed copies of reports in these series may be produced in a limited quantity and they are only available as long as the supply lasts. This report is also available from the Natural Resource Publications Management website (http://www.nature.nps.gov/ publications/NRPM) on the Internet or by sending a request to the address on the back cover. Please cite this publication as: Chung-MacCoubrey, A. L., R. E. Truitt, C. C. Caudill, T. J. Rodhouse, K. M. Irvine, J. R. Siderius, and V. K. Chang. 2008. Mojave Desert Network vital signs monitoring plan. NPS/MOJN/NRR—2008/057. National Park Service, Fort Collins, Colorado.

NPS D—43, September 2008 ii Vital Signs Monitoring Plan Contents

Figures ...... vi Tables ...... vii Appendices ...... viii Acronyms ...... ix Executive Summary...... xi Acknowledgments...... xv Chapter 1 Introduction and Background...... 1 1.1 Guidance...... 1 1.1.1 Legislation...... 1 1.1.2 Justification for Natural Resource Monitoring...... 2 1.1.3 Goals of Vital Signs Monitoring in the Mojave Desert Network...... 3 1.2 Mojave Desert Network Overview...... 4 1.3 General Ecological Overview...... 9 1.3.1 Landforms and Geology...... 10 1.3.2 Regional Climate and the Role of Topography...... 10 1.3.3 Hydrology...... 12 1.3.4 Flora...... 12 1.3.5 Fauna...... 14 1.3.6 Resources of Special Ecological Significance...... 15 1.4 Natural Resource Threats and Management Concerns...... 16 1.4.1 Invasive Species...... 17 1.4.2 Water Quantity Alteration...... 18 1.4.3 Land Use Change/Development...... 18 1.4.4 Air Quality Degradation...... 18 1.4.5 Altered Disturbance Regime...... 19 1.4.6 Recreation/Visitation...... 19 1.4.7 Climate Change...... 19 1.4.8 Water Quality Degradation...... 20 1.4.9 Soil Alteration...... 21 1.4.10 ...... 21 1.5 Summary of Current and Past Monitoring...... 22 1.5.1 Air Quality Monitoring...... 22 1.5.2 Water Resources Monitoring in Mojave Desert Network Parks...... 23 Chapter 2 Conceptual Ecological Models...... 25 2.1 Introduction...... 25 2.2 Mojave Desert Network Conceptual Model Approach...... 25 2.3 Mojave Desert Network Framework Model...... 26 2.4 Dry Systems Model...... 29 2.4.1 ...... 31 2.4.2 Pinyon- Biome...... 33 2.4.3 Mixed Conifer Biome...... 33 2.4.4 Biome...... 34 2.5 Wet Systems Model...... 34 2.5.1 Groundwater...... 36 2.5.2 Spring Systems...... 37 2.5.3 Streams and Riparian Zones...... 38 2.5.4 Montane ...... 39 2.6 Conclusion...... 40

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Chapter 3 Vital Signs...... 41 3.1 Introduction...... 41 3.2 Overview of Vital Signs Selection Process...... 41 3.2.1 Lake Mead National Recreation Area Vital Signs Scoping Workshop (1999)... 42 3.2.2 Geologic Resource Evaluation Workshops (2003)...... 42 3.2.3 Park-Level Vital Signs Scoping Workshops (2003)...... 42 3.2.4 Network-Level Vital Signs Scoping Workshop (2004)...... 43 3.2.5 Selection of High-priority Vital Signs (2004)...... 44 3.2.6 Selection of Final Network Vital Signs (2005)...... 44 3.3 Justification for Vital Signs...... 44 3.3.1 Air and Climate...... 44 3.3.2 Geology and Soils...... 45 3.3.3 Water...... 47 3.3.4 Biological Integrity...... 48 3.3.5 Landscapes...... 51 3.4 Vital Signs Protocol Development Strategy...... 52 Chapter 4 Sampling Design...... 55 4.1 Introduction...... 55 4.2 Sampling Design Development...... 55 4.3 Sampling Design Concepts and Terminology...... 56 4.4 Sample Size Considerations and Magnitude of Change...... 60 4.5 Logistical Constraints of Sampling Designs...... 61 4.6 Overview of Sampling Designs for Mojave Desert Network Vital Signs...... 61 4.6.1 Example: Integrated Upland Protocol...... 62 Chapter 5 Sampling Protocols...... 65 5.1 Introduction...... 65 5.2 Protocol Development Summaries...... 65 5.3 Protocol Format and Content...... 65 5.4 Protocol Development Process...... 66 5.5 Protocol Overview and Development Schedule...... 67 Chapter 6 Data Management...... 73 6.1 Introduction...... 73 6.2 Goals and Objectives of Mojave Desert Network Data Management...... 73 6.3 Data Management Infrastructure and Systems Architecture...... 75 6.4 Data Management Plan Model...... 75 6.5 Data Management Roles and Responsibilities...... 76 6.6 Data Sources and Priorities...... 76 6.7 Data Management and the Project Lifecycle...... 77 6.8 Water Quality Data...... 78 6.9 Data Management Plan Maintenance...... 79 Chapter 7 Data Analysis and Reporting...... 81 7.1 Data Analysis...... 81 7.2 Communications and Reporting...... 84 7.2.1 Programmatic Reports and Review...... 84 7.2.2 Protocol-related Reports and Review...... 84 7.2.3 Science Communication...... 84 7.2.4 Interpretation and Outreach...... 85

iv Vital Signs Monitoring Plan Chapter 8 Administration and Implementation of the Monitoring Program...... 89 8.1 National and Regional Context...... 89 8.2 Program Location...... 89 8.3 Guidance from National and Regional Programs...... 89 8.4 Local Program Oversight and Direction...... 91 8.5 Staffing Plan...... 92 8.5.1 Mojave Desert Network Staff...... 92 8.5.2 Role of Park Staff and Cooperators...... 97 8.6 Integration with Park Operations...... 97 8.7 Partnerships...... 98 8.8 Program Review...... 99 Chapter 9 Schedule...... 101 9.1 Protocol Development...... 101 9.2 Sampling Frequency and Timing...... 106 Chapter 10 Budget...... 107 Chapter 11 Literature Cited...... 111 Glossary of Key Terms and Concepts...... 121

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Figures

Figure 1.1. Relationships among inventories, monitoring, research, and natural resource management activities in national parks...... 3 Figure 1.2. Parks of the Mojave Desert Network...... 5 Figure 1.3. Mojave Desert Network provinces...... 11 Figure 2.1. Hierarchy of models from framework description of ecosystems, to system and control models, and detailed models...... 26 Figure 2.2. Mojave Desert Network framework model, showing the four principal systems, their components, interactions, and processes...... 27 Figure 2.3. Mojave Desert Network conceptual model for dry systems...... 30 Figure 2.4. Vegetation zones are determined by specific moisture and temperature regimes, which shift with elevation and latitude...... 31 Figure 2.5. Mojave Desert Network conceptual model for wet systems...... 35 Figure 4.1. Examples of five different revisit designs...... 59 Figure 4.2. Site locations from an unequal probability generalized random-tessellation stratified sample for the Integrated Upland protocol at Joshua Tree National Park...... 64 Figure 6.1 Understanding data...... 73 Figure 6.2 Management sections of the Mojave Desert Network Data and Information Plan...76 Figure 6.3 Project workflow and data management activities...... 78 Figure 6.4 Simplified flow diagram for water quality data...... 79 Figure 7.1 Conceptual diagram of adaptive management illustrating the iterative cycle of monitoring, assessment, and decisions...... 81 Figure 7.2 Relationships between analyses, reporting, research, and the Mojave Desert Network program goals...... 82 Figure 8.1. Pacific West Inventory & Monitoring Program networks...... 90

vi Vital Signs Monitoring Plan Executive Summary

Tables

Table 1.1 Mission Statements for Mojave Desert Network parks...... 2 Table 1.2 GPRA goals specific to parks and relevant to development of a monitoring plan for the Mojave Desert Network...... 4 Table 1.3 Area and elevation of Mojave Desert Network parks...... 6 Table 1.4 Relative importance of Mojave Desert Network ecosystem stressors...... 17 Table 1.5 Record of historic (H, > 5 years ago) or current (C) monitoring data for the Mojave Desert Network Vital Signs across park units...... 23 Table 1.6 Weather and air quality (AQ) monitoring stations in (‘on-site’) or near Mojave Desert Network parks...... 24 Table 2.1 Anthropogenic drivers and stressors, their potential ecological effects, and relevant Vital Signs for the Mojave Desert Network...... 29 Table 2.2 Characteristics of springs related to three kinds of aquifers common in the Mojave Desert Network...... 38 Table 3.1 The final 20 Mojave Desert Network Vital Signs are presented within the context of the NPS Ecological Monitoring Framework...... 46 Table 3.2 Protocols planned for development, Vital Signs addressed, and relevant parks.... 53 Table 4.1 Summary of sampling design components for each of 10 protocols planned for development...... 62 Table 5.1 The 10 monitoring protocols to be developed and implemented between 2008- 2012...... 69 Table 6.1 Natural resource data provided on Mojave Desert Network and National Inventory and Monitoring Program websites...... 75 Table 6.2 Roles and responsibilities related to network data management...... 77 Table 7.1 Four approaches to analyzing monitoring data and the individuals responsible for analyses...... 83 Table 7.2 Summary of reporting mechanisms to be used by the Mojave Desert Network... 86 Table 8.1 Mojave Desert Network Board of Directors, current members, and their roles...... 91 Table 8.2 Mojave Desert Network Technical Committee, current members, and their roles...... 92 Table 8.3 Proposed staffing plan for different phases of the Mojave Desert Network monitoring program...... 94 Table 8.4 Description and schedule for various review processes in the Mojave Desert Network monitoring program...... 99 Table 9.1 Proposed schedule for protocol development and implementation for the Mojave Desert Network...... 102 Table 9.2 Frequency, timing, and type of sampling for the 10 protocols addressing 17 Vital Signs for the Mojave Desert Network parks...... 106 Table 10.1 Summary budget for the Mojave Desert Network Vital Signs Monitoring Program in the first year of implementation (FY 2009)...... 108 Table 10.2 Detailed budget for the Mojave Desert Vital Signs Monitoring Program in the first year of implementation after review and approval of the monitoring plan...... 109

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Appendices

Appendix A Network Park Descriptions Appendix B Summary of Federal Legislation and Policy Related to Inventory and Monitoring Appendix C Ecological Context of Network Parks Appendix D Network Water Resources and Water Quality Standards: An Overview Appendix E Resources Threats and Management Concerns Related to Level 2 Vital Signs Appendix F Existing Monitoring Programs Relevant to Mojave Desert Network Parks Appendix G Conceptual Ecological Models Appendix H Network Vital Signs Scoping Workshop Report, May 25-27, 2004 Las Vegas, NV Appendix I Protocol Development Summaries Appendix J Data and Information Management Plan Appendix K Network Charter

viii Vital Signs Monitoring Plan Acronyms

AARWP Annual Administrative Report and Work Plan ARD Air Resources Division ATB Across the Board BLM Bureau of Land Management BOD Board of Directors BSC Biological Soil Crusts CAA Clean Air Act CESU Cooperative Ecosystem Studies Unit DEVA Death Valley National Park DOD Department of Defense ENSO El Niño Southern Oscillation EPA Environmental Protection Agency FTE Full-time Equivalent FY Fiscal Year GIS Geographical Information System GRBA Great Basin National Park GPRA Government Performance and Results Act GRTS Generalized Random-Tessellation Stratified GSA General Services Administration I&M Inventory and Monitoring JOTR Joshua Tree National Park LAME Lake Mead National Recreation Area MANZ Manzanar National Historic Site MOJA Mojave National Preserve MOJN Mojave Desert Network NPS National Park Service NRAC Natural Resource Advisory Committee NRPC Natural Resources Program Center PARA Grand Canyon-Parashant National Monument PDO Pacific Decadal Oscillation PDS Protocol Development Summary PWR Pacific West Region SOP Standard Operating Procedure TC Technical Committee USGS United States Geological Survey VSMP Vital Signs Monitoring Plan WASO Washington Support Office WRD Water Resources Division

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Executive Summary

Knowing the condition of natural Cemetery monument at resources in national parks is Manzanar National Historic fundamental to the National Park Site, one of the seven parks in Service’s (NPS) mission to manage Mojave Desert Network. park resources “unimpaired for the Photo courtesy Alice Chung-MacCoubrey. enjoyment of future generations.” Thus, NPS has implemented the “Vital Signs Monitoring Program,” a long-term ecological monitoring program that will provide rigorous, scientifically- based information on the status and trends of park ecosystems. With this information, park managers will be better able to evaluate complex and challenging resource issues and make sound decisions that result in long- term protection of park ecosystems. This information on park resource condition will also be useful towards park planning, research, education, and public awareness.

Under the Vital Signs Monitoring duties and collaborate with park staff Program, 270 park units were organized and other programs and agencies to into 32 networks that linked parks with implement an integrated and long- similar geographic and natural resource term program to monitor the network’s characteristics. The program created highest-priority Vital Signs. No additional and funded Mojave Desert Network funds were allocated from the National (MOJN) to assess ecosystem condition I&M Program after the inclusion of in six park units in Arizona, California, PARA within the network, thus making and Nevada, including Death Valley partnerships and cost-sharing paramount National Park, Great Basin National to the program’s success. Park, Joshua Tree National Park, Lake The MOJN Vital Signs Monitoring Mead National Recreation Area, Claret cup hedgehog Plan (VSMP) provides a framework for Manzanar National Historic Site, and (Echinocereus triglochidatus), Mojave National Preserve. After Grand MOJN’s long-term natural resource Grand Canyon-Parashant Canyon-Parashant National Monument monitoring program. The result of an National Monument. Photo (PARA) was created in 2000, it was extensive, multi-year planning process, courtesy Kari Yanskey. informally included in the set of parks the VSMP addresses all aspects of the addressed by the MOJN Inventory & planned monitoring program, from Monitoring (I&M) Program. The MOJN program goals and administration to encompasses the largest total park sampling design, data analysis, and area of all the networks in the lower 48 reporting. Specifically, the MOJN VSMP states (combined acreage of 3.3 million provides background information hectares or 9.7 percent of the total land about the network parks, describes area managed by NPS). conceptual models used to guide and support program development, identifies The network monitoring program the network’s 20 final Vital Signs, the is intended to provide the minimum process for selecting them, and their infrastructure needed to track the grouping into protocols, discusses condition of park resources and is sampling concepts and preliminary designed to complement, not replace, sampling designs, describes how data existing park monitoring and other will be managed, analyzed, and reported, agency monitoring programs. Funding proposes a staffing plan, implementation for the MOJN supports a core, schedule, and budget, and outlines professional staff who perform network the administrative framework and

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Leconte’s barrel cactus During Phase II, the network (Ferocactus cylindraceus collaborated with park staff and scientists var. lecontei), Grand Canyon- from multiple agencies and universities Parashant National Monument. to develop conceptual ecological models Photo courtesy Kari Yanskey. for park ecosystems and to produce a final list of network Vital Signs. Chapter 2 presents an overview of the conceptual models, which contain four levels of increasing complexity and detail. Described in Chapter 2 are the major concepts underlying the overarching model, a short synopsis of the dry and wet system models, and short descriptions of and components mechanisms for program oversight. within dry and wet systems. The The MOJN VSMP (or Phase III plan) conceptual models are presented in their represents the culmination of 5 years entirety in Appendix G. of planning and is built upon previous versions of this plan developed during Using the results of the early planning Phase I (2005) and Phase II (2006). and design work, the network hosted a series of park- and network-level During Phase I of development, workshops to produce a final list of the network compiled background Vital Signs (Chapter 3). Workshop information about park resources, participants included park and network threats, and management concerns staff and individuals from other and current and historic monitoring federal and state agencies, academic efforts. This information is presented and research institutions, and non- in Chapter 1, along with an ecological profit organizations. Workshops were overview of network parks. Also conducted over the course of 3 years described in Chapter 1 are the policy (2003-2005) and culminated in a final list and management contexts for the of 20 Vital Signs. The network proposes monitoring program, including the goals to address 17 of these Vital Signs and objectives for the MOJN monitoring Beavertail pricklypear (Opuntia through 10 protocols and to postpone effort. Appendixes A to F contain basilaris var. basilaris), Grand development of the remaining 3 Vital additional information used in program Canyon-Parashant National Signs until the first set are complete. The development. Monument. Photo courtesy final report from the 2004 Network- Kari Yanskey. Level Vital Signs Scoping Workshop describes the process for prioritizing and ranking Vital Signs, presents the resulting prioritized list of candidate Vital Signs, provides justifications for rankings, and identifies potential monitoring questions, partners, and funding sources (Appendix H). During Phase III, network staff developed strategies for monitoring Vital Signs, identified procedures for managing, analyzing, and reporting data, identified necessary staff and cooperators for developing and implementing monitoring protocols, and devised a schedule and budget for implementation. The results of these planning efforts are summarized in Chapters 4-10 and Appendix I. In Chapter 4, we describe sampling

xii Vital Signs Monitoring Plan Executive Summary

Vital Signs and monitoring protocols for the Mojave Desert Network: This table identifies protocols planned (or postponed) for development, Vital Signs addressed, and their primary funding source. Protocol names in bold are those funded primarily by the network. Primary vital signs protocol name addressed funding source Ozone Funded by another Air Quality Wet and Dry Deposition Visibility & Particulate Matter program Funded by another Climate Basic Meteorology program Soil Erosion & Deposition Soil Disturbance Soil Chemistry & Nutrient Cycling Integrated Upland MOJN-funded Soil Hydrologic Function Vegetation Change Biological Soil Crusts Riparian Vegetation Vegetation Change MOJN-funded Riparian Birds Riparian Bird Communities MOJN-funded Combination of MOJN and Invasive/Exotic Plants Invasive/Exotic Plants other program funding Fire and Fuel Dynamics Funded by another Fire and Fuel Dynamics program Groundwater Dynamics & Chemistry Groundwater and Surface Water Dynamics MOJN-funded Springs Surface Water Chemistry Surface Water Dynamics Streams and Lakes MOJN-funded Surface Water Chemistry Landscape Dynamics Landscape Dynamics MOJN-funded

Small Mammals Small Mammal Communities Development is postponed

Reptile Communities Reptile Communities Development is postponed At-Risk Populations At-Risk Populations Development is postponed concepts, steps, and considerations Monitoring protocols are detailed study for developing sampling designs and plans that explain how data are to be summarize the spatial and temporal collected, managed, analyzed, and sampling designs proposed for each reported. Well-developed monitoring protocol. The network will use a protocols ensure standardization combination of random and nonrandom of methods among individuals and sampling designs, depending on the successive staff, allow documentation monitoring objectives. For random of changes in methods, and are a key sampling designs, we will consider the component of quality assurance. Over generalized random-tessellation stratified the next 3-5 years, network staff and approach, which assigns a random cooperators will develop 10 monitoring sample of sites to panels that are visited protocols to address Vital Signs for on a rotational basis. In other cases, which MOJN staff will play a lead role protocols will require the use of hand- in field data collection and/or analysis picked, nonrandom, judgment samples and reporting of the monitoring results. (or index sites) based on management In Chapter 5, we describe the specific priorities. Where possible, sampling for format and content of each protocol, Vital Signs will be co-located in space identify the process for developing and time to improve efficiency and depth protocols, and summarize key elements of ecological understanding. of Protocol Development Summaries (PDSs; Appendix I). PDSs are short National Park Service xiii SierraMojave Nevada Desert Network Network

park managers and superintendents, scientific collaborators, educators – who might have different requirements and needs. In Chapter 7, we summarize the network’s plan for analysis and reporting, including types of analytical procedures, communication and reporting tools, responsible parties, and intended audiences. Successful program implementation will also rely upon appropriate staffing and administrative oversight (Chapter 8). MOJN’s long-term monitoring program will be developed and implemented through a combination of core network staff and additional personnel, which will vary with programmatic phase (Implementation Phase [FY 2009-11] or Monitoring Phase [FY 2012 and on]). The network receives general program guidance and direction through the National I&M Program Manager and the Regional I&M The Mojave desert supports Coordinator. Local program oversight colorful biota at a variety of summaries that provide specific and direction is achieved through the scales, including these lichens information on how each protocol MOJN Board of Directors (BOD) and at Grand Canyon-Parashant will be developed, by whom, using Technical Committee. Specific roles and National Monument. Photo what methods, and according to what responsibilities of these oversight groups courtesy Kari Yanskey. timeframe. In Chapter 9, we provide a are described in Chapter 8 and the schedule for development, testing, peer- MOJN Network Charter (Appendix K). review, and implementation of each of the monitoring protocols. In FY 2008, the network’s annual operating budget included $860,000 Data and information management are from the NPS Vital Signs Monitoring central to the MOJN I&M Program and Program and $76,900 from the NPS a critical component of any successful Water Resources Division. These funding long-term monitoring program. To assure levels are expected to remain relatively and maintain data integrity, MOJN fixed, except for potential across-the- will follow procedures outlined in the board rescissions and periodic cost-of- MOJN Data Management Plan (DMP; living increases. These funds are held in Appendix J) and summarized in Chapter Washington Office base accounts and 6. The DMP documents our strategy are transferred annually through the for ensuring that data collected by the Pacific West Regional Office to Lake program are subjected to rigorous quality Mead NRA, the network’s host park. assurance and control procedures, and All funds are managed by the MOJN refers to other documents and resources Network Coordinator under the auspices for specific procedures. The plan also of the BOD. Chapter 10 provides an addresses how data and information will expanded description of the network be made available to others for decision budget, major categories of expenses, making, research, and education. allocations towards data management, Data analysis, interpretation, and and a detailed budget for the first year of reporting are crucial components in implementation (FY 2009). the development and implementation of the MOJN I&M Program. Data compiled from monitoring projects will be used by diverse audiences – NPS

xiv Vital Signs Monitoring Plan Acknowledgments

The Mojave Desert Network’s (MOJN) We particularly want to thank the Vital Signs Monitoring Plan could MOJN Board of Directors (BOD) for not have been completed without the their support, leadership, and advocacy. commitment, hard work, and support Recent and current BOD members of network staff, park staff, and external include JT Reynolds (Chair), Jeff cooperators, and strong leadership at the Bradybaugh, Andrew Ferguson, Les national, regional, and local levels. Inafuku, Cindy Nielsen, Curt Sauer, William K. Dickinson, Tom Leatherman, We thank Kristina Heister, the preceding and Dennis Schramm. We would not MOJN Network Coordinator, for all have been able to progress without the her hard work and immense dedication participation, advice, and support of in guiding the network through the the MOJN Technical Committee (TC). first two phases of development and TC members include Bob Bryson, Paul laying the groundwork for Phase III. We DePrey, David Ek, Angela Evenden, thank Craig Palmer who pioneered and Linda Greene, Debra Hughson, Tom continues to support data management Leatherman, Kent Turner, Larry for the network. Special thanks to Whalon, Tod Williams, and Kari Yanskey. Upper Columbia Basin Network for their assistance on the draft Vital Signs We are indebted to all the networks Monitoring Plan. Marieke Jackson, an that have submitted reports before SCA intern, enthusiastically assisted MOJN, upon which we greatly relied for with report assembly and presentation. developing this monitoring plan. Draft Members of the data mining team and final monitoring plans from which (Stacy Holt, Jeanne Taylor, Stacy parts of our report are drawn include Manson) provided outstanding support Upper Columbia Basin Network (Garrett investigating and reporting background et al. 2007: chapters 4, 7, 9), Klamath information for protocol development, Network (Sarr et al. 2007: chapters 7, related inventories, and this report. 10), Southern Network (Thomas et al. 2005: chapter 9), Central External cooperators and park resource Alaska Network (MacCluskie and staff were critical in developing protocol Oakley 2005: chapter 8), development summaries and advancing Network (Mutch et al. 2007: chapters protocol development efforts, including 4, 5, 7-10), and Gulf Coast Network Alice Miller, Matt Brooks, Luke Sabala, (Segura et al. 2006: chapter 5). Sandee Dingman, Tasha LaDoux, Burt Pendleton, Debbie Soukup, Michael Lastly, we thank Penny Latham, Pacific Vamstad, and Bryan Hamilton. We thank West Region I&M Coordinator, for her those involved in the network’s Water patient guidance, tireless contributions, Resources Working Group, particularly and participation in the MOJN BOD Debra Hughson, Gretchen Baker, Don and many other network activities, and Sada, and Terry Fisk, for their guidance Steve Fancy, NPS National Monitoring on water quality and water-related Vital Program Leader, who is largely Signs issues. This monitoring plan also responsible for the success of the NPS incorporates significant work from I&M Program. conceptual models and other supporting documents for Phase I and II prepared by the U.S. Geological Survey, Western Regional Science Center and Western Ecological Research Center. Special thanks to David Miller and Todd Esque, who headed the work group consisting of David Bedford, Sean Finn, Debra Hughson, and Robert Webb.

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Chapter 1: Introduction and Background

1.1 Guidance management processes of the National Park System. Section 5934 of the Act The National Park Service (NPS) is Monitoring is a requires the Secretary of the Interior implementing a strategy designed central component to develop a program of “inventory to institutionalize natural resource and monitoring of National Park of natural resource inventory and monitoring on a System resources to establish baseline programmatic basis throughout the stewardship in the information and to provide information agency. The effort was undertaken to National Park Service, on the long-term trends in the condition ensure that the approximately 270 park of National Park System resources.” A and in conjunction units with significant natural resources summary of federal legislation and policy possess the resource information with natural resource related to the inventory and monitoring needed for effective, science-based inventories and efforts can be found in Appendix B. managerial decision-making and research, provides the resource protection. The national The 2001 NPS Management Policies information needed strategy consists of a framework (NPS 2001a) updated previous policy having three major components: (1) and specifically directed that “natural for effective, science- completion of basic resource inventories systems in the National Park System, based decision- upon which monitoring efforts can be and the human influences upon them, making and resource based; (2) creation of experimental will be monitored to detect change. The Prototype Monitoring Programs to Service will use the results of monitoring protection. evaluate alternative monitoring designs and research to understand the detected and strategies; and (3) implementation change and to develop appropriate of operational monitoring of critical management actions.” parameters (“Vital Signs”) in all natural resource parks (NPS 2005a). The Government Performance and Results Act (GPRA) is central to NPS 1.1.1 Legislation operations, including the Inventory and Monitoring (I&M) Program. The NPS NPS managers are directed by federal has developed a national strategic plan law and NPS policies to know the status identifying key goals to be met (NPS and trends in the condition of natural 2001a). A list of the national GPRA goals resources under their stewardship relevant to MOJN parks is located in in order to fulfill the NPS mission Table 1.2. In addition to the national (NPS 1916) of leaving these resources strategic goals, each park unit has a “unimpaired for the enjoyment of future 5-year plan that includes specific park generations.” Congress strengthened the GPRA goals. Many of these park specific NPS’s protective function, and provided goals are directly related to natural language important to recent decisions resource monitoring needs. about resource impairment, when it amended the Organic Act in 1978. The NPS Water Resources Division Along with national legislation, enabling provides explicit guidance and funding legislation (Appendix A) and mission for the water quality component of statements (Table 1.1) for Mojave each of the 32 network’s monitoring Desert Network (MOJN) parks (“park” programs. Design and implementation hereafter is used in a general sense to of water quality monitoring is fully refer to national parks, monuments, integrated with the network Vital Signs preserves, and national historic sites, all monitoring design process (including of which occur in the MOJN) provide staffing, planning, design, etc.) to justification, guidance, and context for facilitate integration within the context natural resource management programs, of a comprehensive network monitoring including inventory and monitoring. program. The NPS goal is to rely on its own uniform monitoring data and use it More recently, the National Parks to protect water resources. Monitoring Omnibus Management Act of 1998 (NPS of water quality also is supported 1998) established the framework for fully through legislation, policy, and guidance integrating natural resource monitoring described above, including the 1916 and other science activities into the Organic Act (NPS 1916), National Parks National Park Service 1 SierraMojave Nevada Desert Network Network

Table 1.1. Mission Statementsa for Mojave Desert Network parks.

Park name park mission statement

Death Valley National Park Death Valley National Park dedicates itself to protecting significant desert features that provide (DEVA) world class scenic, scientific, and educational opportunities for visitors and academics to explore and study.

Great Basin National Park The mission of Great Basin National Park is to preserve for the benefit, inspiration, and enjoyment (GRBA) of present and future generations a representative segment of the Great Basin of the and to promote an understanding of the natural and cultural heritage of the entire physiographic region.

Joshua Tree National Park The National Park Service at Joshua Tree National Park preserves and protects a representative (JOTR) area of the Colorado and Mojave and the natural and cultural resources for the benefit and enjoyment of present and future generations. The park includes rich biological and geological diversity, cultural history, recreational resources, and outstanding opportunities for scientific study.

Lake Mead National We provide diverse inland water recreational opportunities in a spectacular desert setting for Recreation Area (LAME) present and future generations.

Manzanar National Manzanar National Historic Site dedicates itself to protecting the physical remnants of the Historic Site (MANZ) internment camp and telling the story of the internment of over 110,000 individuals of Japanese ancestry during World War II in an accurate and balanced way that represents diverse viewpoints and beliefs.

Mojave National Preserve Mojave National Preserve was established to preserve outstanding natural, cultural, and scenic (MOJA) resources while providing for scientific, educational, and recreational interests.

Grand Canyon-Parashant Grand Canyon-Parashant is a model of land management for the BLM and NPS that conserves its National Monument natural, scientific, and historic resources and includes ecological restoration and protection in a (PARA) broad ecosystem context, while honoring the history and living traditions of the people who came before us: “the place where the west stays wild.” a Mission statements obtained from park General Management Plans (NPS 1992a; 1995; 1996; 1999b; 2000; 2001b; 2005b).

Omnibus Management Act (NPS 1998), of natural resources that park managers and Natural Resource Challenge (NPS are directed to preserve. NPS managers 1999a). Each network, as part of the Vital across the country are confronted with Signs Monitoring Program, is required increasingly complex and challenging to: (1) determine priorities for impaired issues that require a broad-based water and pristine water monitoring; understanding of the status and trends (2) define site-specific monitoring of park resources as a foundation for objectives; and (3) develop detailed making decisions, working with other water quality monitoring plans. agencies, and the public for the benefit of those resources. 1.1.2 Justification for Natural Resource Monitoring The challenge of protecting and managing a park’s natural resources The intent of the NPS I&M Program is requires a multi-agency, ecosystem to track a subset of physical, chemical, approach because parks are open and biological elements and processes systems, with threats such as air and of park ecosystems that are selected water pollution, or invasive species, to represent the overall health or originating outside of the park’s condition of park resources, known boundaries. No single spatial or or hypothesized effects of stressors, or temporal scale is appropriate for all elements that have important human system components and processes. The values or resource significance, known appropriate scale for understanding and as “Vital Signs.” This subset of resources effectively managing a resource might be and processes is part of the total suite at the species, population, community, or 2 Vital Signs Monitoring Plan Chapter 1: Introduction & Background

Figure 1.1. Relationships among inventories, monitoring, research, and natural resource man- agement activities in national parks (modified from Jenkins et al. 2002). landscape level. This reality may require Understanding the dynamic nature of a regional, national, or international park ecosystems and the consequences effort to understand the resource. of human activities is essential for Monitoring is a central component of management decision-making aimed natural resource stewardship in the NPS, to maintain, enhance, or restore the and in conjunction with natural resource ecological integrity of park ecosystems inventories and research, provides and to avoid, minimize, or mitigate the information needed for effective, ecological threats to these systems science-based managerial decision- (Roman and Barrett 1999). making and resource protection (Figure 1.1). Ecological monitoring 1.1.3 Goals of Vital Signs Monitoring establishes reference conditions for in the Mojave Desert Network natural resources from which future The NPS Servicewide (or National) I&M changes can be detected. Site-specific Program has defined long-term goals to information provided through natural comply with legal requirements, to fully resource monitoring is needed to implement NPS policy, and to provide identify change in complex, variable, park managers with the data they need to and imperfectly understood ecosystems understand and manage park resources. and to determine whether observed changes are within historic levels of The National and MOJN goals for Vital variability or may indicate unwanted Signs Monitoring are: influences. Thus, monitoring data help 1. Determine status and trends in define the typical limits of variation in selected indicators of the condition park resources by augmenting historic of park ecosystems to allow managers data, and when put into a landscape to make better-informed decisions context, monitoring provides the basis and to work more effectively with for determining meaningful change in other agencies and individuals for the ecosystems. Monitoring results may also benefit of park resources. be used to determine what constitutes 2. Provide early warning of abnormal impairment and to identify the need to conditions of selected resources to initiate or change management practices. help develop effective mitigation National Park Service 3 SierraMojave Nevada Desert Network Network

Table 1.2. GPRA goals specific to parksa and relevant to development of a monitoring plan for the Mojave Desert Network.

GPRA Goal Goal # DEVa grba Jotr lame manz moja

Category 1a: Natural and cultural resources and associated values are protected, restored, and maintained in good condition and managed within their broader ecosystem context.

Disturbed Lands Restored Ia1A X X X X X Exotic Plant Species Ia1B X X X X X Land Health – Wetlandsb Ia1C X Land Health – Riparian and Stream Areasb Ia1D X Land Health – Uplandb Ia1E X Land Health – Mined Landsb Ia1G X X Threatened and Endangered Species Ia2 X X X X X Species of Management Concern Ia(0)2B X X X X Exotic Animals Ia2C X X X X Air Quality and Wilderness Values Ia3 X X X Surface Water Quality Ia4 X X X X X Water Quantity Ia4B X Cultural Landscapes on the CLI Ia7 X X X X Paleontological Resources Ia9 X X X X

Category 1b: The NPS contributes to knowledge about natural and cultural resources and associated values; management decisions about resources and visitors are based on adequate scholarly and scientific information.

Park Natural Resource Data Sets Ib01 X X X X X X Cultural Landscapes Baseline Ib2B X X X X X X Vital Signs Identified Ib3A X X X X X X Vital Signs Monitored Ib3B X X X X X X a As of September 1, 2008, PARA was still developing their park strategic and planning documents. b Goal targets will be established after parks have completed baseline and status determinations. It is expected that several MOJN parks will adopt one or more of the land health goals.

measures and reduce costs of environmental change, provide insights management. into the ecological consequences of 3. Provide data to better understand the change, and help decision-makers dynamic nature and condition of park determine if observed changes suggest a ecosystems and to provide reference change in management practices. Clearly points for comparisons with other, articulated goals and objectives help altered environments. define all aspects of a program including the choice of Vital Signs to be monitored. 4. Provide data to meet certain legal MOJN objectives will be developed for and congressional mandates related each individual vital sign. to natural resource protection and visitor enjoyment. 1.2 Mojave Desert Network 5. Provide a means of measuring Overview progress toward performance goals. In 1999, the NPS launched the Natural The defined goals drive action in Resource Challenge, a nationwide conceptual design and monitoring program designed to strengthen natural protocol development. Monitoring resource management and to guide and data are intended to detect long-term fund inventory and monitoring efforts in 4 Vital Signs Monitoring Plan Chapter 1: Introduction & Background

Figure 1.2. Parks of the Mojave Desert Network. our nation’s parks (NPS 1999a). Under (JOTR), Lake Mead National Recreation the program, approximately 270 park Area (LAME), Manzanar National units were organized into 32 networks, Historic Site (MANZ), and Mojave with individual networks comprised National Preserve (MOJA) (Figure 1.2). of parks that share similar geographic After Grand Canyon-Parashant National and natural resource characteristics. Monument (PARA) was created in 2000, The program created and funded the it was informally included in the set of MOJN to assess ecosystem condition parks addressed by the MOJN I&M in six parks in Arizona, California, and Program. No additional funds were Nevada, including Death Valley National allocated from the National program to Park (DEVA), Great Basin National Park the network following the inclusion of (GRBA), Joshua Tree National Park PARA in the MOJN.

National Park Service 5 SierraMojave Nevada Desert Network Network

Table 1.3. Area and elevation of Mojave Desert Network parks.

area elevation PArk Name abbreviation (ha) range (m)

Death Valley National Park DEVA 1,374,420 -86 to 3,368 Great Basin National Park GRBA 31,194 1,615 to 3,981 Joshua Tree National Park JOTR 321,327 0 to 1,772 Lake Mead National Recreation Area LAME 521,346a 152 to 1,719 Manzanar National Historic Site MANZ 329 1,158 Mojave National Preserve MOJA 619,923 274 to 2,438 Grand Canyon-Parashant National Monument PARA 424,242b 366 to 2,447 Total 3,292,781 -86 to 3,981

a Excludes 84,358 hectares of NPS-owned land currently within LAME boundary that is now part of PARA; total park acreage for LAME including NPS-owned land within PARA is 605,704 hectares. b Total size of PARA includes 84,358 hectares of NPS-owned land, 327,288 hectares of BLM-managed lands, and 12,595 hectares of non-federal lands.

The seven NPS parks in the MOJN As the northern-most MOJN park, network encompass a total of nearly GRBA lies entirely within the Great 3.3 million hectares of land and include Basin desert region and the South Snake vertical relief that ranges from the lowest Range in east-central Nevada. GRBA point in in DEVA (-86 has a rugged landscape exhibiting high m a.s.l.) to the alpine peaks of GRBA elevation, snow-covered peaks (nearly (3,981 m a.s.l.) (Table 1.3). A majority of 10% of its land is above 3,000 meters) the MOJN parks sit between the Sierra separated by basins and valley Nevada to the west (MANZ, DEVA), the floors. It is a temperate desert with hot north-south trending Basin and Range summers and cold, snowy winters due province to the north and east (MOJA, to greater volumes of summer rains DEVA, LAME, PARA), the Transverse and winter snows. Due in part to its ranges to the south (JOTR), and the distance from urban centers, GRBA South (GRBA) in the north contains many relatively pristine natural (Brussard et al. 1998). resources, and often has some of the best visibility in the nation. GRBA is The MOJN is predominantly semi-arid known for its glacial formations and to arid, comprised of three contiguous karst geology, which include at least 42 desert ecosystems (Great Basin, Mojave, natural caverns that harbor a variety of and Sonoran deserts), which exhibit biological and physical resources. One of a southward gradient of increasing the most decorated caves in the nation temperature and decreasing average is Lehman Caves, which is the longest elevation. Because of its intermediate cave in Nevada. Ten perennial stream position along this climatic and systems and six subalpine lakes support elevational gradient, the Mojave desert riparian habitats and greater biological is considered to be the transitional than surrounding, more arid zone between the Great Basin and areas and thus have local and regional Sonoran deserts. Three of the MOJN ecological significance. The combination parks (GRBA, MANZ, and portions of a diverse moisture gradient, geologic of PARA) are located in the northern history, and the isolation of higher part of the MOJN, which is considered alpine/subalpine areas in GRBA produce “high (elevation) or cold (climate) endemic plant and animal species that desert” environment. The remaining occur nowhere else. parks (DEVA, JOTR, LAME, MOJA, and portions of PARA) are located in the DEVA lies southwest of GRBA, near southern part of the MOJN, in a “hot the southern boundary of the Great desert” environment. Basin desert and the northern boundary 6 Vital Signs Monitoring Plan Chapter 1: Introduction & Background of the Mojave desert. Two mountain ranges flank DEVA to the west and east, producing dramatic topographic relief and landscape views. Renowned for its exposed, complex, and diverse geology and tectonics, DEVA contains one of only two active rift faults known in the world. DEVA includes the lowest point in North America (Badwater, -86 m b.s.l.), receives the least in the U.S., and claims the nation’s highest and world’s second highest recorded temperature. In addition, the park is one of the only places on earth where all five major types occur in close proximity. Because “hot desert” species are found at lower elevations and “cold desert” species are found at higher elevations, DEVA supports diverse assemblages of plant and animal life and has one of the nation’s most significant fossil records. Various habitats such as Aspen and talus slopes in Baker Canyon, Great Basin National Park. Photo courtesy springs, drainages, playas, sand dunes, Erik Beever, USGS. and subterranean pools are home to a plethora of endemic species that have adapted to DEVA’s unique and harsh environment (e.g., Devils Hole pupfish, [Cyprinodon diabolis]). To the west of DEVA, MANZ is located at the northwestern edge of the Mojave desert, adjacent to the Great Basin and Sierran montane area. The park is shielded from moist ocean air masses by the Sierras and predominantly experiences a high-desert type climate. Originally established as a cultural historic site, MANZ has significant biological diversity that is highest along a natural, but intermittent creek, which flows west to east through the park. Natural vegetation at MANZ is primarily Great Basin sagebrush scrub (Artemisia spp.), saltbush (Atriplex spp.), desert,” Colorado Plateau vegetation. Dune complex near Furnace rabbitbrush (Ericameria spp.), and a The intersection of these biomes is a Creek, Death Valley National variety of forbs, cacti, and grasses. distinctive feature giving rise to elevated Park. NPS Photo. A recent addition to the MOJN, biological diversity in this park (Stevens PARA was created by presidential 2001). Geologically, the monument is exemplary, providing exceptional proclamation on 11 January 2000 and insights into the geologic history of the is jointly managed by the NPS and Colorado Plateau. The most prominent Bureau of Land Management (BLM). topographic feature within the PARA lies on the northeast edge of monument is the Shivwits Plateau, which the Mojave desert, at the boundary is physiographically and stratigraphically between floristic provinces, with low typical of the Grand Canyon region. elevations represented by classic, “hot PARA offers impressive landscapes, desert,” Mojave desertscrub, and remote and open spaces, natural caves upper elevations represented by “cold National Park Service 7 SierraMojave Nevada Desert Network Network

deserts (NPS 1999b). A smaller portion of the recreational area falls within the Colorado Plateau Province. The Colorado River’s former channel and associated lake shoreline, in combination with the park’s desert springs, provide important opportunities to preserve one of the Southwest’s most threatened habitats—the desert riparian community. Due in large part to these rare, riparian communities, the park supports significant populations of approximately 100 species of special concern and species at the limits of their distributional range. South of both LAME and DEVA is MOJA, which lies in the south-central Mojave desert and has strong floristic Pinyon/Juniper woodland at Grand Canyon-Parashant National Monument. NPS influences from the Photo. along its southern boundary. MOJA encompasses a vast expanse of “hot desert” set among a landscape of mountain ranges, high elevation sand dunes (Kelso Dunes), great mesas, and extinct volcanoes (NPS 2000). Similar to DEVA, the dunes in MOJA constitute unique environments with specially adapted endemic plants and animals. In addition to far-reaching vistas, MOJA offers the densest population of Joshua trees (Yucca brevifolia) in the world. With an extensive variety of habitats, including species and landforms only found in the Mojave desert, MOJA provides opportunities for scientists and visitors alike to conduct research and view the diverse wealth of resources within this unique desert preserve. Also, approximately half of the lands within the preserve have been designated Critical Habitat for the desert tortoise, Gopherus agassizii, a species federally The Sierra Nevada Mountains and sinkholes, volcanic cinder cones listed as threatened (NPS 2000). from Manzanar National and basalt flows, and significant fossil Historic Site. NPS Photo. resources (e.g., invertebrates, sponges). The southern-most park in the MOJN, JOTR, lies at the transition between Adjacent to and south of PARA is the Mojave and Sonoran deserts, LAME, which encompasses 229 km and within the west-east oriented of the Colorado River and is centered Southern California Mountains. In this on two artificial lakes, Lake Mead and compressed transition zone between Lake Mohave. It is the premier inland three ecosystems, the park supports water-recreation area in the West and a unique diversity of desert flora and primary source of drinking water for fauna. Providing major habitat for its . LAME lies along the namesake, JOTR supports extensive northeast boundary of the Mojave desert. stands of Joshua trees, prickly pear Approximately 87% of LAME consists of cacti (Opuntia spp.), California juniper terrestrial habitat representing elements (Juniperus californica), and pinyon of the Mojave, Sonoran, and Great Basin pine (). The park 8 Vital Signs Monitoring Plan Chapter 1: Introduction & Background showcases exposed granite monoliths and rugged canyons, which reveal the powerful tectonic and erosional forces that shaped the landscape. Five of North America’s 158 desert fan palm oases occur in JOTR, where fault lines that run through igneous and metamorphic rocks force water to the surface. A diverse and unique assemblage of species, especially reptiles, are dependent on these water sources. Currently, species that are actively managed within the park include the federally threatened desert tortoise, (Ovis canadensis nelsoni), Mojave fringe-toed lizard (Uma scoparia), and sensitive bat species.

1.3 General Ecological Overview Lake Mead National Recreation Area, the only National Recreation Area in the In recent years, ecoregion classification Network. NPS Photo. systems have emerged as one of the most useful land classification systems for understanding relationships between ecologically similar land units and for supporting sustainable resource management practices (Bailey 1995, 1998). Developed by the USDA Forest Service, ecological land types are defined, classified, and mapped into progressively smaller areas of increasingly uniform ecological potential (U.S Forest Service 1993; McNab and Avers 1994; Bailey 1995). Based on a hierarchical framework, the four levels of ecological units are Domain, Division, Province, and Section (from broadest to finest spatial scale). These ecological units are designated based on similarity of: 1) potential natural communities, 2) soils, 3) hydrologic function, 4) topography and landforms, climatically and floristically, and include Kelso Dunes, a unique and 5) lithology, 6) climate, 7) air quality, and the “cold climate” parks: Nevada- isolated sand dunes system, 8) ecological processes such as nutrient Mountains-Semi-Desert-Coniferous Mojave National Preserve. NPS cycling and natural disturbance regimes Forest-Alpine Meadow Province and the Photo. (Cleland et al. 1997). Colorado Plateau Semi-Desert Province. A small portion of the MOJN (<5%) is The MOJN parks fall within five contained within the last two provinces: Ecoregion Provinces (Figure 1.3) the California Coastal Range Province located within the Dry Domain of the and the Intermountain Semi-Desert and National Hierarchical Framework of Desert Province. Where ecologically Ecological Units (U.S. Forest Service distinct units lie adjacent to each other, 1993; McNab and Avers 1994; Bailey a transition zone having unique selective 1995). The predominant province is pressures often generates endemic the American Semi-Desert and Desert species that are specially adapted to Province, which includes the Mojave this narrow range of environmental and Sonoran deserts and a majority conditions and exist nowhere else. It is of the “hot climate” parks. Two of the apparent from the MOJN ecoregion map four ecoregion provinces are similar (refer to boundary between different National Park Service 9 SierraMojave Nevada Desert Network Network

alluvium-filled valleys or basins. The overall configuration of these alternating mountain ranges and valleys is generally northwest-southeast trending. Basins consist of either slopes, of active erosion and deposition, and/or basin floors characterized by slow runoff, restricted drainage, and an accumulation of soluble salts. Both GRBA and DEVA lie in the mountainous, western portion of the Basin and Range and exhibit the most extreme relief of the province. MANZ lies on its western edge, in the , directly in the formed by the Sierra Nevada mountains. LAME, MOJA, and JOTR also lie within the Basin and Range, while PARA is located on the Shivwits Plateau, the westernmost plateau of the Colorado Plateau physiographic province, adjacent to the colors in Figure 1.3) that environmental Joshua Tree National Park, near Basin and Range. Barker Dam. Photo courtesy transition zones are present in several of the MOJN parks (DEVA, JOTR, PARA). In the Basin and Range, soils are primarily Stacy Manson. aridisols, with mollisols and alfisols found In the following subsections, we describe at higher elevations in the mountains and key abiotic and biotic characteristics of entisols found on older alluvial fans and the MOJN as a preface to the ecological terraces. These soils vary widely in their conceptual models presented in Chapter properties (e.g., age, parent material, 2. More detailed information for each pedogenic process, size, and texture). subsection can be found in Appendix C. Across a range of climatic conditions and topography (see section 1.3.2), the 1.3.1 Landforms and Geology effective moisture of soils with different The United States has been divided into properties varies, which determines or physiographic or geomorphic regions limits vegetation types and productivity. based on common topography, rock types and structure, and geologic and 1.3.2 Regional Climate and the geomorphic history. Here, we describe Role of Topography the distinctive landforms and geological Ecosystem distribution is largely features of the Basin and Range determined by climate (i.e., temperature physiographic province, within which lie and precipitation) (Bailey 1995, a majority of the MOJN parks. 1998). Within the MOJN, climatic patterns and transitional zones are The Basin and Range Province is the influenced by landscape position, largest physiographic province in the latitude, and topography. As a result, U.S. and is the product of geological regional climatic conditions across the forces stretching the earth’s crust. Over MOJN are some of the most extreme time, compressional and extensional and variable in the world (Bailey tectonic activity along fault lines, 1995). In this section, we describe the volcanic extrusions, igneous intrusions, temperature and precipitation regimes glaciation, and continuous erosion in the MOJN, the dominant role of and deposition have modified the topography in determining regional distribution and thickness of these climate, water availability, and ultimately, rocks. Presently, the Basin and Range the distribution of plant and animal is characterized by uplifted and tilted communities across the region. mountain ranges consisting primarily of thick Paleozoic and Mesozoic rock Moist air masses originating in the abruptly separated by broad, elongate, , travel eastward, meet 10 Vital Signs Monitoring Plan Chapter 1: Introduction & Background the Sierra Nevada and the Transverse elevational range and diverse topography Ranges, rise, cool, and drop the bulk of have more complex weather patterns. their moisture load (as rain or snow) Increasing altitude has a similar effect before they enter the MOJN. The effect on weather as increasing geographic of this rain shadow is a scarcity of latitude, resulting in altitudinal water across the MOJN resulting in a zonation. In the MOJN, altitudinal semi-arid to arid desert environment. zonation occurs along the slope of On the western side of the MOJN, large mountains (e.g., Wheeler Peak in drier conditions occur with limited GRBA) and within deep canyons and precipitation from winter storms valleys, creating local microclimates and coming from the North Pacific Ocean. supporting specialized vegetation zones. From west to east across the MOJN, In the higher-elevation mountains, precipitation gradually increases and regional climate varies dramatically, occurs bimodally, especially during the characterized by longer, cold winters and summer and fall monsoon seasons. Thus, relatively short, hot summers. In desert long periods of drought, with relatively basins and canyons, thermal energy and high temperatures, are followed by short humidity increases during the hotter bursts of annual or bi-annual rain/snow summer months, which causes thermal precipitation events. This produces updrafts and temperature fluctuations short, warm to hot growing seasons in that create opportunities for plants to which vegetation and wildlife compete exceed their normal elevational limits strongly for food and water resources. (e.g., ponderosa pines or firs found at The “hot desert” parks have average lower elevations in canyons). Closed annual temperatures between 16-24 oC basins, which are characteristic of the (7.1-32.6 oC range). Winters are mild Basin and Range physiographic province, and summers are very hot, and limited often experience temperature inversions, precipitation ranges from 5-25 cm in the (i.e., cold air descends from mountains valleys to 65 cm in the mountains. The and accumulates in valleys) which can “cold desert” parks have lower average also affect the elevational distribution of annual temperatures between 3-10oC plants (Grayson 1993). (2.1-16 oC range) and precipitation Regional, episodic climate effects, such ranges from 13-20 cm in the valleys to as El Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO), 65-90 cm in the mountains. the Pacific Decadal Oscillation (PDO), Mountainous regions, with their broad and even the Atlantic Multi-decadal

Figure 1.3. Mojave Desert Network ecoregion provinces (Bailey 1995). National Park Service 11 SierraMojave Nevada Desert Network Network

Oscillation (AMO) are also known to environments are the Colorado, Virgin, The limited aquatic impact temperature regime, drought and Muddy Rivers, while minor sources and hydrologic frequency, and precipitation in the are perennial streams and springs, Southwest (McCabe et al. 2004). ENSO resources in MOJN seasonal and ephemeral springs, and is an ocean-atmospheric phenomenon streams and seeps. Lentic environments are disproportionately that brings inter-annual variability to in the MOJN include springs, , important due to weather and climate and occurs with streams, lakes and ponds, playas, and a frequency ranging from 3-8 years. their critical role in oases/springs. These surface waters Typically ENSO manifests itself by harbor biological diversity, provide an supporting endemic producing wetter, colder winters, which important source of drinking water for biota, riparian plants can have a profound effect on MOJN humans and wildlife, and are associated parks. Total seasonal precipitation is also and animals, and with important cultural sites. correlated with ENSO and the PDO, Groundwater is fundamental to the animals from adjacent with generally wetter years occurring function of desert hydrological systems during El Niño events and the positive uplands. and alteration to the groundwater phase of the PDO (Hereford et al. 2004). flow system directly impacts aquatic In arid and semi-arid environments, and riparian systems. Groundwater increases in precipitation trigger an hydrology (discharge at springs, seeps, increase in plant growth, which in turn and storage in groundwater aquifers) is results in more herbivores and ultimately controlled by factors affecting recharge more carnivores (Holmgren et al. 2006). through the unsaturated zone. Much Extended drought produces severe of the present-day recharge in the impacts on arid ecosystems including die MOJN is discharged to the atmosphere back of perennial vegetation (Webb et al. by evapotranspiration from plants, 2001) and declines in animal populations soil, and surface water sources. In the (e.g., threatened desert tortoise) absence of any human development, the (Longshore et al. 2003). More than half groundwater systems in the MOJN are of the spatial and temporal variance in in dynamic equilibrium with long-term multi-decadal drought frequency over climatic patterns. Rain and snow provide the conterminous United States can recharge to the groundwater system, be attributed to the PDO and AMO which is balanced by an equal amount (McCabe et al. 2004). of discharge plus short-term changes in 1.3.3 Hydrology groundwater storage. Aquatic or hydrologic resources represent 1.3.4 Flora a very small portion of total land cover in Water is the single most important the MOJN (excluding LAME), however resource for the survival of biota in desert they are disproportionately important ecosystems, and its availability governs the from an ecological perspective (Appendix abundance and distribution of flora and D). This is because they often host fauna (Noy-Meir 1973; Reynolds et al. endemic biota and riparian species that 2004). Current vegetation communities in rely on aquatic habitats during part of the MOJN parks are the result of species their life cycle. Wet features embedded adaptation and evolution, in addition to in dry desert ecosystems produce migration in response to departures from biological hotspots where biodiversity is long-term climatic conditions (Thompson concentrated in relatively small areas such and Anderson 2000). Unique flora exist as riparian habitats (e.g., springs, oases, around desert riparian habitats (springs, stream corridors), and montane islands. streams, ponds, seeps), many of which For example, more than 75% of terrestrial have limited geographic distribution, species, including 80% of birds and 70% are endemic, and are often classified as of butterflies, are strongly associated with threatened or endangered. As a result, the riparian vegetation in the Mojave-Great Mojave desert has the highest frequency Basin region (Brussard et al. 1998). of endemic species in the western U.S. Surface water resources in MOJN parks (McLaughlin 1989), which is indicative of include both lotic (flowing) and lentic its high ecological value. Plants provide a (non-flowing) environments. Major lotic variety of necessary services for ecological

12 Vital Signs Monitoring Plan Chapter 1: Introduction & Background function such as primary productivity, organic matter for decomposition, protection of soil from wind and water erosion, and cover for animals ranging from micro-invertebrates to large mammals. Disturbance that results in change to the composition, cover, or structure of plant communities is likely to alter ecosystem function. In DEVA and LAME, aquatic and riparian plant species are sensitive to environmental variations and are highly important indicators of ecosystem status and health. Riparian habitats are potentially the most significant to the long-term maintenance of biological diversity and potentially the most threatened habitats across parks in the MOJN. In a majority of the ‘hot desert’ parks (DEVA, JOTR, MANZ, MOJA), scrub/ shrubland vegetation is the dominant vegetation type (88-95% of land cover), with the remaining portion covered by barren land (rock, sand, clay). Within LAME, 16% of the land-cover type is open water (Lakes Mead and Mohave), while 80% is scrub/shrubland (based on U.S. Geological Survey [USGS] National Cactus garden in Joshua Tree Land Cover Dataset, 2001). Two distinct National Park. Photo cour­tesy floristic , western and eastern, Alice Chung-MacCoubrey occur in the Mojave desert as a result of a strong west-east precipitation gradient. Across the western Mojave , three native vegetation communities contribute 75% of shrubland cover: creosote bush () scrub, mixed woody scrub, and desert saltbush Bear Poppy (Arctomecon scrub. In the eastern Mojave subregion, humillis) in Lake Mead Na­tional plant communities are comprised of Recreation Area. Photo courtesy desert dunes, Mojave mixed steppe, NPS staff. big sagebrush (), are similar climatically and floristically shadscale (Atriplex confertifolia) to each other. Distinct from the “hot scrub, and native . At higher desert” MOJN parks, the major elevations, a belt dominated by Joshua land-cover type is evergreen forest trees is present (JOTR, MOJA), and representing 81% of GRBA land and at slightly higher elevations, pinyon- 27% of PARA land (USGS National juniper exists (DEVA, JOTR, MOJA). At Land Cover Dataset 2001). Vegetation even higher elevations (>3,048 m a.s.l.), exhibits , with especially within DEVA, a montane lower elevations dominated by large, zone occurs, supporting ponderosa continuous expanses of sagebrush- pine (Pinus ponderosa), steppe, and slightly higher elevations (Pseudotsuga menziesii), Engelmann dominated by pinyon-juniper woodland. spruce (Picea engelmannii), and At still higher elevations, there is a (). subalpine montane zone dominated GRBA and eastern PARA represent by mountain mahogany (Cercocarpus the “cold desert” MOJN parks that betuloides), Douglas fir, spruce, and National Park Service 13 SierraMojave Nevada Desert Network Network

specialist predators that include both birds and lizards; as seed dispersers and seed predators; as decomposers; and, as nutrient cyclers, mainly through their nesting activities (Whitford 1996; MacMahon et al. 2000). Due to the low volume of free surface water in the Great Basin and Mojave deserts, aquatic invertebrates are often overlooked, but aridland springs support diverse aquatic invertebrate communities. Each spring is distinctive due to its unique combination of water chemistry, discharge, temperature, elevation, morphology, and disturbance. Thus, most aquatic habitats are distinctive, isolated and relictual, resulting in high rates of endemism. In addition, because aquatic invertebrate communities experience the environment Desert tortoise are found only ponderosa, limber, and bristlecone pines. on much smaller temporal and spatial in the Mojave and Sonoran At the highest elevations, the alpine scales than larger animals, they can deserts. NPS Photo taken at zone begins at treeline, interspersed function as indicators of water quality or Lake Mead National Recreation with alpine tundra and meadows, and ecosystem health (Brussard et al. 1998). Area. supports nearly 600 documented alpine plant species and ancient stands of Vertebrates contribute significantly to bristlecone pine (>5,000 yrs old). Nearly ecosystem function in desert as diverse as either the and represent an important component or Sierra Nevada at equivalent latitudes, of the biodiversity present in the Great the alpine and subalpine zones add Basin, Mojave, and Sonoran deserts greatly to the biological diversity of the (Whitford 2002). In general, vertebrates region and to the potential resilience affect species diversity and trophic of the region in response to climatic structure through competition and change (Brussard et al. 1998). At GRBA, predation, while granivory (seed eating) 55% of rare and sensitive plant species and herbivory (vegetation eating) have documented within the park occur in strong effects on soil processes and alpine or subalpine habitats. plant community dynamics. As desert inhabitants, large herbivores (mule deer, 1.3.5 Fauna bighorn sheep) impact vegetation and Invertebrates comprise approximately sensitive habitats (e.g., soil crusts on 95% of all animals (individuals) on earth gypsum dunes), either individually or (Mason 1995) and similarly comprise in groups, by their feeding and herding most of the animal biomass in deserts. behavior. Granivores (rodents, birds) Invertebrates and microorganisms, consume seeds, influence seed dispersal, though often unnoticed, are important and store excess seeds in caches for inhabitants in desert ecosystems leaner times (Pulliam and Brand 1975; because of their influence on a wide Reichman 1977). These seed caches range of community- and ecosystem- appear to serve as important sites of level processes (see 7.1 Terrestrial germination for some plant species Invertebrates, Appendix C). Two (Longland et al. 2001). In addition, seed- conspicuous and particularly influential caching behavior may play an important inhabitants of the desert Southwest are role in the success of vegetation recovery ants and termites. These small, unrelated, in burned areas following wildfire. social organisms have profound effects In the MOJN, carnivores include the on desert ecosystems. They are important mountain lion (Felis concolor), coyote as, among other things, consumers of (Canis latrans), the desert kit fox (Vulpes both living and dead plant material macrotis), ringtails (Bassariscus astutus), and other insects; as prey for a suite of and raptors (hawks, owls, eagles), 14 Vital Signs Monitoring Plan Chapter 1: Introduction & Background while omnivores or scavengers include skunks, and various avian species (e.g., ravens [Corvus corax], turkey vultures [Cathartes aura]). Reptiles of significant interest include the desert tortoise (Gopherus agassizii), gila monsters (Heloderma suspectum), sidewinders (Crotalus cerastes), and a high diversity of rattlesnakes (Crotalus spp.).

1.3.6 Resources of Special Ecological Significance Biological soil crusts refer to a diverse community of cyanobacteria, bacteria, lichens, mosses and metabolic by- products that are cemented into a semi- permeable soil surface. Intact biological soil crusts protect soils from both wind and water erosion, relative to bare soil, thus providing soil stabilization, which is important for, among other processes, example, the Least Bell’s vireo (Vireo Eureka Valley Sand Dunes, seed establishment and germination bellii pusillus), an obligate-riparian Death Valley National Park. (Belnap 2003; Warren 2003). The biotic breeder (Kus 1998), locate the vast NPS Photo. components of the soil crust fix carbon and nitrogen and decompose and recycle majority of their nests in riparian organic matter, which contribute to the vegetation. Change in the abundance nutrient content and cycling processes or nesting behavior of this species may important for plant growth and survival. indicate compromised ecosystem health. Unfortunately, crusts are susceptible Eolian dune and sand sheet systems are to trampling from large animals (feral also home to endemic flora and fauna in equids, livestock, recreationists) and the MOJN parks. Eolian sand deposits disturbances from vehicles. Biological occur near locations with abundant sand soil crusts can be found in all network supply, such as downwind of disturbed parks and are essential components and desert areas, major rivers and washes, indicators of the status and health of and playas. These dunes are composed desert ecosystems (Belnap et al. 2001). of well-sorted fine- to medium-grained Riparian habitats or communities occur sand, which result in deep water along major watercourses, lakeshores, infiltration, rapid evaporation, and hence isolated springs, seeps, ponds, and relatively short periods of near-surface streams. Aquatic, riparian and terrestrial water availability. Dunes are inhabited species as well as a significant number by distinctive plants that are able to of species of special concern rely on colonize unstable materials; this plant riparian areas because of the available cover is crucial to dune stability. Both water, associated species diversity (i.e., active and stabilized parts of eolian sand greater potential prey diversity), and systems present challenges in the form of structural diversity, which provides moisture-deficient, unstable substrates; cover, food, migration pathways, and however many plants, insects, and other habitat components (Lohman reptiles have adapted to these sites. 2004). Unfortunately, riparian habitats Playas are complex valley bottom comprise one of the most dramatically systems that have self-contained altered community types over the last drainage systems and are inundated on 150 years in the western United States. a nearly annual basis forming temporary Obligate riparian bird species may be shallow lakes. Wet playas have shallow particularly good indicators of change groundwater and discharge, resulting in riparian communities, the most in abundant salts, soft and unstable threatened habitat in the MOJN. For surfaces, and under certain conditions, National Park Service 15 MojaveSierra Nevada Desert NetworkNetwork

adjacent, associated springs. Dry World War II (1942-1945). As the best playas have deeper water tables and preserved internment site (NPS 1996), are periodically inundated by surface thousands of people visit MANZ each water, but have less salt buildup than wet year. In addition, the primary ‘industries’ playas. Dry playas experience deposition of early Euro-American settlements in from distal piedmont alluvial processes, the MOJN were located near available from shallow ephemeral lakes, and water resources and associated with from eolian dust and sand. Playas can agriculture, ranching, and mining be found throughout the MOJN, with (DEVA, JOTR, MOJA). Similar to natural numerous playas occurring at DEVA, resources, these cultural landscapes are JOTR, LAME, and MOJA. The Death affected by natural forces, development Valley playa, nearly 128,000 acres, is one (commercial, residential), vandalism, of the world’s largest salt pans. As with and neglect. While cultural landscapes aeolian systems, playas support unique, represent a relatively small proportion highly variable, environments and biota of total land area in the network, they that challenge categorization and are are disproportionately important to park particularly sensitive to disturbance. mission, NPS management, and visitor experience. Spring sites associated with All MOJN parks contain natural caves cultural landscapes tend to be highly except MANZ. One of the primary altered areas and often serve as a starting reasons for establishment of GRBA, point for non-native plant and animal Lehman Cave is famous throughout invasion (American bullfrogs [Rana the world for an unusual concentration catesbeiana], tamarisk [Tamarix spp.]), of cave formations and abundance of thus affecting the structure and function shields (NPS 1992a). GRBA contains of surrounding ecosystems. over 30,000 acres of karst geology and over 40 natural or ‘wild’ caves. Caves 1.4 Natural Resource Threats and are generally stable environments when Management Concerns compared with surface ecosystems, Because many of the MOJN parks share often showing remarkable consistency similar natural resource threats and in temperature and humidity. Unique, issues, a set of network-level threats cool microclimates near cave mouths were identified during previous phases may be important for several plant of the I&M process (see Appendixes and animal species (e.g., bats). Cave E and H). In conjunction with this and karst systems are sensitive to process, MOJN staff gathered park- many environmental factors including specific information on key natural changes in hydrology and water quality, resources, natural resource threats, atmospheric changes (CO2), and altered and other significant concerns facing geologic processes (erosion). Cave parks. In order to narrow the focus, environments, including unique cave ensure relevance to several network invertebrates, may provide a sensitive parks, and increase efficiencies in indicator of environmental change. the planning process, priorities were Cultural resources (e.g., landscapes, established among focal resources historic sites) are an important and resource concerns. Examples of component of the MOJN parks. A resources used by network staff to identify common priorities included: cultural landscape is a geographic General Management Plans, Resource area that includes cultural and natural Management Plans, Strategic Plans, and resources associated with an historic interviews with park resource managers. event, activity, person, or group of Appendix E provides a summary of people. They reveal our relationship threats and management concerns for all with land over time, help individuals Vital Signs prioritized by the MOJN. and groups understand themselves, and provide a sense of local and national In the following section, we discuss these heritage. MANZ represents the most network-level threats, with emphasis on notable cultural landscape and historic the high- and medium-priority stressors. site within the MOJN where 110,000 Threats considered the highest priority Japanese American were interned in at the network-level include: (1) invasive 16 Vital Signs Monitoring Plan Chapter 1: Introduction & Background

Table 1.4. Relative importance of Mojave Desert Network ecosystem stressors (from the Mojave Desert Network Park-Level Vital Signs Monitoring Workshop in 2003).

Stressor MOJN DEVA GRBA JOTR LAME MANZ MOJA PARA* Order/Overall Invasive Species 1/High H H H H H H N/A Water Quantity Alteration 2/High H H H H H H N/A Land Use Change/ Development 3/High H M H H H H N/A Air Quality Degradation 4/High H H H M M H N/A Altered Disturbance Regime 5/Medium M H H M H H N/A Recreation/Visitation 6/Medium H M M H H M N/A Climate Change 7/Medium M M H L M M N/A Water Quality Degradation 8/Medium M H M M M L N/A Soil Alteration 9/Medium L L M H H M N/A Grazing 10/Low M H N/A M L M N/A Resource Extraction 11/ Low M L L L H M N/A Increased Native Wildlife Pops 12/Low L M M L H L N/A Habitat Fragmentation 13/Low L L M M M L N/A Nutrient Availability 14/Low L L L L L L N/A Disease 15/Low L L L L L L N/A *PARA did not participate in workshop. species; (2) water quantity alteration; Only 7 non-native terrestrial vertebrate (3) land use change/development; and species have been identified in two (4) air quality degradation (Table 1.4). or more park units, including several Threats considered a medium priority common bird species and feral burro. include: (5) altered disturbance regime; Non-native aquatic species are common, (6) recreation/visitation; (7) climate particularly in the reservoirs at LAME change; (8) water quality degradation; (bull frogs, game fish, quagga mussels). and (9) soil alteration. Livestock grazing, Although significant amounts of staff although ranked as a low-priority threat time is dedicated to the management (Table 1.4), is briefly discussed in this of these non-native fauna, they are section because of the significant historic considered less important (as a resource impacts of grazing within the MOJN. threat) than non-native invasive plants. 1.4.1 Invasive Species Park management concerns are primarily Network-wide scoping sessions related to invasive, non-native plant concluded that invasive species are species and include: (1) the ability of the greatest stressor to terrestrial (dry) invasive, non-native plant species to systems in the MOJN parks. Deserts compete with native plant communities are considered one of the least invaded for limited resources, reducing native ecosystems by plants, possibly due to plant density, biomass, and diversity naturally low levels of soil nitrogen (Brooks 2000); (2) potential impacts (Brooks and Esque 2003). However, of non-native plant species on native at least 66 non-native plant species fauna, particularly special status species have been identified in two or more (e.g., desert tortoise), through the park units within the MOJN. Similar to alteration of native plant communities other arid systems in the western U.S., (e.g., food source, shelter); (3) potential invasive annual grasses are particularly for permanent alteration of ecosystem widespread and abundant, with species processes, such as fire, which are critical in the Mojave desert dominated by to maintaining ecosystem structure and grasses in the genera Bromus spp. and function; and (4) potential impacts of Schismus spp. (Brooks 1999). invasive plants, such as tamarisk, on National Park Service 17 SierraMojave Nevada Desert Network Network

groundwater and surface water resources. surrounding parks, the associated impacts of urbanization on fragile desert resources 1.4.2 Water Quantity Alteration The landscape of (e.g., air pollution, increased groundwater the MOJN parks has The importance of water to desert withdrawal, nitrogen deposition, been significantly ecology cannot be overstated. The noise/light pollution, invasive species introduction) will increase. Impacts as a altered through availability of surface water is directly related to the availability of subsurface or result of the myriad of human activities historic and current groundwater, which is slowly recharged and development include: 1) physical patterns of land through precipitation events and which alteration of the landscape surface (e.g., road-building, building construction, use and continues feeds scattered springs and habitats across network parks. In places agriculture and grazing), 2) modification to be threatened by around Las Vegas, groundwater levels of plant and animal communities (from competing human have declined 90 m since 1907 due to cats and dogs, invasive plants and animals, habitat fragmentation), and 3) interests. human demands (Bawden et al. 2003). Continued up-gradient pumping of multiplicative effects such as enhanced groundwater may potentially lower the dust generation from gravel roads and and dry up critical surface effects of visitation and recreation. water resources within the MOJN parks. 1.4.4 Air Quality Degradation Primary threats to surface and subsurface water quantity identified by park Threats to air quality in and around managers are groundwater withdrawal by network parks are primarily associated surrounding communities/commercial with adjacent urbanization and include use, diversion of surface waters (e.g., both point and non-point sources. through pipeline), and invasion by non- Air quality in the network is affected native plant species such as tamarisk. primarily by air pollutants (e.g., ozone, nitrogen oxides, sulfur dioxide, volatile Park management concerns related to organic compounds, particulate matter) alteration of water quantity are primarily from densely populated urban centers in focused on the future ability of parks California, Arizona, and Nevada. Other to protect this critical resource in the sources of air quality degradation within face of burgeoning population growth. and outside park boundaries include Reductions in already scarce water increased fire frequency in areas not resources will likely impact biodiversity, naturally prone to fires, off-road vehicular the potential for extinction of aquatic- traffic, mining activities (particulates), and riparian-dependent species, and cogeneration power plants, landfills, resources available to other fauna (e.g., vehicular emissions, and watercraft bighorn sheep). Further investigations are emissions (nitrogen and sulfur deposition). needed to better understand the complex Potential future threats to air quality are relationships between groundwater primarily related to proposed commercial withdrawal, available surface water, and development on lands adjacent to parks plant and wildlife populations. (e.g., Eagle Mountain Landfill near JOTR, coal-fired power plants near GRBA). 1.4.3 Land Use Change/Development Park management concerns related to The landscape of the MOJN parks has declining air quality are associated with been significantly altered through historic potential or actual negative impacts to and current patterns of land use and visitor experience and human health, continues to be threatened by competing impacts on park natural and cultural human interests. Since WWII, human resources (e.g., petroglyphs), and population across the desert southwest alteration of ecological processes (e.g., has increased from approximately nutrient cycling). Maintenance of 8 million to over 40 million human viewsheds and night sky vistas is a key inhabitants today (Wilkerson 2004). In management goal for several network Clark County, Nevada, human population parks, and reduced visibility may increased 8200% between 1940 and 2000, have a significant negative impact on with over 1.7 million inhabitants by 2000 visitor experience. Some park natural (U.S. Census Bureau 2005). As human resources are particularly sensitive population continues to increase in areas to specific pollutants. For example, 18 Vital Signs Monitoring Plan Chapter 1: Introduction & Background alpine lakes at GRBA have a very low buffering capability, thus the ecology (e.g., soil and water chemistry, species composition, predator-prey relations) could be significantly altered through deposition of acid rain and other air- borne contaminants.

1.4.5 Altered Disturbance Regime Natural disturbance regimes that are of primary interest in the MOJN are drought, fire, and flood events. Although these disturbances are considered part of, and critical to, the maintenance of natural ecological processes, they may also be considered ecosystem stressors or threats when natural disturbance regimes become altered by human activities. Changes in disturbance regimes that concern park managers generally involve change in frequency (e.g., fire frequency), intensity (e.g., flood events), or duration (e.g., drought in 2003, ranked 5th in the nation with Recreation and visitation levels among Mojave Desert Network events). Examples of specific threats to 7,915,581 recreation visits per year. In parks are highest at Lake Mead 1995, LAME had its highest visitation natural disturbance regimes in network National Recreation Area. NPS parks include: (1) spread of invasive of 9,838,702 total recreation visits (NPS Photo. annual grasses leading to increased 2005c). Direct effects of increased park fuel continuity, fire frequency, and visitation include soil compaction in fire intensity; (2) historic and current sensitive habitats (e.g., gypsum dunes and fire suppression activities leading to riparian corridors), light pollution, illegal increased fuel loading and changes collecting, and introduction and spread in plant community structure and of invasive plant and animal species. composition that increase the frequency Indirect effects of increased visitation and intensity of fires; and (3) climate are related to changes in land use, change that may alter the amount or infrastructure development within park pattern of precipitation leading to boundaries (e.g., increased number of extended drought periods or increased developed roads, bathrooms, interpretive frequency and intensity of floods. buildings), use of park resources (e.g., increased water consumption), and 1.4.6 Recreation/Visitation additional staff to manage visitation and Natural resources within parks are provide a high quality visitor experience impacted not only by land use and (Wittemyer et al. 2008). development outside park boundaries, but also by increased visitation within 1.4.7 Climate Change parks. Increased human population The modern distribution and ecology (see section 1.4.3) surrounding parks of plant and animal communities is is reflected in an increasing trend in linked on a broad temporal scale to park visitation. The longest period of the climatic history of the Great Basin- visitation records at DEVA indicates an Mojave desert region (Brussard et al. increase from 9,970 visitors per year 1998). In response to climate change in 1933 to 890,375 visitors per year in over time, both the distribution and 2003 (Figure 1.4). In 2003, four of six composition of biotic communities have network parks (DEVA, JOTR, LAME, been altered as species sought more MOJA) were in the top 30% of NPS favorable conditions, adapted to existing units (N=353) with the highest percent conditions, were extirpated locally, or of total visitors. LAME experiences the became globally extinct. Many studies of highest visitation in the network and, future climate conditions predict global National Park Service 19 SierraMojave Nevada Desert Network Network

Figure 1.4. Trends in visitation at Mojave Desert Network parks. Note that the y-axis scales dif- fer for the two panels in the figure.

warming of unprecedented rate resulting decreased flow in rivers and streams), in increased temperatures, more variable surface water quantity, soil moisture and weather patterns, more extreme weather temperature, dust mobility, rate of soil events, and generally drier conditions in erosion and deposition, change in the the southwestern U.S. (Giorgi et al. 2001; distribution and species composition of IPCC 2007). Human-induced changes plant and animal communities, length in weather/climate may result from of growing season, and fire fuel loading. increased emission of greenhouse gases, Other potential concerns relate to increased atmospheric particulates, human responses to weather/climate change in solar radiation and surface change, including increased reliance on reflectance, and change in water vapor groundwater supply and construction and other parameters associated with of dams and pipelines. Controlling urbanization at a regional to global anthropogenic factors that alter weather/ scale. Thus, on top of the background of climate are considered outside the climate variability is superimposed the scope of management of the network or short- and long-term effects of climate individual park unit. Effective monitoring change caused by anthropogenic factors. will provide a basis for establishing the Network and park management concerns natural variability and human-induced are related to the potential effects of change components of climate and help altered weather patterns and climate generate a database for projecting and on ecosystem processes and biotic and interpreting hydrologic and biologic abiotic resources. Specific concerns health of the desert ecosystem. include associated change in ambient temperature and amount of precipitation 1.4.8 Water Quality Degradation (fewer storms, decreased snowpack, Threats to groundwater and surface 20 Vital Signs Monitoring Plan Chapter 1: Introduction & Background water quality vary in significance (see section 1.3.6), is of particular depending on the specific type and concern. Threats to soil resources in the location of the water resource. For MOJN parks include any change that example, the chemical constituents or unnaturally accelerates geomorphic groundwater signature are determined by processes or significantly alters the groundwater source, age, flow through physical or chemical properties of soils different types of rock, and general and ability of soils to function. Park movement. Alteration in groundwater management concerns vary depending chemistry can provide information on on the specific threat but are generally changes in water flow paths, changes in related to potential impacts of degraded groundwater recharge, and presence of soil quality on desert ecosystems. contaminants, all of which may indicate Specific concerns include: (1) altered environmental change. General threats soil nutrient cycling leading to broad to water quality across network parks scale changes in plant communities include: atmospheric pollutants, and (e.g., spread of invasive annual grasses); pollutants from communities, mining, (2) increased atmospheric particulates and commercial operations; more (e.g., dust) leading to alteration of soil frequent, high-intensity fire events; pedogenic processes; (3) compaction concentrated recreational activities; of soils in high visitor use areas (e.g., and livestock grazing. There may be a trails, riparian habitats), livestock grazing link between water quantity and water and off-highway vehicle use leading to quality, thus groundwater depletion/ long-term changes in soil-water-plant lowered water tables also represent interactions, runoff, and rate of soil a potential threat to water quality erosion; (4) alteration in the location in network parks. Acid rain is also and/or rate of soil erosion leading to considered a potentially significant threat changes in surface hydrology, loss to alpine lakes at GRBA. of cultural resources, and change in plant distributions; (5) destruction of Park management is primarily concerned biological soil crusts and associated about the impact of decreased water changes in soil stability and erosion rate; quality on aquatic and terrestrial species (6) development of hydrophobic soils in and communities, public health and association with intense, stand replacing safety, and visitor experience. Wildlife, fires; and (7) potential contamination especially endemic and special-status of soils (e.g., cyanide, lead, mercury, species that depend on these relatively arsenic, uranium) associated with mining rare aquatic habitats for food, water, and commercial activities. shelter, and breeding, may be particularly vulnerable. LAME provides drinking 1.4.10 Grazing water for 18 million people in Nevada and California, thus human health issues Livestock grazing has occurred across related to alteration of water quality extensive areas, and at varied intensities, are a primary management concern. In in MOJN parks for over 150 years. Today, addition, network parks obtain a portion limited livestock grazing continues in of their drinking water from local DEVA, GRBA, LAME, MOJA, and PARA. springs, and the availability of clean water Though few studies have documented is considered a critical element of visitor grazing impacts in the Mojave desert and experience. Lastly, the NPS is required Colorado Plateau, research from other areas to manage water resources in accordance of the Southwest indicates that livestock with applicable laws, regulations, and grazing can impact and alter the species NPS policy related to surface water composition, function, and structure of quality/ impaired waters. ecosystems (Jones 2000); however, effects are context dependent (Milchunas and 1.4.9 Soil Alteration Lauenroth 1993). Of particular concern In arid systems, any disturbance or for park managers in the MOJN is the alteration to the top soil layer (top potential impact of livestock grazing on 3-20 mm), especially those areas with riparian habitats and the fauna associated well-developed biological soil crusts with them (Carothers et al. 1974; Mosconi National Park Service 21 SierraMojave Nevada Desert Network Network

and 2) monitoring conducted within or near park boundaries that is part of a larger (e.g., state-wide, regional, national) monitoring program, which attempts to make inferences beyond park boundaries (Appendix F, section 3.0). Thorough analysis of current and past monitoring projects and data (Table 1.5) can serve as the basis for long-term monitoring in parks related to high- priority MOJN Vital Signs.

1.5.1 Air Quality Monitoring Although most of the MOJN parks are some distance from large urban areas, many experience poor air quality from pollutants. In 2004, the American Lung Association, State of the Air Report (American Lung Association 2004) Air Quality monitoring and Hutto 1982, Chaney et al. 1990). Again, declared San Bernardino County, CA equipment, Joshua Tree while grazing currently is not considered a (adjacent to JOTR, non-attainment National Park. NPS Photo. high-priority threat within all MOJN parks, Class I airshed; and MOJA, Class II some monitoring of grazing impacts may be airshed) to have the unhealthiest air (e.g., included in the MOJN monitoring program. visibility, ozone) in the nation. Recent data indicate that JOTR, MANZ, and 1.5 Summary of Current and Past MOJA are at high risk for foliar injury Monitoring to plants from elevated ozone levels An understanding of current and past (NPS 2004a). Under the Clean Air Act monitoring activities in and around (CAA) and GPRA mandate, Class I park network parks is an important foundation managers have a special responsibility for development of the MOJN Vital Signs to monitor and protect air quality and monitoring program. Such information related resources from the adverse allows the network to identify where effects of air pollution, and to provide monitoring is adequate, and might only recommendations to protect park natural need to be expanded (or abandoned), and and cultural resources. At the network- where additional inventory, monitoring, level, monitoring air quality conditions or protocol development is needed. and understanding their interactions Monitoring of Vital Signs identified with physical and biological components through scoping workshops at the park of the ecosystem is vitally important to and network-levels should complement effectively evaluate the effects of these existing monitoring programs already in hazards on ecosystem health. place in network parks. In the MOJN, climate and air quality Park Resource Management Plans and data are monitored at a variety of stations the NPS Natural Resource Inventory and located within (‘on-site’) or adjacent to Monitoring Guidelines (NPS-75) guide the seven park units (Table 1.6). Many current and past monitoring activities at of the climate and air quality stations in the network parks (NPS 1992b). Each the MOJN were installed and funded by park’s monitoring activities are also non-NPS national agencies, inter-agency guided by GPRA management goals collaborations, and external partnerships. and are often focused on special status DEVA, GRBA, and JOTR have long-term, species, non-native plant and animal on-site, climate and air quality monitoring species, and riparian communities. stations supported by NPS park staff and Monitoring activities within network the NPS Air Resources Division. Three of parks falls into two general categories: 1) the other MOJN parks (LAME, MANZ, monitoring conducted only within park MOJA) have climate and air quality boundaries (Appendix F, section 2.0); stations within 170 km of park boundaries

22 Vital Signs Monitoring Plan Chapter 1: Introduction & Background

Table 1.5. Record of historic (H, > 5 years ago) or current (C) monitoring data for the Mojave Desert Network Vital Signs across park units. “Level 1” refers to the NPS Ecological Monitoring Framework. level 1 MOJN Vital Sign DEVA GRBA JOTR LAME MANZ MOJA PARA Air Chemistry – Ozone H/C H/C H/C H/C C C Air Chemistry – Wet and Dry Deposition H/C H/C H/C C Air and Climate Air Quality – Visibility and Particulates H/C H/C H/C Weather and Climate – Basic Meteorology H/C H/C H/C C H/C Soil Hydrologic Function Soil Chemistry and Nutrient Cycling C Geology and Soils Biological Soil Crust Dynamics C C Soil Erosion and Deposition Cd Soil Disturbance Cd Groundwater Dynamics and Chemistry H/C H/C C H/C H Water Surface Water Dynamics H/C C C H/C Surface Water Chemistry H/C C H/C Invasive/Exotic Plantsa C C C C Vegetation Change Ce C H/Ce Ce Ce

Biological Reptile Communities C H/C C Integrity Riparian Birds Cc Cc H H/Cbc Cc Small Mammal Communities C H/C H H At-Risk Populations H/C H/C C C Fire and Fuel Dynamics H/C H/C H/C H/C H/C H/C Landscapes Landscape Dynamics C a All parks report the number of acres of invasive species ‘contained’ related to GPRA Goal Ia1B. b Associated with spring restoration. c Landbird monitoring primarily conducted in parks through the Great Basin Bird Observatory, Point Reyes Bird Observatory, U. S. Geo- logical Survey (N. Am. Breeding Bird Survey), or state wildlife agencies (NV raptor surveys) – some focus on riparian habitats. LAME is the only network park with a MAPS (Monitoring Avian Productivity and Survivorship Program) station. d Represents a project approved for funding titled, “Monitoring protocols for soil stability at Lake Mead National Recreation Area.” e A total of 921 long-term vegetation monitoring plots associated with the U. S. Forest Service, Forest Inventory and Analysis program are contained within DEVA (N=553), JOTR (N=127), and MOJA (N=241) and it is assumed some plots are located within LAME. It is unknown how many of these plots have associated data.

(Table 1.6). Types of monitoring at these 1.5.2 Water Resources Monitoring sites include ozone monitoring through in Mojave Desert Network Parks the NPS Gaseous Pollutant Monitoring A review of water resources in individual Network, wet deposition monitoring of network parks, baseline water-quality atmospheric pollutants by the National inventory data and analysis, clean water Atmospheric Deposition Program action plans (CWAP), water quality (NADP), dry deposition monitoring of standards for states in the MOJN, atmospheric pollutants by the Clean Air and water monitoring projects in the Status and Trends Network (CASTNet), MOJN are provided in Appendix D. and visibility monitoring through the Water quality at Lake Mead and Lake Interagency Monitoring of Protected Mohave are monitored extensively by Visual Environments (IMPROVE) other agencies and programs (B. Moore, Program. As new information is LAME personal communication) due to developed for the network, it will be their importance as regional sources of added to the ARD’s ARIS site at http:// drinking water, recreational value, and www2.nature.nps.gov/air/permits/aris/ designation as critical habitat for several networks/index.cfm. special-status species of fish. National Park Service 23 SierraMojave Nevada Desert Network Network

Table 1.6 Weather and air quality (AQ) monitoring stations in (‘on-site’) or near Mojave Desert Network parks. Distance is from a given station to the boundary of park units. AQ Weather Dry Deposition Wet Deposition Visibility Ozone park Class (RAWS or COOP) (CASTNet) (NADP/NTN) (IMPROVE) (OZONE) DEVA II On-site On-site On-site On-site On-site GRBA II On-site On-site On-site On-site On-site JOTR I On-site On-site On-site On-site On-site* LAME II On-site 170 km 170 km 180 km 8 km* MANZ II 8-40 km 115 km 115 km 115 km 115 km MOJA II On-site 100-150 km 100-150 km 100-150 km 35-50 km* PARA II ND ND+ ND+ ND+ ND

Air quality data for on-site monitoring stations can be obtained from the monitoring network’s website listed below. Air quality esti- mates for parks without on-site monitoring are available from NPS Air Atlas at http://www2.nature.nps.gov/air/Maps/AirAtlas/index. htm (Accessed 30 August 2005). ND = Not determined. RAWS = Remote Automated Weather Station Network COOP = Cooperative Observer Program NADP/NTN = National Atmospheric Deposition Program, data acquired from http://nadp.sws.uiuc.edu/ CASTNet = Clean Air Status and Trends Network at http://www.epa.gov/castnet/ IMPROVE = Interagency Monitoring of Protected Visual Environments at http://vista.cira.colostate.edu/views/ OZONE = EPA AirData at http://www.epa.gov/air/data/index.html or NPS AirWeb at http://www2.nature.nps.gov/air/data/index.htm Passive ozone at http://www2.nature.nps.gov/air/studies/passives.htm *Portable ozone (summer ozone season) at http://www2.nature.nps.gov/air/studies/portO3.htm + ARD plans to add PARA to its map of air quality monitoring in the MOJN (http://www2.nature.nps.gov/air/Permits/ARIS/networks/modn.cfm)

The MOJN will periodically review state Nevada defines Class A waters as waters 303(d) lists to determine the current or portions of waters located in areas regulatory status of these two reservoirs. of little human habitation, no industrial Therefore, these reservoirs will not be development or intensive agriculture, directly sampled by the MOJN network and where the watershed is relatively nor addressed in the conceptual models undisturbed by man’s activity. presented in Chapter 2. For the rest of Under Section 305(b) of the Clean Water the MOJN parks, water monitoring is Act, each state is required to conduct limited. In the April 2005 MOJN Water water quality surveys to determine the Resources Monitoring Workshop, overall health of the waters of the state, the MOJN developed and prioritized including whether or not designated uses monitoring objectives for water-related are being met, and report to the EPA Vital Signs (Chapter 3). every two years. When impaired water Each state has developed its own list bodies are identified, they are included of Outstanding National Resource in 303(d) priority lists in order to limit Waters (ONRW) under Environmental discharges of specific pollutants to that Protection Agency (EPA) guidance. water body (Ledder 2003). LAME is the Officially, there are no ONRWs in the only network park that contains waters MOJN, however, GBRA has four water designated as 303(d) (Appendix D). bodies that have received a Class A designation by the state of Nevada, that state’s highest level of protection (Baker, Lehman, Pine, and Ridge Creeks).

24 Vital Signs Monitoring Plan Chapter 2 Conceptual Ecological Models

2.1 Introduction in the MOJN across multiple scales. Conceptual models are critical elements • Identify major system drivers and in the design of scientific monitoring stressors, the system attributes most programs for the management of affected by these drivers, and how they ecological systems. An ecological change through time. conceptual model is a visual or narrative • Identify indicators of ecological status summary that identifies and illustrates and trend (Vital Signs) and link Vital the connection between ecosystem Signs to key ecological components components and their processes, and processes. Pull quote important drivers and stressors that • Aid in defining appropriate scales for here?? impact the ecosystem, and indicators monitoring in time and space. of ecosystem health and status. A well- • Aid in the development, interpretation, developed set of conceptual models and presentation of monitoring data. helps us understand how physical, chemical, and biological elements of an • Serve to communicate common ecosystem interact. This knowledge aids understanding of the connections in the selection of potential indicators of between management decisions and ecologic condition and trend, prediction natural systems to NPS, other agencies, of potential responses to environmental external scientists, and the general change, analysis and interpretation of public (DeAngelis et al. 2003). monitoring data, and communication of 2.2 Mojave Desert Network resulting information to park managers Conceptual Model Approach and the public. A wealth of conceptual models exists for The conceptual models for the MOJN semi-arid and arid parts of the American do not attempt to explain all possible West, and we adapted many of these relationships or identify all possible models for the MOJN. For the unique components of the ecosystems. Instead, vegetation and desert processes found in they simplify reality by organizing the MOJN, we developed new models. information for understanding these Our general approach is to emphasize complex natural systems and help the role of water, a key limiting factor us make decisions regarding the in the Mojave and Great Basin deserts, preservation of our natural resources in structuring ecological communities. (Margoluis and Salafsky 1998). In The amount of water, its availability, and addition to promoting integration and its quality is controlled first by climate communication among scientists and inputs and later by partitioning processes managers from different disciplines (e.g., runoff, infiltration, recharge) into (Gross 2003), the process of constructing saturated (e.g., lakes, streams, aquifers, conceptual models helps to clarify our and springs) and unsaturated (e.g., thinking about system processes and soil moisture) areas (Whitford 2002). monitoring program goals and aids in Temperature fluctuations and pulses the identification of critical knowledge of water and nutrients superimposed gaps and areas of uncertainty. Since upon a background of diverse geologic human social systems are unpredictable landforms and associated surficial and generate novel processes, not all deposits create a diversity of niches that components or consequences can be shape biological communities (Chesson identified with current knowledge, et al. 2004). Since water is such a limiting thus these models should be viewed as factor for MOJN desert biota, its role as “works in progress” that will be revisited a driver of plant and animal community and refined with emerging knowledge. structure and composition is emphasized The objectives of the MOJN conceptual in all our ecological conceptual models. ecosystem models are to: The MOJN developed a nested set of • Formalize current understanding of conceptual models with four levels of ecosystem components and processes increasing complexity and detail (Figure

National Park Service 25 SierraMojave Nevada Desert Network Network

temporal and spatial scales are critical to understanding the selection of MOJN Vital Signs for monitoring. In the following sections, we describe the major concepts underlying the overarching MOJN Framework model, the dry systems model, and the wet systems model and then briefly summarize biomes and components of dry and wet systems. All models are described in detail in Appendix G, the content of which overlaps closely with a publication by Belnap et al. (2008).

2.3 Mojave Desert Network Framework Model We combined components of the Jenny-Chapin model (see Miller and Figure 2.1. Hierarchy of 2.1). At the highest level, the MOJN Thomas 2004) to arrive at a simplified models from framework structure for the MOJN Framework description of ecosystems, Framework Model identifies four general systems: the dry system (terrestrial), model. We designed this highest level to system and control models, model to serve as the foundation for and detailed models. wet system (aquatic), atmospheric system, and human system, and a series of more detailed ecological describes how these systems interact models. The Framework model and affect the structure and function of identifies four General System Models one another on a broad-scale (Figure (wet, dry, atmospheric, and human) 2.2). At the next level, general systems and illustrates how wet and dry models are developed for dry and wet ecosystems in the MOJN, including systems, describing major components the Mojave and Sonoran deserts, the of each system (e.g., climate, soils, southern part of Great Basin desert, vegetation, and animals for dry systems), and the western Colorado Plateau, are interactions and processes between structured through interactions with the components that influence the system atmospheric system and human social structure, and means by which they are systems (Figure 2.2). We briefly describe perturbed by stressors and drivers (dry the four General Systems, summarize system- Figure 2.3; wet system- Figure major interactions among them, and 2.4). More specific system control emphasize aspects of atmospheric and models describe specific biomes (e.g., human social systems that act as drivers shrubland or forest) or components and stressors on components and (e.g., groundwater or springs) within processes of wet and dry systems. the dry and wet systems. Lastly, The atmospheric system determines detailed submodels illustrate important climate, which can change rapidly, and subsystems and disturbance effects, which creates the boundary conditions such as the shrubland fire and recovery for weather. The atmospheric system model. Although we have described conducts the most mass and energy, MOJN ecosystems with discrete including pollution, to and from parks models at different scales, we recognize of the MOJN. Processes mediating that system components interact and interactions between the atmosphere respond at multiple temporal and and wet and dry systems include spatial scales and have attempted to evaporation and transpiration, reflected link components and processes across radiation, precipitation, wind, and multiple scales and levels of complexity. heat exchange. Climate of the Great The hierarchical relationships Basin and Mojave deserts varies due between major components of MOJN to latitudinal and elevational effects ecosystems, processes, drivers/stressors, on temperature, the rain shadow of and their interactions at multiple the Sierra Nevada and Transverse 26 Vital Signs Monitoring Plan Chapter 2: Conceptual Ecological Models

Figure 2.2. Mojave Desert Ranges, which sharply reduce winter perennial streams). Network framework model, storm precipitation (see Chapter showing the four principal Climatic inputs of precipitation from 1), and the influence of monsoonal systems, their components, the atmospheric system are partitioned systems from southern water bodies interactions, and processes. into wet and dry systems. The dry during summer. The result is a spatial system is best defined by what it is and temporal mosaic of temperature not and thus includes areas without and precipitation that interacts with standing or flowing “free” water. The geologic characteristics and elevation division between wet and dry systems to determine plant community patterns is logical for the MOJN because the across the landscape (vegetation zones). transition between saturated, “free” water Biological communities are remarkably entities (e.g., springs, streams, lakes) well- adapted to the harsh and variable and unsaturated substrates (e.g., soil or , but nonetheless are fractured rock) is rapid and distinct. Flora ultimately limited by temperature and fauna exhibit distinct transitions extremes and long periods of drought. between wet and dry systems in direct Climatic variability creates a complex response to the availability of water. framework for understanding past, current, and future features in the desert Dry systems comprise virtually all of that are dependent on weather patterns the landscape within MOJN parks (e.g., plant viability, plant-animal and are represented by a wide range of interactions, soil moisture availability, biomes (biotic communities) that are and persistence of ephemeral and characterized by distinctive vegetation, National Park Service 27 SierraMojave Nevada Desert Network Network

ranging from alpine tundra (Salix spp.) fraction in terms of virtually any and adjacent conifer forests in GRBA to ecological measure. The wet system is dry, sparsely vegetated shrubland valleys defined by areas with standing or flowing in lower elevation parks. Dry systems water such as lakes, streams, springs, have been subdivided into system and wetlands, and thus wet systems control models by these vegetation support plant communities that do not zones, or biomes. Within dry systems, rely solely on direct precipitation. These soil characteristics and processes are areas have high biodiversity, displaying linked to landscape-level characteristics dense plant communities and supporting and processes, and these components many terrestrial animals and diverse combine to structure plant communities aquatic species. Most are isolated relics and animal habitat. Precipitation inputs of formerly connected waterways, and from the atmospheric system are support local obligate and endemic partitioned into runoff, groundwater species. Climate (precipitation and recharge (recharge of aquifers), and temperature) is the main driver of the infiltration into soil moisture, which groundwater systems that maintain is the primary water source used by streams, lakes and springs in the biotic systems. These same partitioning network. Within a reference range of processes strongly affect many climate variability, recharge, storage, and geomorphic processes, such as erosion, discharge are approximately in a state of and soil processes (e.g., nutrient cycling). dynamic equilibrium. Particularly important for MOJN desert ecosystems are the near-surface Natural and human-induced changes to soil moisture dynamics in which the the atmospheric system are expected to available moisture is driven by spatial be major future drivers and stressors to and temporal interactions with climate, wet and dry systems. Altered atmosphere soil, and vegetation (Noy-Meir 1973; and climate created by anthropogenic increases in CO , particulates, aerosols, Rodriguez-Iturbe 2000; Reynolds et al. 2 2004). Differences in soil moisture, along ozone, and other pollutants have with temperature and elevation, result potential to drive many ecosystem in the major dry system biomes (tundra, processes outside the reference range of forest, woodland, shrubland), described variability. Regional storm and air flow in detail in the system control models. from coastal areas partition most of the air pollution, haze, and particulate matter Wet systems comprise a tiny fraction of from central and southern California, the landscape within MOJN park units, as well as from Reno and Las Vegas, but are a disproportionately important into patterns of wet and dry deposition, reduced visibility, and pollutants that can be monitored on a regional scale. Climate models predict that drier and warmer conditions will prevail in the Great Basin during the next couple of decades, suggesting that forest and alpine tundra systems in the region may shrink, move upslope, or disappear from the landscape entirely. This loss of forest will impact associated wildlife and highlights the need for a more complete picture of forest ecosystem dynamics in the region. Ecosystem condition cannot be understood without considering human impacts. Human social systems account for a majority of stressors and drivers Basins and ranges of the northern Mojave desert, Death Valley influencing MOJN parks at scales from National Park. Photo courtesy global to site-specific, and many of these D.M. Miller, USGS. influences are not directly in the control of the NPS. Natural resource threats 28 Vital Signs Monitoring Plan Chapter 2: Conceptual Ecological Models

Table 2.1. Anthropogenic drivers and stressors, their potential ecological effects, and relevant Vital Signs for the Mojave Desert Net- work. Refer to Chapter 1 (Table 1.4) for the relative importance of these natural resource threats to each of the network parks.

DRIVER/STRESSOR Ecological Effects Relevant MOJN Vital Sign

Increased fire frequency Invasive/Exotic Plants Community shifts and biodiversity loss Fire and Fuel Dynamics Invasive Species Altered groundwater dynamics Vegetation Change Altered soil nutrient cycling Decreased surface water levels Basic Meteorology Altered riparian communities Surface Water Dynamics & Quality Water Quantity Alteration Loss of aquatic habitats Groundwater Dynamics Loss of biodiversity At-Risk Populations, Riparian Birds Increased groundwater extraction Groundwater Dynamics & Chemistry Land Use Change/ Soil disturbance Vegetation Change Development Habitat loss or fragmentation Landscape Dynamics, Riparian Birds Altered surface water At-Risk Populations, Small Mammals, Reptiles Nitrogen deposition Wet/Dry Deposition, Ozone, Particulates Air Quality Degradation Establishment of invasive plants Soil Chemistry/Nutrient Cycling Lake acidification, foliar injury, vegetation growth loss Surface Water Quality Altered nutrient dynamics Soil Chemistry/Nutrient Cycling Altered Disturbance Increased soil erosion and deposition Soil Disturbance, Erosion/Deposition Regime (dry systems) Altered fire regime Fire and Fuel Dynamics Increases in exotic species Invasive/Exotic Plants Increased trampling and soil erosion Soil Disturbance, Erosion/Deposition Recreation/Visitation Spread of invasive plants Biological Soil Crusts Disturbance/collection of wildlife Invasive/Exotic Plants, Reptiles Altered temperature, precipitation, deposition, and Basic Meteorology Climate Change flow regimes Vegetation Change Water Quality Impacts to wet and dry system flora and fauna Surface Water Quality & Dynamics Degradation At-Risk Species Increased soil erosion & deposition Soil Erosion/Deposition, Disturbance Loss of protective soil crusts Biological Soil Crusts Soil Alteration Reduced infiltration and increased runoff Soil Hydrologic Function Habitat loss Small Mammals and management concerns identified by In the dry systems model (Figure 2.3), MOJN park staff (Chapter 1) form the list climate drives many soils processes and of key anthropogenic drivers and stressors influences characteristics for a given listed in Table 2.1, which also includes parent material (e.g., soil moisture their potential ecological effects and regime). Across the landscape, a soil- relevant MOJN Vital Signs (see Chapter 3). geomorphic mosaic is created by variation in the magnitude, frequency, 2.4 Dry Systems Model and timing of precipitation events and Dry systems comprise virtually all of the the interaction of precipitation with soil. landscape within MOJN parks. It has For example, precipitation dynamics long been established that water is the determine patterns of erosion, transport, single most important component for and deposition of sediment. The soils- the survival of biota in terrestrial desert geomorphic mosaic in turn strongly ecosystems (dry systems), controlling governs the distribution and abundance production and the sequestration of vegetation and other biota in desert systems (Juhren et al. 1956; Beatley of carbon and nitrogen for plant 1969, 1976; Schwinning and Sala 2004). production (Noy-Meir 1973; Reynolds The abiotic matrix (e.g., soil, water, air) et al. 2004). The availability of water is supplies the resources and supports the largely controlled by soils, a geologic biota (e.g., flora, fauna) that together form characteristic. Thus, geology and climate the foundation of all dry ecosystems. are the first-order template upon which dry systems are structured. Plant and soil crust communities are National Park Service 29 SierraMojave Nevada Desert Network Network

Figure 2.3. Mojave Desert Network conceptual model for largely structured by soil properties they most strongly affect (Figure 2.3). and processes, which in turn, influence dry systems. Elevation and aspect influence soils through nutrient cycling, soil stabilization and armoring, and their temperature, soil moisture, and role in natural and altered disturbance ultimately soil morphology, and these regimes. Vegetation structure and abiotic influences have long been known composition influence animal as correlates of different vegetation communities by providing food, zones (Figure 2.4). As latitude increases, cover, and other resources. Animal vegetation zones descend in elevation communities in turn modify the abiotic due to decreasing temperature and and biotic environment (soils and increasing available moisture (Merriam vegetation) through herbivory, seed 1890, 1898). Degree of plant cover dispersal, digging, burrowing, and generally increases with latitude and other activities. The model incorporates elevation, except at very high elevations. natural and human drivers and stressors MOJN parks comprise a wide range of by identifying the model components distinct vegetation zones, or biomes, 30 Vital Signs Monitoring Plan Chapter 2: Conceptual Ecological Models

Figure 2.4. Vegetation zones are determined by specific moisture and temperature regimes, which shift with elevation and latitude.

ranging from shrublands at low areas are typically composed of thick elevations (e.g., sagebrush, creosote alluvial deposits, which are commonly bush, pinyon-juniper at rocky in the Mojave desert and finer intermediate elevations, mixed conifer textured in the Great Basin. forests at higher elevations (e.g., spruce Desertscrub biomes in the Great Basin [Picea spp.], fir [Abies spp.], pine and Mojave deserts are comprised of [Pinus spp.]), and alpine tundra above different plant communities. Great timberline (Figure 2.4). Basin shrubland (desertscrub of Turner MOJN dry systems also include a variety 1994a) consists of major plant dominants of unique environments such as dunes, with cold temperature affinities and beds, salt flats, lava flows, and species associated with warmer caves, for which specific models were temperatures such as rabbitbrush, not developed. The shrubland biome blackbrush (Coleogyne ramosissima), covers a majority of the landscape and hopsage (Grayia spp.), and horsebrush is the site of the majority of human (Tetradymia spp.). These species are and other disturbances; thus, we have soft-wooded, highly branched and placed the greatest emphasis and detail evergreen, and generally form open to in the shrubland system control model dense stands, with perennial grasses and associated detailed models. Full as important understory elements. system control and detailed models for Sagebrush shrubland has been subjected all biomes are presented in Appendix G. to grazing, which increases woody We briefly summarize each biome in the species by selective herbivory. Invasions following sections. by grasses and forbs have increased the fire fuel load, enhancing fire cycles 2.4.1 Shrubland Biome that disfavor the non-sprouting shrubs Shrubland and desertscrub biomes (D’Antonio and Vitousek 1992; Brooks et generally lie in the lowest altitude and al. 2004). These disturbances are treated most arid part of the landscape, the in more detail in the land-use and fire piedmonts and valley bottoms. These submodels (Appendix G). National Park Service 31 SierraMojave Nevada Desert Network Network

G describe patch-scale dynamics, the roles of small mammals and reptiles, the influence of natural disturbance regimes, and anthropogenic disturbance effects on shrubland ecosystems. One of the anthropogenic disturbance submodels, the shrubland fire and recovery model, describes the establishment of the grass/ fire cycle in native shrublands (Appendix G, Section 7.3.4). The grass/fire cycle is an alteration of fire regime that may occur where alien annual grass species come to dominate the herbaceous layer in a plant community (D’Antonio and Vitousek 1992; Brooks et al. 2004). After colonizing, the alien annual grasses provide a continuous fine fuel that is readily ignited Creosote-dominated shrubland, In contrast, Mojave desert shrubland and facilitates fire spread where significant with Kelso Dunes in background, (desertscrub of Turner 1994b) consists spread may not otherwise occur. Following Mojave National Preserve. NPS of major plant dominants with warm Photo. these grass-fueled fires, alien annual temperature affinities. Cacti are common grasses typically recover more rapidly in the southeast Mojave desert (due to than native species, further increasing greater summer rainfall), but present the probability, size, and intensity of fires throughout the Mojave and include and the further decline of native species hedgehogs, several prickly pear cacti, (Brooks and Minnich 2006). This cycle barrel cacti (Ferocactus spp.), and two may be exacerbated by pollution and tall-statured yuccas (Mojave yucca climate change. In parts of the MOJN, [Yucca schidigera] and Joshua Tree). atmospheric nitrogen deposition may lead Annual and biennial plants of the Mojave to increases in invasive annual grasses and Desert shrubland are mainly winter decreases in the native annual vegetation germinators, although late summer (Brooks 2003). Climate variation resulting germinators also occur. Creosote bush in temperature fluctuations, and the shrubland is the most widespread of amount and seasonality of precipitation, the Mojave desert shrublands and often could increase or decrease the relative occurs with white bursage (Ambrosia importance of these disturbance processes. dumosa) as a co-dominant. Mojave yucca and Joshua tree stands are common at The land disturbance model describes higher altitudes, and in the case of the the effects of soil compaction, former, strongly associated with desert grazing, plowing, and water diversion pavements and strong pedogenic soils. on shrubland ecosystem function Studies of Joshua tree “woodlands” (Appendix G, Section 7.3.5). Each indicate that typically, the Joshua tree of these anthropogenic disturbances is dominant only in stature and the can directly or indirectly affect soil wide range of shrubs and grasses are of properties and plant communities, greater ecological importance (Rowlands thus leading to effects on animal 1978). Salt desert shrubland (Saltbush communities. For example, these series of Turner 1994b) is typified by activities cause soil disturbance and one or more Atriplex species along with compaction, which leads to the loss of halophytic chenopods. The shrubs are soil crusts, reduces water infiltration and generally widely spaced, and occupy nutrient cycling, and increases water and environments such as fringes of playas. wind erosion. These effects on soils alter Saline playas represent groundwater water and nutrient availability, which discharge environments, supporting lead to changes in plant community mostly phreatophytic species, and thus composition and distribution, increasing are treated in the wet systems models. the likelihood of invasive species establishment or spread, altered fire Several detailed submodels in Appendix regimes, and fragmentation or loss of

32 Vital Signs Monitoring Plan Chapter 2: Conceptual Ecological Models wildlife habitat. Other biomes (tundra, altered understory plant composition forest, woodland) likely experience (Appendix G, Section 6.2). Although many analogous disturbance processes some effects of livestock grazing can lead as those described for shrublands. to decreased fire frequency, other effects, such as the introduction and spread 2.4.2 Pinyon-juniper Woodland of invasive annual grasses by livestock, Biome may lead to increased fire frequency Pinyon (Pinus spp.) and juniper and establishment of a grass/fire cycle (Juniperus spp.) woodlands are the (described in Section 2.2.1). only major vegetation type occurring throughout the entire MOJN and are 2.4.3 Mixed Conifer Biome comprised of various combinations of Coniferous forests (excluding pinyon eight pinyon and juniper species. These and juniper woodlands) cover less woodlands occur at middle elevations than 1 percent of the Great Basin (1500 – 2300 m) on upper piedmont landscape, and even less of the Mojave and lower slopes of mountain ranges in desert landscape, where they represent an elevational band between shrubby scattered patches at high altitudes. vegetation below (e.g., , Sonoran There are 15 species of conifer in the desertscrub, Mojave desertscrub, or Pinaceae in the Great Basin including shrub steppe) and mixed conifer forests ponderosa pine, white fir (Abies above. Pinyon-juniper woodlands concolor), Engelmann spruce, Douglas typically exhibit broken canopies ranging fir, and limber pine (), from 25 to 50% tree cover, and trees which are found between 6,500 feet are rarely more than 12 m tall. Habitat and timberline. Shrub understory in the tends to be rocky, and soils are usually forest is an important part of the forest thin on the mesas, plateaus, piedmonts, ecosystem, and patches of mountain slopes and ridges (Pase and Brown 1994). sage and mountain mahogany may play Depending on a variety of environmental successional roles. Forest cover provides factors and antecedent conditions, the a unique environment for a host of vegetation under the tree canopy ranges plant and animal species that otherwise from bare ground to a rich shrub and/ would not exist, adding great value to the or grass community hosting species diversity and stability of the ecoregion. representative of Mojave desertscrub, The mixed conifer forest biome covers Sonoran desertscrub, interior chaparral, a substantial proportion of GRBA and Great Basin shrub-steppe, and/or is found between the woodland and montane communities. Pinyon and shrubland biomes and alpine tundra. juniper woodlands are important As is the case throughout most of the for wildlife habitat, and shifts in the , upland forests of distribution and density of pinyon and the Great Basin are disturbance-driven juniper woodlands can have large effects ecosystems (Peet 2000). Wildfire is on the species composition, behavior, and the most widespread and significant population status of resident animals. disturbance agent in the region. Perhaps Livestock and other large herbivores the result of fire suppression, insect pest have important effects on pinyon and outbreaks are becoming increasingly juniper systems, and some MOJN important to conifers, especially in parks have been historically or are combination with the stress of prolonged currently grazed by commercial drought. Anthropogenic drivers include livestock and/or feral equids. Intense global climate change, selective grazing grazing by livestock reduces perennial and trampling by livestock (Belsky and grasses, which leads to a reduction Blumenthal 1997), and motor vehicle use in fine fuels. Reduced fine fuels and (primarily off-highway vehicles). Increased intentional fire suppression results in temperature due to climate change may a cascade of effects; including reduced reduce total area of forest cover, by frequency of surface fires, increased differentially selecting for arid-tolerant canopy cover of pinyon and juniper, species at the lower elevations, or as a reduced understory moisture, and result of some species migrating upslope

National Park Service 33 SierraMojave Nevada Desert Network Network

of air pollution, ozone, introduced fire, and plant harvesting. Alpine tundra may be affected by climate change as: 1) the increased variability in climate results in a greater intensity and frequency of

wind storms, 2) increased CO2 alters plant species composition by changing the need for photosynthetically efficient plants, and 3) timberline migrates upward due to increased temperatures. Reduced atmospheric ozone leads to increased solar radiation and incident UV radiation, damaging plants at these high elevations. Human trampling and harvesting of plants disturbs soils and plant mats, increasing wind and water erosion.

2.5 Wet Systems Model The wet systems model describes the relationship and interactions among climate and four components: Bristlecone pine, Mt. Washington, where they will occupy smaller areas where groundwater, lakes, streams, and springs Great Basin National Park. NPS more favorable climatic conditions occur. (Figure 2.5). Hydrologic inputs to the wet photo. Motor vehicle use can lead to increases in system come from two predominantly soil compaction and erosion, opportunities abiotic systems: the atmosphere (through for invasive species (Gelbard and Belknap direct precipitation) and groundwater 2003), higher incidence of human-caused (through storage and transport of fire, and a reduction in habitat quality due water). Water from these two sources to increased fragmentation (Trombulak is transported through biotic systems, and Frissell 2000). then returned to the atmosphere through evaporative processes and returned 2.4.4 Alpine Tundra Biome to groundwater systems through deep infiltration. Water entering ecosystems Alpine tundra occurs on rocky mountain from surface runoff and groundwater tops above upper timberline, and is discharge support wet system habitats. only present in the MOJN at GRBA. The short growing season due to cold, Stream and stream-bank (riparian) combined with intense radiation, wide ecosystems consist of environments temperature variation, extreme wind, such as the floodplain, channel bank, thin air, and long-lasting snow, severely channel bed, and channel, and are used limit the productivity of flora and fauna by many ecosystem components such as in this zone (Scott and Billings 1964). plant communities, aquatic species, and The tundra environment is generally wildlife. The function and distribution characterized by thin, rocky soils and of these habitats are driven by the flow plants with low, prostrate growth forms. regime, particularly the pattern of Despite harsh environmental conditions, flow of floods in space and time. Large a diverse community of short-stemmed streams and rivers are also complex perennial herbs, lichens, and mosses networks in which the organization of are common, as are prostrate forms of channels and their tributaries uniquely woody shrubs (Pase 1994). At upper shape flow characteristics and exchanges timberline, a transitional zone includes with floodplain and riparian habitats bristlecone (Pinus aristata) and limber (Benda et al. 2004). The flow regime pine with their characteristic stunted, shapes habitats through disturbances, krummholz growth. temperature and light variations, and water chemistry (including nutrient Anthropogenic drivers include concentrations; Scott et al. 2004). climate change, direct trampling and The flow regime strongly influences contamination, wet and dry deposition 34 Vital Signs Monitoring Plan Chapter 2: Conceptual Ecological Models

Figure 2.5. Mojave Desert Network conceptual model for wet systems. aquatic species from fish to springsnails can disproportionately affect lakes and amphibians, as well as riparian dependent on snowmelt, and because vegetation such as cottonwoods (Populus airborne pollutants are carried rapidly spp.), willows, seep willows (Baccharus into the lakes along short flowpaths. salicifolia), arrowweed (Pluchea sericea), Another factor that makes the lakes ash (Fraxinus spp.), cattails (Typha spp.), particularly susceptible to change is their rushes, and sedges. Because streams underlying geology, which consists of and riparian zones are associated with metamorphic rocks that provide low available water, they are utilized by wide- buffering capacity. ranging wildlife such as deer (Odocoileus Desert spring-fed wetlands can be spp.), bighorn sheep, and a wide broadly characterized as pools, streams, variety of birds. Riparian zones are also and muddy or boggy areas. Extensive susceptible to invasive species that alter wetlands and multiple spring pools the habitat and stream function, such as form where a regional carbonate aquifer tamarisk, and can then act as corridors system discharges, such as at Ash for other invasive species. Meadows, NV, and at DEVA. However, Shallow subalpine lakes at GRBA most of the desert parks have isolated depend on snowmelt runoff and small springs and wetlands that exhibit groundwater. These lakes undergo variable discharge. In Joshua Tree seasonal fluctuations in volume, National Park, fan palm (Washingtonia resulting in barren rocky shores rather spp.) oases are important habitat and than vegetated riparian zones. The historical sites. Where springs occur subalpine position of these lakes renders in broad, sediment-filled valleys, short them highly vulnerable to climate streams and riparian corridors form. change and air pollution, because small The seeps and springs at the mouths temperature and precipitation changes of mountainous canyons are more

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(Cyprinodon spp.), chub, amphibians, riparian bird communities, and aquatic macroinvertebrates. The major human stressor to streams and rivers is alteration of the flow regime through water withdrawal and damming. Other major stressors are the intentional or accidental introduction of exotic species, the degradation of water quality, effects of grazing and other land-use disturbances, impacts of recreational use, and indirect effects of human- induced climate change and alteration of groundwater dynamics. Major threats to subalpine lakes are atmospheric deposition of pollutants, introduced species, and alteration of climate and precipitation patterns.

2.5.1 Groundwater

Rogers Spring, Lake Mead Groundwater hydrology consists of National Recreation Area. NPS common, but typically smaller than three principal components: recharge, photo. springs fed by regional aquifers. storage in groundwater aquifers, and discharge at springs, seeps, and other Spring-fed wetlands form a wide variety sites. Much of the present-day recharge of important riparian and aquatic habitat in the MOJN occurs in mountains and (Stevens and Springer 2004). In general, the groundwater is discharged to the biological importance is correlated with atmosphere by evapotranspiration from the size of the wet area, brook length the plants, the soil, or open water (lakes, for flowing streams, and size of pools, spring pools, and wet playas). In the which are in turn a function of spring absence of any human development, discharge. Groundwater discharge at the groundwater systems in the MOJN springs is thus a key indicator of riparian are in dynamic equilibrium with long- biologic health and integrity. term climatic patterns. Rain and snow The major human stressors to wet provide recharge to the groundwater systems affect both water quantity and system, which is balanced by an equal quality. Groundwater is fundamental to amount of discharge plus short-term the function of desert wet systems, and changes in groundwater storage. Storage is described in terms of components and surface water discharges respond to and processes such as recharge, storage, long and short-term climatic changes. and discharge of groundwater. Springs Large aquifers (regional carbonate) are affected by groundwater extraction, with long storage capacities respond distribution of contaminants, and slowly to climatic shifts, while small disturbance of recharge zones through aquifers (perched mountainfront) with paving and diversion (Figure 2.5). Water short residence time respond more quantity can be indirectly altered in quickly to periodic drought and flood spring-fed wetlands and stream systems cycles. An important consideration by invasive plants (e.g., tamarisk). Other for groundwater systems is that water human impacts include introduction discharging in a spring within a given of predators and parasites (e.g., park may be recharged far away, so mosquitofish [Gambusia spp.] and Asian distant areas may be relevant for tapeworm [Cestoda spp.]), direct human managing local hydrology. disturbance, and fire. Vital Signs reflect The principal aquifer types within many of these drivers as well as the the MOJN are basin-fill deposits and importance of wet systems for endemic regionally extensive carbonate rock and at-risk populations of pupfish (Harrill and Prudic 1998). Basin-fill 36 Vital Signs Monitoring Plan Chapter 2: Conceptual Ecological Models deposits consist of unconsolidated to consolidated clastic materials eroded from adjacent mountains. These deposits can be thousands of feet thick and form the most productive aquifers, especially in the Mojave and Sonoran deserts. Groundwater flowing through basin- fill aquifers typically remains within its originating basin, except for water that infiltrates downward into underlying rock that has hydrologic connections beneath other basins. Carbonate rocks form a regionally extensive aquifer within the Basin and Range and northern Mojave desert. This aquifer allows for interbasin flow, as groundwater flows beneath surface water divides of mountain ranges (Harrill and Prudic 1998). The carbonate aquifer recharges over a broad area of mountain tops near GRBA and discharges in many places, including springs and of DEVA mountain blocks. Alternatively, where Saratoga Springs in southern and LAME. bedrock is impermeable or topography Death Valley National Park is steep, snowmelt or rain may channel consists of several spring Recharge is derived from rain and mouths that provide water to snow. Climatic factors, partitioning of and flow down the mountain front onto the upper piedmont. Most channeled three open-water ponds. Photo precipitation to runoff or infiltration, courtesy D.M. Miller, USGS. and spatial linkages of runoff, biotic water infiltrates into the streambed and use, evapotranspiration, and soil some recharges the underlying basin-fill hydraulic properties all affect whether aquifers as focused recharge. An extreme recharge occurs, and its locations and example of this is in the Mojave River amounts. In low lying basins, where basin, where 80 percent of the recharge precipitation is low (5-15 cm/yr), to the basin is estimated to be from rainfall provides moisture to the surface leakage of floodwater from the Mojave soils but is insufficient to saturate the River into the underlying basin-fill underlying soils and to percolate into the aquifer (Stamos et al. 2001). groundwater system (Hevesi et al. 2003). Groundwater recharge occurs primarily 2.5.2 Spring Systems in the mountains and upper piedmont Spring systems are ecosystems formed areas where annual precipitation is where groundwater discharges at the from 15 to more than 75 cm (Hevesi earth’s surface. Groundwater can et al. 2003) and elevations are greater move along complex and lengthy flow than 1,500 m (Maxey and Eakin 1950; paths or along small aquifers with short Rice 1984). In northern, colder regions pathways. The aquifer characteristics (GRBA), or where mountains reach (residence time, lithology, chemistry) high altitudes (e.g., Spring Mountains), impart strong controls on groundwater winter snow pack provides the dominant discharge characteristics such as source of recharge to the groundwater temperature, chemistry, and rates system. In the southern regions (MOJA), (Freeze and Cherry 1979; Domenico and rainfall is the dominant source of Schwartz 1990; Fetter 1994), as depicted recharge. Most recharge occurs in the in the groundwater model. Springs are winter and spring, when precipitation commonly the primary sources of water is high and evapotranspiration is for small streams and riparian zones. low. Diffuse recharge may reach the We group groundwater systems into saturated zone (groundwater system) three types of aquifers for the purposes as deep infiltration of precipitation of discussing spring systems: (1) through fractured or porous rock in the small, commonly perched, aquifers;

National Park Service 37 SierraMojave Nevada Desert Network Network

Table 2.2. Characteristics of springs related to three kinds of aquifers common in the Mojave Desert Network. Aquifer type Perched Local Regional Aquifer size Very small Small Large Water temperature Cold Cool Warm Solute concentration Low Low to moderate Moderate to high Total discharge Very low Low Moderate to high Discharge persistence Ephemeral Ephemeral to Perennial Invariant Discharge site Mountain Piedmont Valley bottom Typical discharge morphology Tinaja, seep, qanat Small spring, seep, spring mound Spring- complex, wet playa

(2) local valley (basin fill) aquifers; morphology can be related to functional and (3) regional (carbonate) aquifers. characteristics. For instance, a marsh that These aquifer types are described in is cleared and dredged in one location the groundwater model (Appendix to provide open water for livestock may G) and their characteristics, related to be functionally distinct from many less- springs, are summarized in Table 2.2. disturbed open-pool springs. Springs fed by perched aquifers tend to be cool (<10°C) and commonly go dry 2.5.3 Streams and Riparian Zones during droughts. Springs fed from local Stream and stream-bank (riparian aquifers may also change seasonally zone) systems consist of flowing water and go dry during extended droughts. (lotic) and associated channel bed and Springs fed by regional aquifers, on the floodplain environments. We restrict other hand, tend to be warmer (>20°C), our discussion to perennially flowing and higher in solutes due to the depth streams and rivers, and those that and length of flow paths, and tend to support perennial flora and fauna. Many have discharge rates that remain fairly intermittent streams occur throughout constant over time intervals exceeding the MOJN, and we consider the function 50,000 years (Winograd et al. 1992). of those systems to be more similar to Size of spring ecosystems is a strong Dry Systems in that rare flow events function of groundwater discharge. At add pulses of resources to typically dry, the low end of discharge, seeps tend to or xeric systems. Plants along these support upland and facultative wetland intermittent streams for the most part are species adapted to drier conditions. At typical xeric species. Furthermore, we the higher end of spring discharge rates, do not specifically address the Colorado permanent ponds and riparian corridors River due to uniqueness of its extreme support many endemic and endangered size and managed flows. desert fish species. Two aspects of stream and riparian Springs exhibit many morphologies and zones (referred to collectively here as a single spring may change morphology riparian unless specified) separate them with time. Common types range from from other systems in semi-arid regions. lush open pools to seeps that exhibit The presence of (1) perennially flowing damp earth with no open water; between water that typically spans multiple these ends of a spectrum, there is a environmental zones creates (2) unique wide variety of wet meadows, marshes, mosaics of heterogeneous flow and permanently wet short stream segments bank environments that support a high in canyons, spring mounds, and saline degree of biodiversity. However, because springs and wet playas with no vascular all streams and rivers are dynamic and plants. Aquatic organisms, riparian adjust their characteristics to climate, vegetation, and associated fauna all geology, topography, base level, and vary with spring type (Sada et al. 2005), vegetation (Fitzpatrick 2001), they often but an anthropogenic overprint is share common processes, features, ubiquitous, complex, and severe. Because and interactions across a wide range of current morphology is in part caused environments (Patten 1998). by human uses, it is unclear how the 38 Vital Signs Monitoring Plan Chapter 2: Conceptual Ecological Models

Perennial streams and riparian areas are not common in MOJN and mostly occur in areas of high effective moisture, such as northern latitudes and high elevations, or in places where there is access to a significant groundwater supply. Most streams in the Mojave Desert Network are mountainous streams at GRBA. These mountain streams do not extend to alluvial valleys and tend to have distinct channel morphology (and thus habitat) that varies relatively systematically with position in the watershed (Montgomery and Buffington 1997). These streams respond more quickly to precipitation and tend to be connected to smaller (and thus more climatically sensitive) groundwater aquifers. Riparian areas encompass a small (less than 1 to 3%) portion of semi-arid landscapes, yet are among the most biologically diverse and important ecosystem components (Naiman and Decamps 1997; Patten 1998). In addition to obligate aquatic species, up to 80% of all vertebrates depend on riparian areas for at least one-half of their life cycles, and more than half are completely dependent on riparian habitats (Chaney et al. 1993). Riparian areas also serve as important connectors for energy and materials Pine Creek, Great Basin materials in dams and fluctuating local among nearly all ecosystem types. They National Park. Photo courtesy integrate effects from upstream and groundwater levels. As a result, riparian Erik Beever USGS. downstream regions, and in essence vegetation is limited. Forest or open affect and are affected by all portions of areas border the high shoreline, and both wet and dry ecosystems. bare, rocky areas mark the shorezone within seasonal fluctuation ranges. 2.5.4 Montane Lakes Streams lead from the lakes but flow is seasonally variable. Natural lakes are rare in deserts, generally restricted to high-altitude areas Like most high-altitude lakes, these with relatively great effective moisture, lakes did not originally support native and found only at GRBA within MOJN. fish, but trout have been introduced The large reservoirs of the Colorado into Baker Lake, and brook trout were River, Lake Mead and Lake Mohave, removed from Johnson Lake to facilitate are not managed by the NPS, and are introduction of Bonneville cutthroat not considered in this model. Small trout in Snake Creek. Aquatic fauna are spring pools that occur in many desert little-studied in GRBA, but spadefoot parks are described in the springs model toad (Scapiophus hammond) is known (section 2.5.2 and Appendix G). in the park and other toads and frogs and the tiger salamander (Ambystoma Six montane lakes occur in the southern tigrinum) probably occur. Snake Range within GRBA. All lakes lie above 2900 m elevation and are Lake level fluctuations affect shorezone associated with glacial moraines or stability, creating barren rocky shores cirque basins. The lakes are shallow difficult for plants to establish. Lower (average 2.5 m) and vary in level, lake levels generally correspond with seasonally, due to porous glacial National Park Service 39 SierraMojave Nevada Desert Network Network

2.6 Conclusion The complexity of ecological systems presents a fundamental challenge to the development of a comprehensive and effective long-term ecological monitoring program. Conceptual modeling is an approach that has been widely used by monitoring programs to simplify reality by distilling complex natural systems into key elements (Manley et al. 2000; Noon 2003). It is important to note that conceptual modeling is not a goal in and of itself, but a tool to guide thinking, communication, and organization (Maddox et al. 1999). Ultimately, the hierarchical set of conceptual models developed by the MOJN (Figure 2.1) incorporate both broad- and fine-scale factors, processes, and drivers, which inform the selection of indicators and the design of monitoring protocols, as well as provide a basis for interpreting Baker Lake, Great Basin National higher water temperatures and less monitoring data. Park. NPS photo. mixing of waters by wind, and probably limit flora and fauna. Decomposing organic material may result in anoxic conditions, stressing any aerobic benthic organisms in the lakes. Natural stratification due to seasonal ice cover and wind turnover may also result in habitat stratification for aquatic species. Long-term records of ice breakup suggest warming of lakes in the (Magnuson et al. 2000); along with declines in snow volume and earlier snowmelt, lakes may become warmer and shallower in the future.

40 Vital Signs Monitoring Plan Chapter 3 Vital Signs

3.1 Introduction scientifically credible data that are accessible to park managers in a timely Monitoring seeks to determine the status manner and maximizes partnerships Analogous to of and detect trends in indicators of with other agencies and academia. indicators of ecological systems (Busch and Trexler An 8-step approach was taken by the 2003). Elzinga et al. (1998) defined human health network to identify, prioritize, and select monitoring as “the collection and Vital Signs at both the park and network- such as pulse and analysis of repeated observations or levels. This step-wise, iterative process respiration, Vital measurements to evaluate changes in of selecting Vital Signs allows various condition and progress toward meeting Signs are indicators ecological indicators to be compared a management objective.” Detection of and collectively selected for inclusion of ecosystem health ecological change or trend may trigger in the network’s Vital Signs monitoring and condition. management action, determine progress program. An overview of the 8 steps used toward a management objective, or for the selection of the MOJN Vital Signs generate a new line of inquiry/direction. is listed below. Note that due to certain There are many potential indicators of logistical constraints, and the actual “ecological condition,” and monitoring occurrence of certain workshops and programs must select the best subset meetings, we did not necessarily follow of indicators that also meet constraints these 8 steps in sequential order. such as management relevance, budgetary and staffing limitations, and 1. Identify ecosystem drivers, stressors, feasibility of implementation. and important processes through development of an initial conceptual The term “Vital Signs” was coined by ecological model for the network the NPS to represent these ecological (NPS 2003a). indicators of ecosystem condition, which are analogous to critical measures 2. Conduct a series of small, park-based of human health such as pulse and workshops to identify important respiration. Thus, Vital Signs are a subset resources (abiotic, biotic, processes), of physical, chemical, and biological resource threats, management elements and processes of park concerns, monitoring questions and ecosystems that are selected to represent Vital Signs for each network park. the overall health or condition of park 3. Identify similarities and differences resources, known or hypothesized across parks and summarize Vital effects of stressors, or elements that have Signs, threats, management concerns, important human values. Vital Signs may and monitoring questions at the occur at any level of organization (e.g., network-level. landscape, population, community) and 4. Review of network-level information may be compositional (e.g., variety of by park staff. elements in the system), structural (e.g., organization or pattern of the system), 5. Prioritize Vital Signs for each park or functional (e.g., ecological processes). based on management significance Given this complexity, selecting the best and legal mandate. Vital Signs for monitoring requires a 6. Conduct a network-level Vital Signs structured, step-wise approach. scoping workshop to complete scientific review of network- 3.2 Overview of Vital Signs level Vital Signs and associated Selection Process information; complete prioritization The complex task of developing a of Vital Signs based on ecological network monitoring program requires significance; provide additional a front-end investment in planning and information helpful to monitoring design to ensure that monitoring meets for high-priority Vital Signs critical information needs of each park (e.g., partnership opportunities, and builds upon existing information monitoring objectives). collected about park ecosystems. It 7. Conduct a small workshop for network also ensures that monitoring produces and park staff to initially select a “short

National Park Service 41 MojaveSierra Nevada Desert NetworkNetwork

list” of high-priority Vital Signs for the Geologic Scoping Workshops were held MOJN parks. at GRBA, JOTR, MOJA, MANZ, and 8. Conduct a small workshop for PARA. MANZ was discussed only briefly network and park staff to select a final, at the MOJA workshop. Workshop prioritized list of Vital Signs for the objectives were: (1) to identify the status network. of geologic mapping efforts in each park, identify data gaps, and develop a From 1999 to 2003, three types of park- strategy to complete baseline geologic level workshops were held for the MOJN. maps; (2) introduce participants to The outcomes of these workshops are the Vital Signs monitoring program summarized in the next sections. and geologic indicators; (3) identify important geologic resources and related 3.2.1 Lake Mead National management issues and concerns; (4) Recreation Area Vital Signs identify resource threats; and (5) identify Scoping Workshop (1999) management/monitoring and research In spring 1999, the first in a series of questions related to park geologic Vital Signs scoping workshops was held resources. Workshop participants at Lake Mead National Recreation Area included park and network staff, NPS- and a candidate list of 88 Vital Signs was Geologic Resources Division (GRD) developed (NPS 1999c). The objectives staff, and other non-NPS participants of the LAME Vital Signs Workshop (e.g., USGS, university staff). Candidate were to: (1) provide a peer review of the Vital Signs were discussed and identified park’s current resource management within the context of the geoindicator program (e.g., framework and ecosystem checklist (developed by the International model, management and monitoring Union of Geological Sciences) and activities); (2) ensure that functions revised by NPS-GRD staff. The primary or processes necessary to maintain workshop product was a final report ecosystem integrity are part of program including a basic description of park planning; and (3) provide direction for physiography and geology, important a monitoring program that assesses the geologic features and processes, health status and trends of the park’s identification of threats and management ecosystem. Workshop participants concerns to geologic resources, and included academic scientists involved identification of monitoring and research in research in the Mojave desert or a questions. The results of geologic similar ecosystem, federal or state agency resource evaluation workshops were representatives involved in management used to develop materials and populate or research activities occurring within databases used at subsequent park- LAME boundaries, and NPS staff. level Vital Signs scoping workshops. Workshop products included a list of Final geo-scoping workshop reports are reviewed ecosystem/park stressors available from the MOJN upon request and associated monitoring questions, (NPS 2003b, 2003c, 2003d, 2003e, and a candidate list of Vital Signs. This 2004b, 2004c, 2004d). candidate list was subsequently adapted to each individual network park and 3.2.3 Park-Level Vital Signs served as a baseline for subsequent park- Scoping Workshops (2003) level vital sign scoping workshops. The During November and December LAME Vital Signs Workshop Summary 2003, the network conducted their is available on-line at http://hrcweb. third series of park-level Vital Signs lv-hrc.nevada.edu/mojn/data/lamewksp_ scoping workshops at DEVA, GRBA, report.htm. JOTR, LAME, and MOJA. Workshop objectives were to: (1) identify important 3.2.2 Geologic Resource park resources; (2) identify important Evaluation Workshops (2003) management issues; (3) identify and Between May and September 2003, prioritize park drivers and stressors; (4) the second series of MOJN Vital Signs identify park monitoring and research scoping workshops were held to evaluate questions; and (5) identify candidate MOJN geologic resources. These Vital Signs. In preparation for these 42 Vital Signs Monitoring Plan Chapter 2: ConceptualChapter Ecological 3: Vital Models Signs park-level workshops, network staff 3.2.4 Network-Level Vital Signs summarized priority resources, stressors, Scoping Workshop (2004) and resource concerns using resources On May 25-27, 2004, the Network- including General Management Plans, Level Vital Signs Scoping Workshop Resource Management Plans, Strategic was held in Las Vegas, NV to: (1) Plans, and information from Geologic review identified management and Scoping Workshops. The focus of scientific issues, resource threats, and the 2003 workshop at LAME was monitoring questions; (2) review, revise, to review and update the Vital Signs and prioritize candidate Vital Signs for and monitoring questions identified long-term ecological monitoring at the during the 1999 workshop. For MANZ, network and park-levels; (3) for the top candidate Vital Signs and information 20% of Vital Signs, revise justification were cooperatively developed by the statements, develop potential monitoring MOJN Network Coordinator and the objectives, identify existing protocols/ MANZ Superintendent. For PARA, methods, potential partnerships, cost- resources staff were queried and sharing opportunities, and ecological/ candidate Vital Signs for PARA were operational scales for measurement; and developed as part of LAME, due to its (4) develop a network of stakeholders ecological similarity. This was a logical with the common goal of preserving step because PARA was created from important network resources. Over 60 portions of LAME, Grand Canyon individuals representing 15 organizations National Park, and BLM lands. participated in the workshop, including federal and state agencies, academic and Participation in most workshops ranged research institutions, and non-profit from 13-18 individuals representing park organizations. and network staff, park cooperators/ scientists and park volunteers. Candidate Participants were organized into Vital Signs at the park-level were 10-person work groups for each of five identified within 5 broad categories: categories: (1) Air, Geology and Soils; Air/Climate, Geology/Soils, Hydrology, (2) Hydrology; (3) Animals; (4) Plants; Animals, and Plants. For each category, and (5) Human Use and Ecosystem. participants identified specific resources Each work group reviewed a specific and resource issues important to their set of candidate Vital Signs and was park. Responses ranged from small- assigned a facilitator, recorder, and scale, discrete resources (e.g., Devils at least one park staff member with Hole pupfish) to broad-scale ecosystem appropriate expertise to facilitate work processes (e.g., geomorphic processes), flow and capture workshop results. and resources of value for societal An MS Access database was used to reasons (e.g., charismatic species). capture comments and provide updated information during the workshop. After For each ‘specific resource’, park staff individual work groups presented their identified associated ecosystem stressors, results, all individuals re-convened to specific threats, management concerns, conduct the overall prioritization of and monitoring questions. Participants Vital Signs. Prioritization of Vital Signs also prioritized ecosystem stressors was based on management significance, (identified in an early conceptual model) ecological significance, and legal for each park based on each stressor’s mandate, which were weighted 40%, management significance and potential 40%, and 20%, respectively. Workshop impacts on resources. Scores were products included: (1) a revised list of summed across parks to identify stressors management concerns and resource of the greatest concern at the network- threats for level 2 Vital Signs; (2) a level. Individual, park-level databases reduced list of 69 candidate Vital Signs were merged into a single, network-level for the network and individual parks database. This database included 113 (3) a prioritized ranking of this list for candidate Vital Signs and was used to the network and individual parks; and develop a Vital Signs framework for the (4) supporting information for the top network as well as for individual parks. 20% of network-level Vital Signs (e.g., National Park Service 43 MojaveSierra Nevada Desert NetworkNetwork

justification statement, monitoring Table 3.1, the final Vital Signs are listed questions, etc.). The 2004 MOJN within context of the NPS Ecological Vital Signs Scoping Workshop Report Monitoring Framework, a systems- (Appendix H) and database output are based, hierarchical outline that facilitates available online at: http://hrcweb.lv-hrc. comparisons of Vital Signs among parks, nevada.edu/mojn/workshop.htm. networks, and other programs.

3.2.5 Selection of High-priority 3.3 Justification for Vital Signs Vital Signs (2004) This section describes the significance In July 2004, the MOJN Technical and relevance of each final vital sign in Committee reviewed the results of evaluating the condition of MOJN park previous workshops to select a “short ecosystems. Vital Signs are presented in list” of 26 high-priority Vital Signs for the same order as they appear in Table the network. High-priority Vital Signs 3.1, by Level I categories of the NPS were identified based on a review of the Ecological Monitoring Framework. prioritized network list. The Technical Committee also discussed Vital Signs 3.3.1 Air and Climate ranked highly at a park, but not network, Air Quality – Visibility and level and made decisions based on Particulate Matter, Ozone, Wet and management and ecological significance, Dry Deposition potential partnership and cost-sharing opportunities, existing baseline data, and Atmospheric characteristics and socio-political considerations. processes have fundamental effects on wet and dry systems (Figure 2.2) and can 3.2.6 Selection of Final Network significantly affect visitor experience. Vital Signs (2005) Although most of the MOJN park units are some distance from densely The MOJN convened its last workshop populated urban centers in California, on November 29-30, 2005 at LAME, Arizona, and Nevada, many experience Boulder City, NV. This workshop poor air quality from pollutants such was attended by a quorum of MOJN as ozone, nitrogen oxides, sulfur Technical Committee members, resource dioxide, volatile organic compounds, specialists, and USGS professionals. The particulate matter, and toxics (NPS goal of this workshop was to select and 2006a). Influenced by weather patterns, prioritize a final set of Vital Signs from these atmospheric pollutants are carried the “short list” identified at the previous by the wind, broken down by high workshop. Although the Technical temperatures and radiation, and then Committee was committed to funding deposited as wet and dry particles in the all selected Vital Signs for the next five air, water, soil, vegetation, and on wildlife years, the network is unable to fund all and humans. Atmospheric deposition 26 of the identified Vital Signs due to of nitrogen and sulfur compounds can programmatic and fiscal constraints. acidify and contaminate water and soils, Thus, the workshop was a facilitated and affect stability of biological systems, and directed discussion of the merits of each cause a fertilization effect that alters soil of the 26 Vital Signs. To start the process, nutrient cycling and vegetation species the 26 Vital Signs were presented in composition. Acidification of subalpine the prioritized order determined at the lakes at GRBA are of particular concern previous workshop. After discussing the due to their extremely low buffering short list, each workshop participant capacity. Also of concern are the changes identified 7 Vital Signs they believed in vegetation community composition, should merit “final vital sign” status. increased productivity of non-native Results of this voting process were plants, and subsequent increased plant considered a recommendation to the biomass and fire frequency that may Technical Committee and thus were result from increased atmospheric not binding. After a second round of deposition of nitrogen (Brooks 1999). discussion, the Technical Committee In 2004, the American Lung Association agreed to a final list of 20 Vital Signs. In State of the Air Report declared San 44 Vital Signs Monitoring Plan Chapter 3: Vital Signs

Bernardino County, CA (adjacent to JOTR, which is a non-attainment Class I air quality area, and MOJA, which is Class II) to have the poorest quality air (e.g., visibility, ozone) in the nation. Particulate matter has been linked to respiratory ailments in humans (e.g., eye irritation, bronchitis) and photochemical smog degrades visitor experience by obscuring scenic vistas and night skies. Recent data indicates that JOTR, MANZ, and MOJA are at high risk for foliar injury to plants from elevated ozone levels (NPS 2004a). Under the Clean Air Act and GPRA mandate, Class I park managers have a responsibility to monitor air quality for the adverse effects of air pollution and provide recommendations to protect park natural and cultural resources. To evaluate these hazards to ecosystem health, monitoring Storm clouds over the Snake Range at Great Basin National Park. NPS Photo. air quality conditions and its interactions with physical and biological components infiltration rates, and bulk density, is vitally important. control water availability. Soil type, in conjunction with plant communities and Basic Meteorology their dynamics, topography, and climate Climate is a primary factor controlling regimes, are primarily responsible for the structure and function of MOJN broad scale differences in soil moisture ecosystems. Measurements of across the landscape. Plant-available soil temperature, precipitation, wind, moisture is a key factor in understanding humidity, soil moisture/temperature can ecosystem maintenance in desert indicate changing climatic conditions and ecosystems. patterns. Key to understanding ecosystem dynamics is an understanding of the Soil Chemistry and Nutrient Cycling roles of climate variability, hydrologic Soil moisture and chemical nutrients interactions with soils, and adaptive provide the foundation for plant strategies of biota to capitalize on growth. Nutrient cycles are essential spatially and temporally variable moisture ecosystem processes and the linkages dynamics (Noy-Meir 1973; Rodriguez- to decomposition are complex. Iturbe 2000; Reynolds et al. 2004). This Ecosystems on stable trajectories have information is highly relevant to the biological interactions that tend to interpretation of other Vital Signs and conserve key nutrients. Significant provides a basis for understanding the increases or decreases in nutrient response of desert ecosystems to future compounds through stressors such as climate variation (Hereford et al. 2004). acidification or nitrification are good indicators of change (Whitford 2002). 3.3.2 Geology and Soils Increased levels of soil nitrogen caused Soil Hydrologic Function by atmospheric nitrogen deposition increase the dominance (density and In deserts, geology and soils provide biomass) of invasive plant species, the template upon which biota build particularly invasive grasses, with a integrated ecological systems. The concomitant decrease in the density, availability of water is crucial, and small biomass, and species richness of native variations can drastically alter plant and plant communities (Brooks 1999). In animal communities. Both physical and addition, decreased soil buffering and chemical geologic attributes, such as pH affect availability of N, P, and K and soil texture, which influences moisture thus invasive grass distribution. These

National Park Service 45 SierraMojave Nevada Desert Network Network

Table 3.1. The final 20 Mojave Desert Network Vital Signs are presented within the context of the NPS Ecological Monitor- ing Framework. The table lists the ranking and importance at each park (from November 2005 Vital Signs Workshop, see Appendix H).

MOJN Vital parks where vital sign is important Level 1 level 2 level 3 rank Sign DEVA GRBA JOTR LAME MANZ moja Ozone Ozone 7 X X X X X X Wet and Dry Wet and Dry 8 X X X X X X Deposition Deposition Air Quality Visibility and Visibility and Particulate Particulate 6 X X X X X X Matter Matter Air and Climate Weather/ Weather/ Basic 1 X X X X X X Climate Climate Meteorology Soil Hydrologic Function 10 X X X X X X

Soil Chemistry and Nutrient 9 X X X X X X Cycling Soil Function Soil Quality and Dynamics Biological Soil 13 X X X X X X Crusts

Geology and Soils Soil Erosion and 11 X X X X X X Deposition Soil Surface 12 X X X X X X Disturbance Groundwater Groundwater Dynamics and 5 X X X X X Dynamics Hydrology Chemistry Surface Water Surface Water 4 X X X X X Water Dynamics Dynamics Water Surface Water Water Quality 14 X X X X X Chemistry Chemistry Invasive Invasive/Exotic Invasive/Exotic 3 X X X X X X Species Plants Plants Desert Vegetation 2 X X X X X X Communities Change Amphibians Reptile 19 X X X X X X Focal Species and Reptiles Communities or Riparian Bird Communities Birds 18 X X X X X X Communities Mammals Small Mammal Biological Integrity 20 X X X X X X Communities T&E Species At-Risk At-Risk Biota and Populations 17 X X X X X Communities Fire and Fuel Fire and Fuel Fire and Fuel 15 X X X X X X Dynamics Dynamics Dynamics Land Cover Landscape Landscape and 16 X X X X X X Processes) (Ecosystem Landscapes Pattern and Dynamics Dynamics Land Use

46 Vital Signs Monitoring Plan Chapter 3: Vital Signs

Soil surface disturbance causes dust generation, surface runoff, erosion, increased bare ground, decreased soil organic matter, increased invasive plant species cover, vegetation community change, all of which may negatively affect animal habitat and behavior. Loss of topsoil changes the capacity of soil to function and restricts its ability to sustain future uses. Erosion removes or redistributes topsoil, the layer of soil with the greatest amount of organic Biological soil crusts contribute organic matter matter, biological activity, and nutrients to soils and are sensitive to disturbance, Mojave National Preserve. NPS Photo. (Belnap 2003). Erosion breaks down soil structure exposing organic matter within aggregates, which accelerates extremes in soil chemistry result in decomposition and loss. Degraded unique landscapes/plant assemblages soil structure reduces the rate of and management problems (salinity/ water infiltration and increases runoff, toxicity) in network parks. which can lead to further erosion. The Biological Soil Crust Dynamics materials deposited by erosion can bury plants, cover roads and trails, accumulate Biological crusts are concentrated in the in streams, rivers and reservoirs, degrade top 1 to 4 mm of the soil and comprise water and air quality, and damage or over 70% of the living ground cover. degrade cultural landscapes. The main components of soil crusts are cyanobacteria, bryophytes, and 3.3.3 Water lichens, which cover most soil spaces not Groundwater Dynamics and occupied by green plants and are critical Chemistry in reducing erosion, increasing water retention, and increasing soil fertility Groundwater is the source of most (Belnap 2001). Because plant cover is surface water expressions in the sparse in deserts, crusts are an important park, which create habitat for diverse source of organic matter for desert soils. aquatic, riparian, and terrestrial biota. Large scale disturbance of biological Consequently, understanding and soils crusts (by livestock grazing, human monitoring groundwater dynamics foot traffic, recreational and military and chemistry has been identified vehicles, etc.) poses a significant threat as a top priority for network parks. to ecosystem integrity by increasing Determining the status and trends and soil loss (erosion/dust), increasing the developing a better understanding of rate of water loss, and reducing soil water table levels, groundwater flow fertility all of which may alter plant and paths, and the connection between animal communities. Initial studies in groundwater and surface water the Mojave desert indicate that crusts resources are required for predicting the require more than a century for recovery effects of natural and human-induced and these recovery rates are dependent hydrological changes (e.g., municipal on climatic history, particularly groundwater withdrawal) and the fate variability in precipitation, severity of of contaminants (e.g., landfill leachate). disturbance, and soil texture. Precipitation events slowly recharge desert basin aquifers, and this recharge Soil Erosion and Deposition; Soil feeds scattered springs and wetland Disturbance habitats. Removing only a small fraction Disturbance of the soil surface is a of groundwater from these basins can natural process (e.g., animal burrowing, lower the water table and potentially flooding) that can be aggravated by dry up critical surface water resources. anthropogenic activities (e.g., grazing, Land subsidence can disrupt surface off-highway vehicle use, mining). drainage, reduce aquifer storage, cause

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earth fissures, and damage wells and other infrastructure (Bawden et al. 2003). Groundwater withdrawal and contamination is considered a significant ecosystem stressor within the MOJN. Surface Water Dynamics; Surface Water Chemistry Surface water resources in MOJN parks (e.g., springs, seeps, lakes, streams, rivers, reservoirs) are sparsely distributed on Red brome is an exotic annual grass found in the landscape, but are critical for the Mojave Desert Network parks. Photo courtesy persistence of native biota and many T. Esque, USGS. endemic species. Therefore, monitoring surface water resources– both water section 303(d) of the Clean Water Act. quantity and quality parameters – was As a result, total maximum daily loads ranked 4th and 14th among all Vital for total ammonia and total phosphorus Signs within the MOJN. Surface water have been established for the Las dynamics and water chemistry have strong Vegas Wash (see Appendix D, Table effects on aquatic biota, and therefore 5). Finally, atmospheric deposition of biological assemblages (e.g., aquatic pollution and nutrients carried from macroinvertebrates) are often excellent agricultural and urban development indictors of flow regime, water chemistry, areas may contaminate park surface and disturbance history. Alteration of waters. These chemical and hydrologic surface water resources within desert changes can cause fundamental shifts in ecosystems has profound ecological and the chemical properties of park waters management implications, including that lead to subsequent shifts in biotic loss of species diversity, extinction or communities, which depend on these extirpation of special-status and endemic waters for their survival. species, alteration in the composition 3.3.4 Biological Integrity and distribution of plant and animal communities, alteration of culturally Invasive/Exotic Plants significant sites, and inability of parks to The structure and composition of meet legal and policy mandates. Therefore, vegetation communities strongly natural resource managers within define ecological communities and the MOJN are very concerned about have significant effects on ecosystem degradation of surface water resources. processes. In the MOJN, invasive Because surface waters in MOJN plants pose one of the greatest threats frequently derive their flow from to natural and cultural resources of regional groundwater systems, a our parks. Non-native, invasive plant primary cause of degradation is species are invading new areas and groundwater withdrawal and diversion. establishing at unprecedented rates Due to recent drought conditions, and because global trade and transportation weather and water use predictions have allowed these species to cross (Allen 2003), future pressures on biogeographical barriers. Potential groundwater resources are expected ecological damage from exotic invasive to increase, posing significant threats species includes alteration of natural to surface water availability in network disturbance regimes and ecosystem parks. Another source of water processes, and subsequent effects on quality degradation in MOJN parks native flora and fauna. Specific concerns is contamination from mining, septic include threatened and endangered systems, and urban runoff. For example, species sustainability, alteration of Las Vegas Wash within LAME receives density, biomass, and diversity of native treated effluent and urban runoff from plant communities, species extirpation/ Las Vegas, NV, and is listed as highly extinction due to changes in fire regime, contaminated or “impaired” under and alteration of basic soil processes. Numerous non-native plant species have 48 Vital Signs Monitoring Plan Chapter 3: Vital Signs been identified in MOJN park units. Invasive annual grasses are the most widespread and the greatest concern to park managers because of their effects on fire frequency and intensity. Vegetation Change The desert ecosystems found within the seven park units of the MOJN host a rich and diverse collection of plant communities and landforms (Berry et al. 2006). Vegetation and soil constitute the very foundation to which all ecosystem functions are intricately connected and dependent upon. Changes in vegetation composition and structure can have profound effects on nutrient cycling and soil properties. Climate models predict a warmer, drier future for the southwestern United States (Seager et al. 2007). Parks are also faced with the unknown effects of air pollution, habitat loss, and altered disturbance regimes (e.g., fire, land development). These factors will likely have significant impacts on upland plant communities of the MOJN (Brooks and Matchett Network and park staff discuss climate change, habitat disturbance and approaches to monitoring 2006; Hereford et al. 2006). From the fragmentation, vegetation change (e.g., vegetation change with Vital Signs workshops, it was clear that changes in plant community composition cooperators, Death Valley riparian plant communities at seeps, and structure), animal harvesting, National Park. Photo courtesy springs, and streams are also of high introduced diseases, highway mortality, Alice Chung-MacCoubrey. management interest to parks, being and other anthropogenic disturbances. closely tied to ground and surface water Predictions of climate change include dynamics. The Vegetation Change vital higher temperatures, longer and sign combines the specific justifications more severe droughts, and drier soils, for the individual vegetation which may limit water availability communities that were not separated out and require deeper burrowing to find as Vital Signs. cooler soils. Harvesting of adults by Reptile Communities humans in the spring as well as year- round habitat fragmentation and The Mojave and Great Basin deserts disruption continually compromises the provide habitat to a diverse community reproductive success of desert reptile of reptiles. Because of their diversity, populations. A significant number of abundance, and biomass in the MOJN, species are of special concern, including their representation in multiple trophic the desert tortoise; federally threatened), levels, ecological niches, and habitats, chuckwalla (Sauromalus obesus), fringe- and their response to environmental toed lizard (Uma inornata), and gila change, reptiles may be good indicators monster (Brussard et al. 1998). of ecosystem health. Weather patterns (precipitation, temperature, solar Riparian Bird Communities radiation, etc.) influence reptile Birds are used widely as targets for abundance and distribution by affecting management strategies, ecological their activity levels and patterns, their assessments, and monitoring programs water balance, and their environment, because they are scientifically and including vegetation structure and socially well known, and are responsive food availability. Drivers and stressors to natural and anthropogenic affecting reptile communities include environmental change (Fleishman and National Park Service 49 SierraMojave Nevada Desert Network Network

and density. Research suggests that five environmental variables (including seasonal extremes in temperature, annual energy, moisture, and elevation) may predict up to 88% of the variation in mammalian species density for all of North America (Badgley and Fox 2000). Contemporary populations of 16 montane mammal species across the Great Basin-Mojave desert region are presently isolated on mountains and probably have been since the Epoch (Brussard et al. 1998). These mammals that occupy “sky islands” may be some of the first animals to be influenced by climate change due to proposed shrinking of these island habitats (McDonald and Brown 1992). Research in National Park units on the Colorado Plateau, Sierra-, and Rocky Mountains indicate that the number of mammal population extinctions has exceeded the number of colonizations since park establishment and that the rate of extinction is inversely related to park area (Newmark 1995). At-Risk Populations Yellow warbler in riparian MacNally 2006). They are consumers vegetation at Cow Creek in at nearly all trophic levels and vectors At-risk biota include species designated Death Valley National Park. for dispersal of seeds and organisms as rare, endemic, and NPS sensitive. Photo courtesy Gerry/Vicki from isolated habitats. There is also a All network parks except MANZ have Wolfe. strong interdependence between bird “at-risk” species that are important assemblages and vegetation spatial components of the park’s biodiversity structure and composition (Fleishman and that are the focus of park et al. 2003; Fleishman and MacNally management. Nearly 1,000 native plant 2006). Almost all birds in the MOJN species have been identified at DEVA, depend on wetland and riparian habitats and approximately 12% of these native during some phase of their annual cycle. plants are considered special-status In riparian habitats, obligate riparian species, including two federally-listed bird species may be particularly good plant species and 12 endemic plant indicators of ecological change (e.g., species. Nearly all fishes, amphibians least Bell’s vireo). Degradation and and many aquatic invertebrates have destruction of riparian areas, particularly restricted distributions, are endemic, human-induced, are widely viewed as comprised of small populations, or the most important causes of the decline are currently listed as threatened or of land bird populations in the MOJN endangered (e.g., Mohave tui chub (Brussard et al. 1998). [Siphatales bicolor mohavensis]). The primary management concern related to Small Mammal Communities special status species is extirpation or in Small mammals are of particular interest the case of endemic species, extinction. due to their roles in soil processes, seed At-risk species are particularly sensitive distribution and germination, plant to ecosystem change resulting from herbivory, and food webs. Mammalian catastrophic (large or small scale) events populations and communities may (e.g., fire, flood), management actions, be good indicators of environmental alteration of ecosystem dynamics, or change because environmental variables cumulative impacts of non-catastrophic largely influence species composition events (e.g., incremental changes over

50 Vital Signs Monitoring Plan Chapter 3: Vital Signs time). This is because at-risk species Devastating effects of fire in tend to be associated with small and pinyon-juniper woodlands of isolated populations where loss of Joshua Tree National Park. USGS a few individuals can translate into Photo. larger-scale biodiversity loss (e.g., subspecies, genetic level). The need for baseline and long-term monitoring data on at-risk species, including their presence, abundance, and distribution is considered important to the MOJN Vital Signs monitoring program.

3.3.5 Landscapes a landscape’s pattern (patch size and Fire and Fuel Dynamics structure, distribution, connectivity) directly influences the distribution, Change in fire regime (size, frequency, abundance, and movement of intensity) may be the consequence of animals (e.g., bighorn sheep), and the numerous stressors and drivers and distribution, abundance, germination, is a significant threat to MOJN park and dispersal of plants. In deserts, ecosystems. The annual area burned in where many of the organisms are living wildfires has generally increased in the at or near the threshold for surviving western U.S. in past decades, partly due the climatic extremes, the availability to build-up of woody fuels, drought, of resources in patches and ability to and invasion of non-native plant species move among patches are critical factors (e.g., Bromus spp.). An understanding (Whitford 2002). Changes in climate, of Fire and Fuel Dynamics is critical to fragmentation, change in fire regime, and science-based management of shrubland, grazing have had the greatest past and woodland, and forested ecosystems. current impacts on landscape pattern in Fire in the Mojave desert is considered historically infrequent, and desert MOJN parks. shrublands were once considered ‘fire- Seventy-five percent of the land cover proof’. The invasion of alien annual in the Mojave region is shrub/scrubland grasses such as red brome (Bromus (Davis et al. 1998), whereas land cover in rubens) and cheat grass () GRBA and parts of PARA is dominated (Mack 1986; Salo 2004) has increased by woodland and forest cover. Land fire frequencies and intensities, and cover is affected by natural events, has become a resource management including climate variation, flooding, problem throughout low elevations in the vegetation succession, and fire, all of Sonoran, Mojave, and Great Basin deserts which are susceptible to change in (Brooks and Pyke 2001). Recurrent fire frequency or magnitude due to human has devastating impacts on native plants activities. Today, human-induced that are poorly adapted to fire, leading to change in land cover is a primary factor loss of native species, transitional shifts in in habitat loss, the most significant communities, and potentially permanent contributor in the listing of threatened replacement of native plant communities plant and animal species. Monitoring by alien annual (Brooks et al. changes in land cover provides critical 2003). Fuels modeling can help predict fire insights into current or future changes in behavior, monitor fuel condition changes, ecosystem processes (e.g., geomorphic, provide fuel assessments, and help parks hydrologic, soil, biological) and services develop fuels management plans. (e.g., habitat, stabilizing soils). Landscape Dynamics — Land Use, Over three quarters of the Mojave desert Land Cover, and Landscape Pattern is in federal jurisdiction (BLM, NPS, Landscape-level processes such as DOD). Private lands (21% of Mojave) habitat patch mosaic structure may and state lands occur in a checkerboard strongly influence local flora and pattern embedded in a matrix of federal fauna populations. The character of properties (Davis et al. 1998). Human National Park Service 51 MojaveSierra Nevada Desert NetworkNetwork

population in the Mojave-Great Basin proposes to stagger the development desert region is predicted to increase of higher priority Vital Signs over with concomitant development of several years, focus and limit Vital Signs private lands, particularly near JOTR objectives to a realistic and achievable set, (29 Palms, CA), MOJA (Barstow, CA), integrate Vital Signs to increase sampling and LAME (Las Vegas, NV). Land- efficiency and reduce cost, postpone use practices at the local and regional the development of lower priority scale can dramatically affect soil quality, Vital Signs, and seek external funds or water quality and quantity, air pollution, partnerships to supplement program habitat fragmentation, habitat loss, and funds and augment monitoring activities. contribute to the spread and introduction To reduce the number of Vital Signs of invasive species. Monitoring changes under development during the first three in land use lends interpretive power to to five years, lower priority Vital Signs other Vital Signs and may contribute will be postponed until higher priority to early detection and management of Vital Signs protocols are developed, future resource issues. funds become available, or collaborative or partnership opportunities arise that 3.4 Vital Signs Protocol reduce development or implementation Development Strategy costs. Starting in FY 2008, extensive Extensive discussions at Vital Signs discussions occurred between the workshops led to the selection of MOJN Technical Committee, network twenty final Vital Signs that represent staff, and cooperators to iteratively a complimentary set of components, refine objectives for each vital sign to a processes, and stressors and are of technically-sound, financially-feasible, significant ecological and management and scientifically-relevant set. Rather interest to MOJN park managers. A than selecting an overly ambitious set conscious decision was made to select of objectives and compromising our Vital Signs of common concern rather ability to achieve them, the network will than those that were park-specific in adopt the principle of selecting a smaller nature. Thus, the final list is relevant number of objectives and accomplishing to most or all of the parks (Table 3.1). them well. Additional discussions need to occur The integration of Vital Signs has both between parks and network staff scientific and programmatic advantages. throughout the development process to In some cases, answers to some of the achieve a successful and sustainable Vital complex or ‘big picture’ monitoring Signs monitoring program for the MOJN. questions may require analysis of data The network faces several challenging acquired from two or more related issues in developing a successful Vital Signs. For example, to address monitoring program to address the the question “are changes in the final list of Vital Signs. Characteristics composition and structure of vegetation that make MOJN parks fascinating and communities related to changes in soil spectacular places to visit also make characteristics and processes?” We need them challenging to monitor. MOJN to use information from the Vegetation parks encompass significant physical Change, Soil Chemistry, hydrology, and biological diversity and a large disturbance, and Erosion/Deposition total combined acreage. To develop Vital Signs. Although monitoring data a program that effectively addresses cannot be used to explore causal twenty Vital Signs across over 3 million relationships, they provide insight into hectares of diverse, remote, and often potential processes and relationships inaccessible terrain would necessitate and provide hypotheses for future resources beyond those available to research. From a programmatic the program, particularly given that standpoint, integrating related Vital Signs additional funds were not allocated for can lower implementation costs through monitoring at Grand Canyon-Parashant co-location and co-visitation of sampling National Monument. sites (assuming sampling designs and schedules are compatible). To address these challenges, the network 52 Vital Signs Monitoring Plan Chapter 3: Vital Signs

Table 3.2. Protocols planned for development, Vital Signs addressed, and relevant parks. Protocol names in bold are those funded primarily by the network. Symbols identify parks at which a protocol will be implemented, characterize the funding source, and identify Vital Signs for which protocol development will be postponed. Absence of a symbol indi- cates that the vital sign does not apply to the park or will not be implemented at the park.

Parks where implemented

primary vital signs ja va

protocol name o rba o tr addressed ame j para DE g l m man z Ozone Air Quality Wet and Dry Deposition G G G G G G G Visibility and Particulate Matter

Climate Basic Meteorology G G G G G G G Soil Erosion & Deposition

Soil Disturbance Soil Chemistry & Nutrient Cycling Integrated Upland + + + + + + Soil Hydrologic Function Vegetation Change Biological Soil Crusts Riparian Vegetation Vegetation Change + + + + + + Riparian Birds Riparian Bird Communities + + + + + + Invasive/Exotic Plants Invasive/Exotic Plants +/G +/G +/G +/G +/G +/G +/G Fire and Fuel Dynamics Fire and Fuel Dynamics G G G G G G G Groundwater Dynamics & Chemistry Groundwater & Springs Surface Water Dynamics + + + + + + Surface Water Chemistry Surface Water Dynamics + Streams and Lakes Surface Water Chemistry + G Landscape Dynamics Landscape Dynamics + + + + + + + Small Mammals Small Mammal Communities • • • • • • • Reptile Communities Reptile Communities • • • • • • • At-Risk Populations At-Risk Populations • • • • • • • Legend: + Vital signs that the network will develop protocols for and implement monitoring using funding from the Vital Signs or water qual- ity monitoring programs. G Vital Signs that are monitored by a network park, another NPS program, or by another federal or state agency using other fund- ing. The network will collaborate with these other monitoring efforts. • Vital Signs that monitoring will likely be conducted in the future, but which cannot currently be developed due to limited staff and funding.

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The MOJN proposes the development of 10 protocols over the next 3-5 years that would address seventeen Vital Signs (Table 3.2). Protocols for two Vital Signs (air quality and climate) will largely document standard methods used by park staff, NPS- Air Resources Division, and other partners to collect data from existing monitoring stations and identify how data will be stored and processed at MOJN. Monitoring methods for other Vital Signs protocols will be developed through collaborative efforts of MOJN staff, park staff, and university or agency partners. The remaining three Vital Signs will be developed after higher priority protocols have been developed and if funds are available, or if collaborative or partnership opportunities arise that reduce development or implementation costs. The three postponed Vital Signs include At-Risk Populations, Reptile Communities, and Small Mammal Communities. The riparian bird vital sign is slated for development because monitoring of this conspicuous and highly charismatic taxonomic group may be integrated with protocols addressing Vegetation Change, Surface Water, and Groundwater Vital Signs. Sampling designs for the proposed protocols are described in Chapter 4, and monitoring objectives for each protocol are presented in Chapter 5.

54 Vital Signs Monitoring Plan Chapter 4: Sampling Design

4.1 Introduction White bursage (pale, short) and creosote bush on a Monitoring goals and objectives are piedmont near Kelso, Mojave linked to data collection through National Preserve. Blue flags sampling designs. A quality sampling (background) mark plants design is necessary to achieve intended being studied in a permanent monitoring goals and produce rigorous, monitoring plot. Photo robust, and defensible conclusions. To courtesy D.M. Miller, USGS. achieve the greatest precision, accuracy, and resolution, the design must carefully consider the physical, chemical, and biological characteristics of each particular vital sign and patterns of variability in space and time associated with that vital sign (Oakley et al. 2003). The first task is to define clear, concise, Development of sampling designs is and realistic monitoring objectives for often an iterative process that results each vital sign. The objectives must in adjusting monitoring/sampling be flexible enough to accommodate objectives to accommodate the practical future changes in the environment, constraints of cost, time, logistics, safety, management issues, and funding. In available information, and technology addition, monitoring objectives should (Elzinga et al. 1998). balance the needs of individual parks with the network-wide perspective. This chapter presents an overview of Usually long-term monitoring objectives general approaches taken by the MOJN are stated in terms of estimating status for its suite of Vital Signs to be developed and trend of a particular vital sign at a into monitoring protocols over the next park-wide scale. 3-5 years. We provide an overview of Sampling designs how sampling designs are developed Sampling designs should be as simple as and define the relevant concepts and possible while providing data that meet should be as simple terminology associated with sampling monitoring objectives. By maintaining as possible while simplicity and avoiding significant design development. We then discuss providing data that two essential elements of a sampling changes in design and methods, we can design for long-term monitoring: sample ensure consistency of implementation meet monitoring size and magnitude of change. The final through time such that changes in status objectives. two sections describe the integration and trends are ‘real’ and not simply an of Vital Signs, fieldwork and data, and artifact of changing methods and/or outline preliminary design decisions sampling designs (Oakley et al. 2003). for each vital sign, grouped by protocol. Another important aspect of the Specific design and decision justifications development of the sampling design is are included in individual vital sign acknowledgment that it is an iterative protocol development summaries process. As we continue to refine our presented in Appendix I and in Chapter objectives, we gain new insights into 5, and will be more formally discussed in particular Vital Signs and the needs of monitoring protocol narratives. park managers. Because our intent is to develop a robust monitoring program 4.2 Sampling Design Development that can meet the needs of NPS managers In this section, we discuss the general well into the future, our designs must strategy and framework that the MOJN be able to accommodate changes in has adopted for constructing sampling management and funding priorities, as designs. This strategy was employed well as environmental changes. Thus, during the writing of the protocol our monitoring objectives must balance development summaries provided in the needs of current park managers and Appendix I. Individual protocol narratives future generations of managers who can will describe the specific process for expect environmental and management selecting the final sampling design. challenges we cannot foresee.

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The final sampling design is a result of a populations and sampling frames, Status is a measure series of decisions about where, when, allocation and arrangement of samples of the condition of and how to sample a vital sign. Typically, (membership design), and frequency multiple target variables of a vital sign of sampling occasions (revisit design), a resource or are of interest. For example, for the for each vital sign grouped by protocol. attribute at a Vegetation Change vital sign, relative These are summarized in a preliminary given point abundance, mortality, and regeneration framework in Table 4.1. The specific are variables that might be measured. protocol narratives will address the in time. The target variable is not necessarily actual measurements to be taken at the same as the measured variable (de sampling locations (response design) Gruijter et al. 2006). For example, for and the number of samples required vegetation change, relative abundance to meet the stated objectives (sample is one of the target variables of interest, size). In the next section we define the but the actual measured variable may italicized terms and provide more details be percent cover or stem counts. concerning sampling design terminology We consider the vital sign as a whole and concepts adopted by the MOJN. entity when developing the sampling design; the measurements taken can be 4.3 Sampling Design Concepts and modified to account for the multiple Terminology target variables of interest. The following Sampling designs should be concise and questions provide a brief overview of understandable. Overly complex designs sampling design issues we considered can be confusing and may reduce after establishing the monitoring accessibility of results to the monitoring objectives: program audience, many of whom are 1. What is the population of interest? not well versed in statistics and sampling design theory. The MOJN program 2. What is the sampling frame or will be designed as simply as possible, collection of sampling units? with complexity added only as needed 3. What will actually be measured on to achieve objectives. Of course, to each sample unit (measured variables)? monitor ecosystem structure, function, 4. What are the potential sources of non- and processes, some level of complexity sampling error? For example, does the cannot be avoided, particularly when sampling frame represent the target dealing with large, remote, and difficult- Trend is a measure population? Is there a potential for to-access landscapes (McDonald and Geissler 2004). of directional change missing values? Does the actual field method of measurement have potential over time. As discussed in Chapters 1 and 3, observer errors, detection errors, or our monitoring objectives call for the instrumentation problems? estimation of status, trend, or both. 5. How does the vital sign vary in space We are intentional in our use of those and time? two terms and follow definitions 6. What is the appropriate temporal reviewed by Urquhart et al. (1998) and window, and time interval between McDonald (2003). Status is a measure sampling occasions, for sampling? of a current attribute, condition, or state, and is typically measured with 7. What is the appropriate choice of population means or totals. Trend is sampling design type (e.g., ocular a measure of directional change over estimates of vegetation cover) and time and can occur in some population what are the attributes of this chosen parameter such as a mean (net trend), design type? or in an individual member or unit of a 8. What are the budget, time, and/or population (gross trend). Status applies safety constraints? to specific points in time, whereas trend These questions are not exhaustive, but pertains to measurements recorded provide a starting point for discussions at multiple time periods. Status about sampling-design decisions typically is served best by a spatially for each vital sign. We address many extensive sample, while trend is less of these questions, including target reliant on large samples and usually

56 Vital Signs Monitoring Plan Chapter 4: Sampling Design requires more temporally-intensive of units in the sampled population sampling. The balance between spatial (i.e., increasing the sample size). Over- and temporal extent sets up the first coverage occurs when the sampled cost-benefit decision, and is one that population contains elements not must be addressed through a careful included in the target population. consideration of program objectives. Under-coverage occurs when elements of the target population are omitted After defining clear and concise from the sampled population. Non- monitoring objectives, the next response error results from the failure important step in developing a sampling to obtain responses (i.e., measurements) design is to define the collection of for the entire chosen sample. When animals, plants, natural resources, or missing outcomes are very different from environmental attributes of interest the outcomes obtained, the estimates within a specified study. A population calculated from the responding portion consists of elements, the objects on of the sample are biased. Measurement which a measurement is taken (Scheaffer error is defined as the difference in et al. 1990). The actual elements sampled measurements obtained and the true are referred to as the sampling unit; value of the measure and may include they are non-overlapping collections of detection errors from observers elements (in most cases, the sampling and instrument errors. The three unit is the same as the element). A components of non-sampling error: target population is defined as the frame, non-response, and measurement, complete collection of sampling units may not always be avoidable, but survey upon which inference is made. Note planning and design that accounts for that this is a statistical population and these error sources may be helpful in it may or may not refer to a biological reducing the effects of non-sampling population. Without a clear idea of error on target population estimates. the target population, the remaining decisions concerning sampling design The next important step in developing development are impossible to make. a sampling design is determining where to distribute sampling locations. If the We try to quantify our target population sample is generated using some type by using a sampling frame, defined of random draw, the sample is said to as the collection of sampling units. be a probability sample. Whenever Common examples of sampling units in possible we have used a probability the MOJN monitoring program include sample to monitor MOJN Vital Signs. plots, quadrats, and polygons on a We prefer probabilistic sampling designs digital map, or discrete phenomena such because they permit valid inference as lakes, springs, or stream segments. to the sampled population. Because The sampling frame could be a list MOJN parks are typically quite large, of elements (e.g., list of springs) or a probabilistic sampling is being employed map of discrete areal elements (e.g., for most Vital Signs (see “membership vector-based GIS coverage of a park). A design” below). sample is a subset of sampling units of a population (sampled population) that A familiar probabilistic sampling design are measured. is simple random sampling, which involves drawing units from a population Another consideration for sampling- at random with equal probability design development is potential sources of selecting any individual unit. of non-sampling error. Non-sampling Unfortunately, this often fails to produce error may affect the precision and an ideal spatial sample in ecological accuracy of estimates from sampling settings because of uneven spatial efforts (Lessler and Kalsbeek 1992). patterns inherent to a simple random Frame error is the error resulting draw and concordant environmental from the disparity between the target spatial patterns. In particular, simple population and sampled population. random samples generated from a Frame error, similar to sampling error, population can often be patchy or is reduced by increasing the number clustered, with groups of sample sites National Park Service 57 MojaveSierra Nevada Desert NetworkNetwork

closer to one another than to other ensures a true census requires that the groups of samples, and large areas of census is free of frame error. Though the frame can remain unsampled. In rarely possible in most ecological addition, certain rare or uncommon applications, it can occur, for example, elements may be missed entirely. with the use of satellite imagery to determine land cover change. Satellite An alternative approach, and one that imagery may also contain sources of the MOJN is proposing to use for some frame error depending on the pixel of the Vital Signs requiring a probabilistic resolution and the temporal frequency sample, is to draw a spatially-balanced of images used to detect change. random sample following the methods described by Stevens and Olsen (2004). Once the target population, sampling This approach, often referred to as frame, and a strategy for drawing samples GRTS (generalized random-tessellation are determined, the temporal aspect of stratified), allows for a spatially-balanced sampling must be considered. Obviously random draw of sample units with the specifics concerning the sampling variable inclusion probabilities and occasion, time of year (season or month) an ordered list of sample units that and time of day, is dependent on the can support additions and deletions particular aspect of the vital sign being of sample units while retaining spatial measured. However, for larger parks it balance. These features provide may not be feasible to actually visit the considerable flexibility and efficiency to entire sample within a given sampling the MOJN program. In addition, because occasion due to travel time and other of the size and topographic complexity factors. Thus, most sample designs of our parks, it may be necessary and proposed for the MOJN will rotate field efficient tostratify sampling based sampling efforts through various sets of on elevation, landform, soils, or other sample units over time. In this situation, physical characteristics. Also, we will it is useful to define apanel of sample investigate using unequal probability units to a group that is always sampled samples such that adequate sample sizes during the same sampling occasion or are allotted to unique and high-priority time period (Urquhart and Kincaid 1999; sub-populations. McDonald 2003). The way in which sample units in the sample population A judgmental sample is one where become members of a panel will be called the subset of units is hand-picked the membership design (McDonald non-randomly by a researcher. The 2003). The allocation procedure could scope of inference is only to individual be a probabilistic sample, a judgmental sampling units because the sample does sample, or a census. not typically represent other sites that were not chosen. In the MOJN, a set The temporal scheduling of sampling, of judgmentally selected springs that particularly when multiple panels are are connected to the carbonate-rock being used, requires a revisit design aquifer will be monitored because (Urquhart and Kincaid 1999; McDonald of the high management concern of 2003). See Figure 4.1 for a schematic potential withdrawals from the aquifer representation of, and notation for, and the biological importance of the different revisit designs. MOJN has habitat surrounding these springs for adopted notation for revisit designs rare, endemic, and endangered species. for brevity and consistency following We refer to judgmentally-selected McDonald (2003). Under this notation, sampling sites as index sites in the the revisit plan is represented by a remaining chapters. pair of digits. The first is the number of consecutive occasions that a panel Another alternative to probabilistic will be sampled, and the second is the sampling used in the MOJN program is number of consecutive occasions that the census, which involves obtaining a panel is not sampled before repeating a response from every element in the the sequence. The total number of target population. However, an adequate panels in the rotation design is normally sampling frame and survey design that the sum of digits in the notation. For 58 Vital Signs Monitoring Plan Chapter 4: Sampling Design example, using this notation the digit Sample Occasion pair [1-2] means that members of three panels will be visited for one occasion, Panel 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 not visited for two occasions, then Design (1-0) visited again for one occasion, not visited for two occasions, and so on. If a 1 X X X X X X X X X X single panel is to be visited every sample Design (1-n) occasion, its revisit design would be [1- 0]. The notation [1-1] indicates that a 1 X panel is to be sampled on an alternating 2 X schedule. The notation [1-n] means a panel is to be visited once and never 3 X again. The notation [1-0,1-5] means that 4 X units in one panel will be visited every 5 X occasion, while units in six other panels 6 X will be visited once every six years. This particular design is called a split-panel. 7 X Response design (measurements taken 8 X at sampling locations) and sample size 9 X (the number of samples required to meet 10 X stated monitoring objectives) are two essential components of any sampling Design (2-n) design that are detailed in the protocols 1 X themselves (see overview, Chapter 5), but we introduce them briefly in this 2 X X chapter. Response design and sample 3 X X size components are developed after 4 X X basic decisions regarding target and sampling population, spatial allocation 5 X X and membership, and revisit strategies 6 X X have been made. In addition, a response 7 X X design is usually necessary before sample size can be estimated appropriately. 8 X X This is particularly true when response 9 X X decisions, such as plot shape and size, 10 X X strongly influence the variability of population estimates. However, we must Design (2-3) decide about sample size in order to 1 X X X X finalize decisions about membership and revisit design, and in practice, sampling 2 X X X X designs arise out of an iterative process 3 X X X X in which the order of operations is 4 X X X X not rigid. As with the design decisions described above, sample size is primarily 5 X X X X an exercise in cost-benefit trade-offs, Design (1-0, 2-3) and must be determined through careful consideration of program objectives. 1 X X X X X X X X X X 2 X X X X Beginning with the simplest, in which a single panel or set of sampling units, such 3 X X X X as a group of streams or vegetation plots, 4 X X X X are visited on every sampling occasion, 5 X X X X and ending with a complex split-panel design in which the first panel is sampled 6 X X X X on every occasion and five panels are Figure 4.1. Examples of five different revisit designs (reproduced from revisited on two consecutive occasions MacCluskie et al. 2005). and then “rested” for three occasions. National Park Service 59 MojaveSierra Nevada Desert NetworkNetwork

4.4 Sample Size Considerations either through modifications in response and Magnitude of Change design, another component of the sampling design (e.g., revisit design), or Populations in the real world are dynamic, by accepting a higher minimum effect and change over time is expected. What is important is whether or not there has size (Steidl et al. 1997). been meaningful change (meaningful to In general, sample size should be the ecosystem, public, or park manager), large enough to give a high probability what has caused the observed change, of detecting any changes that are of and whether or not further change in the management, conservation, or biological resource is expected. importance, but not unnecessarily large To understand what constitutes a (Manly 2001). Scientists traditionally seek meaningful and significant change, we to reduce Type I errors, and accordingly must differentiate between statistical prefer small a levels. In a monitoring significance and biological significance. program such as ours with a strong Statistical significance relies on probability resource-conservation mandate, however, and is influenced by sample size. Even it is preferable to employ an early warning minor changes (from a biological philosophy by tolerating a highera, but perspective) will be statistically significant consequently increasing the power to if the sample size is large enough. So, detect differences or trends (Sokal and regardless of statistical significance, we Rohlf 1995; Roback and Askins 2005). would consider something biologically For our initial set of protocols, we significant if it facilitates a major shift in will use power analyses to determine ecosystem structure or function (e.g., the approximate sample size needed loss of one or more species, addition of to detect significant levels of change. non-native species, changes in ecosystem Given our specification of a, desired processes, etc.). power, and effect size, combined with Thus, from a monitoring standpoint, information on the variance of the we are concerned with both statistical response variable in question (obtained and biological significance. We want to from available data or comparable know whether we are likely to detect a analogous data, where available), it is change statistically that we also consider possible to calculate the sample size biologically meaningful. To answer required to achieve these results. this we need to decide what level of We may use simple equations (Elzinga statistical significance we want to attain et al. 2001; Thompson 2002) for (i.e., our Type I error rate orβ, discussed approximating sample sizes for design- below), what level of change we consider based estimators of status. Trend analysis biologically meaningful and that we requires model-assisted methods; hope to detect (i.e., the “effect size”), the therefore, sample size calculations for amount of variation among sampling such models require the use of statistical units, and the number of sampling units. packages such as SAS (SAS Institute, Inc). In addition to our monitoring objectives, For complex designs estimating trend we need to define oursampling (e.g., panel designs), power analyses objectives. Sampling objectives based on simulations are required. We establish a desired level of statistical will work with statisticians to implement power (1-β to detect a specified simulation-based approaches using minimum detectable change or effect familiar statistical software packages size and acceptable levels of false-change (e.g., SAS software and R programming (a or the probability of a Type I error) language [http://www.r-project.org/]). (Elzinga et al. 2001). Sample size is a Further, we will recalculate sample sizes function of each of these components, periodically for individual Vital Signs and decreasing sample size, which can as data become available in order to be desirable for cost effectiveness, will refine and revise sampling designs, and often force acceptance of higher error ensure that objectives are being met and and lower power. These tradeoffs are sampling resources are being optimally mitigated by reducing variance estimates, allocated among Vital Signs. 60 Vital Signs Monitoring Plan Chapter 4: Sampling Design

4.5 Logistical Constraints of design for each protocol. For each Sampling Designs protocol, the table identifies the target population(s) based on monitoring Several characteristics of MOJN parks objectives (identified in Chapter 5, and their natural resources impose Table 5.1), allocation and arrangement significant logistical constraints on of samples (membership design), and spatial and temporal aspects of sampling frequency of sampling occasions (revisit designs. First, MOJN parks encompass design). Opportunities for integrating some of the largest park acreages in Vital Signs through co-visitation and co- the lower 48 states. Consequently, safe location are also listed. access to potential sampling sites, either by road, trail, or backcountry hiking, may not always be logistically feasible or cost-effective, given the remote and rugged nature of some portions of the parks (e.g., mountainous areas within DEVA). To address this issue, we intend to use a weighted approach that allocates a greater proportion of the sample to areas within a predetermined distance from roads and a smaller proportion of the sample to the more remote areas of the parks. In addition, as mentioned elsewhere (e.g., Chapter 5), we intend to coordinate data collection for multiple Vital Signs, either by co- location or co-visitation of established sampling sites. Second, MOJN parks experience extreme weather conditions that vary from park to park (e.g., cool temperatures at the top of Wheeler Peak in GRBA, at the same time that temperatures at DEVA exceed 48°C). Consequently, access to some of the parks may vary seasonally, field work may be performed safely only within certain seasons, and particular Vital Signs may only be sampled within specific temporal windows (e.g., plants that are seasonally present). These issues will be carefully evaluated and addressed using a variety of appropriate revisit designs for each individual monitoring protocol. Finally, an additional approach that the network is currently investigating is the use of high-resolution aerial photography to extend ground- based sampling measurements (e.g., vegetation cover attributes) to remote, inaccessible areas within parks.

4.6 Overview of Sampling Designs for Mojave Desert Network Vital Signs The Integrated Upland Protocol will monitor long-term trends in focal vegetation Table 4.1 lists the 10 protocols planned communities, including creosote-bursage communities (upper photo) and Joshua for development, the vital signs they tree woodlands (lower photo), Joshua Tree National Park. Upper photo courtesy address, and the proposed sampling Stacy Manson. Lower photo courtesy Penny Latham. National Park Service 61 SierraMojave Nevada Desert Network Network

4.6.1 Example: Integrated Upland highest elevations. Park managers are Protocol interested in understanding long-term trends in composition and structure of MOJN parks encompass a wide range these communities (vegetation change) of plant communities, from saltbush as well as soil properties and processes and creosotebush at low elevations to across MOJN parks. Since changes in bristlecone pine communities at the vegetation can have profound effects

Table 4.1 Summary of sampling design components for each of 10 protocols planned for development (and associated Vital Signs). protocol membership vital sign target population revisit integration name design design opportunities Ozone Wet and Dry Deposition Existing air quality monitoring Air Quality N/A [1-0] stations Visibility and Particulate Matter Climate Basic Meteorology Existing weather stations N/A [1-0] Vegetation Change Upland shrub communities Biological Soil Crusts BSCs in upland shrub communities Invasive/Exotic Plants Integrated Soil Erosion and Deposition Probabilistic Rotating Fire and Fuel Upland Soil Disturbance (GRTS) Panel Dynamics These processes and characteristics Landscape Dynamics Soil Chemistry/Nutrient Cycling within upland shrub communities Soil Hydrologic Function

Cottonwood, willow, and palm oasis Invasive/Exotic Plants communities at large persistent Groundwater and Riparian springs Probabilistic Rotating Springs Vegetation Change Vegetation (GRTS) Panel Streams and Lakes Perennial stream vegetation Riparian Birds (GRBA) Landscape Dynamics

Riparian-obligate breeding birds Riparian Vegetation at large persistent springs Probabilistic Rotating Groundwater and Riparian Birds Riparian Bird Communities Riparian-obligate breeding birds (GRTS) Panel Springs along perennial streams (GRBA) Streams and Lakes Integrated Upland Judgmental In upland shrub and riparian Riparian Vegetation and TBD Invasive/ communities Fire and Fuel Invasive/Exotic Plants Probabilistic Exotic Plants Dynamics Prioritized watch list Judgmental TBD Fire and Fuel Invasive/Exotic Plants Fire and Fuel Dynamics Fires within MOJN parks TBD TBD Dynamics Integrated Upland Groundwater Dynamics and Wells Judgmental TBD Groundwater Chemistry and Springs Surface Water Dynamics and Rotating Riparian Vegetation Carbonate-aquifer springs Judgmental Surface Water Chemistry Panel Riparian Birds Status of 303(d) waterbodies Riparian Vegetation Census [1-0] (LAME) Riparian Birds Streams and Surface Water Dynamics and Rotating Lakes Surface Water Chemistry Permanent streams (GRBA) TBD Panel Lakes (GRBA) TBD TBD Landscape MOJN parks, including buffer Integrated Upland Landscape Dynamics Census TBD Dynamics around park boundaries Riparian Vegetation

62 Vital Signs Monitoring Plan Chapter 4: Sampling Design on soil properties and vice versa, the The GRTS approach is advantageous study of one necessitates the study of because selected points that turn out the other. For this reason and those to be inaccessible may be replaced by a discussed above for co-location and subsequent sample point from the same co-visitation of Vital Signs, we plan to draw without losing spatial dispersion design protocols that simultaneously and randomness. address Vegetation Change, Biological The unequal representation of shrub Soil Crusts, and soils-related Vital Signs communities across the landscape poses (Soil Chemistry and Nutrient Cycling, a challenge that may be remedied by an Soil Hydrologic Function, Soil Erosion/ unequal probability GRTS approach. Deposition, and Soil Disturbance). Whereas an equal probability GRTS Financial and logistical constraints draw may result in insufficient sample require that we limit our objectives sizes of specific shrub communities, an for the Vegetation Change vital sign unequal probability draw may ensure to a subset of these communities. adequate sample sizes within unique For this vital sign, we identified two high-priority communities, such as target populations of interest for long- Joshua tree. Figure 4.2 illustrates the term monitoring: shrub and riparian sample site locations resulting from communities. We selected shrub an unequal probability GRTS draw for communities because this physiognomic Joshua Tree National Park (JOTR). Of class collectively represents a large 100 sample sites, twenty-three were proportion of each park and captures allotted within Joshua tree communities several focal communities of interest and seventy-seven were allotted within (Joshua tree, blackbrush, and sagebrush), creosotebush communities. thus providing a common theme We delineated the sampling frame by among parks and increasing our ability vegetative community for this example to discern landscape-scale change in only. Optimally, the sampling frame will upland vegetation and soils. From the be delineated by physical characteristics Vital Signs workshops, it was also clear or features such as elevation, landform, that riparian communities were of high or soils to avoid sampling frame management interest to parks, due to error that may result when vegetative the significant degree of biodiversity, communities shift across the landscape. productivity, and human impacts that In future discussions with the Integrated occur in these systems. We propose to Upland protocol working group, we address these two disparate communities will refine the membership, revisit, and as separate protocols because their response designs, sampling methods, different ecological characteristics and sample size requirements, and logistical spatial distributions across the landscape strategies for implementing the protocol necessitate different sampling designs at all network parks. We anticipate an and methods. extended period of time dedicated to Here we discuss a potential sampling sample site selection as we 1) explore design for the Integrated Upland base data (spatial and tabular) useful protocol, which integrates sampling for selecting sites and estimating sample for shrub communities, biological soil size, and 2) resolve issues associated with crusts, and associated soil processes applying an inference-based approach to and characteristics. We plan to design these large parks. protocols that simultaneously co-locate and co-sample parameters estimating vegetation change and soil condition to maximize data integration among Vital Signs and minimize travel costs. A random, probability-based sampling approach is desirable because we want to make inferences across MOJN park landscapes, which are very large.

National Park Service 63 SierraMojave Nevada Desert Network Network

Figure 4.2. Site locations from an unequal probability generalized random-tessellation stratified sample for the Integrated Upland protocol at Joshua Tree National Park. Of 100 sample sites (stars), twenty-three were allotted within Joshua tree communities (orange area) and seventy-seven were allotted within creosotebush communities (green area). Only areas within 5 km of a road were included in the sampling area.

64 Vital Signs Monitoring Plan Chapter 5: Sampling Protocols

5.1 Introduction justifying why this protocol needs to be developed. Monitoring protocols are the key, on- Monitoring protocols • Monitoring Questions and the-ground, functional elements of are detailed study plans our program. Formal, peer-reviewed Objectives to be Addressed by the protocols ensure consistent and reliable Protocol that explain how data monitoring, and provide for project and • Basic Approach: Description of any are to be collected, program continuity as personnel change. existing protocols or methods that will managed, analyzed, Our protocols and their associated be incorporated into the protocol, the development process emphasize careful basic methodological approach, and and reported, selection and testing of methods and sampling design. and are a key sampling designs, comprehensive and • Principal Investigators and component of detailed review by National Park Service NPS Lead: The name and contact quality assurance and external, non-NPS experts prior to information for the Principal implementation, and careful, detailed Investigators (P.I.s) and for the NPS for natural resource documentation to ensure consistent project manager responsible for monitoring programs. implementation over time. Where working with the P.I.s to ensure that (Oakley et al. 2003). possible, the network will take advantage the protocol meets network and of existing protocols, particularly those park needs. that have already undergone I&M and peer review. Even in those cases, the • Development Schedule, Budget, protocols need to be adapted for the and Expected Interim Products: particular circumstances of MOJN parks. Description of expected costs, time The following sections describe protocol lines, and interim products (annual development planning documents reports, sampling designs, etc.). (Protocol Development Summaries), Protocol development summaries guidance specifying the content of for nine MOJN protocols proposed each protocol document, the protocol for development in the next 3 to 5 development process, and protocols years can be found in Appendix I. The planned for development by the MOJN development of PDSs is an iterative over the next three to five years. process, requiring extensive input and feedback from park staff and 5.2 Protocol Development cooperators to develop a succinct Summaries summary and realistic set of protocol Protocol Development Summaries development plans. PDSs will be (PDSs) are required for all monitoring updated as necessary to reflect the protocols planned for development latest decisions on objectives, target and implementation by the network populations, methods, cooperators, and monitoring program. The PDS is a short other pertinent information. Additional document that identifies the vital sign PDSs for the remaining three Vital Signs of interest, describes why the protocol will be developed in the future as time, and monitoring is needed, specific funding, and collaborative opportunities issues and questions being addressed, are identified. specific monitoring objectives, proposed 5.3 Protocol Format and Content methodological approach, and other details. The typical PDS includes the Monitoring protocols will follow the following material: document standards described in Oakley et al. (2003). This guideline • Protocol Title specifies format and content for the • Parks Where Protocol will be protocol document, and emphasizes Implemented: Names or 4-character a modular structure that facilitates codes for the parks where the protocol information access while supporting is likely to be implemented over the a well-documented history of change next 5 years. and revision. The following paragraphs • Justification/Issues being summarize the several components of a Addressed: A paragraph or two typical MOJN monitoring protocol. National Park Service 65 MojaveSierra Nevada Desert NetworkNetwork

Monitoring protocols consist of several documents.” The final elements or discrete sections detailing protocol sections in a typical protocol will include background, sampling objectives, literature cited and, where appropriate, sampling design (including location and attachments such as appendixes, time of sample collection), field methods, data tables, handbooks, or any other data analysis and reporting, staffing supporting information. requirements, training procedures, and Complete monitoring protocols identify operational requirements (Oakley et al. supporting materials critical to the 2003). The first section is the narrative, development and implementation of the which provides the background and protocol (Oakley et al. 2003). Supporting rationale for vital sign selection, including materials are any materials developed or a summary of pertinent research acquired during the development phase of background, local research history, and a monitoring protocol. Examples of this a clear statement of park management material may include databases, reports, information needs concerning the vital maps, geospatial information, species lists, sign being monitored. The narrative analytical tools tested, and any decisions also discusses specific measurable resulting from these exploratory analyses. objectives and monitoring questions Material not easily formatted for inclusion and identifies how the data to be in the monitoring protocol also may be collected in the monitoring effort will included in this section. address these questions. Narratives also summarize the design phase of the 5.4 Protocol Development Process protocol development and document key decisions made. Documenting the history Once a vital sign has been selected, the of a protocol during its development next step is to develop a monitoring phase helps ensure that future refinement plan and formal monitoring protocol for of the protocol continues to improve the that vital sign. Successful development protocol and is not mere repetition of of a monitoring protocol often involves previous trials or comparisons (Oakley a multiyear effort to determine the et al. 2003). Narratives also provide a appropriate spatial and temporal scale listing and brief summary of all Standard for sampling and to test sampling Operating Procedures (SOPs), which procedures before they are implemented are developed in detail as independent for long-term monitoring. In many cases, sections in the protocol. such development requires specialized technical expertise and access to Protocol SOPs are discrete sections equipment or resources that may not that carefully and thoroughly explain be directly available to a monitoring in a step-by-step manner how each program. For the MOJN I&M Program, procedure identified in the protocol protocol development will be performed narrative will be accomplished. At a through collaborative projects that take minimum, separate SOPs address pre- advantage of diverse agency, academic, sampling training requirements, data to and other professional expertise be collected, equipment operations, data that leverage and augment network collection techniques and methods, data resources. Current collaborators management, data analysis, reporting, providing key technical assistance and any activities required at the end include USGS, U. S. Forest Service, and of a field season (e.g., post-sampling Cooperative Ecosystem Studies Unit equipment maintenance and storage). (CESU)-affiliated academic experts. In One SOP identifies when and how general, MOJN staff will be the primary revisions to the protocol are undertaken. developers of protocol-associated As stand-alone documents, SOPs are data management and documentation easily updated compared to revising an procedures, and will oversee both field entire monitoring protocol. A revision testing and future implementation in log for each SOP identifies any changes network parks. that are implemented, by whom, when, and why – emphasizing in a practical The general protocol development way the nature of protocols as “living process is as follows. Network staff, park staff, and collaborators identify 66 Vital Signs Monitoring Plan Chapter 5: Sampling Protocols the key monitoring objectives and questions, and types of data needed to best answer those questions. Next, the protocol development workgroup selects or develops appropriate sampling methods and spatial and temporal revisit designs, with the support of a statistician. Method and design development takes into account specific properties of the sampled resource. Following field- testing (and possible revision), protocol SOPs are drafted to detail all methods, designs, and related information. Finalized protocol documents are then sent through an informal internal and formal external (peer and expert) review process. Following reviews and revision, the approved protocol will be accepted for full implementation by the program, and implementation will commence according to the design and schedule set for that protocol. Given the lengthy and involved process of protocol more holistic, ecological assessment MOJN staff working with development, the network plans to use University of Nevada Las Vegas of condition and in some cases, insight and modify existing protocols whenever (UNLV) part­ners to check into underlying causes of ecosystem feasible to meet our needs. invertebrate pitfall traps, change. Integration is most appropriate Lake Mead National 5.5 Protocol Overview and when Vital Signs are ecologically related Rec­reation Area. Development Schedule and exhibit strong spatial or temporal Photo Courtesy linkages, when monitoring objectives Alex Suazo, UNLV. The MOJN I&M Program has identified are complimentary, and when sampling twenty high-priority Vital Signs for designs are similar. monitoring at network parks. Of these, seventeen will be the focus for The MOJN is making a concerted development and implementation within effort in the early stages of protocol the next three to five years (see Table 5.1 development to facilitate communication and Chapter 9, Table 9.1). The remaining among different protocol development three Vital Signs are not slated for teams to permit identification of areas development within this timeframe, but of overlap and potential integration. As will be addressed in the future as time a result of these initial discussions, the and resources permit. MOJN plans to develop 10 protocols to address 17 network Vital Signs. Similar Integration of data collection for to the Northern Colorado Plateau multiple Vital Signs, either by co-location Network and Southern Colorado Plateau or co-visitation, can be advantageous for Network, the MOJN plans to integrate financial, logistical, and ecological (e.g., soils and vegetation Vital Signs into a minimize human-caused disturbance) single protocol (Integrated Upland) reasons. Given the large size of MOJN due to the close linkages between these parks, the wide spatial distribution of ecosystem components. The spatial and target populations to which the network temporal alignment that results from plans to make inferences, and associated co-location and co-visitation will make logistic challenges of sampling these it easier to jointly model resulting soils populations, the efficiencies associated and vegetation data (i.e., avoids problems with co-location and co-visitation associated with misaligned data). We also allow the network to achieve more plan some degree of integration for data with its limited financial resources. collection, analysis, and interpretation Information from co-located or co- among several of the 10 protocols. visited Vital Signs may also provide a

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In Table 5.1, we identify the 10 protocols to be developed over the next three to five years, the Vital Signs they address, their justification and objectives, and parks where they will be implemented. As of the close of FY 2008, we’ve initiated development of five protocols, including the Integrated Upland, Groundwater and Springs, Streams and Lakes, Air Quality, and Invasive/Exotic Plants, each of which is currently in a different stage of development (see Table 9.1). In FY 2009, the network will facilitate interchange among all protocol working groups to achieve a combined set of monitoring objectives that are as integrated and synergistic as possible. The network will also initiate development of an additional three protocols in FY 2009, including Weather and Climate, Riparian Vegetation, and Fire and Fuel Dynamics. The remaining protocols: Landscape Dynamics and Riparian Birds, will be initiated in FY 2010. The MOJN will coordinate protocol development with the national program and other networks to avoid a redundancy in efforts and to build upon existing work, particularly those for Landscape Dynamics and Invasive/ Exotic Plants.

68 Vital Signs Monitoring Plan Chapter 5: Sampling Protocols

Table 5.1. Monitoring protocols to be developed and implemented between 2008- 2012. Summaries of these protocols are listed be- low and include the start-up year for development, the primary network Vital Signs addressed, the justification, monitoring objectives, and relevant parks where the protocol will be implemented.

Start- Network Justification Monitoring Objectives Parks Up Year Vital Sign

Integrated Upland Monitoring Protocol Vegetation Change Soils, vegetation, and biological soil 1. Determine trends in composition, crusts are the central components of structure, mortality, relative abundance, Soil Erosion and ecosystems between which critical and regeneration within upland shrub Deposition ecological processes and interactions communities. occur. Soils structure plant communities 2. Determine status and trends in abundance Soil Disturbance by influencing nutrient and moisture and composition of BSCs within upland availability. Plants and BSCs influence shrub communities. DEVA Soil Chemistry and soils through primary production, 3. Determine status and trends in soil chemistry GRBA Nutrient Cycling soil stabilization, and their effects and nutrients (particularly nitrogen), the JOTR on moisture infiltration, nutrient and magnitude and extent of soil erosion and LAME Soil Hydrologic hydrologic cycles, and disturbance surface disturbance, and soil hydrologic MOJA Function regimes. Because plants, soils, and function within upland shrub communities. PARA BSCs are tightly linked and affected 4. Determine trends in distribution and Biological Soil by similar drivers and stressors (e.g. abundance of non-native plant species within Crusts climate, atmospheric deposition, fires, upland shrub communities. (BSC) floods, invasive species, recreational activity, grazing), they will be monitored together. Groundwater and Springs Monitoring Protocol Groundwater Springs are intimately linked to 1. Determine status and trend in ground water Dynamics and groundwater, and the ecological resources, as estimated from existing wells. Chemistry characteristics of individual springs are 2. For index springs, determine the status, DEVA strongly affected by groundwater trend, and natural range of variability of flow. GRBA Surface Water source and dynamics, necessitating an 3. For index springs, determine the status, JOTR Dynamics integrated approach. Surface water trend, and natural range of variability in core LAME resources are sparsely distributed on water chemistry parameters. MOJA Surface Water the landscape but are critical for the 4. Determine status and trend of biotic PARA

FY 2008 Chemistry persistence of native biota – including communities in index springs, including many endemic, rare, threatened, or aquatic macroinvertebrates and aquatic endangered species. vertebrates. Streams and Lakes Monitoring Protocol Relative to their abundance in the Water Quality Objectives landscape, streams and lakes are 1. Identify the regulatory status and determine disproportionately important in terms of trends in water quality at 303(d) streams of biodiversity, productivity, and other Las Vegas Wash at LAME. ecosystem functions. Several streams 2. Identify the regulatory status and determine and rivers at LAME are listed as trends in water quality of the Class A streams impaired on state 303d lists, and 4 within GRBA. streams at GRBA are recognized by Non-regulatory Objectives Nevada as Class A waters. GRBA has 1. Identify trends in discharge in GRBA streams, Surface Water by far the largest number of streams particularly in lower reaches in contact with Dynamics (10) and lakes (6) of any park in the the regional carbonate aquifer. GRBA network, and both habitats are thought 2. Determine status and trend in core water LAME Surface Water to be susceptible to human stressors, quality parameters in GRBA streams. Chemistry including groundwater withdrawal, 3. Determine status and trend in stream climate change, and atmospheric macroinvertebrate assemblages in GRBA pollutants. streams. Use regional bioassessment criteria to determine whether macroinvertebrate assemblages indicate “reference/unimpaired” or “stressed/impaired” status. 4. For perennial lakes within GRBA, determine whether water level, lake ice phenology, or water chemistry parameters (specifically pH and metals) change over time.

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Table 5.1 Monitoring protocols to be developed and implemented between 2008- 2012 (continued).

Start- Network Justification Monitoring Objectives Parks Up Year Vital Sign

Air Quality Monitoring Protocol Ozone The deposition of atmospheric 1. Identify seasonal and annual trends in pollutants may have significant effects climate (temperature, precipitation) using Wet and Dry on soil chemistry, vegetation, and data from existing monitoring stations. Deposition ecosystem processes. Monitoring air 2. Determine status and trends in air quality All quality will provide important reference (Ozone, Dry and Wet Deposition, visibility- Visibility & data for interpretation of other reducing pollutants) using data from existing Particulate Vital Signs (e.g., soil chemistry and monitoring stations Matter vegetation change) Invasive/Exotic Plants Monitoring Protocol Invasive exotic plant species pose one 1. Detect incipient populations and new of the greatest threats to natural and occurrences of target invasive plants in FY 2008 cultural resources of MOJN parks. prioritized areas (vector corridors and areas Impacts include displacement of native of high management significance). plants, degradation of wildlife habitat, 2. Estimate the status and trend of established fundamental changes to ecosystem target invasive plants (frequency and Invasive/Exotic processes (e.g., nutrient cycling), and abundance) in upland shrub communities, All Plants alteration of disturbance regimes (e.g., riparian communities, and priority establishment of grass/fire cycle). management sites. Early detection is key to effective 3. Provide recommendations to determine management. trends in abundance of target and secondary invasive plant species and native plants following past management practices. Weather and Climate Monitoring Protocol Changes in weather patterns and 1. Determine how local and regional trends in climate trends are major drivers in all climate and air quality conditions are related Basic Meteorology ecosystems. This vital sign will provide to other Vital Signs. All important reference data for interpretation of other Vital Signs. Riparian Vegetation Monitoring Protocol Riparian areas in the MOJN 1. Detect significant shifts in community parks have greater biological composition, structure, distribution, and productivity, biodiversity, and rates of areal extent of vegetation in cottonwood/ biogeochemical cycling and storage willow-dominated, palm oasis, and DEVA than surrounding uplands and are one streamside communities. GRBA of the most threatened habitats in 2. Determine the status and trend in JOTR Vegetation Change MOJN parks. Native riparian vegetation abundance, mortality, and regeneration of LAME is threatened by groundwater principal riparian plant species (dominant or MOJA withdrawal, human visitation, invasive target). PARA plants, and altered disturbance regimes 3. Detect trends in the frequency and

FY 2009 (e.g., fire). abundance of target invasive plant species in these riparian communities. Fire and Fuel Dynamics Monitoring Protocol Altered disturbance regimes are 1. Document changes over time in the causes a priority management concern and patterns of burning, and evaluate how to managers at MOJN parks, who changes vary among major vegetation are, in particular, concerned with types and areas of differing fire regime changes in fire frequency and intensity classifications. Fire and Fuel indicated by numerous recent, large, 2. Determine post-fire vegetation successional All Dynamics and high intensity fires within parks. patterns among major vegetation types and Understanding the nature, direction, fire regime categories. and potential effects of these 3. Determine if abundance and distribution of changes in fire regime are critical to invasive annual grasses are changing over understanding potential threats to time, and if those patterns vary among major native species and ecosystem processes. vegetation types and fire regime categories.

70 Vital Signs Monitoring Plan Chapter 5: Monitoring Protocols

Table 5.1 Monitoring protocols to be developed and implemented between 2008- 2012 (continued).

Start- Network Justification Monitoring Objectives Parks Up Year Vital Sign

Landscape Dynamics Monitoring Protocol Increasing land use and development 1. Determine trends in land cover distribution around parks will have increased within and adjacent to MOJN park impacts on fragile desert resources. boundaries. Monitoring changes in land cover 2. Identify patterns of change for relevant land Landscape composition, configuration, and cover types within and adjacent to MOJN All Dynamics connectivity will help managers park boundaries. understand and manage future threats 3. Document land use changes that correspond to park ecological integrity. with changes in land cover distribution and patterns. Riparian Bird Monitoring Protocol Birds have public appeal and are 1. Use occupancy data to determine status and sensitive indicators of change. Data trends of principal riparian-obligate breeding FY 2009 from bird monitoring has high value bird species of concern in cottonwood because it provides information unique or willow-dominated, palm oasis, and from that of other Vital Signs (e.g., streamside riparian communities. DEVA responses by consumers), and parks 2. Determine status and trends in the GRBA have a legal mandate to address abundance of riparian-obligate birds during JOTR Riparian Birds landbirds under the Endangered the breeding season in the specified riparian LAME Species Act and Migratory Bird Treaty communities. MOJA Act. Eighty percent of bird species in 3. Estimate status and trends in riparian PARA the Mojave-Great Basin region are breeding bird community richness in associated with riparian vegetation, and specified riparian communities. federally endangered bird species are present in the MOJN.

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72 Vital Signs Monitoring Plan Chapter 6: Data Management

6.1 Introduction natural resource data. In implementing a data and information management The central mission of the NPS I&M …founders of the NPS system, the network will strive for the Program is to provide timely and following: Servicewide I&M relevant scientific information about the status and trends of park resources • Confidence in the security and Program established to park managers. To accomplish availability of natural resource data and data management as this, the network will require a data related information a cornerstone to all management system that effectively • Easy access to most information, and monitoring programs. addresses the generation, preservation, appropriate safeguards for sensitive documentation, and transmission of data information and the information contained within. Good data management is the means by • Awareness of the intended use and which scientific data, and the derived limitations of each dataset information about our natural resources, • Infrastructure and documentation that become part of our NPS heritage. A encourages data exploration robust system for data management is • Compatibility of datasets for particularly important for a long-term exploration and analysis at larger scales monitoring program where the lifespan and across disciplines of a dataset will span the careers of many individuals. Recognizing this, founders • Implementation of standards and of the NPS Servicewide I&M Program procedures that facilitate information established data management as a management, and that reinforce cornerstone to all monitoring programs. good habits among staff at all levels Thus, networks are expected to invest of project implementation – project at least thirty percent of available leaders, technicians, and volunteer resources on data management and to data collectors fully integrate data management into • A proper balance between the network processes and procedures. The standards needed to ensure quality Data and Information Management Plan and usability, and the flexibility to (DMP; Appendix J) is one element in meet specific needs and encourage the network’s effort to achieve this goal innovation of high-quality data and information management. With proper data management, analysis of high quality monitoring data will provide information that improves our understanding of ecological relationships, expands our knowledge and understanding of ecological patterns and principles, and ultimately facilitates park management (Figure 6.1).

6.2 Goals and Objectives of Mojave Desert Network Data Management The success of our program in providing timely and relevant information on the condition of park resources hinges upon our ability to produce, manage, and deliver this information, and the subsequent knowledge derived, to its intended audience. Our overall strategy for achieving this goal focuses on Figure 6.1 Understanding data (Bellinger 2004). ensuring the quality, interpretability, security, longevity, and availability of our National Park Service 73 MojaveSierra Nevada Desert NetworkNetwork

• A natural resource culture, which views • Security: Digital and hard-copy data data not as a commodity but as the must be maintained in environments lifeblood of our work that protect against loss, either due to The MOJN DMP outlines how the electronic failure or to poor storage network intends to implement and conditions. MOJN digital data are maintain a system that will serve the data stored in multiple formats on a secure and information management needs of server, and are part of an integrated our I&M Program. This plan reflects backup routine that includes rotation our commitment to establishing and to off-site storage locations. In maintaining a robust system for data addition, MOJN is working with NPS management to ensure the availability museum curators and archivists to and usability of high-quality natural ensure that related project materials resource information. such as field notes, data forms, specimens, photographs, and reports The MOJN DMP describes how the are properly cataloged, stored, and network will: managed in archival conditions. • Support I&M Program objectives • Longevity: Countless datasets have • Acquire and process data become unusable over time either because the format is outdated (e.g., • Assure data validation and quality punchcards), or because metadata is control insufficient to determine the data’s • Document, analyze, summarize, and collection methods, scope and disseminate data and information intent, quality assurance procedures, • Maintain nationally developed data or format. While proper storage management systems conditions, backups, and migration of datasets to current platforms • Maintain, store, and archive data and software standards are basic The goal of the MOJN’s data components of data longevity, management program is to maintain, comprehensive data documentation in perpetuity, the ecological data, is equally important. MOJN uses a information, and knowledge that results suite of metadata tools to ensure that from the network’s resource inventory datasets are consistently documented, and monitoring work (e.g., datasets, and in formats that conform to current databases, metadata). The purpose of federal standards. the DMP is to describe the resources • Usability: One of the most important and processes required to ensure the responsibilities of the I&M Program following standards for data acquired or is to ensure that data collected, managed by MOJN: developed, or assembled by MOJN • Accuracy: Analyses performed to staff and cooperators are made detect ecological trends or patterns available for decision-making, require high quality data with minimal research, and education. Providing error and bias. Inconsistent or poor- well-documented data, in a timely quality data can limit the detectability manner, to park managers is especially of subtle changes in ecosystem patterns important to the success of the and processes, lead to incorrect program. MOJN must ensure that: interpretations and conclusions, ° data can be easily found and and could greatly compromise the obtained credibility and success of the I&M ° data are subjected to full quality Program. To ensure that MOJN control before release produces and maintains data of the highest possible quality, procedures are ° data are accompanied by complete established to identify and minimize metadata errors at each stage of the data ° sensitive data are identified and lifecycle. protected from unauthorized access and distribution

74 Vital Signs Monitoring Plan Chapter 6: Data Management

Table 6.1 Natural resource data provided on Mojave Desert Network and National Inventory and Monitoring Program websites.

Web Application Data available at site Name NPSpecies Database of plant and animal species known or suspected to occur on NPS park units and as a species keyword search for reference materials. NatureBib Bibliography of park-related natural resource information. IRMA Portal to a variety of NPS information sources; will include NPSpecies, NatureBib and NPS Data Store links. Data Store Park and network -related metadata and selected datasets (spatial and nonspatial). NPStoret Database for water quality assessment. MOJN Websites Through the use of the network’s inter- and intra-net web sites and the use of MS SharePoint, reports, summaries, outreach materials, and monitoring data and information for MOJN projects and tools for data, data downloads, and database templates will be made available, MOJN Intranet.

6.3 Data Management year. The second group built upon salient Infrastructure and Systems elements of the first plan, filled in gaps, Architecture and revised materials to develop an improved version the second year. By The national data management plan the third iteration, the data management guidance document (NPS 2008) plan was comprehensive, but also lengthy, defines infrastructure (hardware) and which was discouraging to readers architecture (software), and outlines how and difficult to implement. Plans also infrastructure and systems architecture contained redundancy, repeating in each need to be addressed by the network. iteration the same set of information Since the network office and staff are (legal mandates, policies, and general data hosted at LAME, our IT resource needs stewardship guidelines). Consequently, are integrated with LAME. the fourth and last group of data The MOJN’s main mechanism for managers have designed and written their distribution of the network’s inventory plans based on a new model. To avoid and monitoring data will be the World repeating the same general information Wide Web, which will allow data and (adding to its length) and having to information to reach a broad community periodically update each network plan of users. As part of the National I&M with new national guidance and legal Program, web-based applications and mandates, the new model proposes: repositories have been developed to • To produce a national-level data store a variety of park natural resource management plan guidance information (Table 6.1). document that maintains the The real value of MOJN’s information overarching documentation is when it reaches those who can apply (what and why concerning data/ it (Figure 6.1 above). If the web portals information stewardship) and legal listed above (Table 6.1) do not meet a mandates regarding management specific user’s requirements, MOJN plan development, and that is easily data management staff will work with referenced and can be used in the users on an individual basis to ensure development of a new network data receipt of the desired information in the management plan. requested format. • To produce a new network-level data management plan that is more 6.4 Data Management Plan Model applicable (how and when concerning In the past, I&M network data data/information stewardship), easily management plans were written as an understood, and does not require the iterative group process. lengthy background documentation and legal mandates. Under this model, network data managers were assigned to one of four The MOJN DMP is written as both a groups. The first group worked together standalone document and as a support to develop and submit a plan the first document for the network’s Final National Park Service 75 SierraMojave Nevada Desert Network Network

6.5 Data Management Roles and Responsibilities Data management is collaborative work that involves many persons with a broad range of expertise and abilities. All network staff have a role in data stewardship, and project datasets and products reflect all those who have contributed. Table 6.2 summarizes the roles and responsibilities related to network data management, from field-based data collection, to final distribution and archiving. The fundamental role of the network data manager is to coordinate these tasks.

6.6 Data Sources and Priorities There are multiple sources of significant data related to natural resources in the MOJN parks. The types of work that may generate these data include: • Inventories • Monitoring Figure 6.2 Management sections of the Mojave Desert Net- • Protocol development pilot studies work Data and Information Plan. • Special-focus studies performed by internal staff, contractors, or Vial Signs Monitoring Plan to guide cooperators the management of data as well as • Research projects performed by subsequently-produced information external scientists and knowledge. Hence, the plan is a • Studies performed by other agencies condensed or abbreviated link between on park or adjacent lands the national data management plan guidance document (NPS 2008) and • Resource impact evaluations related to the more technically oriented and park planning and compliance applicable supporting documentation • Resource management and restoration (management sections and standard work operating procedures) that are appended Because the I&M Program focuses on to the plan (Figure 6.2). The supporting natural resource inventories and long- documentation are the dynamic term monitoring, MOJN’s first priority is guidance that will provide users (park the management of data and information and network staff, cooperators, and that results from these efforts. others) with the practical tools to access However, the standards, procedures, any particular data and/or information and approaches to data management management procedure. The supporting developed by MOJN carry over and are documentation is composed of SOPs being applied to other natural resource that have been arranged into categories data sources. For example, all natural of related procedures (i.e., management resource parks need a basic suite of sections) as illustrated in Figure 6.2. resource inventory data in order to The national guidance document manage their resources and support a contains the legal mandates and over- successful monitoring program. The arching justifications, the network National I&M Program has determined plan is the connection between the that 12 inventory datasets, including national guidance and the network-level both biotic and abiotic components, management sections and SOPs. will be acquired by all parks. MOJN

76 Vital Signs Monitoring Plan Chapter 6: Data Management

Table 6.2 Roles and responsibilities related to network data management.

Role Primary responsibilities related to data management Project leader Direct operations, including data management requirements, for network projects Project crew leader Supervise crew; communicate regularly with data manager and project leader Project crew member Collect, record, perform data entry, verify data; organize field forms, photos, other related materials Resource specialist Evaluate validity and utility of project data; document, analyze, publish data and associated information products

GIS specialist Oversee GPS data collection; manage spatial data; prepare maps; perform spatial analyses IT specialist Apply database and programming skills to network projects; maintain information systems to support data management Quantitative ecologist Determine project objectives and sample design; perform and document data analysis and synthesis; prepare reports Network data manager Ensure program data and information are organized, useful, compliant, safe, and available Network coordinator Coordinate and oversee all network activities Park or regional curator Ensure project results (documents, specimens, photographs, etc.) are cataloged and accessioned into NPS or other repositories I&M data manager Provide service-wide database support and services; provide data management coordination among (national level) networks End users (managers, Inform and direct the scope of science information needs; interpret information and use to direct or scientists, interpreters, public) support decisions is working with individual parks and with project leaders and participants. national NPS programs to acquire Specific data management procedures and standardize these basic resource corresponding to these five stages are datasets, and make them widely described in the chapters of the MOJN available. The datasets are: DMP (Appendix J). Chapters 1-5 develop • Natural resource bibliography the data management framework. • Documented species list of vertebrates Chapter 6 is devoted to data acquisition, and vascular plants processing, and reporting, while Chapter 7 provides a framework for verifying • Species distribution and status of and validating data that are collected vertebrates and vascular plants and entered into databases. Dataset • Vegetation map documentation is the subject of Chapter 8, • Base cartographic data data ownership and sharing is presented in Chapter 9, and data dissemination, • Soils map including issues such as compliance with • Geology map • Water body location and classification Prioritizing data management efforts in a sea • Water quality data of unmanaged data • Location of air quality monitoring stations • Highest priority is to produce and curate high-quality, well-documented data originating with the Inventory and Monitoring Program • Air quality data • As time and resources permit, assist with data mangement for current • Weather data projects, legacy data, and data originating outside the Inventory and Monitoring Program that complement program objectives 6.7 Data Management and the • In addition, help ensure good data management practices for park- Project Lifecycle based natural resource projects that are just beginning to be developed I&M projects are typically divided into and implemented five broad stages: initiation, planning, execution, monitoring and control, and closure (Figure 6.3). During all stages, data management staff collaborate closely National Park Service 77 SierraMojave Nevada Desert Network Network

the Freedom of Information Act, are and RETrieval, EPA 2006) database addressed in Chapter 10. Chapters 11 and maintained by the NPS Water Resources 12 provide a framework for the long-term Division (WRD). MOJN will be maintenance, storage, and security of developing an MS-Access database that MOJN data. consolidates available water quality data collected in and near the 7 MOJN park 6.8 Water Quality Data units. Associated with this database are The water quality component of the assessment tools to evaluate water quality Natural Resource Challenge requires standards that allow comparisons of that networks archive all water quality historical and current data with applicable data collected as part of the monitoring state standards. MOJN will maintain this program in a STORET (STORage

Figure 6.3 Project workflow and data management activities.

78 Vital Signs Monitoring Plan Chapter 6: Data Management database and integrate new data collected technical committee members and so it can serve as an ongoing tool for network staff), and an extensive review the network’s long-term water quality that involved the regional data/GIS monitoring and analysis needs. coordinator, data management staff from the Washington Support Office On an annual basis, MOJN will compile I&M Program, and other network and format new water quality data from data managers. MOJN will update the MOJN H2O MS-Access database into the plan to ensure that it accurately an electronic data deliverable (EDD) that reflects the network’s current standards is compatible with WRD-STORET. WRD and practices. Recommendations will ensure that content is transferred to for changes can be forwarded to the the Environmental Protection Agency’s network data manager by any interested STORET database (Figure 6.4). party or user of network inventory and 6.9 Data Management Plan monitoring data (e.g., park resource Maintenance managers, project leaders, technicians, superintendents, external users). These The MOJN approach is to maintain a recommendations will be discussed DMP that is useful to a broad audience, by data management and network and that can provide guidance on data staff and appropriate actions will be management practices at a number of decided. Simple changes can be made different levels. MOJN will keep the immediately in the document, while plan simple, flexible, and evolving, substantive changes will be made during and include data users in the decision- version updates. The most current making process whenever possible. version of the plan is available on the The document has undergone an initial MOJN website (http://science.nature. prescribed review process that included nps.gov/im/units/mojn/index.cfm). both an internal network review (e.g.,

Figure 6.4 Simplified flow diagram for water quality data.

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Chapter 7: Data Analysis and Reporting

Data analysis, interpretation, and in the network, partly to facilitate reporting are crucial components in data analysis. These typically are the development and implementation “unstructured” designs with a minimum of the MOJN I&M Program. Data of stratification, known and typically compiled from monitoring projects will equal sample selection probabilities, be used by diverse audiences – NPS park and simple membership designs. managers and superintendents, scientific Straightforward and flexible designs in collaborators, educators – who might turn facilitate direct and interpretable have different requirements and needs. analytical approaches. By emphasizing Recognizing this fact, and following a design-based approach to monitoring, National I&M Program guidance, a inferences can be drawn directly from minimum of one-third of the network’s designs and can minimize reliance on resources are committed toward the assumptions (Edwards 1998; Manly management, analysis, and timely 2001). This will be particularly true for reporting of I&M information. Success estimation of status, where classical of this program depends on the ability sampling theory for finite populations to deliver meaningful information to is well-developed and provides design- parks regarding the status and trend of unbiased estimators of population park Vital Signs, and this is the key link parameters such as the population The timely analysis in completing the adaptive management mean and variance (Thompson 2002). and reporting of cycle (Figure 7.1). Selected sampling designs also support, and often require, the use of model- information on status This chapter summarizes the major assisted or model-based approaches. and trends of vital themes and concepts of the network’s This is particularly true for trend plan for analysis and reporting. Figure signs is critical to the estimation, and to address sampling 7.2 summarizes the major approaches and non-sampling errors (year, site, process of adaptive to analyses and reporting tools that and residual random effects), missing management. will be pursued and how they interact data, and important auxiliary variables with outside research to support the (Urquhart and Kincaid 1999; Thompson network’s programmatic goals. The 2002). Mixed linear models are useful data analysis section describes four for analyzing trend in data collected categories of data analysis and identifies through rotating panel designs, an lead individuals for each analysis. The approach, which has been proposed for reporting section describes different some of the Vital Signs (Urquhart et al. reporting tools, their content, intended 1993; VanLeeuwen et al. 1996, Urquhart audience, frequency and format, and responsible parties. Specific details on analysis of each vital sign is beyond the scope of this chapter and will be included within the monitoring protocols that correspond to specific Vital Signs. Several of these are currently under development as described in Chapter 5.

7.1 Data Analysis Successful data analysis depends upon well-articulated questions and objectives and appropriate, statistically-valid sampling designs. Appropriate sampling designs are critical because they allow Figure 7.1 Conceptual diagram of adaptive statistically rigorous conclusions and management illustrating the iterative cycle of inferences to be reached about the monitoring, assessment, and decisions. status and trend of each vital sign. As described in Chapter 4, simple and flexible sampling designs are emphasized National Park Service 81 SierraMojave Nevada Desert Network Network

Figure 7.2 Relationships between analyses, reporting, research, and the Mojave Desert Network program goals.

et al. 1998; Urquhart and Kincaid practical, given natural and sampling Successful data 1999; Piepho and Ogutu 2002; Sims variability. Each monitoring protocol et al. 2006). For data that fail to meet developed by the MOJN will contain analysis depends normality assumptions, a Generalized detailed information on analytical tools on well-articulated Mixed Model can be used (Purcell et al. and approaches for data analysis and questions and 2005). Several other networks (Sierra interpretation, including rationales for Nevada, Upper Columbia Basin, and a particular approach, advantages and objectives and Klamath) are currently collaborating limitations of each procedure, and SOPs appropriate, with statisticians at Oregon State for each prescribed analysis. University and University of Idaho on statistically-valid Four general categories of analysis for implementation of these models within sampling designs. MOJN Vital Signs and the lead analyst SAS and the R package for water quality responsible for each are summarized and other Vital Signs. Such models (Table 7.1). The Project Leader for a can provide more precise parameter protocol will be the lead analyst and thus estimates, can be used to generate and will ensure that data are analyzed and test hypotheses about the ecological interpreted within protocol and program processes underlying observed patterns, guidelines. The lead analyst may rely and under the best circumstances, can on non-NPS cooperators to assist with be used to predict future scenarios. To analysis and interpretation. The MOJN deliver meaningful information to park is currently employing the services of managers, it is important not only to statisticians at Oregon State University, report on a trend, but to provide some Montana State University, and University interpretation of the trend and potential of Idaho through a cooperative underlying causes. agreement. This arrangement, or Selection of specific analytical tools for something similar, will provide high-level interpreting monitoring data is a function analytical support in the future. of monitoring objectives, assumptions regarding the target population, and the level of confidence desired, or

82 Vital Signs Monitoring Plan Chapter 7: Data Analysis and Reporting

Table 7.1. Four approaches to analyzing monitoring data and the individuals responsible for analyses.

Type of Lead Analyst & Description Analysis Support Data Summarization/ Calculation of basic statistics of interest and initial screening, including: Characterization • Measures of central tendency (mean, median) and variation (range, variance, S.E.) Lead: Project Leader for • Identification of missing values and outliers (box-and-whisker plots, queries, QA/ protocol QC) • Graphical summaries & visual inspection of data Support: Field crew leads, Summarization procedures are specified in the monitoring protocols and network staff, park staff include measured and derived variables and matrices for community analyses. Status Determination Analysis and interpretation of vital sign status to address the following Lead: Project Leader for questions: protocol • Do observed values exceed a regulatory standard or a known ecological threshold? Support: Network staff, • How do observed values compare with the range of historical variability for a vital Park staff, Cooperators or sign? Partners, regulatory and • What is the precision (i.e., variability) and confidence in the status estimate? Subject-Matter Experts • What is the spatial distribution (park, network, ecoregion) of observed values at time of evaluation? • Do these patterns suggest relationships with other factors not accounted for in the sampling design? • What environmental factors function as covariates and influence the measurement values? Design-unbiased population estimators (e.g., Horvitz-Thompson) will be used to determine status. Trend Evaluation Evaluations of interannual trends will seek to address: • Is there continued directional change in indicator values over the period of measurement? Lead: Project Leader for • What is the estimated rate of change (and associated measure of uncertainty)? protocol • How does this rate compare with rates observed from historical data, other indicators from the same area, or other comparable monitoring in the region? Support: Network staff, • Are there unforeseen correlations that suggest other factors should be Statisticians, Park staff, incorporated as covariates? (correlations, regression analyses) Cooperators or Partners, • If no trend was detected, what was the power to detect trend, given observed regulatory and Subject- levels of variability? Matter Experts Analysis of trends will initially employ graphic portrayals (Cumulative Sum [CUSUM] and control charts), then repeated-measures and time-series using mixed linear models. Synthesis Examination of patterns across Vital Signs and ecological factors to gain broad Leads: Network insights into ecosystem processes and integrity, which may include: Coordinator & Ecologist • Tests of hypothesized relationships, congruence among indicators, and covariate influence Support: Project Leaders, • Development of analytical and predictive models Statisticians, Data • Integrative approaches (ordination of community data, multiple regression, management staff, Park diversity and conservation-value indices, Bayesian hierarchical and graphical staff, Cooperators or models) Partners, regulatory and • Evaluation of competing a priori-specified models that explain dynamics in Vital Subject-Matter Experts Signs; model averaging, variable weights, and prediction Synthetic analyses will require close interaction with academic and agency researchers and has great potential to explain ecological relationships in the non-experimental context of vital signs monitoring. Integration with results from other monitoring and research is critical.

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7.2 Communications and expenditures to a variety of audiences, Reporting ranging from park superintendents and staff to national program managers and As part of the NPS effort to “improve Congress. The 5-year Program Review park management through greater is an avenue for evaluating the efficacy, reliance on scientific knowledge,” data accountability, and scientific rigor of analysis and reporting are cornerstones the monitoring program. Following of the I&M Program. Effective this review, network staff and protocol communication tools are critical for leads have primary responsibility conveying status and trends information for implementing the resulting to a wide range of audiences. The recommendations. Table 7.2 contains primary audience for many I&M a summary and Chapter 8 contains products is at the park-level, providing additional detail on programmatic park managers with information needed reports and review. to make better-informed decisions. However, certain products are intended 7.2.2 Protocol-related Reports and for other key audiences including park Review planners, interpreters, Congress, the President’s Office of Management and Protocol reports document the Effective Budget, external scientists and the collection, analysis, and interpretation of general public. monitoring data and results of periodic communication protocol reviews. Annual protocol tools are critical for To effectively communicate monitoring reports document monitoring activities conveying status and information and results with a variety of for the year, including any changes audiences, analysis and interpretation to the protocols, and describe the trends information must occur on a regular basis, and results current status of monitored resources. to a wide range of must be communicated in formats Completed every 3-5 years, trend audiences. specific to intended audiences. With analysis and synthesis reports describe the assistance of a CESU cooperator trend analyses, identify patterns, and at Colorado State University and synthesize data within multiple spatial the NPS-Natural Resource Program contexts. These thorough and detailed Center, MOJN will develop a science reports are intended primarily for communication plan which identifies resource managers and scientists. natural resource education and communications techniques to be used Protocol reviews will be conducted for internal and external audiences. after completion of one full monitoring cycle (i.e., full rotation through all MOJN reporting mechanisms panels) and likely, in conjunction with are based on national guidance, the corresponding trend analysis and have been modified to fit network synthesis report. Protocol reviews will needs, and fall into four categories: include a peer-review process to evaluate programmatic, protocol-related, science effectiveness (protocol design, minimum communication, and interpretation/ change detection levels achieved, SOPs, outreach. The following sections etc.), implementation success (schedule, describe each report category and budget, logistics), and information how they differ in content, purpose, management (QA/QC, archiving and audience. These details are processes, communication products, also summarized in Table 7.2. Each etc.), and to determine whether and monitoring protocol will also contain what types of changes are warranted. additional and specific information on Network staff and protocol leads are the data summary, analysis and reporting primary recipients of this information requirements and procedures. and are responsible for implementing recommendations. See Chapter 8 for 7.2.1 Programmatic Reports and further detail. Review The Annual Administrative Report and 7.2.3 Science Communication Work Plan (AARWP) report specifies Scientific journal and other professional annual objectives, accomplishments, and articles will be published to

84 Vital Signs Monitoring Plan Chapter 7: Data Analysis and Reporting communicate advances in knowledge to interact with park staff (superintendents, the scientific community and to achieve resource managers, park specialists, an important and widely acknowledged interpretive staff, etc.) and present means of quality assurance and quality monitoring goals, network activities, and control. The scrutiny of the scientific vital signs objectives. Network and park peer-review process is one of the best staff will explore whether this would methods for ensuring scientific rigor in be best accomplished through a single the program’s methods, analyses, results, annual network meeting (i.e., Science and conclusions. As the opportunity Day) at a central location or a series of arises, network staff and cooperators will meetings at various locations throughout submit manuscripts and present findings the network. In an effort to expand the at professional symposia, conferences, scope of our outreach and generate and workshops. Scientific journal interest among local school teachers articles and other publications based on and students, the network will explore MOJN data and projects will be tracked the development of a Citizen Science by the network through the publications program, where student volunteers section of the AARWP. collect data (e.g., long-term phenology records) for the monitoring program. 7.2.4 Interpretation and Outreach Websites are important for improving The MOJN will develop a variety of visibility and promoting communication, avenues for communicating monitoring coordination, and collaboration among goals, activities, and results to park staff various entities. The MOJN internet and the public and maintaining visibility website serves as a centralized repository for the program. One avenue will be for all finalized, reviewed reports and an electronic newsletter, distributed summaries, which do not contain two times a year, that distills scientific sensitive information. The network findings into non-technical articles of intranet site facilitates the internal interest to park managers and the general distribution of NPS documents. public. In addition, network staff and cooperators will meet periodically to

In June 2007, over 100 members of the natural resource community attended the Mojave Desert Network’s inaugural science day event. NPS Photo. National Park Service 85 SierraMojave Nevada Desert Network Network

Table 7.2. Summary of reporting mechanisms to be used by the Mojave Desert Network. cess o r eview P Peer reviewed the at network-level Reviewed and approved PWRby Regional and national Coordinator program manager Peer review national at MOJNlevel, Board of Directors & Technical Committee Peer reviewed at network-level Peer reviewed the at network-level Peer reviewed at regional and/or national MOJNlevel, Board of Directors, Technical Committee R y requenc Annual 5-year intervals Annual 3-5 year intervals resourcesfor sampled annually 5-year intervals Commensurate with frequency of Comprehensive Reports F udience y A rimar Superintendents, Technical MOJNCommittee, staff, regional coordinators, and national program managers; Used report annual for Congress. to Superintendents, park resource managers, MOJN staff, national program managers, external scientists, partners Superintendents, park resource managers, MOJN staff, national program managers, external scientists and partners. Superintendents, park resource managers, MOJN staff, external scientists Superintendents, park resource managers, interpreters, general public Superintendents, park resource managers, MOJN staff, national program managers P rt o ep f R se o o rts o the monitoring effort. region. process. activities the for year correlations among resources regional contexts management) adaptive Reports findings recommendations.and key highlight to necessary changes rts urp ep • Account for funds and FTEs for • Account expended. • Describe objectives, tasks, accomplishments, products of • Improve communication within park, network, and • Formally review operations and results 5-yr at intervals • Implement the quality assurance and peer review data annual and document• Summarize monitoring • Describe status the of resource • Document changes monitoring in protocols monitoring efforts• Communicate parks to • Determine patterns/trends resource in condition • Discover new characteristics resources of and • Interpret data within park, multi-park, network, and • Recommend changes management to (feedback for Analysis and Synthesis Trend Comprehensive • Summarize • Review design protocol and products determine to peer-review• Ensure and quality assurance P o ep rt R ated l o re ep ol- f R c rammatic R o t pe o og o r r Annual Administrative Report Plan & Work Annual Reports for each Protocol Ty P Protocol Review Monitoring Program Review P Analysis and Trend Synthesis Reports Summary Trend of Reports

86 Vital Signs Monitoring Plan Chapter 7: Data Analysis and Reporting

Table 7.2. Summary of MOJN reporting mechanisms (continued). cess o r eview P Peer reviewed journal by or book editor May be peer reviewed by if written paperseditor, are published Peer reviewed the at network-level Peer reviewed network- at level Peer reviewed network- at level Only reviewed, finalized products without sensitive information will be posted R y requenc Variable Variable Annual per year Twice email & on by MOJN website Variable As reports are finalized F udience y A rimar MOJN staff, scientific community, park resource managers Resource managers federal of and state agencies, MOJN park staff, scientificcommunity Park staff, interpreters, general public Park staff, agency partners and cooperators, interpreters, general public Park resource managers, MOJN staff, cooperators, and partners Superintendents, park resource managers, MOJN staff, national program managers, scientific general publiccommunity, P rt o ep f R h se o o ns o monitoring science. review. community. significance relevanceand of the scientific in findings non-technical manner by findings park staff and the public interest general and external scientists products easily are accessible commonly-used in electronic formats urp • Make scientific• Make contributions to ecological and • Subject I&M activities and approaches unbiased to peer scientific• Elevate standing andauthority of program. scientists to • Communicate and managers. • Expose I&M activities regional to or national scientific scientific• Elevate standing andauthority of program. • For report each protocol, activities and explain the • Improve awareness network of goals, activities, and • Distill scientific into non-technical findings articles of • Provide interpretive informationprograms to • Report progress and activities network of information on MOJN• Summarize vital signs • Identify emerging issues and generate new ideas interactions• Facilitate among park resource managers • Improve public awareness through web presence repository• Centralized reports final all of to ensure distribution internal • Facilitate NPS of documents P rt n and Outreac o o mmunicati ep f R pe o cience Co nterpretati Resource Brief Symposia,workshops, and conferences I Newsletter Park presentations and/or Science Days Internet and Intranet Websites Ty S Bulletins, Technical Journal articles, and Book Chapters

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Chapter 8: Administration and Implementation of the Monitoring Program

This chapter describes administration of Natural Resource Challenge legislation the MOJN monitoring program, including and agency policy, reviews and retains program oversight and guidance, the approval authority for completed proposed staffing plan, integration with Vital Signs (or Phase III) Monitoring park operations, partnerships, and the Plans, and provides technical and periodic review process. administrative guidance on network program development. National I&M 8.1 National and Regional Context guidance and funding is provided by MOJN is one of eight I&M networks in Washington Support Office (WASO) the Pacific West Region (PWR; Figure through the National I&M Program 8.1). In addition to its unique Mojave Manager, the Pacific West Region (PWR) ecosystems, MOJN contains landscapes office, and the PWR Regional I&M with ecological similarities to a number Coordinator. of surrounding networks, including The PWR Regional I&M Coordinator Northern Colorado Plateau Network, oversees program development for 8 Southern Colorado Plateau Network, PWR networks, ensures compliance The National I&M Upper Columbia Basin Network, with National I&M Program guidelines, Program establishes and Sierra Nevada Network at higher serves as an ex-officio member of standards and elevations, and the MOJN Board of Directors, and Network and Sonoran Desert Network supervises the MOJN Network guidelines based on at lower elevations. As such, MOJN is in Coordinator (as well as other PWR Natural Resource a position to benefit from, build upon, network coordinators). Divisions of the Challenge legislation or coordinate with existing efforts at NPS Natural Resources Program Center these other networks in order to develop have responsibilities for completing and agency policy... its program. baseline resource inventories and to serve as subject matter experts for Vital 8.2 Program Location Signs within their purview. Core staff of the MOJN are duty- The National I&M Program interfaces stationed at Lake Mead National with local network oversight groups Recreation Area (LAME) in Boulder (MOJN Board of Directors [BOD] and City, NV. This location was selected Technical Committee [TC]) through due to the park’s central location in the the PWR Regional I&M Coordinator network and proximity to cooperators and the MOJN Network Coordinator. at other federal agencies, universities, National program guidance, directives, and research institutes. Starting in FY and requests usually flow from the 2009, network staff will be housed in a National I&M Program Manager small, network-funded office building through the PWR Regional I&M at LAME, which will be supported and Coordinator to the MOJN Network maintained by the park. The park also Coordinator, who then distributes provides administrative and IT support information to the BOD and TC. in exchange for a small percentage Accountable to the NPS Associate of network funds. As needed and as Director, the network provides reports appropriate, other network staff may and updates (typically prepared by the be located at other parks within the Network Coordinator and staff) to network (e.g., data miners based at parks the National I&M Program Manager where data mining occurs). through the PWR Regional I&M 8.3 Guidance from National and Coordinator. Regional Programs As one of 32 networks receiving funding National and Regional programs play from the National I&M Program and important roles in guiding program Water Resources Division, MOJN is development and implementation. The required to submit an administrative National I&M Program establishes report and work plan to the National standards and guidelines based on I&M Program that summarizes (1) accomplishments and an accounting National Park Service 89 SierraMojave Nevada Desert Network Network

Figure 8.1. Pacific West Region Inventory & Monitoring Program networks. Map courtesy of Pacific West Region GIS group.

90 Vital Signs Monitoring Plan Chapter 8: Administration and Implementation of the Monitoring Program of funds spent during the previous Coordinator. Voting members of the year, and (2) scheduled activities and BOD include the 7 park Superintendents budget allocations for the coming year. of the network (Table 8.1). The Chair The report provides the National I&M of the BOD is the park Superintendent Program Manager with accomplishments that serves as liaison to the Regional and budget information needed for the Leadership Council, typically a 2-year annual Report to Congress, which allows term. Non-voting, ex-officio members the network and national program to that play an advisory role include show accountability for funds received the Regional Coordinator, Network through the Natural Resource Challenge. Coordinator, Natural Resource Advisory The AARWP is discussed further in Committee (NRAC) representative, and The MOJN Board section 8.8. Great Basin CESU coordinator (Table 8.1). While the Network Coordinator of Directors is 8.4 Local Program Oversight and is a common member to both the BOD responsible for Direction and TC, additional representation developing a strategic of the BOD at TC meetings (by the Local program oversight and direction vision for long- within the MOJN is provided by the Superintendent Liaison) and the BOD, TC, and Network Staff. This TC at BOD meetings (by the current term monitoring, section describes the responsibilities, NRAC representative) ensures stronger ensuring the overall communication among these groups. structure, and composition of the MOJN effectiveness and BOD and TC. Specific details may be The BOD meets at least twice per year found in the MOJN Charter (approved in person and by conference call as success of the April 2003) and MOJN Charter needed. Decisions are typically made by network’s monitoring consensus. Amendment 2 (approved December efforts, and for 2005; See Appendix K). The MOJN TC is responsible for providing program providing technical assistance, advice, The MOJN BOD is responsible for accountability. developing a strategic vision for and recommendations to the MOJN long-term monitoring, ensuring the BOD. Voting members include the 5 overall effectiveness and success of the Park Resource Chiefs, representatives network’s monitoring efforts, and for from MANZ and PARA (designated by providing program accountability. The park Superintendents), the Network BOD makes decisions on budget, long- Coordinator, and the MOJN Science term staffing, and program direction Advisor (Table 8.2). The MOJN Network based on technical assistance and Coordinator serves as the Chair of the advice provided by the TC and Network TC and coordinates its efforts. Non-

Table 8.1. Mojave Desert Network Board of Directors: current members and their roles. a

Voting Advisory Title Name Member Role Superintendent, DEVA JT Reynolds (Chair, BOD)a X Superintendent, GRBA Andrew Ferguson X Superintendent, JOTR Curt Sauer X Superintendent, LAME William Dickinson X Superintendent, MANZ Les Inafuku X Superintendent, MOJA Dennis Schramm X Superintendent, PARA Jeff Bradybaugh X PWR Regional Coordinator Penny Latham X MOJN Network Coordinator Alice Chung-MacCoubrey X Regional NRAC Representative Kari Yanskey X Great Basin CESU Coordinator Angie Evenden X a Membership as of Sept. 2008. Reynolds will be succeeded by Sauer as Chair in January 2009.

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Table 8.2. Mojave Desert Network Technical Committee: current members and their roles.a

Voting Advisory Title Name Member Role MOJN Network Coordinator (Chair) Alice Chung-MacCoubrey X Resource Chief, DEVA Linda Greene/ David Ek X Resource Chief, GRBA Tod Williams X Resource Chief, JOTR Paul DePrey X Resource Chief, LAME Kent Turner X Resource Chief, MOJA Bob Bryson X Representative, MANZ Les Inafuku X Representative, PARA Kari Yanskey X MOJN Science Advisor Debra Hughson X Superintendent Liaison Jeff Bradybaugh X Great Basin CESU Coordinator Angie Evenden X Designated Park Staff Various X a Membership as of Sept. 2008.

voting members play an advisory role condition and to provide reference The MOJN and include designated park staff, the points for comparisons with other, Superintendent Liaison, and Great Basin altered environments. MOJN Technical Committee CESU coordinator (Table 8.2). The TC staff will develop an integrated, is responsible for meets at least twice per year in person scientifically credible, long-term providing technical and by conference call as needed. TC ecological monitoring program to members express the needs of individual efficiently and effectively monitor assistance, advice, parks but make decisions based on status and trends of selected Vital and recommendations greatest benefit to the network. Decisions Signs and develop data management to the MOJN Board are typically made by consensus. and decision support systems to aid park managers in accessing and of Directors. 8.5 Staffing Plan utilizing monitoring information for MOJN staff and their activities are management purposes. intended to support the following • Integrate natural resource inventory National I&M Program goals and to and monitoring information into implement them at the network-level in National Park Service planning, a manner to address local park needs: management, and decision making. MOJN staff will work with various • Establish natural resource inventory park divisions to make natural and monitoring as a standard practice resource interpretation and throughout the National Park system protection an integral part of overall that transcends traditional program, park management. activity, and funding boundaries. • Share National Park Service • Inventory the natural resources and accomplishments and information park ecosystems under National Park with other natural resource Service stewardship to determine organizations and form partnerships their nature and status. MOJN for attaining common goals and staff will assist parks and national objectives. MOJN staff will cooperate programs in developing baseline with other agencies and organizations inventories of natural resources to share resources, achieve common in the parks and developing data goals, and avoid unnecessary management systems to aid park duplication of effort and expense. managers in accessing and utilizing inventory information. 8.5.1 Mojave Desert Network Staff • Monitor park ecosystems to better The proposed MOJN staffing strategy is understand their dynamic nature and designed to support the programmatic

92 Vital Signs Monitoring Plan Chapter 8: Administration and ImplementationChapter 7: Data of the Analysis Monitoring and Reporting Program functions above, employing a core of Manager. The Aquatic Ecologist role professional, permanent staff to oversee will be addressed by a cooperator in FY and implement the program and a variety 2009 and will be filled in FY 2010. The of temporary staff to conduct shorter- Program Assistant position will be filled term projects (e.g., vegetation mapping), in FY 2009. Duties of each core position develop data management infrastructure are described below. and procedures, and perform field Network Coordinator: The Network data collection and management. Table Coordinator is responsible for the 8.3 summarizes title, grade, primary overall management and supervision of duties, and other information for each the program. The coordinator consults position we propose and the phase with the MOJN BOD and TC, the they will contribute to. Core network Regional I&M Coordinator, and the staff are responsible for implementing National I&M Program Manager to and managing the I&M Program over establish general program direction and the long-term. The Implementation to develop strategies for accomplishing Phase is the period during which goals. Duties include coordination monitoring protocols are sequentially and oversight of inventory-related developed, tested, and implemented, activities, the design, development, baseline inventories are conducted and implementation of the monitoring to support protocol development, program, including development and and data management infrastructure testing of protocols, ensuring scientific is developed. Temporary positions rigor, etc., overseeing the development proposed for the Implementation Phase and implementation of the data will conduct shorter-term projects management program, and ensuring and other activities that will support communication and dissemination of protocol development or facilitate the program activities and results. Program transition to full implementation (e.g., management duties include formulation data mining, spatial data acquisition and management of budgets, planning, and manipulation). The Monitoring hiring and supervision of network Phase is the period that occurs after all staff, development of contracts and protocols have been developed, refined, agreements, and preparation of and implemented and data management annual program reports and work procedures are in place. At this point, plans. As a biologist, the Network the network’s primary focus will be Coordinator also serves as project lead performing and reporting on monitoring on Vital Signs protocol development, activities and managing resulting data. overseeing protocol design and testing, Temporary positions proposed for the implementation, and data collection, Monitoring Phase will collect field data analysis, and reporting for several Vital or provide data management support Signs protocols. for resulting data. Staffing needs during the Monitoring Phase are difficult to Data Manager: The Data Manager is define in greater detail because protocols responsible for data and information are not fully developed. Thus staffing stewardship at the network. The Data needs for this phase will be addressed Manager develops and implements the in an iterative manner by the Network Data Management Plan and associated Coordinator, BOD, and TC as protocols SOPs, which ensure long-term data are completed. All network positions are quality, integrity, security, and availability subject to BOD approval. to network and staff, cooperators, and other parties. The Data Manager Core Network Staff supports program activities by designing Core staff is defined as permanent staff and managing databases for inventory required to implement and manage all and monitoring projects, assisting in aspects and activities of the network development of data collection forms, inventory and monitoring program. QA/QC procedures, and automated Currently, three of five core positions reports, ensuring that datasets are fully are filled, including the Network documented and validated, data are Coordinator, Ecologist, and Data disseminated to various parties, and National Park Service 93 SierraMojave Nevada Desert Network Network

Table 8.3. Proposed staffing plan for different phases of the Mojave Desert Network monitoring program. Core staff are augmented by additional positions, which meet specific needs of the Implementation and Monitoring phases.

Implementation Monitoring GS Duty Phase III Position Status Primary Duties Phase Phase Level Station (FY 2007-08) (FY 2009-11) (FY 2012 on) Program development & management; Network monitoring 12 Perm LAME 1.0 1.0 1.0 Coordinator implementation; staff supervision; communication. Oversee & coordinate Data 11 Perm LAME data management 1.0 1.0 1.0 Manager activities. Monitoring design, data analysis and Ecologist 11 Perm LAME 1.0 1.0 reporting- upland protocols Monitoring design, Core NetworkCore Staff MOJA/ data analysis and Aquatic Perm/ 9/11 DEVA/ reporting- WQ and 1.0 1.0 Ecologist term LAME water/riparian-related protocols Budget & agreements Program Perm/ tracking, travel, 7 LAME 0.5 0.5 Assistant term timekeeping, records mgt., etc. Coordinate and oversee Vegetation 9 Term LAME vegetation mapping at 1.0 - Ecologista network parks. Compile spatial data. Develop procedures GIS specialist 7/9 Term LAME for utilizing and 1.0 - disseminating spatial data

Implementation Support basic Data Mining inventories and 5/6/7 Term Various 4.0 3.0b Technicians development of monitoring protocols Provide GIS, database, Data 5/6/7 Term TBD and data management - 1.0 Technician support. Biological Field data collection Science 5/6/7 Term TBD - b 2.0 and data entry. Technicians Monitoring Physical Field data collection Science 5/6/7 Term TBD - b 2.0 and data entry. Technicians a position is cost-shared between parks and network b Three full time equivalent (FTE) data mining positions will be funded through FY 2009. In FY 2010, the data mining positions will be eliminated, and the network may begin acquiring biological or physical science technician positions proposed for the Monitoring Phase.

94 Vital Signs Monitoring Plan Chapter 8: Administration and Implementation of the Monitoring Program associated contracts and agreements status, procurement, timekeeping, travel are managed effectively. The Data management, agreements tracking, Manager also manages and coordinates property inventory, office logistics, IT equipment and activities, maintains meeting and workshop arrangements, spatial data associated with network and filing network records and reports. I&M projects, and incorporates spatial This position will either be shared with data into the network GIS. another network or park program or will address other duties or roles within the Ecologist: The Ecologist will provide MOJN I&M Program. statistical and analytic support to network monitoring projects and Additional Network Staff for the coordinate the development and Implementation Phase implementation of upland monitoring protocols. Accordingly, the Ecologist During this phase, several positions develops sound sample designs, analytic are needed to support the completion approaches, and inference strategies of basic inventories, development of (with assistance from statistical monitoring protocols, and establishment cooperators as necessary), works with of spatial data management cooperators to develop protocols and infrastructure, procedures, and policies associated SOPs, conducts pilot testing that will be maintained in the long-term and protocol implementation, oversees by the Data Manager. These positions data collection, analysis, reporting, and are described below. The Data Mining dissemination of project analyses and Technician positions are currently filled, reports, and develops and manages and the GIS Specialist will be hired in FY protocol-related contracts or agreements. 2009. Further discussions are required to determine when the Vegetation Ecologist Aquatic Ecologist: The Aquatic position will be filled and how the Ecologist will work with the network position will be funded. Optimally, these cooperator and park staff to develop, positions will end upon completion refine, and test protocols to address of their respective projects (e.g., data water quality, groundwater, surface mining), which should correspond with water, and riparian-related Vital Signs the start of full implementation, but and protocols, ensuring that protocol positions may be terminated earlier in objectives are financially and logistically response to budget limitations. realistic. The Aquatic Ecologist will be the primary lead on implementing these Vegetation Ecologist: Vegetation protocols, ensuring data quality, project maps play an important role in park documentation and metadata, and management activities and decisions preparing and disseminating project and in the development of the Vital analyses and reports. These tasks Signs monitoring program. Vegetation will involve coordination with park mapping of the mandated 270 park staff and oversight of associated data units is coordinated and funded collection (from the field or existing through the national Vegetation sources), including the supervision of Mapping Program, and only one of the associated technicians. This individual network’s large parks (JOTR) has been will be the primary technical contact for addressed to date. Due to the number partners working on water and riparian of large parks in the network and the resource issues. diversity of vegetation they encompass, vegetation mapping projects will be Program Assistant: The Program complex and will require extensive Assistant will serve as a central contact coordination and oversight. The MOJN for network staff that performs or Vegetation Ecologist will assist parks coordinates administrative tasks, in coordinating and accomplishing facilitates communication between vegetation maps in an efficient manner network staff at different locations, and and with a network-wide perspective. standardizes personnel procedures and The cost for this position will be shared practices for the network. Duties will between the network and network parks. include tracking and reporting budget The Vegetation Ecologist will work with

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network, park, and national program positions to conduct data collection staff to develop a realistic strategy and and management. By designating these timeline for vegetation mapping at the positions as temporary, the network network’s numerous large parks. Based retains the flexibility to adjust the on this mutually agreed-upon work number, type, and duration of positions, plan, this individual will coordinate and associated costs, and activities addressed. oversee vegetation mapping activities These positions are described below. at various parks, including conducting Data Technician: The Data Technician planning meetings, coordinating will provide GIS, database, and other activities with park staff and cooperators, data management support to the Data developing and managing contracts Manager, particularly in developing and agreements on project tasks (e.g., and implementing standard operating classification, photo-interpretation, procedures associated with monitoring etc.), hiring technicians and overseeing protocols. The Data Technician will also field work as needed, developing project conduct data mining associated with budgets and work plans, and preparing inventories and to support protocols still annual reports and presentations. undergoing development. GIS Specialist: The GIS specialist will Biological and Physical Science compile and refine relevant park spatial Technicians: We present an approach data, including that for the 12 basic that utilizes several technicians year- inventories and other network-sponsored round for data collection during the inventories. This individual will work field season and other important duties with the data manager to develop during the off-season (data entry and infrastructure, procedures, and policies mining). These technicians’ primary for utilizing and disseminating spatial data duties will be field data collection, from inventory and monitoring activities, data entry, and data verification work with the network coordinator according to methods described and other network staff to support in monitoring protocols. Where spatial aspects of protocol development possible, data collection periods for (e.g., sample frame delineation and site different protocols will be staggered selection), and work with network staff such that technicians could collect and cooperators to develop a landscape data for two or more protocols each monitoring protocol. year. Outside the field season, two or Data Mining Technicians: The Data more technicians would perform data Mining Technicians conduct data mining entry and management, equipment to support or complete inventories maintenance, and data mining for and to support protocols undergoing inventory projects not completed during development. Due to the park-specific the Implementation Phase. In addition nature of their duties, these individuals to addressing data management and are duty-stationed at parks rather mining for the network and associated than at the network office at LAME. parks, maintaining at least two or more Data Miners have documented park technicians year-round would also references in NatureBib, populated promote consistency in field staff and NPSpecies with links to references, protocol implementation among years and located and entered metadata on and avoid problems associated with datasets pertinent to network Vital attracting and hiring seasonals on an Signs, protocol development, vegetation annual basis. It is difficult to predict the mapping, and other baseline inventories. number of positions required prior to Data mining technicians will complete completion of monitoring protocols, but duties related to these tasks in FY 2009. due to the magnitude of network parks and associated field work, it is likely that Additional Network Staff for the more field assistance will be required Monitoring Phase than the network can afford. Ultimately, For the Monitoring Phase (after all the number and type of positions protocols have been fully implemented), (seasonal or term), duty stations, and the network will require several funding source (network, park, and 96 Vital Signs Monitoring Plan Chapter 8: Administration and Implementation of the Monitoring Program other) will need to be determined by the to specific projects and network Network Coordinator, BOD, and TC activities. The network has engaged as protocols are developed. Additional a variety of university and federal methods for acquiring or supplementing agency cooperators to provide support field technicians are discussed below. on conceptual models, protocol development, statistical design, and 8.5.2 Role of Park Staff and data management. Cooperative Cooperators relationships with other networks, Park staff involvement with the I&M universities, nonprofit organizations, Program is integral to its success. and federal agencies will be explored Park staff involvement in protocol to develop additional protocols in FY development is critical to ensure that 2009 and FY 2010 and to meet short- monitoring data are relevant to park or long-term staffing requirements. In needs, and we have incorporated salary addition, cooperative agreements and costs for several pay periods of park partnerships will be explored to provide staff time in FY 2009 (see Chapter 10). or supplement field assistance during the In addition, the costs of implementing Monitoring Phase. monitoring protocols across the vast areas, rugged terrain, and remote 8.6 Integration with Park landscapes of MOJN parks will likely be Operations very high. If protocol implementation Developing and implementing the Vital relies solely on I&M funds, the network Signs monitoring program at MOJN may be required to scale back protocol network parks will require continued objectives, the number of sites sampled, collaboration and cooperation with or drop lower priority protocols. With multiple park divisions and programs. the contribution of park staff time (both Resource management staff have been professional and technical) to protocol involved in development of the MOJN implementation, the network will be program from early in its inception. Park able to achieve a greater proportion of biologists, botanists, physical scientists, its monitoring objectives or implement a hydrologists, and key management larger number of protocols. Additional staff participated in critical park and benefits of park staff involvement network workshops (e.g., geo-scoping, include greater program visibility at water resources, and Vital Signs parks, park staff with vested interests in selection workshops) and contributed monitoring results, greater interaction to the development and evaluation of between network and park staff, and conceptual models and the drafting greater integration with park activities. of Protocol Development Summaries. Recognizing these benefits, the network The network’s Science Advisor and must also acknowledge the potential park professional staff (physical risk that park leadership, priorities, and and biological) will continue to play budgets may change and park staff may important roles in protocol development be re-directed away from monitoring and implementation. activities. Thus, the monitoring program must remain flexible enough to The network will also work with park accommodate changes in park personnel staff to resolve numerous logistical issues and contributions while maintaining associated with protocol implementation as much consistency and continuity as (e.g., hiring, housing, and supervising possible. The nature and magnitude field crews). We will work closely with of park contributions to protocol park staff to make arrangements to development and implementation sample sites located in remote areas, will be discussed among the Network which may constitute a large number Coordinator, BOD, and TC in FY 2009. of sites. We will also work closely with parks and local Park Safety Officers Cooperators are also critical to the to participate in safety programs development and implementation of and training–including backcountry monitoring protocols, providing high communication procedures, first aid, and levels of knowledge and expertise development of job hazard analyses for

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each Vital Signs protocol. As part of the park meetings (e.g., staff meetings, park protocol development process, it will be workshops, strategic planning, and important for protocol working groups lecture series) to maintain contact with to identify areas where integration with park staff and involvement with park park operations is critical to ensure activities. To foster awareness of network effective and efficient implementation. activities, and program results, network Park housing will be needed for staff will also periodically provide field crews. This will require early presentations on the I&M Program, communication with park administrative results of Vital Signs monitoring, and and maintenance staff who manage data management, and provide training housing and other park divisions (that and assistance as needed to effectively compete each year for available housing). use I&M products, tools, and databases.

Another key area of integration 8.7 Partnerships will be with the parks’ Divisions of Interpretation. In addition to using The MOJN has partnered with other our website (inter- and intranet), federal agencies, universities, and other newsletters, fact sheets, and brochures networks to initiate the development to share information, we will work of the Vital Signs monitoring program with the Interpretive Divisions, Natural and plans additional partnerships to Resources Program Center (NRPC) develop and test remaining protocols in Education and Outreach Division, FY 2009 and FY 2010. Current or recent and associated cooperators to develop partnerships are as follows: a Science Communication Plan Cooperative Agreements (CESU) that outlines effective strategies for communicating monitoring results to • University of Nevada­—Las Vegas (Dr. diverse audiences. Soukup) - To develop soils component of the Integrated Upland monitoring All MOJN staff members play important protocol. roles in communication and integration • University of Nevada—Las Vegas with park staff. As best possible, MOJN (Dr. Palmer)- To design databases for staff will periodically participate in inventory and monitoring data and evaluate spatial data for the network’s GIS program. • University of Nevada—Las Vegas (Dr. Abella)- To develop the invasive/exotic plant monitoring protocol. • Desert Research Institute (Dr. Sada)— To develop springs inventory protocols (Level I & II) and conduct Level I springs inventory protocol at four network parks. • Great Basin Institute (Dr. Keir) — To provide field assistance in conducting Level I springs inventory protocol at four network parks. • University of Idaho (Dr. Caudill)— To develop and implement the MOJN Water Quality Monitoring Plan and two water-related monitoring protocols (Groundwater and Springs; Streams and Lakes). Partnerships will aid the MOJN in meetings its monitoring goals. Cooperators from • University of Idaho (Dr. Steinhorst)— University of Nevada-Reno discuss collaborative opportunities with park and network A joint CESU agreement with three staff at Grapevine Springs, Death Valley National Park. Photo courtesy Stacy Holt. other PWR networks to provide statistical review and support for 98 Vital Signs Monitoring Plan Chapter 8: Administration and Implementation of the Monitoring Program

Table 8.4. Description and schedule for various review processes in the Mojave Desert Network monitoring program.

Author Review Type Schedule Parties Involved Objectives or Lead Annual Network Board of Directors, Provide yearly accountability for program. Administrative Annual Coordinator & Technical Committee Report on accomplishments and explain goals Report and Network Staff WASO I&M Program and projects for the next fiscal year. Work Plan 3-year Start-up FY 2012 WASO WASO Monitoring Evaluate operational and administrative Review Monitoring Program Lead and aspects of program to determine whether Program Lead Review Panel program practices, procedures, and timelines are effective, realistic, and sustainable. Evaluate administrative and technical aspects of program for efficacy, scientific 5-year Periodic 5-year intervals, Network WASO I&M Program, rigor, integration, and success in achieving Program beginning in Coordinator & Board of Directors, programmatic goals. Involves a synthesis of Review 2017 Network Staff Technical Committee data collected to date and an evaluation of program structure and function. Protocol After MOJN protocol Internal and external Evaluate implementation of protocols, Reviews completion of lead and subject matter experts, evaluate scientific and technical merits of one monitoring cooperators Network Coordinator, protocols, evaluate information management cycle Technical Committee and management relevance, and make recommendations for improvement.

protocol and monitoring plan • U.S. Forest Service-Rocky Mountain development. Research Station —To develop • University of Idaho (Dr. Wright)— To vegetation component of Integrated provide support on various aspects of Upland and Riparian Vegetation the monitoring plan. protocols. • University of Washington (Dr. Agee) • Bureau of Reclamation— A joint — A joint CESU agreement with the agreement with the national vegetation Regional Coordinator and other PWR mapping program to 1) prepare a networks to coordinate and conduct vegetation mapping workplan for the peer-review of network protocols and MOJN and 2) develop a vegetation to provide technical and administrative map at MANZ. assistance to the network. • Bureau of Reclamation—To provide • Colorado State University (Dr. Bruyere) short-term office space to network staff. — A joint CESU agreement with 8.8 Program Review NRPC Education and Outreach and other networks to develop a science To ensure long-term effectiveness of the communication plan for MOJN. monitoring program, the network will periodically review different aspects of Interagency Agreements the program (administrative, technical, • U.S.D.A.—Agricultural Research and operational) and incorporate the Service- Jornada Experimental Range- resulting recommendations. In Table To evaluate the use of high-resolution 8.4 is a summary of the formal review aerial photography for estimating processes that MOJN plans to conduct, vegetation cover and composition and their objectives, involved parties, and augmenting ground-based sampling of corresponding schedule. these parameters. Each year, the network prepares the • U.S. Geological Survey-Western AARWP, which reports accomplishments Regional Science Center and Western and expenditures for the previous Ecological Research Center—To fiscal year and proposes objectives, develop and write conceptual models activities, and a budget for the coming and assist in development of Fire and fiscal year. The AARWP is an annual Fuel Dynamics and other protocols. method for tracking progress, promoting

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accountability, and communicating year schedule. This review will evaluate activities and accomplishments to administrative and technical aspects the network (BOD & TC) and the of the program, including program national program. Cumulatively, the effectiveness, accountability, structure network’s AARWPs provide a long-term and function, scientific rigor of protocols administrative record and history. The and associated data, integration with AARWP is prepared by the Network park activities, and effectiveness of Coordinator and staff, is reviewed by the outreach and partnership activities. BOD, TC, and Regional Coordinator, As the building blocks of the network’s and is signed by the Network monitoring program, individual Coordinator, Regional Coordinator, and protocols will also undergo review. Once BOD Chair for submission to WASO. each protocol has been implemented In FY 2012, the network will undergo a for one entire monitoring cycle (i.e., full three-year start-up review to evaluate the rotation through all panels), the network operational and administrative aspects will review the scientific, technical, and of the monitoring program and ensure administrative aspects of the protocol long-term success and sustainability. This and its implementation. The protocol initial review is conducted by the WASO lead and cooperators will provide Monitoring Program Lead, is intended materials for review by external subject to be a relatively informal assessment matter experts, park professional and of monitoring program objectives, management staff, and the TC. This procedures, timelines, and trajectories, review will evaluate whether protocol and will provide recommendations for objectives are being met, whether data programmatic adjustments. collected or technical aspects of field implementation suggest modification After the three-year start-up review, the of methods or exploration of new MOJN monitoring program will undergo techniques, and whether information is periodic program reviews on a five- appropriately managed and reported.

100 Vital Signs Monitoring Plan Chapter 9: Schedule

This chapter describes the MOJN protocols. Development of two timeline for developing and implementing additional protocols, Air Quality and Vital Signs protocols across network Invasive/Exotic Plants, was initiated in MOJN protocol parks. It also summarizes the frequency FY 2008 (Table 9.1). The network will and timing of monitoring for each vital begin development of three additional development updates sign and its associated protocol. protocols in FY 2009, including Weather can be found online at and Climate, Riparian Vegetation, and the network webpage. 9.1 Protocol Development Fire and Fuel Dynamics. The remaining For most protocols, development protocols, Landscape Dynamics and Visit http://science. includes refining objectives, developing Riparian Birds, will be initiated in FY nature.nps.gov/im/ 2010 (Table 9.1). Pending the completion sampling designs, testing methods units/MOJN/index. through pilot studies, and preparation of of the 10 protocols and/or the availability a protocol narrative and SOPs for review. of staff, funding, and opportunities cfm for more info! Protocol developers must conform to for collaboration, development of the WASO guidance on protocol format and remaining 3 Vital Signs (Small Mammals, content. Each protocol will undergo Reptiles, At-Risk Populations) may be scientific peer-review and approval. initiated in FY 2011 or beyond. The review process was developed by the PWR Regional I&M Coordinator and is coordinated by Dr. Jim Agee, a cooperator at University of Washington. The following provides a general overview of the network protocol development schedule. The network proposes to develop 10 protocols in the next 3-5 years to address 17 Vital Signs. The proposed schedule (Table 9.1) has been devised at a pace manageable by network staff, which includes the recent addition of a network ecologist in late FY 2008. In addition to this general summary, more detailed information regarding timelines and the current status of individual protocols can be found in Appendix I. In FY 2007, three protocols were initiated under guidance of the Network Coordinator and a university cooperator, Dr. Christopher Caudill (University of Idaho). These include the Integrated Upland, Groundwater and Springs, and Streams and Lakes Valley-mountain pair in the northern Mojave desert. Photo courtesy D.M. Miller, USGS.

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Table 9.1. Proposed schedule for protocol development and implementation for the Mojave Desert Network.

FALL

SUM

2012 SPR

WTR

FALL

SUM

2011 SPR

WTR

FALL

SUM

2010 SPR

WTR

FALL

SUM

2009 SPR

WTR

FALL

SUM

2008 SPR

WTR

s g prin es k and l p ame S and La ol N c rated U o g andundwater S t o o r tream nte I P Review/refine monitoring objectives(workgroups) Review existing efforts (NPS I&M, other resources) Develop sampling design Draft narrative protocol and SOPs Test methods pilot Test in study Revise (sampling protocol design, etc.) Peer review Revise andapproval protocol submit for Plot/equipment installation Field sampling (Implementation) Gr Review/refine monitoring objectives(workgroups) Review existing efforts (NPS I&M, other resources) Develop sampling design Draft narrative protocol and SOPs Test methods pilot Test in study Revise (sampling protocol design, etc.) Peer review Revise andapproval protocol submit for Plot/equipment installation Field sampling (Implementation) S Review/refine monitoring objectives(workgroups) Review existing efforts (NPS I&M, other resources) Revise (sampling protocol design, etc.) Peer review Revise andapproval protocol submit for Plot/equipment installation Develop sampling design Draft narrative protocol and SOPs methods pilot Test in study Field sampling (Implementation)

102 Vital Signs Monitoring Plan Chapter 9: Schedule

Table 9.1 Proposed schedule for protocol development and implementation for the Mojave Desert Network (continued).

FALL

SUM

2012 SPR

WTR

FALL

SUM

2011 SPR

WTR

FALL

SUM

2010 SPR

WTR

FALL

SUM

2009 SPR

WTR

FALL

SUM

2008 SPR

WTR

N O IMATE L ETATI ame G Y IT L ol N ER AND C c H o t o r AIR QUA P Review/refine monitoring objectives(workgroups) Review existing efforts (NPS I&M, other resources) Develop sampling design Draft narrative protocol and SOPs Test methods pilot Test in study Revise (sampling protocol design, etc.) Peer review Revise andapproval protocol submit for Plot/equipment installation Field sampling (Implementation) WEAT Review/refine monitoring objectives(workgroups) Review existing efforts (NPS I&M, other resources) Develop sampling design Draft narrative protocol and SOPs Test methods pilot Test in study Revise (sampling protocol design, etc.) Peer review Revise andapproval protocol submit for Plot/equipment installation Field sampling (Implementation) RIPARIAN VE Review/refine monitoring objectives(workgroups) Review existing efforts (NPS I&M, other resources) Develop sampling design Draft narrative protocol and SOPs Test methods pilot Test in study Revise (sampling protocol design, etc.) Peer review Revise andapproval protocol submit for Plot/equipment installation Field sampling (Implementation)

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Table 9.1 Proposed schedule for protocol development and implementation for the Mojave Desert Network (continued).

FALL

SUM

2012 SPR

WTR

FALL

SUM

2011 SPR

WTR

FALL

SUM

2010 SPR

WTR

FALL

SUM

2009 SPR

WTR

FALL

SUM

2008 SPR

WTR

ANTS L NAMICS Y NAMICS TIC P Y L D ame O ol N c o t o r ANDSCAPE D Review/refine monitoring objectives(workgroups) INVASIVE/EX P Review existing efforts (NPS I&M, other resources) Develop sampling design Draft narrative protocol and SOPs Test methods pilot Test in study Revise (sampling protocol design, etc.) Peer review Revise andapproval protocol submit for Plot/equipment installation Field sampling (Implementation) FIRE AND FUE Review/refine monitoring objectives(workgroups) Review existing efforts (NPS I&M, other resources) Develop sampling design Draft narrative protocol and SOPs Test methods pilot Test in study Revise (sampling protocol design, etc.) Peer review Revise andapproval protocol submit for Plot/equipment installation Field sampling (Implementation) L Review/refine monitoring objectives(workgroups) Review existing efforts (NPS I&M, other resources) Develop sampling design Draft narrative protocol and SOPs Test methods pilot Test in study Revise (sampling protocol design, etc.) Peer review Revise andapproval protocol submit for Plot/equipment installation Field sampling (Implementation)

104 Vital Signs Monitoring Plan Chapter 9: Schedule

Table 9.1 Proposed schedule for protocol development and implementation for the Mojave Desert Network (continued).

FALL

SUM

2012 SPR

WTR

FALL

SUM

2011 SPR

WTR

FALL

SUM

2010 SPR

WTR

FALL

SUM

2009 SPR

WTR

FALL

SUM

2008 SPR

WTR

ame ol N c o t o r RIPARIAN BIRDS P Review/refine monitoring objectives(workgroups) Review existing efforts (NPS I&M, other resources) Develop sampling design Draft narrative protocol and SOPs Test methods pilot Test in study Revise (sampling protocol design, etc.) Peer review Revise andapproval protocol submit for Plot/equipment installation Field sampling (Implementation)

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Table 9.2. Frequency, timing, and type of sampling for the 10 protocols addressing 17 Vital Signs for the Mojave Desert Network parks.

Data Month Protocol Module collection g ar a y pr ec

method u l J an F eb M A M J un J A u S ep Oct No v D Vegetation Field S S S S S S Integrated Upland Soils component Field S S S S S S Riparian Vegetation Field S S S S S Riparian Birds Field S S S Early detection Field I I I I I I I Invasive/Exotic Plants Status & trends Field I I I I Groundwater level Automated I I I I I I I I I I I I Spring discharge Automated I I I I I I I I I I I I Groundwater & Springs Water chemistry Field I I I I Aquatic biota Field I I Stream water chemistry Field I Stream water chemistry Automated I I I I I Stream discharge Automated I I I I I I I I I I I I Streams and Lakes Lake water level Automated I I I I I I I I I I I I Lake water chemistry Automated I I Stream Field I macroinvertebrates Air Quality Automated I I I I I I I I I I I I Weather & Climate Automated I I I I I I I I I I I I Fire & Fuel Dynamics TBD TBD Remote Landscape Dynamics Sensing TBD TBD = to be determined. Site membership design: I = index sites, S = probabilistic sample.

9.2 Sampling Frequency and Timing Frequency and timing of sampling varies by protocol (Table 9.2). Some data collection will occur continuously (e.g., spring discharge, air quality parameters, etc.) and some will occur at specific periods during the year (e.g., vegetation sampling, riparian bird monitoring, etc.). Field work will typically occur during spring and fall. Summer field work will be limited because biological activity is at a minimum during these hot summer months and because of the logistical and safety issues associated with working in extreme summer temperatures.

106 Vital Signs Monitoring Plan Chapter 10: Budget

This chapter presents the budget for the temporary network staff, and external MOJN Vital Signs Monitoring Program cooperators (via CESU cooperative for FY 2009, the network’s first year agreements and interagency agreements), of operation after approval of the final the costs of which constitute a majority Monitoring Plan. We first present the of the program budget (Table 10.1 and FY 2009 network budget in the format 10.2). Costs for core network staff are used for the Annual Administrative approximately 31% in FY 2009. After Report and Work Plan (Table 10.1), and the one remaining core network position then provide the same budget in greater (aquatic ecologist) is hired, core network detail and with an estimate of resources staff will cost approximately 37%. devoted to information and data This percentage will increase gradually management (Table 10.2). over time due to cost of living and step In FY 2008, MOJN received $860,000 increases. An additional 29% of the from the National I&M Vital Signs program budget is dedicated to temporary Monitoring Program and $76,900 personnel who will support activities from the NPS Water Resources associated with protocol development, Each year, the MOJN Division. These values represent the testing, and field implementation. Board of Directors Upon entering the Monitoring Phase net funding after 1) an increase in Vital approves an Annual Signs Monitoring Program funding (full implementation of all protocols), by $20,600 for cost of living increases temporary personnel requirements will Work Plan, which and 2) a reduction of 1.56% due to a change from protocol development is prepared by the and inventory activity to protocol congressionally-imposed Across the Network Coordinator Board (ATB) rescission. Combined, these implementation (field data collection, data funding sources serve as base funds with entry, etc.). The staffing plan in Chapter with input from which the network Vital Signs and water 8 presents one approach to achieving network staff and the field data collection (several MOJN- quality monitoring programs will be Technical Committee. developed and implemented. We expect funded technicians), but additional field these amounts to remain relatively assistance will likely be required and the fixed, except for periodic cost of living network will explore all staffing options adjustments for federal employees and for implementing protocols (MOJN potential ATB rescissions. Vital Signs temporary staff, park staff, partnerships, Monitoring Program funds are held in cooperative agreements, or some Washington Office base accounts and combination) with the MOJN BOD and are transferred annually through the TC as protocols near completion. Pacific West Regional Office to LAME, In FY 2009, approximately 20% of the the network’s host park. All funds program budget will be allocated to are managed by the MOJN Network external cooperators or contractors Coordinator under the auspices of the to provide assistance on protocol BOD, with assistance from the Budget development and data management staff at LAME. The BOD approves the (Table 10.1). Through these agreements Annual Work Plan with input from the and contracts, we will obtain technical Network Coordinator and TC. The work and statistical support as we initiate plan directs expenditure of funds to or continue development of protocols projects, parks, and offices. (Table 10.2). Operations, equipment, In FY 2009, the network will enter and travel expenses during the the Implementation Phase, defined Implementation Phase (Table 10.1 in Chapter 8 as the period when and 10.2) will be allocated to startup the network will be developing and equipment purchases, general implementing monitoring protocols (FY administrative costs, General Services 2009-11), developing data management Administration (GSA) vehicles, and infrastructure, and completing inventories travel related to meetings, visiting parks, that support protocol development. These training, and protocol testing. These activities will be accomplished through categories of expenses will increase as a combination of core network staff, protocols are implemented (equipment costs, logistics support, field travel, National Park Service 107 SierraMojave Nevada Desert Network Network

Table 10.1. Summary budget for the Mojave Desert Network Vital Signs Monitoring Program in the first year of implementation (FY 2009). MOJN Vital Signs MOnitoring Budget FY 2009 Income Vital Signs Monitoring $860,000 Water Resources Division $76,900 Funds Available $936,900 % by Budget Amount Category Expenditures Personnel- Core $285,937 31% Personnel- Temporary $268,268 29% Cooperative Agreements $188,217 20% Contracts $45,500 5% Operations/Equipment $100,528 10% Travel $48,450 5% Total Expenditures $936,900

etc.). Relative to other networks, position or cooperator is expected to these expenses may constitute a larger devote to information/data management proportion of the program budget due to in FY 2009. Approximately 43% of the the vast, remote, and rugged landscapes network budget will be used towards across which the protocols will be data and information management implemented. during the Implementation Phase. In the Monitoring Phase, data management- Guidelines for developing a monitoring related staff supporting protocol program suggest that approximately 30% and program development will be of the overall budget should be allocated reduced, and monitoring-related data to information/data management to management duties will be performed by ensure data quality and longevity and to core network staff, temporary field-going facilitate communication of monitoring staff, and the data technician. results. In Table 10.2, we provide the percent of time that each network

108 Vital Signs Monitoring Plan Chapter 10: Budget

Table 10.2. Detailed budget for the Mojave Desert Network Vital Signs Monitoring Program in the first year of implementation after review and approval of the monitoring plan.

MOJN Vital Signs MOnitoring Budget FY 2009 Income Vital Signs Monitoring $860,000 Water Resources Division $76,900 Total Income $936,900 Expenditures Amount allocated to Core Personnel GS Level Amount Data Management Network Coordinator 12 $101,054 5% $ 5,053 Data Manager 11 $90,177 100% $ 90,177 Ecologist 11 $67,791 5% $ 3,390 Program Assistant (1/2 FTE) 7 $26,915 10% $ 2,692 Temporary Personnel or Assistance Various park staff (e.g., Science Advisor; 2PP) various $9,000 Vegetation mapping coordination (4mo) 7 $18,634 20% $ 3,727 GIS Specialist 9 $58,623 100% $ 58,623 Data Mining Technicians (3) 5/6/7 $177,011 100% $177,011 Misc. personnel costs $5,000 Subtotal $554,205 $340,671 Cooperative Agreements Integrated Upland Protocol $40,000 20% $ 8,000 Groundwater and Springs Protocol $25,000 20% $ 5,000 Invasive/Exotic Plants Protocol $73,217 20% $ 14,643 Science Communication Plan- development $15,000 25% $ 3,750 Remote Sensing Techniques Development $35,000 20% $ 7,000 Subtotal $188,217 $ 38,393 Contracts SCA intern support- housing $13,000 Water chemistry & macroinvertebrate analyses $20,000 Office maintenance $5,000 Vital Signs Monitoring Plan—formatting & printing $7,500 Subtotal $45,500 Operations/Equipment Streams and Lakes monitoring equipment $ 12,150 Groundwater and Springs monitoring equipment $14,750 Integrated Upland monitoring field equipment $12,000 GSA vehicles $7,000 LAME Administrative Support $10,000 General supplies and furniture $13,628 Network – service agreements & license upgrades $10,000 $ 10,000 Computers, hardware, & software $14,000 $ 14,000 IT Assessment $7,000 Subtotal $100,528 $ 24,000 Travel Network staff- meetings, conferences, & training $37,200 Water quality monitoring-related meetings $4,000 Park staff—network-related meetings & conferences $7,250 Subtotal $48,450 Data Management Total $936,900 43% $403,064 Expenditures

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Chapter 11: Literature Cited

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Piepho, H. P. and J. O. Ogutu. 2002. A Providence, Rhode Island. simple mixed model for trend analysis Rowlands, P. G. 1978. The vegetation in wildlife populations. Journal dynamics of the Joshua Tree Desert of Agricultural, Biological, and Environmental Statistics. 7:350-360. (Yucca brevifolia Engelm) in the southwestern United States. Ph.D. Prichard, D., J. Anderson, C. Correll, Dissertation, 192 pp., University of J. Fogg, K. Gebhardt, R. Krapf, S. California Riverside. Leonard, B. Mitchell, and J. Staats. 1998. Riparian Area Management: Sada, D. W., E. Fleishman, and D. A User Guide to Assessing Proper D. Murphy. 2005. Associations Functioning Condition and the among spring-dependent aquatic Supporting Science for Lotic Areas. assemblages and environmental Technical Reference 1737-15, BLM/ and land use gradients in a Mojave RS/ST-98/001-1737, Bureau of Land Desert mountain range. Diversity and Management, Denver, CO. Distributions 11:91-99. Purcell, K. L., S. R. Mori, and M. K. Sarr, D. A., D. C. Odion, S. R. Mohren, E. Chase. 2005. Design Considerations E. Perry, R. L. Hoffman, L. K. Bridy, for examining trends in avian and A. A. Merton. 2007. Klamath abundance using point counts: Network Vital Signs Monitoring examples from oak woodlands. The Plan. Natural Resource Report NPS/ Condor 107:305-320. KLMN/NRR—2007/016. National Park Service, Fort Collins, Colorado. Pulliam, H. R. and M. R. Brand. 1975. The production and utilization Salo, L. F. 2004. Population dynamics of of seeds in plains grassland of red brome (Bromus madritensis rubens): southeastern Arizona. Ecology times for concern, opportunities 56:1158-1156 for management. Journal of Arid Environments 57:291-296. Rapport, D. J. 1998. Defining ecosystem health. Pages 18-33 in D. J. Rapport, R. Scheaffer, R. L., W. Mendenhall, and L. Ott. 1990. Elementary survey Costanza, P. R. Epstein, C. L. Gaudet, th and R. Levins, editors. Ecosystem sampling, 4 edition. PWS-Kent, Health. Blackwell Science, Malden, MA. Boston. Reichman, O. J. 1977. Optimization of diets Schwinning, S. and O. E. Sala. 2004. through food preferences by heteromyid Hierarchy of responses to resource rodents. Ecology 58:454-457. pulses in arid and semi-arid ecosystems. Oecologia 141:211-220. Reynolds, J. F., P. R. Kemp, K. Ogle, and R. J. Fernandez. 2004. Modifying the Scott, D. and W. D. Billings. 1964. Effects ‘pulse-reserve’ paradigm for deserts of environmental factors on standing of North America: precipitation crop and productivity of an alpine pulses, soil water, and plant responses. tundra. Ecological Monographs Oecologia 141:194-210. 34:243-270. Roback, P. J., and R. A. Askins. 2005. Scott, M. L., M. E. Miller, and J. C. Judicious use of multiple hypothesis Schmidt. 2004. The structure and tests. Conservation Biology 19:261- functioning of riparian ecosystems 267. of the Colorado Plateau– Conceptual models to inform the vital-sign Rodriguez-Iturbe, I. 2000. selection process: Southern Colorado Ecohydrology: A hydrologic Plateau Network Phase Two perspective of climate-soil-vegetation Supplement (Draft). dynamics. Water Resources Research 36:3-9. Seager, R., M. Ting, I. Held, Y Kushnir, J. Lu, G. Vecchi, H-P. Huang, N. Harnik, Roman, C. T., and N. E. Barrett. A. Leetmaa, N-C Lau, C. Li, J. Velez, 1999. Conceptual Framework for and N. Naik. 2007. Model projections the Development of Long-term of an imminent transition to a more Monitoring Protocols at Cape Cod arid climate in southwestern North National Seashore. U. S. Department America. Science 316: 1181-1184. of Interior, U. S. Geological Survey, Patuxent Wildlife Research Center, University of Rhode Island,

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Segura, M., R. Woodman, J. Meiman, W. Thompson, R. S., and K. H. Anderson. Granger, and J. Bracewell. 2007. Gulf 2000. Biomes of Western North Coast Network Vital Signs Monitoring America at 18,000, 6,000 and 0 14C Plan. Natural Resource Report NPS/ yr BP reconstructed from pollen GULN/NRR–2007/015. National Park and packrat midden data. Journal of Service, Fort Collins, Colorado. Biogeography 27:555-584. Seybold, C. A., J. E. Herrick, and J. Thompson S. K. 2002. Sampling. 2nd ed. J. J. Brejda. 1999. Soil resilience: A Wiley and Sons, New York, NY. fundamental component of soil Trombulak, S. C., and C. A. Frissell. quality. Soil Science 164:224-234. 2000. Review of Ecological Effects Sims, M., S. Wanless, M. P. Harris, P. of Roads on Terrestrial and Aquatic I. Mitchell, and D. A. Elston. 2006. Communities. Conservation Evaluating the power of monitoring Biology 14:18-30. plot designs for detecting long-term Turner, R. M. 1994a. Great Basin trends in the numbers of common guillemots. Journal of Applied Desertscrub. Pages 145-155 in D. E. Ecology 43:537-546. Brown ed. Biotic Communities of the Southwestern United States and Sokal, R. R., and F. J. Rohlf. 1995. Northwestern Mexico. University of Biometry, 3rd edition. W.H. Freeman Utah Press, Salt Lake City. and Company, New York. Turner, R. M. 1994b. Mojave Stamos, C. L., P. Martin, T. Nishikawa, Desertscrub. Pages 157-168 in D. E. and B. F. Cox. 2001. Simulation of Brown ed. Biotic Communities of ground-water flow in the Mojave the Southwestern United States and River basin, California. USGS Water- Northwestern Mexico. University of Resources Investigations Report Utah Press, Salt Lake City. 01-4002 Version 3. U. S. Geological Survey, Washington, D. C. Urquhart, N. S., and T. M. Kincaid. 1999. Designs for detecting trend Steidl, R. J., J. P. Hayes, and E. Schauber. from repeated surveys of ecological 1997. Statistical power analysis in resources. Journal of Agricultural and wildlife research. Journal of Wildlife Biological Environmental Statistics Management 61:270-279. 4:404–414. Stevens, L. 2001. Ecological Assessment Urquhart, N. S., S. G. Paulsen, and D. P. of the Shivwits Plateau Region. Grand Larsen. 1998. Monitoring for policy- Canyon Wildlands Council, Inc., relevant regional trends over time. Flagstaff, AZ. Ecological Applications 8:246-257. Stevens, D. L., and A. R. Olsen. 2004. Urquhart, N. S., Overton, W. S. and D.S. Spatially Balanced Sampling of Natural Birkes. 1993. Comparing Sampling Resources. Journal of American Designs for Monitoring Ecological Statistical Association 99:262-278. Status and Trends: Impact of Temporal Stevens, L. E., and A. E. Springer. Patterns. Pages 71-85 in V. Barnett 2004. A conceptual model of springs and K.F. Turkman, editors. Statistics ecosystem ecology: Task 1B Final for the Environment. John Wiley and Report: Southern Colorado Plateau Sons, Hoboken, New Jersey. Network Phase Two Supplement. U.S. Census Bureau. 2005. Data Access Stringham, T. K., W. C. Krueger, Tools. On-line.( http://www.census. and P. L. Shaver. 2003. State and gov/main/www/access.html). transition modeling: An ecological Accessed 30 August 2005. process approach. Journal of Range USGS National Land Cover Dataset. Management 56:106-113. 2001. Data Acesss Tools. Online. Thomas, L., M. Hendrie (editor), C. (http://www.mrlc.gov/nlcd.php) Lauver, S. Monroe, N. Tancreto, Accessed 30 September 2008. S. Garman, and M. Miller. 2005. U.S. Forest Service (USFS). 1993. Vital Signs Monitoring Plan for the ECOMAP. National hierarchical Southern Colorado Plateau Network: framework of ecological units. U.S. Phase III report. National Park Forest Service, Washington, D.C. Service, Fort Collins, Colorado.

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VanLeeuwen, D. M., L. W. Murray, and White, P. S. and S. T. A. Pickett. 1985. N. S. Urquhart. 1996. A mixed model Natural disturbance and patch with both fixed and random trend dynamics: An introduction. Pages components across time. Journal 3-13 in S. T. A. Pickett and P. S. White, of Agricultural, Biological, and editors. The Ecology of Natural Environmental Statistics 4: 435-453. Disturbance and Patch Dynamics. Warren, S. D. 2003. Synopsis: Influence Academic Press, San Diego, CA. of biological soil crusts on arid land Whitford, W. G. 1996. The importance hydrology and soil stability. Pages of the biodiversity of soil biota in 349-362 in J. Belnap and O. L. Lange arid ecosystems. Biodiversity and eds. Ecological Studies Series 150, Conservation 5:185-195. Biological soil crusts: structure, Whitford, W. G. 1998. Validation of function, and management. Springer- Verlag, Berlin. indicators. Pages 205-209 in D. J. Rapport, R. Costanza, P. R. Epstein, Webb, R. H., T. C. Esque, P. A. Medica, C. Gaudet, and R. Levins, editors. L. A. DeFalco, and M. B. Murov. 2001. Ecosystem Health. Blackwell Science, Monitoring Of Ecosystem Dynamics Malden, MA. In The Mojave Desert: The Beatley Permanent Plots, USGS Fact Sheet Whitford, W. G. 2002. Ecology of desert 040-01, 4p. systems. Academic Press, San Diego, CA. Westman, W. E. 1978. Measuring the inertia and resilience of ecosystems. Wilkerson, C. 2004. The Mojave Desert: BioScience 28:705-710. Land of Power and Passions, Land of Vulnerability. Presentation at the Whisenant, S. G. 1999. Repairing Mojave Desert Science Symposium, damaged wildlands: A process- University of Redlands, California, oriented landscape scale approach. November 16-18, 2004. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge, UK. Wittemyer, G., P. Elsen, W. T. Bean, A. C. O. Burton, and J. S. Brashares. 2008. Accelerated human population growth at protected area edges. Science 321:123-126. Winograd, I. J., T. B Coplen, J. M. Landwehr, K. M. Revesz, A. C. Riggs, and others. 1992. Continuous 500,000-year climate record from vein calcite in Devils Hole, Nevada. Science 258: 255-260.

120 Vital Signs Monitoring Plan GLOSSARY OF TERMS AND CONCEPTS

Alluvial fan—an outspread, gently ecosystem functions to resist or recover sloping mass of alluvium deposited by from natural disturbances and/or a stream, especially in an arid region anthropogenic stressors (derived from where a stream issues from a narrow concepts of Whisenant 1999; Archer and canyon onto a plain or valley floor. Stokes 2000; Whitford 2002). Anthropogenic effects—are caused by Disturbance—“...any relatively discrete or attributed to humans. As used here, event in time that disrupts ecosystem, they are human influenced factors that community, or population structure and cause stress in natural systems. changes resources, substrate availability, or the physical environment” (White Attributes—any living or nonliving and Pickett 1985:7). In relation to feature or process of the environment monitoring, disturbances are considered that can be measured or estimated and to be ecological factors that are within that provide insights into the state of the evolutionary history of the ecosystem the ecosystem. The term indicator is (e.g., drought). These are differentiated reserved for a subset of attributes that is from anthropogenic factors that are particularly information-rich in the sense outside the range of disturbances that their values are somehow indicative naturally experienced by the ecosystem of the quality, health, or integrity of the (Whitford 2002). larger ecological system to which they belong (Noon 2003; http://science.nature. Driver—The major external driving nps.gov/im/monitor/Glossary.htm). forces that have large-scale influences on natural systems. Drivers can be natural Bajada—a broad, gently inclined, forces or anthropogenic (http://science. detrital surface extending from the base nature.nps.gov/im/monitor/Glossary.cfm). of mountain ranges into an in-land basin. Ecological Monitoring Framework— Biological integrity—the ability is a National Park Service systems-based, to maintain and support a balanced, hierarchical outline that facilitates integrated, adaptive community of comparisons of vital signs among parks, organisms having a species composition, networks, and other programs. diversity, and functional organization comparable to that of the natural habitat Ecological integrity—a concept of the region. that expresses the degree to which the physical, chemical, and biological Biome—a climax community that components (including composition, characterizes a particular natural region. structure, and process) of an ecosystem Biota—the animal and plant life of a and their relationships are present, region. functioning, and capable of self-renewal. Ecological integrity implies the presence Carbonate rock—rock formed from the of appropriate species, populations and carbonates of calcium, magnesium, and/ communities and the occurrence of or iron (e.g., or dolomite). ecological processes at appropriate rates Conceptual models—purposeful and scales as well as the environmental representations of reality that provide a conditions that support these taxa and mental picture of how something works to processes (http://science.nature.nps.gov/ communicate that explanation to others. im/monitor/Glossary.htm). Degradation—an anthropogenic Ecoregion—an area over which the reduction in the capacity of a particular climate is sufficiently uniform to permit ecosystem or ecosystem component to development of similar ecosystems on perform desired ecosystem functions sites having similar properties. Ecoregions (e.g., degraded capacity for conserving contain many landscapes with different soil and water resources). Human spatial patterns of ecosystems. actions may degrade desired ecosystem Ecosystem—a spatially explicit unit functions directly, or they may do so of the Earth that includes all of the indirectly by damaging the capacity of National Park Service 121 MojaveSierra Nevada Desert NetworkNetwork

organisms, along with all components Eolian—pertaining to the wind, esp. of the abiotic environment within its said of such deposits as loess and dune boundaries (Likens 1992, cited by sand. Christensen et al.1996:670). Equilibrium—a condition of balance Ecosystem functioning—the flow between two opposing forces. of energy and materials through the Evapotranspiration—the portion arrangement of biotic and abiotic of precipitation returned to the area components of an ecosystem. Includes through evaporation and transpiration. many ecosystem processes such as primary production, trophic transfer Focal resources—park resources that, from plants to animals, nutrient cycling, by virtue of their special protection, water dynamics and heat transfer. In public appeal, or other management a broad sense, ecosystem functioning significance, have paramount includes two components: ecosystem importance for monitoring regardless of resource dynamics and ecosystem current threats or whether they would be stability (Díaz and Cabido 2001). monitored as an indication of ecosystem integrity. Focal resources might include Ecosystem health—a metaphor ecological processes, such as deposition pertaining to the assessment and rates of nitrates and sulfates in certain monitoring of ecosystem structure, parks; or they may be a species that function, and resilience in relation to is harvested, endemic, alien, or has the notion of ecosystem “sustainability” protected status. (following Rapport 1998; Costanza et al. 1998). A healthy ecosystem is sustainable Focal species / organisms—species (see Sustainable ecosystem, below). and/or organisms that play significant functional roles in ecological systems Ecosystem integrity—see ecological by their disproportionate contribution integrity. to the transfer of matter and energy, by Ecosystem management—the process structuring the environment and creating of land-use decision making and land- opportunities for additional species and/ management practice that takes into or organisms, or by exercising control account the full suite of organisms and over competitive dominants and thereby processes that characterize and comprise promoting increased biological diversity the ecosystem. It is based on the best (derived from Noon 2003). Encompasses understanding currently available as to concepts of keystone species, umbrella how the ecosystem works. Ecosystem species, and ecosystem engineers. management includes a primary goal Functional groups—groups of to sustain ecosystem structure and species that have similar effects function, a recognition that ecosystems on ecosystem processes (Chapin are spatially and temporally dynamic, et al. 1996)—frequently applied and acceptance of the dictum that interchangeably with functional types. ecosystem function depends on ecosystem structure and diversity. Functional types –sets of The whole-system focus of ecosystem organisms sharing similar responses management implies coordinated land- to environmental factors such as use decisions (http://science.nature.nps. temperature, resource availability, and gov/im/monitor/Glossary.cfm). disturbance (= functional response types) and/or similar effects on ecosystem Edaphic—related to or caused by functions such as productivity, nutrient particular soil conditions, as of texture cycling, flammability, and resistance or drainage, rather than by physiographic / resilience (= functional effect types) or climate factors. (Díaz and Cabido 2001). Endemic species—any species naturally Generalized Random-Tessellation confined to a particular area or region. Stratified (GRTS)—allows for a Endolithic—within the soil or rock spatially-balanced random draw of layer. sample units with variable inclusion

122 Vital Signs Monitoring Plan Chapter 12: Glossary probabilities and an ordered list of (2) the status of ecosystem properties sample units that can support additions that are clearly related to these ecosystem and deletions of sample units while processes, and/or (3) the capacity of retaining spatial balance. ecosystem processes or properties to resist or recover from natural disturbances and/ Genotype—the genetic constitution, or anthropogenic stressors (modified latent or expressed, of an organism, from Whitford 1998). In the context of the sum total of all genes present in an ecosystem health, key ecosystem processes organism. and properties are those that are closely Geomorphic—pertaining to the shape associated with the capacity of the of the earth or its surface features. ecosystem to maintain its characteristic structural and functional atributtes over Hydrologic function (lotic and time (including natural variability). lentic systems)—capacity of an area to: dissipate energies associated with Inventory—an extensive point-in- (1) high stream flow (lotic); or (2) wind time survey to determine the presence/ action, wave action, and overland flow absence, location or condition of a biotic (lentic); thereby reducing erosion or abiotic resource (http://science.nature. nps.gov/im/monitor/Glossary.cfm). and improving water quality; filter sediment, capture bedload, and aid Karst—an area of limestone formations floodplain development; improve characterized by sinks, ravines, and flood-water retention and groundwater underground streams. recharge; develop root masses that Landscape—a spatially structured stabilize streambanks against cutting mosaic of different types of ecosystems action; develop diverse ponding and interconnected by flows of materials channel characteristics to provide the (e.g., water, sediments), energy, and habitat and the water depth, duration, organisms. and temperature necessary for fish production, waterfowl breeding, and Lentic—referring to standing freshwater other uses; support greater biodiversity habitats, such as ponds and lakes. (Prichard et al. 1998). Lithology —study of the physical Hydrologic function (upland characteristics of rocks, in particular, systems/soils)—capacity of a site to their color, mineralogic composition, capture, store, and safely release water and grain size. from rainfall, run-on, and snowmelt, Lotic—referring to running freshwater to resist a reduction in this capacity, habitats. and to recover this capacity following degradation (Pellant et al. 2000). Measures—specific feature(s) used to quantify an indicator, as specified in a Indicators—a subset of monitoring sampling protocol. For example, pH, attributes that are particularly temperature, dissolved oxygen, and information-rich in the sense that their specific conductivity are all measures of values are somehow indicative of the water chemistry (http://science.nature. quality, health, or integrity of the larger nps.gov/im/monitor/Glossary.cfm). ecological system to which they belong (Noon 2003). Indicators are a selected Membership design –Describes subset of the physical, chemical, and the method by which members of biological elements and processes of the population are assigned to panels natural systems that are selected to (McDonald 2003). represent the overall health or condition Metadata—Data about data. Represents of the system (Noon 2003; http://science. the set of instructions or documentation nature.nps.gov/im/monitor/Glossary.htm). that describe the content, context, quality, structure, and accessibility of a Indicators of ecosystem health— data set (Michener et al. 1997). measurable attributes of the environment (biotic or a biotic) that provides insights Microclimate—A local atmospheric regarding (1) the functioning status of zone where the climate differs from the one or more key ecosystem processes, surrounding area (Wikipedia). National Park Service 123 MojaveSierra Nevada Desert NetworkNetwork

Monitoring—collection and analysis of commonly by soluble salts. It may be repeated observations or measurements marked by an ephemeral lake. to evaluate changes in condition and Protocols—are detailed study plans progress toward meeting a management that provide rationale for monitoring a objective (Elzinga et al. 1998). Detection Vital Sign, and provide instructions for of a change or trend may trigger a carrying out the monitoring. Protocols management action, or it may generate a consist of a narrative, standard operating new line of inquiry. Monitoring is often procedures, and supplementary done by sampling the same sites over materials (Oakley et al. 2003) time, and these sites may be a subset of the sites sampled for the initial inventory Resilience—the capacity of a particular (http://science.nature.nps.gov/im/ ecological attribute or process to monitor/Glossary.cfm). recover to its former reference state or dynamic after exposure to a temporary Natural variability—the ecological disturbance and/or stressor (adapted conditions, and the spatial and temporal from Grimm and Wissel 1997). The variation in these conditions, that are ability of a natural ecosystem to restore relatively unaffected by people, within its structure following acute or chronic a period of time and geographical disturbance (Westman 1978). Resilience area appropriate to an expressed goal is a dynamic property that varies in (Landres et al. 1999). relation to environmental conditions Orographic—of or pertaining to (Scheffer et al. 2001). mountains or mountain ranges. Resistance—the capacity of a particular Panel –A group of sample units that ecological attribute or process to remain will always be sampled during the essentially unchanged from its reference same sampling occasion or time period state or dynamic despite exposure to a (MacDonald 2003). disturbance and/or stressor (adapted from Grimm and Wissel 1997). Pediment—a broad gently sloping Resistance is a dynamic property that erosion surface or plain of relief, varies in relation to environmental typically developed by running water, in conditions (Scheffer et al. 2001). an arid region at the base of an abrupt and receding mountain front. Revisit design—refers to the schedule with which panels will be sampled over Pedogenesis—the process of soil time (McDonald 2003). formation. Riparian—pertaining to or situated on Phenology—term referring to the the banks of a body of water, esp. a river. timing of an organisms lifecycle (e.g., producing flowers) only with certain Soil / site stability—the capacity of periods of light. a site to limit redistribution and loss of soil resources (including nutrients Phreatophytes—a plant species which and organic matter) by wind and water extends its roots into the saturated zone (Pellant et al. 2000). of the water table. Soil quality—the capacity of a specific Piedmont—lying or formed at the base kind of soil to function, within natural of a mountain or mountain range. or managed ecosystem boundaries, to Physiography—study of the natural sustain plant and animal productivity, features of the earth’s surface including maintain or enhance water and air land formation, climate, currents, and quality, and support human health and distribution of flora and fauna. Also habitation (Karlen et al. 1997). From known as physical geography. an NPS perspective, soil quality is defined by a soil’s capacity to perform Playa—a term used in the Southwestern the following ecological functions: US for a dry, barren area in the lowest (a) regulate hydrologic processes; part of an undrained desert basin, (b) capture, retain, and cycle mineral underlain by clay, silt, or sand and nutrients; (c) support characteristic

124 Vital Signs Monitoring Plan Chapter 12: Glossary native communities of plants and more of the primary ecological processes animals. Soil quality can be regarded responsible for maintaining the dynamic as having (1) an inherent component equilibrium of the state. Transitions are defined by the soil’s inherent soil vectors of system change that will lead properties as determined by the five to a new state without abatement of the factors of soil formation, and (2) a stressor(s) and/or disturbance(s) prior dynamic component defined by the to exceeding the system’s capacities for change in soil function that is influenced resistance and resilience (adapted from by human use and management of the Stringham et al. 2003). soil (Seybold et al. 1999). Trend—as used by this program, refers Split panel—a revisit design in which to directional change measured in one panel is sampled on every occasion resources by monitoring their condition and remaining panels are revisited on over time. Trends can be measured by every nth occasion (e.g., [1-0, 1-4]. examining individual change (change experienced by individual sample units) Status—as used in this program, refers or by examining net change (change to the condition of a resource or vital in mean response of all sample units) sign at a given point in time. (http://science.nature.nps.gov/im/ Stressor—physical, chemical, or monitor/Glossary.cfm). biological perturbations to a system Trophic—describes the position that an that are either (a) foreign to that system organism occupies in a food chain (what or (b) natural to the system but applied it eats and what eats it). at an excessive [or deficient] level (Barrett et al. 1976:192). Stressors cause Variable—any quantitative aspect of an significant changes in the ecological object of concern. components, patterns and processes Vital signs—a subset of physical, in natural systems. Examples include chemical, and biological elements and water withdrawal, pesticide use, timber processes of park ecosystems that are harvesting, traffic emissions, stream selected to represent the overall health acidification, trampling, poaching, land or condition of park resources, known use change, and air pollution (http:// or hypothesized effects of stressors, or science.nature.nps.gov/im/monitor/ elements that have important human Glossary.cfm). values. The elements and processes Threshold—as applied to state-and- that are monitored are a subset of the transition models, a threshold is a total suite of natural resources that point “...in space and time at which park managers are directed to preserve one or more of the primary ecological “unimpaired for future generations,” processes responsible for maintaining the including water, air, geological resources, sustained [dynamic] equilibrium of the plants and animals, and the various state degrades beyond the point of self- ecological, biological, and physical repair. These processes must be actively processes that act on those resources. restored before the return to the previous Vital signs may occur at any level of state is possible. In the absence of active organization including landscape, restoration, a new state is formed” community, population, or genetic level, (Stringham et al. 2003). Thresholds are and may be compositional (referring to defined in terms of the functional status the variety of elements in the system), of key ecosystem processes and are structural (referring to the organization crossed when capacities for resistance or pattern of the system), or functional and resilience are exceeded. (Also see (referring to ecological processes) state and transition.) (http://science.nature.nps.gov/im/ monitor/Glossary.cfm). Transition—as applied to state-and- transition models, a transition is a Watershed—a drainage basin, usually trajectory of change that is precipitated by described as into a river or lake. natural events and/or management actions which degrade the integrity of one or

National Park Service 125 MojaveSierra Nevada Desert NetworkNetwork

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