Journal of Planta Medicinal 1982, Vol. 46, pp. 195—209, © Hippokrates Verlag GmbH - Researchmedica

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PlantMolluscicides

H. Kloos* and F. S. McCullough**

* Department of Epidemiology and International Health. University of California, San Francisco, USA. ** Ecology and Control of Vectors, Division of Vector Biology and Control, World Health Organization, Geneva, Switzerland

Received: February 5, 1982 Accepted: May10, 1982

Key Word Index: prehensive review on plant molluscicides having yet been published, the purpose of this paper is toas- MolluscicidalPlants; Molluscicide; Snail Control;semble pertinent information and provide general Schistosomiasis; Screening Methods; Target Organ-guidelines and recommendations relevant to further isms; Toxicity Levels. research on plant molluscicides and their role in con- trol programmes.

Introduction Review National and international institutions are both Interest in plant molluscicides dates from the currently giving increasing attention to the study of 1930's when ARCHIBALD [12] and WAGNER [1311 advo- plant molluscicides in the hope that they may provecated planting the desert palm, Balanites aegyptiaca cheaper and more readily available than syntheticand B. maughamii ,alongthe water courses of the Su- chemicals.. Many developing countries are reluctantdan and southern Africa, respectively. The laborato- to embark on chemical snail control programmes,ry and field trials of these scientists indicated that the using costly synthetic compounds bought from indus-fruit which fell into the water inhibited the increase of trialized nations with scarce hard currency [28,88]. snail population density. These encouraging findings Recentrigorous legislation governing pesticide devel-prompted the introduction of B. aegyptiaca to Puerto opment und use, has tended to discourage the chem-Rico, where it was planted around a Biomphalaria ical industry from carrying out research even onglabrata infested pool with apparently beneficial re- promising synthetic compounds [137]; not surprising-sults [99]. MOZLFY [86, 87] considered this and two ly, very few candidate molluscicides are presentlyother saponin-containing , saponaria, available [80]. Whereas synthetic chemicals biode-the berries of which were widely used in Africa and grade slowly, and preliminary evidence suggests thatSouth America as a fish poison and soap, and Swart- some populations of snail hosts may have developedzia madagascariensis, a traditional African medicine resistance to them [7, 80], plant extracts are quite ra-and fish poison [131], to be among the most promis- pidly reduced to simpler substances [57, 88, 89]. So-ing of vegetable molluscicides. Using the berries of me recent studies of plant molluscicides give prelimi-S. saponaria, he controlled a population of Bulinus This document was downloaded for personal use only. Unauthorized distribution is strictly prohibited. nary indications that they may be applied effectively(Physopsis) africana in a pond in Zanzibar. In South in different habitats using techniques available in,America, preliminary studies by LUTTERMOSER [731 in and appropriate to, developing countries. Moreover,Venezuela, and by PINTOandALMEIDA [98] in Brazil, the use of indigenous, rather than imported, mate-showed that the berries of S. saponaria were lethal to rials is desirable, especially as strategies for schisto-numerous microscopic organisms, as well as to the somiasis control programmes should be based onhost snails of Schistosoma and Fasciola [129]. Syner- long-term operations. Such strategies should ideallygistic effects were found between extracts of S. sapo- employ a multiplicity of methods (including popula-naria and sodium pentachlorophenate [17, 85]. None tion chemotherapy, focal and seasonal snail host con-of these plants, nor several additional Old World fish trol, environmental and sanitation improvement andpoisons [87, 110, 126], was further exploited for the health education), rather than a singic approach. control of snails. Not until the mid-1960's was the Research on plant molluscicides has become multi-first plant ( dodecandra) used for control disciplinary and, as a consequence, the findings haveof schistosomiasis in an endemic focus, in Ethiopia been reported in a wide variety of journals. No com- [62]. 196 Kloos, McCullough Stimulated by these early studies, the search foren plant families, it was noted that the greatest pro- plants with molluscicidal potential was intensified asportion of molluscicidal plants found was in the Sola- exemplified by extensive screening and general im-naceae (8 of 14 plants tested), (both provement of methods and techniques (Table II).species), Fabaceae (3 of 15), Rubiaceae (2 of 12) and AMORINandPESSOA [10]randomlyscreened fresh ma-Euphorbiaceae (2 of 13). All 9 species of the family terial of nine plants indigenous to Alagoas State,Compositae and the 6 grasses were found to be non- Brazil. Three of the plants, Paullinia pinnata, Steno-toxic to snails. These findings reveal certain similari- lobium velutinum and Piptadenia macrocarpa, wereties and contrasts to other studies. Thus, althoughfa- found to be only mildly molluscicidal at 1000 ppm,tropha curcas had no effect on Lyrnnaea sp. in Puerto apparently due to the green state of the plants. SWVARico [82], its roots proved highly molluscicidal against et al. [117] screened another 30 species indigenous toOncomelania quadrasi in the Philippines [142], and Brazil, of which four were toxic to Biomphalaria stra-its seeds moderately so against Bulinus truncatus in minea, but only one, Agonandra brasiliensis, wasSudan [32]. Whereas Randia aculeata and Canna sp. molluscicidal at 100 ppm. Possible confinement ofwere well tolerated by Lymnaea sp., [82], the fruit the active ingredient in the bark, which regeneratesand root of R. nilotica tested by EL-KHEIR and EL- slowly, of A. brasiliensis and Brysonima sericea (otherT0HAMI [32], and Canna indica tested by MAHRAN parts of the plants were not tested) probably pre-et a!. [75], and Adewunmi and Sofowora [5], were cludes their practical use for snail control. The barkmolluscicidal. Paullinia pinnata, well tolerated by of Ziziphus undulata was found to have no effect onlymnaeid snails [82], caused 100 percent mortality in the snails, but BARBOSAandMELLO [18] reported 30 B. glabrata as a 1000 ppm water extract [10], but spe- percent mortality in Biomphalaria glabrata exposedcies of Ipornoea, Urera and Serjania were nontoxic in to a 10 ppm water extract of Z. joazeiro. In northeastboth studies. Similarly, Borreriavercillataand the Brazil several of about one hundred plants studies, two species of Annona tested by MEDINA and WooD- including Pithecellobium multiflorum and Piper tu- BURY [82] and SILvA et a!. [117], showed no mollusci— berculaturn, showed promising molluscicidal activitycidal activity at 1000 ppm. The toxicity of two species [105]. However, fish succumbed at concentrations low-of Phytolacca against Lyrnnaea spp. corroborates the er than those which killed snails [1061, and the resist-findings of several investigators [56]. ance of the plants to physiochemical stress (sunlight, Twenty-three of the 181 methanolic extracts (12.7 temperature, silt and pH) remains to be studied be-percent), representing 106 plant species used in Nige- fore their suitability can be more fully assessed. rian herbal medicine, gave 100 percent kill against MEDINA and W000BURY [82] tested 198 plants indi-Bulinus (P.) globosus [5]. They include the root of genous to Puerto Rico and two to the Dominican Re-Rauvolfia caffra, the stem and root of Bombaxcostat- public. The plants selected for screening were from urn,the fruit of Dialium guineense, the root and stem genera known to have mofluscicidal activity, plantsof Combretum spp., and the root of Terminalia mol- with medicinal or toxic effects in man or domesticus, the root of Cyrpiogonone argentea, the stem of animals, as well as some species randomly selectedAcioa emenii and A. ruatisii, the of Morinda from areas infested with lymnaeid snails. All parts oflucida and Rothrnania whitefleldii, and the leaves of the plant were tested. Thirty species were found to beXiris anceps. lethal to Lyrnnaea cubensis and L. columnella in wa- The suitability of plants having molluscicidal activ- ter extract of 1000 ppm. For further screening theseity only in the roots and stems depends primarily on plant products were oven-dried and tested in watertheir rate of growth, potency and amount of labour extracts at 25, 100, 200 and 1000 ppm. Although He-involved in digging up the roots. Plants endowed with dychiurn coronariurn yielded the most potent extract,regenerative fruiting parts and seeds, being more Solanurn nodiflorum was selected for further study,easily harvested, transported and processed, should due to the uniform distribution of the molluscicidalnormally be given preference. Nevertheless, veg- This document was downloaded for personal use only. Unauthorized distribution is strictly prohibited. principle in all parts of the plant [82, 83]. All otheretatively grown tubers may be used advantageously species exhibited great variations in potency, but thein some locales, since they may not require milling or highest toxicity levels were most often found in thestorage and can remain in the ground until used. flowers and leaves. Several species of areTheir weight and bulk, however, pose problems du- being cultivated for solasodine, a sapogenin used inring digging and transportation, as noted by TEES- the production of pharmaceutical steroids, and at-DALE [126], who field-tested the root of Neorautanenia tempts are being made to cultivate S. mammosum inpseudopachyrhizus in Kenya. Puerto Rico [128]. Solasodine and possible solamar- The most extensive plant screening programme has gine, another glycoalkaloid in the fruits of S. marn-been carried out in China, where nearly 600 indige- mosum, were significantly more toxic than the crudenous herbs were tested for snail toxicity. Fewer than aqueous and methanolic extracts [8]. Although the20 were mildly toxic in concentrations of 10.000 ppm small number of species tested by MEDINAandWooD- and lower; no plant was considered to be cost-effec- BURY [82] do not permit detailed comparisons betwe-tive for large-scale use [74]. P'ant Molluscicides 197

Some of the reported variations in toxicity betweenhave been associated with human fatalities, and Ja- plants studied by different investigators are prob-tropha spp. [86, 124] and Securidaca longepeduncula- ably due to differences in collection methods, plantta which has been used as a homicidal plant and fish varieties and ecotypes, extraction solvents and snailpoison in Angola [15]. Research on Euphorbia can- species and subspecies used. Unfortunately, exact lo-delabrum was discontinued in Ethiopia due to its to- cations of plant collection sites and maturation stagexicity in man, in spite of the fact that its latex was mol- are seldom indicated ip reports, and duplicate speci-luscicidal at 20 ppm. The seeds of the common castor mens are not always secured for deposition in her-plant, (Ricinus communis), were nonmolluscicidal baria for reference purposes. Concentration of active[22, 82]. The three furcoumarins in Ammi majus, in- substances varies not only among different plantcluding bergapten, claimed to be as active as sodium parts, but also among specimens from the same spe-pentachlorophenate (NaPCP) in Egypt, and safe for cies growing in the same areas [82]. Although manyhandling [1], are all strong dermal photosensitizers plant materials are more efficiently extracted when[111]. ripe and in powder form, higher potencies were re- The discovery of molluscicidal and snail-repellent ported for the green and semi-ripe, than for the fullyhydrophytes, and of plant wastes that are toxic to ripe berries of Phytolacca dodecandra [54,711;more-snails, has further increased the prospects of devel- over, female plants of this dicot are more toxic thanoping plant molluscicides, using simple technology. male plants [54]. Identification of plants is not alwaysAquatic plants provide support, food and shelter for complete or correct, due to failure to obtain flower-the survival and maintenance of snail intermediate ing and fruiting parts and to lack of competent planthosts. BOUSFIELD [23] found strong associations bet- taxonomists. Several investigators [32, 132], whileween rheotaxis of B. glabrata snails and various plant searching for the most potent molluscicides, failed tospecies. While extracts from Potamogeton crispus report findings on plants possessing no molluscicidaland lettuce (Lactuca sativa) ,amongother plants, at- attributes but which might be useful for comparativetracted the snails, those of Apium nodiflorum and studies, or in reducing duplication of work in anwater cress (Rorippa nasturtium aquaticum) repelled attempt to lower research costs [36]. The discoverythem. that the bark of dogwood (Cornusfiorida) is toxic to These differences were attributed to antagonistic snails [45] is of little relevance for control of snail-substances in plants which may interfere with the transmitted diseases, since this plant occurs only inchemical sensory mechanisms of snails and inhibit or the higher latitudes of North America and Eurasiareduce positive rheotaxis. This hypothesis is suppor- [100]. ted by the results of several other studies. MAHRAN Another problem in developing molluscicidaland coworkers [75] noticed a general absence both of plants is the lack of information on their toxicity tosnails and dead specimens in stretches of water cour- man, domestic animals and non-target aquatic faunases inhabited by Canna indica, which is molluscicidal. and flora, although the relatively few plant speciesIn Kenya DossAji et al. [30] noted high mortality of screened for molluscicidal activity have already beensnails in a reservoir where Polygonum senegalense studied chemically and pharmacologically [14, 44,forma senegalense was abundant. An extract of fresh 130, 133]. Croton tiglium, studied in China and in theleaves was found to be slightly molluscicidal; the chem- Philippines, has a potency against 0. quadrasi com-ical structure of the active principle, phenolic gly- parable to that of the synthetic molluscicide Baylus-coside, was studied by MARADUFU and OUMA [78]. cide®, but is hazardous for snail control due to theThe freshwater alga Chara vulgaris was associated carcinogenic effect of croton oil [24, 142]; it showswith high snail mortality in aquaria [103]. However, antileukemic activity at low dosages [25]. The seedsthe algal complex Mycrosystis farlowiana/Pseudan- of the closely related C. macrostachys, known by the abaena franqueti was molluscicidal against Lymnaea same vernacular name as C. tiglium in Sudan, and con-sp. only at high concentrations [42]. WARREN and PE- This document was downloaded for personal use only. Unauthorized distribution is strictly prohibited. sidered promising for snail control [9, 28], also needTERS [132] reported that Schistosoma mansoni cerca- to be studied for possible carcinogenicity. Anotherriae penetrated the integument of the string bean plant indigenous to the Philippines, Entada phaseo-(Phaseolus vulgaris) but not of 81 aquatic plants, one bides, was lethal against 0. quadrasi at low concen-of which, Hedychium coronarium, released a cerca- trations and was stable under various physiochemicalriacide when cut, suggesting that this and other plants stresses, but killed fish below its molluscicidal level.studied (none was listed in their report) may be mol- The relatively high doses required to obtain a satis-luscicidal as well. During another screening pro- factory molluscicidal effect in a field trial, as well asgramme 20 of 100 essential oils, containing diter- the use of its bark, mitigate against its application inpenes, sesquiterpenes and related substances, inhib- control programmes [140]. ited penetration of S. mansoni cercariae through the Other plants, whose toxicity should be studied be-skin of mice, seven of them killing all cercariae [36]. fore being subjected to intensive molluscicidal tests, Some food and fibre plants, widely cultivated and include species of the genus Derris, some of whichprocessed in the tropics and subtropics, yield waste 198 Kloos, McCullough products which are toxic to snails. The waste from si-cum annuum) [39], and of cercaricidal and mollusci- sal (A gave sisalana) ,discafdedby some factories intocidal compounds in garden flowers [43, 481 has re- rivers in Tanzania, kept large stretches of water freeceived little attention and may merit further study if from schistosome-transmitting snails, apparently as aprolonged effects can be achieved. result of oxygen depletion [891. Such pollution, how- Of the few plants that have been tested in field ever, can hardly be advocated as a method of snailtrials, Phytolacca dodecandra, known as endod in control. The presence of saponins in sisal waste,Ethiopia, where its berries are used as the major tra- which, according to this author, appear to be font-ditional laundry soap and also as a medicine [49, 53] oxic to man, seems to warrant a search for molluscici-has been studied in depth and can provide a favoura- dal activity in other plants of the Agave family. Theble model [59, 137]. Following encouraging field presence of hecogenin in the juice of sisal has led totrials in a small lake and in canals of a sugar cane increased production of this plant in Tanzania, Ken-plantation [54] crude ground endod berries in water ya and Brazil [19]. Yucca schidigera is molluscici-extract were periodically applied to the streams in dal [1041, but steroidal hecogenins in some AgaveAdwa town, northern Ethiopia, during a five-year species may have a fertility effect on snails [81, 96],schistosomiasis control programme. The decrease in and wild yucca and agave may grow too slowly forthe prevalence of S. mansoni infection in the 1—5 year large-scale use [128]. Molasses, a byproduct of sugarage group was attributed to successful snail control refining, was found to act both as a molluscicide and a[62], but other factors may have been involved. Ear- fertilizer when discharged into the irrigation systemlier laboratory studies had shown that the berries, the of a sugar estate in Tanzania [109]. In Ethiopia, how-most potent part of the plant, were highly toxic ever, concentrations of 5.000 ppm did not affectagainst all major snail hosts of Schistosoma and Fas- Biomphalaria snails in the laboratory [31]. The shellciola [16, 57, 58, 139]. The active principle of endod of the cashew nut (Anacardium occidentale), in anis several derivatives of oleanolic acid of a triterpe- hexanic extract, killed young and adult B. glabratanoid saponin [94]. Its potency is stable within a wide snails and their eggs at very low concentrations [95].range of pH, temperatures, ultraviolet radiation and The active principle is four compounds of anarcadicfollowing storage for a period of more than five ye- acid [1221, the chemical structure of which has beenars, but like most other plant and synthetic molluscic- studied by LLOYDetal. [67]. The waste of otherdes, it is absorbed in suspended matter [54, 57, 58]. plants, commonly discarded and found to kill snails,Development of a colorimetric method for quanti- such as the leaves of chili pepper (Capsicum frutes-tative assay of the active substance in treated water- cens) and tomatoes [82] may prove to be cheap andbodies may facilitate application of proper doses in readily available sources of molluscicides. different habitats [63, 66]. Like many other mollusci- In many schistosomiasis endemic areas, the leaves,cides, endod is toxic to tadpoles, schistosome cerca- fruits and nuts of trees and bushes, which have mol-riae and miracidia, fish and leeches, but in recent luscicidal properties, were widely gathered for var-field trials, tadpoles, frogs and aquatic insects were ious purposes by rural populations. For example,apparently unaffected [72]. Endod is not lethal to the the leaves of the leguminous Dichrostachys glomera-egg masses of snail hosts at molluscicidal concentra- ta, the fruits of which are eaten in tropical Africa, thetions, which is a marked disadvantage, as to provide leaves of Lophira alata, sought for the oil in its nuts,effective results "the frequency of snail operations and the leaves of Ximenia americana, a bush used formust be doubled" [801, this in turn increasing fish kill its fruit throughout tropical Africa [47], are all mol-and probably the magnitude of other ecological dis- luscicidal [5]. Leguminous trees, including species ofturbances. Its mammalian toxicity appears to be Acacia, Pithecellobium, Parkia and Prosopis are ide-comparable to many other saponin plants [41, 54, 58, al food plants in semiarid climates, due to their high77]. No permanent plant toxicity was noted during quality seed protein, drought resistance and mini-continuous application of high concentrations to lo- This document was downloaded for personal use only. Unauthorized distribution is strictly prohibited. mum cultivation requirements [38] and also exhibitcal plants grown experimentally [143], and no muta- properties toxic to snails. While the complementarygenicity was detected during a preliminary restricted use of such xerophytic trees for food and mollus-study using a bacterial plate test devided by AMES cicides should be given greater attention, trees pro- [551.To date the chronic toxicity of endod has not ducing edible parts that have also snail-killing pro-been adequately investigated [80]. perties, including the fruits of Balanites aegyptiaca The water/fermentation extraction process recent- and Tetrapleura tetraptera, are less likely to be culti-ly developed at the Institute of Phathobiology in Ad- vated primarily for snail control in areas where theydis Ababa [64] eliminates the need for elaborate ex- are a food source or considered sacred. Similarly, thetraction and drying apparatus earlier used in the more molluscicidal properties of tobacco [1021 have littleexpensive butanol extraction process, at the same practical application due to high pfoduction costs.time yielding a molluscicide with comparable poten- The study of cercaricidal essential oils in some foodcy (4 ppm) [64]. The sevenfold increase in potency of plants, including the leaves of green pepper (Capsi-the water/fermentation extract, in comparison with Plant Molluscicides 199 the crude berries, may, once large-scale cultivation250 kg of Bayluscide® were applied experimentally of endod takes place, reduce its cost for snail con-over part of that farm at a cost of nearly US $4000 trol to a level where it could become competitive with[31]. Failure to treat other irrigation schemes reflects Bayluscide®, at present the only synthetic mollusci-prevailing health policy priorities and the poor econ- cide in use [801. During the schistosomiasis controlomy of Ethiopia. These constraints may well curtail project in Adwa, crude endod berries were bought infurther research on several other potential plant mol- local markets, no comparative cost estimates wereluscicides in that country, including the leaves of Ses- made, but the cost of the programme was US $0.03bania sesban [127], and the leaves and stems of Withania per head of the population [621. The cultivation of se-somnifera, a household medicine [49] which also con- lected strains with berries that are molluscicidal at 5tains an antitumor and antiarthritic steroid lactone ppm may permit their application without extraction[40]. The occurrence of P. dodecandra throughout in the future. LUGT[68]estimated that 1.0—L5 ha ofAfrica [133], and of several other species of Phytolac- P. dodecandra selected types are sufficient to treatca in Central and and Asia [29, 52, 10.000 ha of irrigated sugar cane. In recent field95], may stimulate further studies on the byproducts trials, involving the use of high potency strains, onlyof species and strains of this genus. 2.2—3.5 kg crude endod powder were required to The annual herb Ambrosia maritima is known un- treat effectively 300 metre stretches of two smallder the vernacular name damsissa in Egypt, where it Ethiopian streams per application [72]. occurs throughout the Nile valley and delta [123]. The use of the water/fermentation extraction pro-This plant has been studied at Alexandria University cess for other purpose is being investigated, and stu-for more than 25 years for use in community-level dies are underway to develop methods to extract se-snail control programmes. Its flowering parts and condary constituents of the endod berries for use inleaves are moderately molluscicidal, and alcoholic various products. These may include antifertility andextracts do not increase potency [113, 114]. The ex- contraceptive agents [121], antiviral, antibacterial,tracted active substances damsin, ambrosin and tn- antifungal and antihelminthic compounds [60, 1381,bromo-damsin [3] proved to be highly molluscicidal. unsecticides and larvicides against houseflies andDamsissa is non-toxic to cattle and sheep, which species of Simulium, the vector of river blindness,commonly graze on this plant, to fish and apparently and Anopheles mosquitoes [13, 61, 119], industrialto man, who traditionally used concoctions and infu- detergents, drying regulators in cement and anti-sions from the flowering parts as an antispasmodic in cholesterol medicines [76, 92]. Such additional usescolics, as a diuretic [113], and as a remedy for haema- may solve the problem of the low and seasonal de-tuna in Schistosoma haematobium infection [51]. In mand for endod as a molluscicide. field trials, significant reductions in snail populations Apart from the unresolved reservations concern-were achieved when whole damsissa plants were ing the chronic toxicity of endod to non-target organ-placed into canals [115], and also by growing the plant isms, including man, a major constraint in the wideon canal banks where the fluctuating water leached use of the berries of this plant in snail control pro-out the active principle from the flowering parts and grammes has been failure to grow P. dodecandra onleaves [34]. This method of natural control resembles a large scale until the late 1970's, due mainly to thethat earlier advocated by ARCHIBALD [12], WAGNER low demand for molluscicides in Ethiopia, as well as[131] and ANANTARAMAN [11], who proposed that fruit insufficient knowledge of its growth requirements inand leaves with molluscicidal properties, falling from different soils and climates, and its susceptibility totrees planted along water courses, might control snail pests. Several species of insects attack the leaves andhost populations. In spite of this desirable feature of shoots, and nematodes the roots [72, 125]. After ob-damsissa, and the fact that its flowering period coin- taining promising results, LUGT [72] recommendedcides with the seasonal peak of schistosomiasis trans- the cultivation of insect-resistant strains of endod. Inmission in Egypt, there are serious constraints, most- This document was downloaded for personal use only. Unauthorized distribution is strictly prohibited. Ethiopia the endod bush grows naturally only in thely associated with ecological pressures, which curtail cool, humid highlands above ca. 1500 m, and hasits usefulness. In addition to growing poorly along only recently been planted for field trials in the hot,drainage canals due ot its poor adaption to saline soils arid lowlands, where schistosomiasis is most preva-[34], it is damaged by grazing livestock and its habitat lent [50]. Whereas technical problems ofendodculti-has been drastically reduced since the end of the an- vation may be largely solved through selection andnual Nile flood [33, 120]. Moreover, this small, pros- breeding of hardy and disease-resistand varieties, andtrate plant is commonly destroyed during mandatory by proper crop management [72, 84], the question ofcanal cleaning operations. Damsissa has not been low demand for molluscicides in Ethiopia is more se-grown in sufficient quantities for self-reliant commu- rious. Regular application of molluscicides in Ethio-nity snail control programmes and, as already men- pia is presently confined to the Wonji-Shoa sugartioned, the great land pressure in Egypt would tend cane irrigation scheme, the only farm where endod isto prohibit its cultivation in plots. The relatively low grown on a large scale. In 1970, 1301 of Frescon® andmolluscicidal activity of the water extracts, the high 200 Kloos, McCullough cost of extracting the active principle, their instabilitywas well tolerated by monkeys [126]. This author under simulated field conditions [116] and, not least,suggested that the plant be cultivated near snail habi- the widespread occurrence of host snails in the exten-tats to minimize transport of the heavy and bulky sive irrigation networks of Egypt further diminish itsroots, the major disadvantage associated with its use. usefulness in snail control. The recent discovery of In Nigeria encouraging results were obtained with saponin plants in Egypt [2, 111], the use of naturalthe aqueous and methanolic extracts of Tetrapleura products with molluscicidal properties by Egypt'stetraptera. In a schistosomiasis control project at Fa- pharmaceutical industry [136], and the presence ofsina and Abun-Abon the methanolic extract was sta- several well stocked herbaria in Cairo may encourageble under field conditions and had little mammalian the search for other, more suitable plants. toxicity and no phytotoxicity [6]. Another Nigerian The seeds of Crown macrostachys, used as a pur-medicinal plant of the Mimosa family, Calliandra gative and antihelminthic in Sudan, where it is knownportoricensis, was highly piscicidal [4]. as habat-el-mollok, were recently screened for mol- The seeds of the Brazilian leguminous tree, Pithe- luscicidal activity by DAFFALA and AMIN [28]. The re-cellobium multifiorum, are highly active against sults of the comparative laboratory tests show thatBiomphalaria adults and eggs [106, 107]; they may be habat-el-mollok seeds are more toxic than crude en-another promising plant molluscicide and should be dod berries. Molluscicidal potency of the water ex-field tested. tract was not affected by pH 4—10 or by storage for six days; it increased with temperature, but rapidly declined with increasing turbidity. Several species ofSummaryand Conclusions fish were killed at molluscicidal concentrations, but its mammalian toxicity was acceptable and no phyto- Researchon plant molluscicides is gaining support toxicity was detected. Field application of the waterat a time of slow growth in synthetic molluscicides. extract at 2 ppm controlled snails in a stagnant canalDuring the past 50 years, more than 1000 plant spe- for three months. Aquatic plants and most faunacies have been screened, most of them superficially, were not affected. The use of only six kilos of the seedfor molluscicidal activity. The richness of the flora in for treatment of 3000 m3 of canal water [28] comparesmost areas where snail-transmitted diseases are en- favorably with endod ,butin a laboratory experimentdemic, suggests that many plants with molluscicidal by LUGT [721 in which C. macrostachys seeds fromproperties remain to be discovered. The recently de- Khartoum markets were used, no molluscicidal acti-veloped computerized information system NAPRA- vity was observed. Preliminary studies of its chemistryLERT (Natural Products Alert), designed to bring show that saponins constitute the active substance,together the world literature with regard to plant, but the presence of alkaloids [28] requires that theanimal, microbial and marine organisms, represents seeds be further studied for non-target toxicity. Thisa valuable aid in the search for molluscicidal plants. is all the more necessary as Sudanese people considerThis system, supported by the World Health Organi- habat-el-mollok to be highly toxic to humans, and be-zation, provides ethnomedical information, biologi- cause the related C. tiglium, also known under thiscal data for extracts and the isolation or identification vernacular name in Sudan [28], is carcinogenic. of secondary constituents with their appropriate liter- The low molluscicidal potency of the fruit of Sapin-ature citations [37]. Botanical descriptions in herb- dus saponaria, which required the application of 1 kgals and herbaria and anthropological accounts of of fruit per m3 of water in a pond in Zanzibar [881,plant use [112] as well as herbalists [5] and market tends to limit its use to small waterbodies, many ofsurveys [32, 49], can provide additional leads. which may be important schistosomiasis transmission The desirable characteristics of plant molluscicides sites in certain areas of East Africa [79]. Scarcity ofare listed in Table I. Several promising plants have this plant in endemic areas will require that it be plan-already been identified. Endod (Phytolacca dode- This document was downloaded for personal use only. Unauthorized distribution is strictly prohibited. ted near snail habitats, if only to minimize transportcandra), in particular, compares fairly well with the costs. major synthetic molluscicides in terms of potency, PEIRERA et al. [97] studied the stem of Euphorbiaand has the advantage of yielding other products of cotonifolia, an ornamental plant in Brazil. The frac-pharmaceutical and industrial interest. However, its tioned hexanic extract was highly toxic to Biompha-chronic toxicity is unknown and its use under most lana glabrata and its eggs in the field, but killed fish atfield conditions is, therefore, precluded. lower dosage levels. The use of plant molluscicides may not only elimi- The tuberous root of Neorautanenia pseudopa-nate the expense of importing costly synthetic mollus- chyrhizus, a common herbaceous plant on the Eastcicides, but could also stimulate growth of small-scale African coast, was found to cause more than 50 per-industries in developing countries. More emphasis, cent mortality in Bulinus (P.) globosus when appliedhowever, must be placed even from the beginning on in a pooi in Kenya at a concentration of about 500agronomic and organizational aspects, including ppm. At that concentration it was not piscicidal andcommunity participation, if plant molluscicides are Plant Molluscicides 201

Table / nicians of central governments and international orga- Desirable characteristics of molluscicidal plants nizations. The very nature of natural products, pro- cessed and applied in the country of origin, makes Toxicity High toxicity against target organisms; it imperative that governments, research institutes low or no toxicity against non-target organisms at and rural communities undertake collaborative pro- molluscicidal concentrations. grammes designed to screen, cultivate, apply and moni- Supply Readily available locally tor effects of carefully selected plant products. Costs Yield High yield of molluscicidal material per plant and will be highest during the initial development phases, per unit area of cultivated land. but use of local labour for cultivating, harvesting, pro- Typeofplant Perennial rather than annual; reproduce by seeds cessing and applying plant molluscicides, reduced rather than by tubers; drought resistant for use in transportation costs and new methods of screening and arid areas; semiaquatic or aquatic for use directly extracting active compounds, can make them more in snail habitats; high propagation and rapid growth cost-effective. The extensive knowledge most rural rates with minimum capital and labour input; high people have of local plants with toxic and medicinal adaptability to differing local environmental condi- properties, together with new information on chemo- tions; high resistance to pests, weeds etc. , will permit focused screening of those Plant parts Localization of high potency levels in regenerating families and genera that are most likely to contain parts (berries, fruits, flowers, nuts, deciduous species suitable for effective snail control. leaves) or vegetatively planted tubers. Although several research programmes have suc- Storage Molluscicidal material of seasonally producing cessfully tested plant materials, using techniques plants should not lose potency during storage of at commonly used in phytochemical and pharmacologi- least one year. cal studies, more effective exchange of information is Extraction Active principle should be extractable by simple needed do develop specific research methodologies apparatus and commonly available solvents, pre- and snail control strategies. It is clear that more inte- ferably water grated laboratory and field trials, including acute and chronic toxicity studies, the evaluation of plants for Physio- Retention of molluscicidal potency under physlo- chemical chemical influences (pH, sunlight, temperatures, cultivation under diverse local conditions, and their stability silt, organic matter, water pollution) normally found suitability for exploitation by intermediate technolo- in the endemic area during the annual cycle. gies, are urgently needed. Perhaps there is need to emphasize that the meth- Knowledge ofA good knowledge of growing habits and require- plants in ments, toxicity and any medicinal properties of ods used for biological and chemical screening of endemic areaplants by local people, is an asset. plants have lacked standardization. Many have been Cultural Absence of spiritual and ceremonial uses of plants inadequate, contributing to unexplained variations acceptability and aversions based on folklore and magic, which in results reported by different scientists in respect to might interfere with their use for snail control, is the same plant species, and consequently impeding desirable. efforts to assess their true impact on ecosystems. Screening and evaluation methods developed by the Additional Suitability of the same plant parts for other public health, local, domestic or industrial uses. World Health Organization [134, 135] should be uses used. In future, more attention must be paid to the devel- tobeappliedsuccessfully in long-term and self-sus-opment of simple, cheap and efficient extraction and tained snail control programmes. application techniques amenable for use in rural com- Major constraints presently limiting the use ofmunities. With community development and appro- plant molluscicides are lack of adequate informationpriate technology becoming an important element in

on their cost-effectiveness and chronic toxicity, andrevised national socio-economic planning, many en- This document was downloaded for personal use only. Unauthorized distribution is strictly prohibited. difficulties of developing viable snail control pro-demic countries can now support, with justification, grammes in rural areas using local resources. Snailthe development and evaluation of plant mollusci- control has traditionally been carried out, using im-cides as a new tool in the implementation of internally ported synthetic chemicals, with minimum or no in-directed and properly sustained health improvement volvement of local people, by health officials and tech-campaigns. 202 Kloos, McCullough

Table II Summary of toxicity studies

Plantspecies, Partstested Concentration Mortality Targetspecies Othereffects Refer- byfamily (extract*) tested (%) ences (time of exposure)

AGAVACEAE Agave sisalana (W) 5000 ppm (24 hr) 90 B. (P.) globosus Destroys most 91 aquatic fauna and flora ALPINACEAE Hedychium coronarium Seeds (W) 25 ppm (24 hr) 100 Lymnaea cubensis Cercaricidal 82, 132 L. co/umella ANACARDIACEAE Anacardium occidentalo Shell (SM) 0,35 ppm (24 hr) 50 Adult B. glabrata Not studied 122 Anacardium occidentale Shell (H) 0.6 ppm (24 hr) 50 Adult B. glabrata No toxicity in mice 95 Anacardium occidentale Shell (H) 1.4 ppm (24 hr) 50 Newly hatched Not studied 95 B. g/abrata Anacardium occidentale Shell (H) 18 ppm (24 hr) 50 B. glabrata eggs Not studied 95 Anacardiumoccidentale Shell (H) 1 ppm(1 hr) 50 S. mansonicercariae Not studied 95 Anacardium occidentale Shell (H) 3 ppm (24 hr) 20 Fish (Lebistes Not studied 95 reticu/atus) ANNONACEAE Annona senega/ensis Stem (M) 100 ppm (24 hr) 85 B. globosus Not studied 5 APOCYNACEAE Rauvolfia caifra Root (M) 100 ppm (24 hr) 100 B. globosus Not studied 5 ASCLEPIADACEAE Cryptostegia grandiflora Stem (M) 100 ppm (24 hr) 100 B. globosus Not studied 5 BOMBACEAE Bombaxcostatum Root, stem (M) 100 ppm (24 hr) 100 B. globosus Not studied 5 CAESALPINIACEAE Dalium guineense Fruit (M) 100 ppm (24 hr) 100 B. globosus Not studied 5 CANNACEAE Canna indies Whole plant (W) 820 ppm (24 hr) 98 B. alexandrina Not studied 75 Canna indies Whole plant (Er) 170 ppm (24 hr) 98 B. alexandrina Not studied 75 Canna md/ca Root, leaves (M) 100 ppm (24 hr) 5—10 B. (P.) giobosus Not studied 5 CHARACACEAE Chara vulgaris Whole plant Plants in aquaria 100 B. glabrata Not studied 103 (in aquaria) COMBRETACEAE Combretum spp. Stem, root (M) 100 ppm (24 hr) 100 B. globosus Not studied 5 Terminalis mo//is Root (M) 100 ppm (24 hr) 100 B. g/obosus Not studied 5 COMPOSITAE Ambrosia maritima Flowers, 1000 ppm (12,24 hr) 30, 100 Bulinus sp. No effect on 113 leaves (W) Ti/apia nhlotica, and Anophe/es and Cu/ex larvae Ambrosia maritima Flowers, leaves 2000 ppm (24 hr) 0 Biompha/aria sp. Not studied 113, 114 This document was downloaded for personal use only. Unauthorized distribution is strictly prohibited. (hot A) Ambrosia maritima Flowers, leaves 1000 ppm (48 hr) 100 S. haematobium eggs Not studied 113, 114 (W) Ambrosia maritima Flowers, leaves 1000 ppm (30 mm) 100 (?) S. haematobium Not studied 113, 114 (W) miracidia and cercariae Ambrosia maritima Damsin, ambrosin 9.7—14.5(24 hr) 90 8. a/exandrina, Not studied 116 and tribromo B. truncatus damsin (S,A,C,E) Ambrosia maritima Flowers, leaves Approx. 70 ppm (?) Reduction B. alexandrina No fish toxicity 115, 34 (W, field trial) in snails for B. truncatus noted 7 weeks. CORNACEAE Cornus florida Bark (M) 100 ppm (24 hr) ,,Mollusci- B. g/abrata Not studied 45 cidal" Plant Molluscicides 203 Table! Cant.

Plantspecies, Partstested Concentration Mortality Targetspecies Othereffects Refer- byfamily (extract*) tested (%) ences (time of exposure)

CUCURBITACEAE Luffa operculata Fruit (W) 1000 ppm (24 hr) 60 B. stramina Not studied 117 EUPHORBIACEAE Bridelia adroviridis Stem (M) 100 ppm (24 hr) 100 B. g!obosus Not studied 5 Crotor, macrostachys Seeds (W) 1.0 ppm (24 hr) 90 B. truncatus, Not studied 28 Lymnaea sp. Croton macrostachys Seeds (W) 20 ppm (24 hr) 90 B. pfeifferi Not studied 28 Croton macrostachys Seeds (W) 50 ppm (24 hr) 90 B. glabrata Not studied 28 Crotonmacrostachys Seeds(W) 20 ppm (?) 100(?) Eggs of B. pfeifferi Notstudied 28 (late stage) Croton macrostachys Seeds (W) 1000 ppm (8 hr) No effect Cercariae and Not studied 28 miracidia of S. mansoni and S. haematobium Croton macrostachys Seeds (W) 45 ppm (24 hr) 50 Ti!apia nilotica Not studied 28 Croton macrostachys Seeds (W) 20 ppm (24 hr) 50 Gambusia affinis Not studied 28 Croton macrostachys Seeds (W) 1 ppm (24 hr) 50 Rat (Arvicanthis Not studied 28 nhloticus) Crotonmacrostachys Seeds 2ppm (24hr) Snails B. truncatus Several species 28 (W,field trial) controlled fish killed; 28 for 3 no phytotoxicity months noted Croton tiglium Seeds (W) 0.7 ppm (48 hr) 50 0. quadrasi Skin irritant in 141 paste form Croton tig!ium Seeds (W) 0.007 ppm (48 hr) 50 Fish (Oryzias !atipes) 141 Croton tig!ium Seeds (Er) 0.09—1.0(48 hr) 50 0. quadrasi Not studied 141 Croton tiglium Seeds 4 g/m2 (?) 90 + 0. quadrasi Not studied 141 (W, field trial) Crotontig!ium Seeds(W) 1.6g/kgof 50 Mice Notstudied 141 body weight (?) Cyrptogonone argentea Root (M) 100 ppm (24 hr) 100 B. globosus Not studied 5 Euphorbia cotonifolia Leaves (H) 1.2—3.4 ppm (24 hr) 90 Adult B. g!abrata Not studied 97 Euphorbia cotonifolia Leaves (H) 4.8—8.0 ppm (24 hr) 90 Newly hatched Not studied 97 B. glabrata Euphorbia cotonifolia Leaves (H) 13—48 ppm (24 hr) 90 B. g!abrata eggs Not studied 97 Euphorbia cotonifolia Leaves (H) 6 glkg of No effects Mice Not studied 97 body weight Euphorbia cotonifolia Leaves (H) 2.5 ppm (24 hr) 100 Fish Not studied 97 (Lebistes reticulatus) Euphorbia cotonifolia Leaves (H) 9.6 ppm (24 hr) 100 S. mansoni cercariae Not studied 97 Euphorbia !actea ? (E) 2.4 ppm (?) 50 B. alexandrina Not studied 2 Euphorbia lactea ? (B) 9.8 ppm (?) 50 B. alexandrina Not studied 2 Euphorbia !actea ? (P) 5 ppm (?) 50 B. alexandrina Not studied 2 Euphorbia !actea ? (Er) 4 ppm (?) 50 B. glabrata Not studied 2 Euphorbia lactea ? (Be) 4.8 ppm (?) 50 B. a!exandrina Not studied 2 This document was downloaded for personal use only. Unauthorized distribution is strictly prohibited. Jatropha curcas All parts (W) 1000 ppm (24 hr) No effects Lymnaea cubensis Not studied 82 142 Jatropha curcas Seeds (W) 27.5—48.5(48 hr) 90 0. quadrasi Not studied Jatropha curcas Seeds (M) 6.7 ppm (48 hr) 50 0. quadrasi Not studied 142 Jatroplia curcas Seeds (B) 45 ppm (48 hr) 50 0. quadrasi Not studied 142 142 Jatropha curcas Seeds (C) 65 ppm (48 hr) 50 0. quadrasi Not studied 142 Jatropha curcas Seeds (Be) 40 ppm (48 hr) 50 0. quadrasi Not studied 142 Jatropha curcas Seeds (W) log/kg of body No effects Mice Not studied weight (one dose) 32 Jatropha curcas Root (W) 160(24 hr) 50 B. truncatus Not studied 32 Jatropha curcas Root (A) 100(24 hr) 100 B. truncatus Not studied 142 Jatropha curcas Seeds(W) 4 g/m (2 weeks) 90 + 0. quadrasi Not studied field trial) LEGIJMINOSAE Derris el/hp! ica Root (W) 20 ppm (24 hr) 100 B. (P.) globosus Not studied 86 140 Entadaphaseoloides Bark(B) 3.6, 5.8(48hr) 100 0. quadrasi Notstudied 204 Kloos, McCullough Table! Con!. Plant species, Parts tested Concentration Mortality Target species Other effects Refer- by family (extract*) tested (%) ences (time of exposure)

Entada phaseoloides Bark, (E, B, EA, W)500 +(48hr) 50 0. quadrasi Not studied 140 Entada phaseoloides Bark (B) 1.3 (48 hr) 50 Fish (O,yzias latipes)Not studied 140 Entada phaseoloides Bark (B, 40 g/m2 (1 week) 22—50 0. quadrasi Not studied 140 field trial) Neorautenenia pseudopachyrhizus Root (W) 500 ppm (24 hr) 100 B. (P.) globosus Not studied 126 Neorautenenia Root (W, 73.5 lbs/ pseudopachyrhizus field trial) 2350 m3 of water 50 B. (P.) globosus Not studied 126 Piptadenia macrocarpa Bark (W) 1000 ppm (24 hr) 100 B. glabrata Not studied 10 Pithecdllobium multiflorum Seeds (W) 100 ppm (24 hr) 90 B. stramina Not studied 106 Stenolobium velutinum Bark, leaves (W) 1000 ppm (24 hr) 100 B. glabrata Not studied 10 Stenolobium velutinum Branches, 1000 ppm (72 hr) 100 B. stramina Not studied 10 fruit (W) MALPIGUACEAE Brysonima sericeae Bark (W) 1000 ppm (8 hr) 100 B. stramina Not studied 117 MIMOSACEAE Acacia dudgeoni Leaves (M) 100 ppm (24 hr) 100 B. globosus Not studied 5 Calliandraportoricensis Root (M) 20 ppm (24 hr) 100 B. globosus Not studied 5 DistrochachysgiomerataLeaves (M) 100 ppm (24 hr) 100 B. globosus Not studied 5 Tetrap!eura tetraptera Fruit (M) 1—3 ppm (24 hr) ,,mollusci-B. globosus Not studied 6 cidal" Tetrapleura tetraptera Fruit (W) 10 ppm (?) ,,mollusci-B. globosus, Low mammalian 6 cidal" Lanistes sp., toxicity and B. forskalii no phytotoxicity OCHNACEAE Lophira alata Leaves (M) 100 ppm (24 hr) 100 B. globosus Not studied 5 OLACACEAE Ximenia americana Leaves (M) 100 ppm (24 hr) 100 B. g!obosus Not studied 5 OPILIACEAE Agonandra brasiliensis Bark (W) 1000 ppm (2 hr) 100 B. St ram/na Not studied 117 Agonandra bras/liens/s Bark, root (A) 100 ppm (24 hr) No effect B. stramina Not studied 117 PHYTOLACCACEAE Phytolacca dodecandra Berries 18—29 ppm (24 hr) 90 B. truncatus sericinus, Not studied 54, 58 (dry fruit) (W) B. pfeifferi, L. natalensis, Not studied 54,58 Phyto!acca dodecandra Berries (B) 100 ppm (24 hr) No effectEggs of Bulinus sp. Not studied 57 Phytolacca dodecandra Berries (B) 100 ppm (24 hr) No effectEggs of B. glabrata Not studied 57 Phytolacca dodecandra Berries (B) 100 ppm (24 hr) active Eggs of Lymnaea sp. Not studied 57 Phytolacca dodecandra Berries (W) 2 g/kg of No effectsSheep, dogs Not studied 77 body weight (?) Phytolacca dodecandra Berries (W) 3—10 ppm (24 hr) 90 Tilapia n/lot/ca Not studied 41 Phytolacca dodecandra Berries (W) 11 ppm (24 hr) 90 Small Barbus sp. Not studied 41 (catfish) Phyto!acca dodecandra Berries (W) 19 ppm (24 hr) 90 Small Gyp rinus carpio Not studied 41

(carp), tadpoles This document was downloaded for personal use only. Unauthorized distribution is strictly prohibited. Phytolacca dodecandra Berries (W) 6 ppm (24 hr) Lymnatis nilotica Not studied 41 (leech) Phytolacca dodecandra Berries (W) 54—110 ppm (24 hr)90 Zoo- and phyto- Not studied 41 plankton (8 species) Phytolacca dodecandra Berries (W) 11—68 ppm (24 hr) 90 Anopheles larvae Not studied 41,61 Phytolacca dodecandra Berries (W) 25 ppm (24 hr) 90 Simulium larvae Not studied 13 Phytolacca dodecandra Berries (B) 1—80 ppm (24 hr) 90 Aedes aegyti Not studied 119 Anopheles sp., Cu/ox pipiens Phyto/acca dodecandra Berries (B) n (24 hr) 90 B. glabrata Not studied 58 Phytolacca dodecandra Berries (B) 3.2 ppm (24 hr) 90 B. alexandrina Not studied 58 Phytolacca dodecandra Berries (B) 2.8 ppm (24 hr) 90 B. truncatus Not studied 58 Phytolacca dodecandra Berries (B?) 4.6 ppm (48 hr) 90 0. nosophora Not studied 139 Phytolacca dodecandra Berries (B) 3.9 ppm (24 hr) 90 B. (P.) nasatus Not studied 16 Phytolacca dodocandra Berries (B) 5.2 ppm (24 hr) 90 B. pfeifferi Not studied 16 Plant Molluscicides 205 Table! Con!.

Plantspecies, Partstested Concentration MortalityTargetspecies Othereffects Refer- by family (extract*) tested (%) ences (time of exposure)

Phytolacca dodecandra Berries (B) 5.9ppm(24hr) 90 B. choanomphala Not studied 16 Phytolacca dodecandra Berries (water/ 4ppm(24hr) 100 B. glabrata Not studied 64 fermentation) Phytolacca dodecandra Berries (W, 50—100 ppm Most B. truncatus sericinus, Not studied 54 field trial) (3—6 hr) snails B. pfeifferi killed Phytolacca dodecandra Berries (W, 80— 100 ppm Elimination B. pfeifferi Reduction inthe 62 field trial) (6—8hr) of S. Lymnaeasp. incidence of mansoni S. mansoniinfec- infected tions, in 1—6 yr. old B. pfeifferi children from for 7 weeks 50%—15%;small fish, leeches, tadpoles killed Phytolacca isocandra Fruit (W) 200 ppm (24 hr) 100 Lymnaea cubensis, Not studied 82 L. columella Phytolacca rivinoides Fruit (W) 200 ppm (24 hr) 100 L. cubensis, L. colume/la PIPERACEAE Piper tuberculatum Rootbark 10 ppm (24 hr) ,,mollusci- B. glabrata Not studied 105 cidal" POLYGALACEAE Securidaca Root (W) 350 ppm (24 hr) 100 Taphia (sic) glabrata Not studied 15 longepedunculata POLYGONACEAE Polygonum senegalense Leaves (W) 5000 ppm (24 hr) ,,mollusci- B. pfeifferi Not studied 30 dal" L. natalensis Polygonum senegalense Seeds, leaves (E) 25 ppm (8 hr) 100 B. pfeifferi, Not studied 30 B. sudanica RHAMNACEAE Maesopsis emenhi Root (M) lOOppm(24hr) 100 B. globosus Not studied 5 ROSACEAE Acioa spp. Stem (M) lOOppm(24hr) 100 B. globosus Not studied 5 RUBIACEAE Morinda lucida Leaves(M) lOOppm(24hr) 100 B. globosus Not studied 5 Randia nilotica Fruit(S:P,E) 60ppm(24hr) 100 B. pfeifferi Not studied 32 2oppm(24hr) 100 B. truncatus Randia niotica Rootbark(S:P,E) 8oppm(24hr) 100 B. pfeifferi Not studied 32 Randia niotica Fruit (W) 40 ppm (24 hr) 50 B. truncatus Not studied 32 B. pfeifferi Randia nilotica Root bark (W) 40 ppm (24 hr) 100 B. truncatus Not studied 32 B. pfeifferi Rothmanja white fieldii Leaves, stem (M) 100 ppm (24 hr) 100 B. globosus Not studied 5 SAPINDACEAE 100 Not studied 10 Paulliniapinnata Bark, leaves (W) 1000 ppm (24 hr) B. glabrata This document was downloaded for personal use only. Unauthorized distribution is strictly prohibited. Paullinia pinnata All parts (W) 1000 ppm (24 hr) No effectL. cubensis, Not studied 82 L. columella Sapindus saponaria Berries (W) lOOppm(4Ohr) 100 B. (P.) globosa Not studied 86 Sapindus saponaria Berries (W) lSOppm(24hr) 100 B. (P.) globosa Not studied 86 Sapindus saponaria Berries 25 ppm (6 hr) 94 B. glabrata, Not studied 129 (hotW, A) L. cubensis Sapindussaponaria Berries (hot W, A) 25 ppm (6 hr) 100 17 species of Protozoa Not studied 129 Sapiridus saponaria Berries (hot W, A) 25 ppm (6 hr) 60—100 3 species of Crustacea Not studied 129 Sapindussaponaria Berries (hot, W, A) 25 ppm (6 hr) No effects Anopheles sp., Not studied 129 Cu/exsp.,llother insect species Sapindus saponaria Berries 40—50 ppm (6 hr) Lethal Fish (Lebistes ret/cu/a- Not studied 129 (hot W, A) tus, Rivulus bondi) 129 Sapindus saponaria Berries (W) 6.6 g/kg of No effects Mice body weight 206 Kloos,McCullough Table! Cont.

Plantspecies, Partstested Concentration MortalityTargetspecies Othereffects Refer- byfarnily (extract*) tested (%) ences (time of exposure)

Sapindus saponaria Berries (W) 500 ppm (24 hr) 100 B. (P.) africanus Not studied 88 Sapindus saponaria Berries (W, 1 kg fruit pulp/rn3 Snail B. (P.) africanus Not studied 88 field trial) water reduction for 10 days Solanum nodiflorum All parts (W) 100 ppm (24 hr) 100 L. cubensis, Not studied 82 L. columella Solanum nodiflorum Roots, leaves (W) 50 ppm (24 hr) 100 L. columella Not studied 83 Solanum nodiflorum Roots, leaves (W) 100 ppm (24 hr) 100 B. glabrata Not studied 83 Solanum nodiflorum Roots, leaves (W) 100 ppm (24 hr) 100 L. cubensis Not studied 83 Solanum nodiflorum Roots, leaves (W) 100 ppm (24 hr) 85 Physa cubensis Not studied 83 Solanum nodiflorum Roots, leaves (W) 100 ppm (24 hr) No effectMarisa cornuarietis, Not studied 83 Tarebia granifera Solanum mammosum Fruits (M) 25 ppm (24 hr) 95 L. cubensis Not studied 8 STYRAXAXEAE Styraxofficinalis Fruit (?) 100 ppm (24 hr) 100 Bulinus sp. Not studied 110 UMBELLIFERAE Amnimajus 2 ppm (?) 9—69 Biomphalaria sp. Not studied 118 VERBENACEAE Vitex oxycuspis Stem (M) 100 ppm (24 hr) 100 B. globosus Not studied 5 XYRYDACEAE Xiris anceps Leaves (M) 100 ppm (24 hr) 100 B. globosus Not studied 5 ZYGOPHYLLACEAE Balanites aegyptiaca Fruit (W) 5.2 g/30 liters of 100 Bulinusplanorbis Kills fish, 12 water(l2hr) (sic) tadpoles Balanites aegyptiaca Fruit (W) 5.2 g/30 liters of 100 (?) S. haematobium Not studied 12 water(1 hrorless) cercariae Balanites aegyptiaca Fruit (W) 1:860(48 hr) 100 B. glabrata (?) Not studied 99 Balanitesaegyptiaca Bark (W) 1:2600(1 week) 100 B. glabrata (?) Not studied 99 Balanites aegyptiaca Fruit (W, Fruits dropped 15—75 B. glabrata (?) Low fish toxicity 99 field trial) from trees (?) Balanites aegyptiaca Fruit (M) 100 ppm (24 hr) 100 B. globosus Not studied 5 Balanitesmaughamii Fruit(W) 1 fruit/l00000ccMollusci-B. (P.)africanus, Killscercariae, 131 of water (24 hr) cidal L. natalensis tadpoles, mosquito larvae

*A = alcohol" C = chloroform Er = ether P = petroleum B = butanol E = ethanol H = hexane W = water Be = benzene EA = ethyl-acetate M = methanol S = successive extractions

Marquis: Laboratory and field cal study on certain mouse tissues Acknowledgement trails of the molluseicidal property after 'Bayluscide administration, of Calliandra portoricensis (Jacq) Proceedings of the Tenth Interna- The authors are indebted toMrs.Diana KLoos and Miss Anne benth., Proceedings of the Tenth tional Congress of Tropical Medici- JURYfortheir secretarial assistance and to many colleaques for International Congress of Tropical ne and Malaria, p. 355 (1980). This document was downloaded for personal use only. Unauthorized distribution is strictly prohibited. their help in diverse ways in the preparation of the manuscript; our Medicine and Malaria, p. 354 (8) Alzérreca. A., B. Arboleta and special thanks are extended to Dr. Freddy R. MEDINA. (1980). G. Hart: Molluscicidal activity of (5) Adewunmi, C. 0. and E. A. natural products. The effect of So- Sofowora: Preliminary screening of lanum glycosidic alkaloids on Lym- some plant extracts for molluscici- naea cubensis snails, J. Agnic. Univ. dal activity, Planta Medica, Journal Puerto Rico, 57,69(1981). References of Medicinal Plant Research, 39,57 (9) Amin, M. A., A. A. Daffala (1980). and 0. A. El Moneim: Preliminary (1) Abdulla,W.A.,H. Kadry,S. lacta, Proceedings of the Tenth (6) Adewunmi, C. 0., S. K. Ade- report on the molluscicidal proper- G.Mahran, 13. H.El-Razikyand S. International Congress of Tropical sina and V. 0. Marquis: On the la- ties of hahat-el-mollok, Jatropha El-Nakib: Preliminary studies on Medicine and Malaria, p. 360 boratory and field evaluation of the sp., Trans. Roy. Soc. Med. Hyg., the anti-schistosomal effect of Am- (1980). molluscicidal properties of Tetra- 66, 805 (1972). ml majus, L. Egyptian Journal of (3) Abu-Shady, H. and T. 0. Some: pleura tetraptera, Proceedings of (10) Amorin, J. P. and S. B. Pes- Bilharziasis, 4, 19(1977). The chemistry of Ambrosia man- the Tenth International Congress soa: Experiencia de alguns vegetais (2) Abou El-Hassan, A. A., H. A. tima, L. I. Journal of the Ameri- of Tropical Medicine and Malaria, como moluscocida, Revista Brasi- Shoeb, A. S. Rafwan, M. A. El- can Pharmaceutical Association, p. 354 (1980). leira de Malariologia e Doencas Eman and S. M. El-Amin: The mol- 42. 387 (1953). (7) Al-Azzawil, H. T. and H. B. tropicais, 14, 254 (1962). luscicidal properties of Euphorhia (4) Adewunmi, S. 0. and V. 0. Banna: Some enzyme histoehemi- (11) Anantaraman, M,: Biological P'ant Molluscicides 207 control of aquatic snails, Indian tumor agants from plants, 1974— (40) Fuegner. A.: Inhibition of in- Ethiopian Medical Journal, 3. 187 Journal of veterinary Sciences, 25. 76, Lloydia. 40. 1(1977). flammations of immunologic origin (1965). 65 (1955). (26) Cowper, S. G.: The effect of by the plant steroid withaferin A., (54) Lemma. A.: Laboratory and (12) Archibald, R. 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