Plants for life: Medicinal conservation and botanic gardens

20 YEARS 1987-2007 for life: Medicinal plant conservation and botanic gardens

Belinda Hawkins

The Rosy periwinkle ( ), extracts of which have helped increase the chance of surviving childhood leukaemia from 10% to 95%.

Cover image: Echinacea spp. used by Native American Indians and still popular today for stimulating the immune system and accelerating the healing of infections.

January 2008 ISBN: 1-905164-21-1 Published by Botanic Gardens Conservation International.

Recommended citation: Hawkins, B., 2008. Plants for life: Medicinal plant conservation and botanic gardens. Botanic Gardens Conservation International, Richmond, U.K.

Further copies of this report can be requested from Botanic Gardens Conservation International, Descanso House, 199 Kew Road, Richmond, Surrey, TW9 3BW, U.K. Alternatively, please email [email protected]. Foreword

Medicinal plants harvested from the wild This report draws on a questionnaire remain of immense importance for the survey of botanic gardens, experts and well-being of millions of people around conservation organisations worldwide. the world. Providing both a relief from The response has been extremely illness and a source of income, over encouraging. Conservation organisations 70,000 plant are thought to be such as Plantlife International, TRAFFIC medicinal. Loss of habitat combined with and the IUCN SSC Medicinal Plant over-harvesting threatens the survival of Specialist Group have all highlighted the many of these plant species. Botanic valuable skills and expertise of botanic gardens are important agencies for gardens that can and should be made ensuring their conservation. available to provide integrated conservation solutions for medicinal The original purpose of the earliest plants. We are very grateful for their botanic gardens established in Europe in practical suggestions and ideas for the sixteenth century was the cultivation partnership. Botanic gardens have shared and study of medicinal plants - at a time practical case studies and expressed when medicine and botany were their willingness to take on more essentially the same discipline. conservation commitments. BGCI will The tradition of cultivating and displaying now act on the findings presented in this medicinal plants has been retained by report to fully develop and implement a many botanic gardens. For example, medicinal plant programme that delivers a study by BGCI in 1998 highlighted the the objective in our 5 Year Plan: medicinal plant collections of 480 botanic To enhance the conservation and gardens. Conservation of threatened sustainable use of threatened medicinal medicinal plants has become an plants to address human well-being and increasingly important role through ex situ livelihood issues as a contribution conservation as an insurance policy towards Targets 3 and 13 of the CBD against loss of resources in the wild, Global Strategy for Plant Conservation . informing visitors about the values and conservation needs of these special plants and working with local communities to show how the plants they rely on can be cultivated or harvested sustainably. The multitude of ways in Sara Oldfield which botanic gardens support the BGCI Secretary General conservation of medicinal plants is December 2007 highlighted by this report. And yet much more needs to be done. Zingiber spectabile . In addition to its use as a spice, ginger root has been used for centuries for an array of complaints; from stomach upset to rheumatism.

2 Plants for life: Medicinal plant conservation and botanic gardens Contents

Magnolia denudata. buds and seeds used in Asia for headaches and sinusitis.

1. Introduction ...... 4

2. Background ...... 5

3. Medicinal plants for healing ...... 6

4. Medicinal plants for livelihoods ...... 8

5. Approaches to medicinal plant conservation ...... 10

6. Medicinal plants and botanic gardens ...... 15

7. Recommendations for medicinal plant conservation actions by botanic gardens ...... 20

8. Towards an action plan for medicinal plant conservation by BGCI ...... 24

9. Conclusions ...... 26

10. References ...... 27

Acronyms and Acknowledgements ...... 29

Annexes Annex 1 The Global Strategy for Plant Conservation: 2010 Targets ...... 30 Annex 2 Source data for list of medicinal plants ...... 31 Annex 3 Medicinal plants questionnaire ...... 33 Annex 4 Analysis of questionnaire responses ...... 34 Annex 5 Suggested priority species for conservation action ...... 36 Annex 6 The 2007 IUCN Red List of Threatened Species categories ...... 45 Annex 7 BGCI regional action plan for medicinal plant conservation ...... 46

Plants for life: Medicinal plant conservation and botanic gardens 3 1. Introduction

botanic gardens and BGCI can take. Secondly, a medicinal plants workshop Although botanic gardens have involving over 150 participants was held horticultural skills that can be at the Third Global Botanic Gardens disseminated to achieve a community Congress in Wuhan, China in April 2007, benefit that is not necessarily a at which a wider consultation exercise conservation benefit, the focus for this was begun. This involved a questionnaire work was on threatened medicinal plants. survey (Annex 3), which was directed at various medicinal plant stakeholder The project has involved updating BGCI’s bodies; from botanic gardens to NGOs, PlantSearch database (available at Government agencies and commercial www.bgci.org/plant_search.php/) to enterprises. 80 questionnaire responses include information on threatened were received. Answers and commentary medicinal plants for use as a planning received have been woven into this tool. Some 3,000 key medicinal plant report. Graphic results can be seen at Hibiscus spp. Many species are used species are now included in the Annex 4, suggested priority species can medicinally and as food across the globe. database, allowing botanic gardens to be seen at Annex 5. identify medicinal plant species within their collections and BGCI to build a Drawing on all of these inputs, this Botanic gardens around the world have picture of the ex situ status of priority report compares the need for been involved in the study and cultivation species, at local, regional and global conservation of the world’s medicinal of medicinal plants for over 500 years. levels. This phase of the project has plant diversity with the conservation Collectively they provide an important resulted in the collection of large amounts resources provided by botanic gardens repository for medicinal plants and the of data, which will be made available via around the world and moves towards associated knowledge about these the PlantSearch database and will serve an action plan for prioritising important species. Recognising this, as a basis for on-going work. Annex 2 conservation action, taking into BGCI has taken various steps to promote records the sources of data used during account livelihoods and healthcare for the conservation of medicinal plants by this initial exercise. an integrated approach. the botanic garden community since its establishment 20 years ago.

Currently, one of the aims of BGCI’s 5-year plan (2007 – 2012) (available at www.bgci.org) is to enhance the conservation of threatened medicinal plants to address human well-being and livelihood issues as a contribution towards the Global Strategy for Plant Conservation (GSPC) (Annex 1). Though there are a range of resources directed at the conservation of medicinal plants, few of these have been specifically targeted for botanic gardens. BGCI’s ‘Safety Nets for Medicinal Plants’ project, a one-year programme of work supported by the Rufford Maurice Laing Foundation, aimed to maximise the potential for skill-sharing within the medicinal plant conservation community, with a view to prioritising the practical medicinal plant conservation actions that

4 Plants for life 2. Background

To begin simply, plants equal life. They are currently on the IUCN Red List of the primary producers that sustain all other Threatened Species. Whilst the extinction life forms. They regulate air and water of a species is the ultimate loss, the quality, shape ecosystems and control the process of extinction itself has serious climate. They provide food, medicine, consequences for local ecosystems. “Exploitation pressures have increased clothes, shelter and the raw materials from Plant to plant interactions effect both with growing human population. which innumerable other products are resource availability and habitat structure, Although sustainable exploitation of made. These benefits are widely and play an important role in mediating the many species is theoretically recognised but poorly understood. Thus responses of natural systems (Brooker, achievable, many factors conspire to plants are both a vital part of the world’s 2006). Thus the loss of any one species make it hard to achieve in practice, biological diversity and an essential weakens an ecosystem’s ability to adapt in and overexploitation remains a serious economic resource for human existence. a rapidly changing world. threat to many species and populations. Among the most Yet plant extinctions are occurring at a rate commonly exploited species or groups unmatched in geological history, leaving of species are plants and ecosystems incomplete and impoverished. harvested for the medicinal trade” Current extinction rates are at least 100 to (Millennium Ecosystem Assessment, 2005) . 1,000 times higher than natural background rates, with a quarter of the Destructive harvesting practices coupled world’s coniferous known to be in with the degradation of forests, jeopardy (IUCN, 2006) and as many as agricultural expansion, grazing pressure 15,000 medicinal plants under threat and urbanisation all threaten the survival (IUCN/SSC MPSG, 2007). Over 50% of of medicinal plants. In short, we are cycads, used medicinally and the oldest asking more and more from natural seed plants on earth, are threatened with ecosystems even as we reduce their extinction. This makes them one of the capacity to meet our needs (Kazoora, most threatened groups of species 2002).

As we lose species, we lose vital components necessary to our own survival. Humans, with all their cultural diversity, are an integral part of ecosystems; ultimately one is entirely dependent on the other. Whilst we drive ecosystem change both directly and Ginkgo biloba, a ‘living ’ with a long indirectly, changes in ecosystems cause history of use in China for improving the changes in human well-being also. memory. Adverse impacts on ecosystems have adverse impacts on cultures and communities, often affecting the world’s poorest people with disproportionate severity. The ecosystem approach to conservation, which puts people at the centre of ecosystem management, is strikingly relevant to medicinal plants. Surely, we should save the plants that save us?

Plants for life: Medicinal plant conservation and botanic gardens 5 3. Medicinal plants for healing

Medicinal plants have been used by Traditional medicine mankind for millennia; their use is as old In 1960, at the cave site of Shanidar as humanity itself. The range of species “Traditional medicine is the sum total in what is now north-eastern Iraq, used and their scope for healing is vast. of the knowledge, skills and practices the skeleton of an adult male was Cures as yet undiscovered may exist in based on the theories, beliefs and discovered, lying on his left side in plants as yet undescribed. Currently, it is experiences indigenous to different a partial foetal position. He’d been estimated that the number of higher plant cultures, whether explicable or not, used buried some 60,000 years ago. species used worldwide for medicinal in the maintenance of health as well as Routine soil samples were gathered purposes is more than 50,000 in the prevention, diagnosis, for pollen analysis in an attempt to (Schippmann et al ., 2002). This equates to improvement or treatment of physical reconstruct the site’s palaeoclimate approximately 20% of the world’s vascular and mental illness” and vegetational history. In some of flora and constitutes the biggest spectrum (World Health Organisation (WHO), 2003). the samples concentrated clumps of of biodiversity used by people for a pollen were found suggesting that specific purpose (Hamilton et al ., 2006). entire flowering plants had been buried close to the man. Though the source of the pollen is hotly debated, a study of the particular flower types suggested that the may have been specifically chosen for their medicinal properties. Yarrow ( Achillea spp.), St. Barnaby’s thistle ( Centaurea spp.), groundsel ( Senecio spp.) and rose mallow ( Hibiscus spp.) amongst others were represented in the pollen samples, all of which have long- known curative powers as stimulants, astringents and anti-inflammatories.

• In China, Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM) is largely plant-based (80%) and TCM preparations account for 30-50% of total medicinal consumption, rising to 90% in rural areas (WHO, 2003). • In , Ayurvedic medicine, a system more than 5,000 years old, is based on some 2,000 plant species (Zedan, 2002). • In Sub-Saharan Africa, the ratio of traditional healers to the population is approximately 1:500, while medical doctors have a 1:40,000 ratio to the rest of the population (Richter, 2004).

In fact, of the total pharmaceutical drug supply available worldwide, only 15% is consumed in developing countries (Lydecker et al ., 1992), supporting the much-quoted WHO’s estimate that 80% of people worldwide rely on traditional medicine for their primary healthcare. The majority of these people are in developing countries, where rapid population growth is expected to increase pressures on medicinal plant resources.

The greater part of traditional therapy involves the use of plants. With little or no access to modern pharmaceuticals and a strong cultural preference for In many cases modern chemistry cannot traditional medicine, medicinal plants are offer viable alternatives to active therefore fundamental to the well-being of botanical compounds. The compound billions of people. paclitaxel (found in Taxus spp. and source of the anti-cancer drug, taxol) was Demand for traditional remedies is also described as the kind of molecule that no increasing in so-called developed chemist would ever sit down and think of countries, alongside growing making; environmental awareness and a desire for natural healing through natural “If contemporary chemistry is now products. allowing us to merely copy such molecules, one can imagine the near ‘Modern’ medicine impossibility of designing from scratch a molecule with a comparable combination Of course, allopathic or ‘modern’ of form and biological function” medicine also owes a great deal to (Capson, 2004). medicinal plants. Catharanthus roseus for example, treats leukaemia and Predictions that advances in chemical Hodgkin’s disease. Morphine and sciences and synthetic material codeine are produced from cultivated Digitalis spp. development would lessen the need for opium poppy, Papaver somniferum . natural materials have proved to be Aspirin was originally found in willow bark extracted from the of the common wrong, and modern medicine depends (Salix spp.). Quinine from the cinchona foxglove ( Digitalis spp.), are widely used on the continuing availability of has been the primary treatment for for a variety of heart conditions. Topical biological materials as an malaria for centuries. Digitalin medicines, steroids for eczema are produced from incomparable source of molecular the yam ( Dioscorea spp.) or from sisal diversity. (Agave spp.) and the alkaloid Galantamine, sourced from the bulbs of snowdrops ( Galanthus spp.) is used to treat Alzheimer’s disease, slowing down the progression of dementia.

In fact, as many as 50% of prescription drugs are based on a molecule that occurs naturally in a plant, with some 25% of prescription drugs derived directly from flowering plants or modelled on plant Taxus spp. molecules (Foster and Johnson, 2006).

Plants for life: Medicinal plant conservation and botanic gardens 7 4. Medicinal plants for livelihoods

Medicinal plants are clearly an important naturally rare and heavily exploited global resource in terms of healthcare but species wild collection can be a major they are also an important economic threat with local extinction the outcome. resource, traded extensively on scales It is the collection for commercial trade ranging from the local to the international. rather than home-use that is overwhelmingly the problem (Hamilton, Internationally, the trade in medicinal 2003). plants is estimated to be worth $60 billion per year (World Bank, 2004) increasing at Though notoriously poorly a rate of 7% a year (Koul and Wahab, documented, and though our 2004). understanding of the biology, ecology and status in the wild of most Very little of the raw material to supply medicinal plants is very fragmented, this demand is from cultivated sources. this level of wild harvest is said to be Of the 3000 or so species known to be in currently unsustainable. international trade (Schippmann et al , The consequences of unsustainable 2006) there are approximately 900 for We know this because herb-gatherers are harvest are far-reaching, and not simply which commercial cultivation is underway having to go farther and farther afield to confined to a loss of healthcare or or in development (Mulliken and Inskipp, harvest the plant they want; they’re biodiversity. Many of the world’s poorest 2006). Putting it another way, about 70- experiencing a drop in harvest levels. people rely on the collecting and selling 80% of the medicinal plants being traded Some species just aren’t there anymore. of wild medicinal plants for income in the world’s most important range Unfortunately, the motivation of short- generation. Though prices paid to countries for medicinal plants originate term profit increase neglects all gatherers tend to be very low medicinal from wild-collection (WWF/TRAFFIC considerations of sustainability, but plant collection provides a significant Germany, 2002). Many of these species conservation intervention can occur at income for the often marginal, rural poor are widespread and abundant but for several points along the supply chain. (World Bank, 2004).

Gentiana lutea bitter taste can still be detected at endangered over most of its range; it is lutea (Yellow dilutions of herb to water 1:20,000) and included in the Red Data Books of gentian) is found in the it stimulates the taste buds and brain Bulgaria, Albania and Transcarpathia; mountains of central and reflexes to promote the secretion of saliva wild harvest is banned in Montenegro; southern Europe. Gentian and gastric juices. As such it has been the species is protected by law in root (which can be as used as an appetite stimulant in the Serbia and the Ukraine and it is thick as a person’s arm) treatment of anorexia (Foster, 2006). considered threatened in Turkey. has a long history of use It is said to be especially useful in states as an herbal bitter in the of exhaustion from chronic disease and Gentiana lutea is recorded in cultivation treatment of digestive in cases of debility or weakness of the in 48 botanic gardens (PlantSearch disorders. An Egyptian digestive system; strengthening the human database). The gathering of papyrus from 1200 B.C. system by stimulating the liver, gall bladder propagation data from these gardens mentions gentian as an and digestive system (Plants for a Future, and the exchange of this information ingredient in medicines 2004). will help to ensure the ex situ (Foster and Johnson, conservation of this species and will 2006). Most imports of G.lutea originate from support restoration and reintroduction wild harvest and occasionally from efforts. BGCI aims to facilitate this The root contains one of cultivation in south east Europe work though its medicinal plants the bitterest substances (WWF/TRAFFIC Germany, 2002). programme. known to science (the The species is endangered or critically

8 Plants for life: Medicinal plant conservation and botanic gardens • About 20,000 tons of medicinal and aromatic plants worth US$18-20 million are traded every year in Nepal alone, and about 90% are harvested in uncontrolled fashion by landless, resource-poor mountain farmers for whom the harvest and trade in medicinal plants constitutes their only form of cash income. The situation is similar in Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, and other countries of South Asia (MAPPA, 2007).

• In , there are an estimated 5,000 to 10,000 Devil’s Claw (Harpagophytum spp.) harvesters, 50 to 100 middlemen and 17 Namibian exporters. The retail value in 2001 was some US$40 million, though Namibia captures at most 5% of the retail value of the trade (Cole and Stewart, 2006).

• Ethnoveterinary medicine is used by livestock raisers throughout the world to keep their animals healthy and productive, since modern treatments may be expensive and inaccessible in remote areas (Mathias, 2001).

Rows of ginseng and mushroom elixirs for sale in Seoul, Korea.

The world’s greatest concentration of expect to receive around Rs 1500/kg medicinal plant wealth is found in tropical (approximately US$37) (Uniyal et al , developing countries that are beset by 2006). Traditionally, it was harvested acute poverty. In these regions, the loss every two to three years. It is now of biodiversity and land degradation is Aconitum spp. harvested every year and subject to a accelerating as poverty is increasing. lengthened harvesting season, placing The loss of livelihood is a very real concern Aconitum heterophyllum (Patris) is the species under heavy pressure given that approximately 1 billion people, a endemic to the alpine and sub-alpine (Singh, 2006). The species shows poor fifth of the world’s population, live on less zones of the north-west Himalayas. seed germination and low seed survival than US$1 a day (World Bank, 2007). It grows only in localised restricted therefore regeneration is low under ecological niches and is said to neither natural conditions. This characteristic, A common definition is that a livelihood is invade new areas nor survive at lower combined with non-judicious the financial means whereby one lives; for altitudes (Beigh et al, 2005). exploitation, over-grazing and habitat example, collecting wild medicinal plants The species has; destruction mean that the species is for sale. However, this does not now hard to find and critically necessarily mean that the plants 1 name in Arabic, 5 in Hindi, 2 in endangered. collected are sufficient to satisfy an Kannada, 1 in Malayalam, 2 in Marathi, individual’s needs or to lift them out of 3 in Persian, 70 in Sanskrit, 83 in Tamil, Aconitum heterophyllum is recorded in poverty. Such a livelihood cannot 3 in Telugu, 5 in Tibetan and 4 in Urdu cultivation in only 4 botanic gardens therefore be sustainable. A sustainable (FRLHT, no date). (PlantSearch database). BGCI will livelihood is one that can cope with and therefore support the ex situ recover from stresses and shocks whilst The dried root is commonly used to conservation of this species by alerting maintaining or enhancing its capabilities treat gastric disorders and high fevers, gardens to the conservation needs of for the future and not undermining the as a substitute for quinine and to treat the species, gathering species-specific natural resource base (Kazoora, 2002). toothache and scorpion or snake bites. data and facilitating knowledge share Sustainable use meets the needs of the It is a high value species; gatherers can between gardens. present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs (Brundtland, 1987).

Plants for life: Medicinal plant conservation and botanic gardens 9 5. Approaches to medicinal plant conservation

Medicinal plant conservation is challenging, The policy context The conservation of biodiversity is since the taxa occur in a wide range of acknowledged as the cornerstone of habitats and geographic regions. Their A policy trend positively linking sustainable development. For more conservation threats and ultimate use are biodiversity conservation with human information on the CBD go to diverse and users are not only local rural development is gaining momentum and www.cbd.int. communities but also far away urban people’s access rights to natural • The World Trade Organisation’s (WTO) citizens. However, it is widely agreed that resources necessary for their survival agreement on Trade-Related Aspects the conservation of medicinal plants (and have improved with policy provisions. of Intellectual Property Rights biodiversity in general) can be achieved (TRIPS), 1994, sets out how to deal through an integrated approach balancing • The Convention on Biological with the commercial use of traditional in situ and ex situ conservation strategies. Diversity (CBD) was ratified in 1992 at knowledge and genetic material by the Rio Earth Summit. The 190 Parties those other than the communities or Medicinal plant conservation must have agreed to commit to protect countries where these originate, therefore operate within several spheres; biodiversity, develop sustainably and especially when these are the subject drawing together disparate groups and engage in the equitable sharing of of patent applications. More mutually acknowledging different benefits from the use of genetic information on the WTO and TRIPS stakeholder interests in order to succeed. resources. Agreement is available at www.wto.org.

The Chiang Mai Declaration of 1988 led to the publication of the first Guidelines The guidelines detailed the experts on the Conservation of Medicinal Plants (currently being updated), recognising most needed for a programme of the “urgent need for international co-operation and co-ordination to establish conservation and sustainable utilisation programmes for the conservation of medicinal plants to ensure that adequate of medicinal plants, though terms may quantities are available for future generations” (WHO, 1993). have changed in the almost 20 years since, the roles remain just as current.

Agronomists: To improve techniques for cultivating medicinal plants Conservation campaigners: To persuade the public of the need to conserve medicinal plants Ecologists: To understand the ecosystems in which medicinal plants grow Ethnobotanists: To identify the use of plants as medicines in traditional societies Health policy-makers: To include conservation and utilisation of medicinal plants in their policy and planning Horticulturists: To cultivate medicinal plants Legal experts: To develop effective legal mechanisms that ensure that collection of medicinal plants is at levels that are sustainable Park managers: To conserve medicinal plants within their parks and reserves Park planners: To ensure the park and reserve system contains the maximum diversity of medicinal plants Pharmacologists: To study the application of medicinal plants Plant breeders: To breed improved strains of medicinal plants for cultivation Plant genetic resource To assess the genetic variation in medicinal plants and specialists: maintain seed banks of medicinal plants Plant pathologists: To protect the cultivated medicinal plants from pests and diseases without using dangerous chemicals Religious leaders: To promote a respect for nature Resource economists: To evaluate the patterns of use and the economic values of medicinal plants Seed biologists: To understand the germination and storage requirements of the seed of different medicinal plants Taxonomists: To identify the medicinal plants accurately Traditional health practitioners: To provide information on the uses and availability of medicinal plants

10 Plants for life: Medicinal plant conservation and botanic gardens Access and benefit sharing (ABS)

One of the three fundamental objectives of the CBD is to promote the fair and equitable sharing of the benefits arising out of the utilisation of genetic resources. One way of doing this is by confirming the sovereign rights of the State over its biological resources. The of plants for potential new drugs raises issues about the protection of traditional knowledge and the mechanisms to ensure that indigenous peoples benefit from uses of their resources.

• The UNCTAD BioTrade Initiative • The 2002 World Summit on (launched in 1996) promotes the Sustainable Development aimed to sustainable use of goods and services promote a global commitment to derived from biodiversity, in support of sustainable development, improving the the objectives of the CBD lives of the world’s poorest people as (www.biotrade.org/). well as reversing the continued • The eight Millennium Development degradation of the global environment. Goals (MDGs) were agreed by world For the latest developments see leaders in 2000, providing an agenda http://www.un.org/esa/sustdev/ for reducing poverty and improving index.html. lives through environmental • The WHO launched their Traditional sustainability by the target date of Medicine Strategy in 2002, discussing 2015. Any measures which enable the the role of traditional medicine in health sustainable use of natural resources to care systems. View at http://www.who. improve livelihoods will contribute to int/medicines/publications/traditional the MDGs. The MDGs can be viewed policy/en/. • Homalanthus nutans (the mamala tree) at www.un.org/millenniumgoals/. • In 2004, the Addis Ababa Principles is native to the rainforests of the South • The Millennium Ecosystem and Guidelines to the CBD detailed 14 Pacific island of Samoa. It has Assessment (MEA) assessed the interdependent practical principles and traditionally been used to treat a consequences of ecosystem change on operational guidelines that govern the number of conditions; from back pain human well-being, gathering data from uses of components of biodiversity to to hepatitis, diarrhoea and yellow fever. 2001 to 2005 and providing a scientific ensure the sustainability of such use. Researchers at the University of appraisal of the condition and trends in These can be viewed on the CBD California, Berkeley, in the US identified the world’s ecosystems and the website, as before. a promising AIDS drug (Prostratin) in services they provide, as well as the • Also in 2004, a new paragraph was the bark of the tree. Samoa therefore scientific basis for action to conserve added to the Convention on declared sovereign rights over the and use them sustainably International Trade in Endangered species, including the actual gene (www.millenniumassessment.org). Species of Wild Fauna and Flora sequences, and signed an ABS • The Doha Declaration of 2001 aimed (CITES ) Resolution Conf.8.3 stating agreement with the University in 2004 to ensure that the TRIPS agreement that the Conference of the Parties (picture above). The agreement gives and the CBD support each other; recognizes that implementation of Samoa and the University equal shares “allowing for the optimal use of the CITES listing decisions should take into to any commercial proceeds resulting world’s resources in accordance with account potential impacts on the from the genes. Samoa’s 50% share the objective of sustainable livelihoods of the poor. See will be allocated to the government, to development, seeking both to protect www..org for further information. villages and to the families of traditional and preserve the environment and to healers. Another facet of the enhance the means for doing so in a agreement is a requirement that any manner consistent with their respective subsequent commercialised drug must needs and concerns at different levels be supplied to developing countries of economic development” . free, at cost or at very nominal profit. • In 2002 the CBD adopted the Global Strategy for Plant Conservation (GSPC), which specifies 16 outcome- orientated targets for delivery by 2010. See Annex 3 and www.plants2010.org. Homalanthus nutans

Plants for life: Medicinal plant conservation and botanic gardens 11 • In October 1991, the Costa Rican Asociacion Instituton Nacional de Biodiversidad (INBio), a private, non- profit, scientific organization and Merck, a U.S. multi-national pharmaceutical corporation, signed a two year agreement. In the agreement, INBio would supply Merck with samples among the plants, and microorganisms collected from Costa Rica’s protected forests. Merck then would have the right to use these samples to create new pharmaceutical products. Merck paid one million dollars to INBio for the right to analyze Clearly such agreements are beneficial in • IPEN establishes a system of facilitated an agreed-upon number of indigenous many ways to countries rich in biodiversity exchange for a network of gardens that plant and samples. Merck (it is but without the capacity to develop these have signed up to a Common Code of believed) will pay INBio between one to resources. However, there are concerns Conduct. The IPEN system only covers three percent royalties for any product that such legislative measures may restrict non-commercial use of living developed through the agreement. access to plant resources for non- collections. Ten percent of the initial one million commercial use such as research, dollars and fifty percent of any royalty conservation, education and display. Non-monetary benefits resulting from will be invested in biodiversity Considering the key role that botanic plant exchange can include knowledge conservation through Costa Rica’s gardens play in educating the public transfer, technical support, staff exchange Ministry of Natural Resources. (Trade about medicinal plant use, access to and capacity building to strengthen and Environment Database, no date). medicinal plants for education and display conservation work in the country of origin purposes as well as for conservation and of the plant material. research activities, is important. Botanic gardens have in recent years been Further information can be found at working to develop harmonised www.bgci.org/abs. approaches to implementing the ABS provisions of the CBD. Two voluntary Cultivation versus wild harvest approaches have been developed, the Principles on Access to Genetic Cultivation has long been suggested as a Resources and Benefit-Sharing (the possible mitigation to the unsustainable Principles) and the International Plant wild harvest of medicinal plants, Exchange Network (IPEN). simultaneously taking the pressure off wild stock whilst boosting commerce. • The Principles provide a framework to Along an agronomic model, modern help guide gardens when developing methods of plant breeding, propagation their own individual policies. and post-harvest processing techniques

Panax quinquefolius It is highly prized as a universal remedy in grade roots according to physical Panax quinquefolius (American east Asia, where more than 95% of characteristics; size (the bigger the ginseng ) has been heavily traded in harvested roots end up. Traded ginseng better), shape (the more ‘man-shaped’ North America for over a century; types include wild, wild-stimulated, and thicker the better), age (the older cultivated woods-grown and cultivated the better) and colour (the darker the “We were down in the Tennessee fields-grown. Field-grown ginseng roots better) (Sinclair, 2005). mountains when there came slowly reach a size in three years that can only be down the mountain trail a dilapidated attained by 15-30 years of growth under Illegal wild harvest is known to occur; specimen of humanity, slouch hat, natural forest conditions, and are very pale 10,515 illegally harvested roots were bare foot, coat hung on one shoulder, in colour compared to wild-grown roots. seized between 1991 and 1999 in the and a sack, of unknown origin, in his Great Smokey Mountain National Park hands. He saw us, heard us as we Wild ginseng root has the greatest alone (Pierce, 2002). Conservation greeted – but without turning the head perceived medicinal value of all the efforts have therefore included slunk on like some phantom creature ginseng types and this is reflected in employing marker technology to enable into the forest labyrinth. ‘Humph’, price – from as much as US$1300/kg for distinction between cultivated and wild said the guide. ‘You might a’ known. wild roots to as low as US$44/kg for root, as well as research into the active You can’t expect nothin’ of a ginseng- field-cultivated roots (Pierce, 2002). compound content. P .quinquefolius is digger.’” Though there is a move towards grading widely cultivated commercially, and (Koch, 1910). the roots according to the quantity of recorded in eight botanic garden active chemical content, buyers primarily collections (PlantSearch database).

12 Plants for life: Medicinal plant conservation and botanic gardens Rauvolfia serpentina decades (CITES, 2005). Rauvolfia serpentina (Indian However the rapid snakeroot, Sarpaghanda) is member of decline and isolated the dogbane family, found in India, nature of snakeroot Pakistan and south east Asia. populations means that wild genetic stock is “The primary folk use for the extract severely depleted. was as a means of attaining states of introspection and meditation, and On a small scale India has successfully Harvesting Prunus africana. Indian holy men, including Mahatma cultivated snakeroot for many decades, Ghandi, were habitual users of the for example in hospital gardens, and allow medicinal plant products to be drug” continues to invest in this area. It is engineered to a consistent and high (Mann, 1992). not clear how successful this has been standard, infinitely more appropriate for however, given that the species standardised pharmaceutical use. But the plant is also an important requires at least two years before The cultivation, management and healer, used for stomach disorders, bearing marketable product. Further enrichment planting of high value plants snakebite and epilepsy. R. serpentina experiments have shown that net is therefore an important strategy to meet is also the source of the alkaloid returns are higher when Rauvolfia is consumer demands and reduce the resperine, which revolutionized the inter-cropped than when grown alone, impacts of markets on biodiversity. treatment of hypertension in the 1950s in this way yielding a year round and is still commonly prescribed today. harvest and down-playing the slow However, cultivation often requires major Chemically similar to serotonin, early growth of the species inputs for a far-off return in a fluctuating resperine was also used to treat severe (Maheshwari, 1985). market characterised by ‘fads’. Though mental illnesses due to its powerful several medicinal plants are cultivated on sedative properties. Rauvolfia serpentina is recorded in a large scale ( Arnica montana, Hamamelis cultivation in 22 botanic gardens virginiana, Panax quinquefolius and Once found in most of tropical India, (PlantSearch database). However, little Catharanthus roseus to name a few) it is by 1998 it was confined to a range of is known about the genetic diversity of not economically feasible to commercially less that 5,000km 2; with an area of wild such cultivated stock and accessions cultivate all of the medicinal plants that population occupancy said to be less in genebanks. A genetic study of the are threatened in the wild. (It should be than 500km 2 (Mamgain et al . 1998). plants in botanic garden collections will noted that, despite cultivation, several of Export was banned by the Indian be encouraged by BGCI with a view to these species were also considered as Ministry of Commerce in 1994, and in developing a strategy for the priorities for further conservation attention Nepal in 2001 (Aryal, no date) and restoration of wild populations. in the wild, see Annex 5). There is little trade is now less than it was in past incentive to bring into cultivation species that are required in relatively small volumes, are slow growing, are believed to be more potent in their wild form or do It should be noted that both large-scale not command sufficiently high prices. cultivation and unsustainable wild harvest lead to genetic erosion. When cultivated, Moreover, there are social, economic and artificial changes (to intensify the ecological benefits to wild harvest. As concentration of certain compounds) mentioned, since wild collection is mostly often occur very quickly, unlike in nature. carried out in low-wage countries and by In the short term the desired results are low-income, underprivileged groups it’s a achieved but, in terms of genetic chance for the poorest of people to get at diversity, there may be long term negative least some income, despite having no land. consequences. It is a diverse gene pool that contributes to the ability of species Wild harvest also gives an economic value or populations to maintain resistance to to ecosystems and habitats and thus diseases and to adapt to a changing provides an incentive for the protection of climate. Environmental conditions at something much larger than just the every level are constantly changing, and medicinal plant. Though the only diversity can ensure that some consequences of collecting activity are still individuals will be able to adapt to these very little understood, the involvement of changes. local people in sustainable management practices increases both their desire and CITES and medicinal plants ability to protect wild populations from medicinal (Schippmann, 2001) even over-exploitation. Of course, the The Convention on International Trade in though only approximately 30 have been assumption here is that stocks are Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and listed specifically because of concern sufficient, demand will remain constant Flora (CITES) provides varying degrees of over their trade as medicine. The and the structures and dynamics within protection to more than 33,000 plant intention of CITES is to promote a local communities will remain stable. species. Of these, about 240 are sustainable trade in listed species.

Plants for life: Medicinal plant conservation and botanic gardens 13 Hoodia spp. which acts as an appetite suppressant Species No. of botanic Hoodia spp. are slow- and is claimed to help weight loss; garden collections “Amazing, most effective safe weight growing, perennial, Hoodia bainii 2 spiny succulent plants. loss with no side effects advanced Hoodia barklyii 2 They occur in a wide appetite suppressant available!” Hoodia currori 1 Hoodia dregei 5 range of arid habitats “HoodiThin™ - Feel full faster and Hoodia gibbosa 1 in southern Africa, stay full longer!” “ Hoodia diet pills 10 typically on arid gravel are guaranteed to work for you or it Hoodia juttae 3 Hoodia langii 1 plains. Detailed costs absolutely nothing!” Hoodia macrantha 7 information on the Hoodia parviflora 1 Hoodia pilfera 4 distribution and The active ingredient has been isolated Hoodia pillansii 1 population status of from H. gordonii which only occurs in Hoodia ruschii 3 individual taxa is Namibia and . This species limited but ten of the16 taxa assessed is considered to be abundant and There is significant commercial attention have been classified as threatened widespread. However, some of the on this genera, given the lucrative nature according to IUCN Red List categories, other taxa in the exist in of its promise. The species should only with four taxa classified as Vulnerable fragmented populations (some with as be grown or collected with a permit and in 2002. few as 250 individuals) and cannot plantations have been in development easily be distinguished from H. gordonii . for several years. Demand however, Traditionally used by the San bushmen These species are therefore under threat remains a threat to certain populations. of South Africa, strong, global from over-collection for trade. All As a suggested species for priority commercial interest in the genus has Hoodia species were listed on CITES conservation action, Hoodia will be resulted from the isolation and Appendix II in 2005, but illegal trade is included in BGCI’s wider medicinal plant patenting of an active ingredient (P57) known to occur. conservation programme.

CITES regulates international trade Schippmann, 1999); an import of It is essentially a framework for between signatory countries. It is not woodchips can be listed as ‘bark’ with classifying species according to their applicable to domestic or non-signatory no species name. extinction risk. So far, almost 40,000 traffic. Monitoring of the trade under the species have been assessed, of which terms and conditions of the Convention is “It is indisputable that monitoring the some 12,000 are plants. It is difficult to complex and only partially successful. trade in wild collected plants is only specify what proportion of threatened It is thought that a huge amount of trade useful if carried out at species level and medicinal plant species have been in medicinal plants goes unrecorded and that without such, analysis of the trade evaluated using the IUCN Red List unregulated, for example that within and its impact on populations cannot be categories and criteria but it is generally China or between Nepal and India. carried out effectively” recognised to be a low proportion. (Schippman, 1994). Even trade movements covered by CITES For more information on the IUCN SSC are poorly understood, hampered by However, CITES is an important and the IUCN SSC Medicinal Plants identification problems, under-resourced mechanism for trade regulation and to Specialist Group (MPSG) go to enforcement and inconsistent national highlight critical issues. Botanic gardens www.iucn.org/themes/ssc/ and interpretations of the international statute. can be involved in the success of CITES www.iucn.org/themes/ssc/sgs/mpsg/. Most medicinal plant species are not in a number of ways. traded under their scientific name, and come in a variety of parts and derivatives. For more information on CITES and , for example, has at botanic gardens go to www.bgci.org/cites least 50 trade names (Lange and or see A CITES manual for botanic gardens (Oldfield and McGough, 2007).

The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species

Policy frameworks and legislation are informed by essential data such as the endangerment assessments made by the Species Survival Commission (SSC) of the IUCN, which produces a Red List of Threatened Species. Using a network of thousands of scientists the Red List provides taxonomic, conservation status Seized cycads, said to have various and distribution information on globally medicinal qualities and one of the most evaluated species according to specific endangered living things on the planet. categories and criteria (Annex 6).

14 Plants for life: Medicinal plant conservation and botanic gardens 6. Medicinal plants and botanic gardens

Some 5,000 years ago, a botanic garden said to have astounded the Spanish conquistadores existed in the city of Texcoco, the second most important city in the once majestic Aztec empire. Approximately 370 species of plants still grow there in a confined geographical area, though the city and the civilisation have long since disappeared. Research conducted at the sight has resulted in the identification of all the plants that would have been cultivated in the garden, all of which have either medicinal properties or other economic uses (Montúfar, 2007).

The Botanical Garden of Padua, founded in 1545 and one of the oldest botanic gardens in the world, was created by the Vatican Republic purposely for the cultivation of medicinal herbs. The institution enabled students to use the garden to learn how to distinguish between and use medicinal plants, improving both As institutions, their work remit occupies Botanic gardens have a long-standing local healthcare and scientific several spheres; from scientific research connection to medicinal plants in understanding. Similarly, the Chelsea to education to informing legislation to particular, since the sole purpose of all Physic Garden was founded in running community-based projects – and early botanic gardens was to grow and England in 1673 by the Worshipful it’s a remit that’s widening in both scope study medicinal plants. They are Society of Apothecaries to train and importance alongside global inherently well-placed to respond to the apprentices to identify plants and to population increase, rapid urbanisation very specific local conservation needs of help in the cultivation of exotic plants and relentless pressure on our collective medicinal plants and the people who rely for medicine. These gardens thus met wild resources. Increasingly, botanic on them for health and livelihood in a a research, economic and health goal. gardens are more than just ‘pretty particular region. Moreover, they are places’. probably the most important agencies for the conservation of native medicinal Whilst conservation has not been a plants, since plants are not often the These days, there are over 2,500 botanic traditional garden activity, it is becoming priority of other conservation bodies and gardens in 150 countries around the more so, as demonstrated by the government agencies related to world, holding over six million accessions International Agenda for Botanic Gardens agriculture pay little attention to those of living plants representing around in Conservation (Wyse Jackson and species of undetermined economic use. 80,000 species. They are therefore major Sutherland, 2000) launched in 2000 to repositories of species diversity and provide a common global framework for Using botanical and cultivation collectively represent many, many years garden policies and signed by 432 knowledge there are a number of key of learning. botanic gardens so far, as well as the ways in which botanic gardens can involvement of botanic gardens in the contribute towards medicinal plant development of the GSPC. conservation and sustainable use.

Plants for life: Medicinal plant conservation and botanic gardens 15 Questionnaire responses illustrated the collections. This is particularly important Plant records wide range of areas in which botanic with threatened medicinal plants where gardens are involved with medicinal protection in the wild may not be realistic An essential, defining feature of a botanic plant conservation, the positive effects in the short-term, or where ex situ work garden is the maintenance of plant of this work and the linkages between cannot yet be directly linked to in situ . records on the living collection. Each botanic gardens and other The resources provided by these record typically records the scientific conservation agencies. collections are important for in situ name of the plant and its origin (whether recovery programmes. of known wild origin or cultivated source). Ex situ conservation Many botanic gardens hold collections of Target 9 of the GSPC calls for 70% of medicinal plants – see for example the Ex situ conservation remains the main remit the genetic diversity of the major BGCI Directory of Medicinal Plant and area of expertise of botanic gardens. socio-economically important plants Collections in Botanic Gardens (Wyse It provides an important ‘insurance’ against conserved. Jackson and Dennis, 1998) but the value the loss of plant genetic resources, with a of these has never been fully assessed. key role to play in terms of preservation and species re-introduction programmes, BGCI maintains the PlantSearch database education and research. Wuhan Botanic Garden, China has which records data on plants in botanic developed a medicinal plant garden garden collections. As of August 2007 the This role has been defined by the with over 800 species for education, PlantSearch database held details on over GSPC, specifically Target 8, which calls research and preservation (Z. Jiang, 2,540 botanic gardens, 681 of which have for 60% of threatened plant species in pers.comm.). uploaded their species data, totalling accessible ex situ collections, 505,000 records of approximately 140,000 preferably in the country of origin, and A medicinal plant seed bank and different taxa. The database is available 10% of them included in recovery and herbarium has been developed at for public use, although garden addresses restoration programmes. Al-Quds University Botanic Garden are only accessible after requesting further in Palestine, to preserve wild native information from the garden itself, due to Living collections medicinal plants (K. Sawalha, the valuable nature of some of the plants pers.comm.). held. The conservation of plant resources can be achieved through different methods In China, the Shangri-La Alpine As part of the ‘Safety Nets for Medicinal such as seed banks, in vitro storage Botanical Garden in Yunnan province Plants’ project, BGCI has updated methods, pollen banks and DNA banks is designing a Tibetan Medicinal Plants PlantSearch to include information on as well as the maintenance of living Garden, collecting those species most some 3,000 medicinal plants species as commonly used (Liu, pers.comm.). well as all plants listed on CITES. We have obtained over 40 lists of key species Chicago Botanic Garden maintains including almost 1,000 species threatened both an outdoor collection and a seed in the wild due to unsustainable bank of local medicinal plant species, harvesting and (see for detailed evaluation of active plant Annex 2). Work is currently underway on compounds. The identification of a detailed gap analysis of key medicinal useful medicinal compounds should plant species in botanic garden not only promote public health but collections and the conservation work also underscore the importance of being done with them, if any. protecting native flora. Since botanic gardens hold the largest Jardin Botanico de Bahia Blanca in assemblage of plants outside of Argentina maintains a display of nature, it makes sense to work medicinal plant species used on a towards a global inventory of medicinal local scale (Villamil, pers.comm.). plants held in botanic gardens. BGCI is working towards this aim.

Research

Botanic gardens provide a permanent location around which an infrastructure can develop. Around the world, they have become centres for the research and study of disciplines as diverse as , ecology, agronomy, horticulture, ethnobotany and habitat restoration, all of which inform medicinal plant conservation. Xishuangbanna Tropical Botanic in the search for active medicinal The Jodrell Laboratory at RBG, Kew in the Garden in China has begun a research compounds, and studying the efficacy UK is dedicated to ethnobotany and runs programme into the propagation and of these compounds. This is not as numerous research projects into the re-introduction of local Dendrobium simple as it sounds. Normally, all chemistry, bioactivity and taxonomy of species, used extensively in TCM. medicinal plants have one or two medicinal plants (Olwen, pers.comm.). This will include field work to assess primary compounds and a number of This scientific research can be used to the status of populations in the wild secondary compounds. The efficacy of inform legislation and policy development. and research into cultivation techniques the plants in medicinal use depends on (Y.Shouhua, pers.comm.). the interaction of all roughage, Turpan Desert Botanic Garden has secondary and mucous compounds constructed an Ethnic Medicinal Plant Leiden Botanic Garden in the with the primary active compounds. Garden, researching the use of medicinal Netherlands has begun researching If primary compounds are isolated, they herbs used by the Uygur people of ways of distinguishing between legally may have completely different effects (Tan, pers.comm.). produced and illegally wild harvested than in combination with the cocktail of ( Aquilaria and spp.) secondary compounds of the respective At Reading University in the UK the using DNA markers in plantation crops plant (WWF/TRAFFIC Germany, 2002). Faculty of Pharmacy is developing a (van Uffelen, pers.comm.). This Efficacy also depends, to a certain University Botanic Garden for use as a research work aims to assist the control extent, on abiotic factors of the medicinal plant resource (V. Heywood, of illegal wild harvest and trade in environments and on collection pers.comm.). Work is also underway in threatened medicinal plants. methods. It differs from location to affiliation with the Foundation for the location (soil quality, mineral content, Revitalisation of Local Health Traditions In 2006, the Pfizer Plant Laboratory moisture content, temperature, intensity (FRLHT) in India on developing DNA was opened in New York Botanic of light) and depends on the weather markers for medicinal plants. (J. Hawkins, Garden, systematically screening plants conditions at the time of collection. pers.comm.).

Education harvest. Botanic gardens have a key role to play in educating the public about the Rightly hailed as a way of inspiring and value and conservation needs of motivating action and public support, medicinal plants. education about medicinal plants takes many forms; from educating end consumers about the sources of their Target 14 of the GSPC calls for medicines to educating farmers and herb education and awareness about plant gatherers about the value of sustainable diversity to be promoted.

Marie Selby Botanic Garden in Florida Several botanic gardens in the US for awareness and educating people about is creating information profiles for the example, Denver, Brooklyn, North their shared medicinal plant resource medicinal plants in the garden, to Carolina and New York as well as the (Salunkhe, pers.comm.). include the conservation status of the Royal Botanical Gardens in Canada offer species in the wild, geographical training courses in horticultural therapy. The IB-UNAM Botanic Garden, Mexico information, botanical characteristics It has been well established that people runs courses whereby ethnobotanists and ecology, uses to humans and parts respond positively to green plants and share their technical and botanical of plants used, chemical compounds, colorful flowers. Gardening offers relief expertise while traditional healers share history and folklore, re-affirming the from physical and cognitive limitations, their knowledge on the indigenous and links between plants and people reduces stress, gently exercises aging or ritual use of plants. The information is (Tieghem, pers.comm.). arthritic joints, and stimulates memory. disseminated by the botanic garden to other healers, housewives, professionals Seven of the eight botanic gardens in Krishna Mahavidyalaya Botanic Garden in and alternative health practitioners. the South African National Biodiversity India grows approximately 130 species of Institute’s (SANBI) network of botanic medicinal plants in pots, emphasizing In the UK, the Botanic Garden of Wales gardens have demonstration gardens those used in indigenous systems of has a ‘Physicians of the Myddfai’ that are used for education, display and medicine. The plants are accompanied exhibition and displays traditionally research on indigenous traditional use by display notes including the common important medicinal plants whilst Bristol (Xaba, pers.comm.). name in various languages as well as its Zoological Gardens provides the locale use as medicine and scientific data. for a series of courses and lectures on Since the plants are in pots, a mobile medicinal plants. exhibit has traveled extensively, creating

Plants for life: Medicinal plant conservation and botanic gardens 17 Networking In situ conservation

No single sector, public or private, can As recognised by the CBD, in situ undertake the conservation of medicinal conservation is the preferable plants alone and the neutral nature of methodology, since ex situ conservation botanic gardens puts them in a good tends to take place outside the range state position to act as intermediaries between of the target species. The preservation of various commercial and scientific interests. species in situ offers all the advantages of allowing natural selection to act, which The importance of enhanced cannot be recreated ex situ . Unless plants communication and knowledge exchange can be conserved in their natural habitats, between concerned parties has also been in variable breeding populations, they run recognised by the GSPC, which states the risk of extinction. that networking can avoid duplication of conservation effort, enable the development of common approaches, help strengthen links between different In reality, many species exist only as sectors and ensure the co-ordination of part of ecosystems and cannot policy development at all levels. survive unless their ecosystems are preserved along with as much as Target 16 of the GSPC calls for the possible of the biodiversity they establishment and strengthening of contain. deserticola , for plant conservation networks. example, an important plant in TCM, is dependent on two fungi; Mycena osmundicola (to draw nutrients from the soil and allow seed germination) Working with local authorities, Oaxaca The Jardin Botânico da Fundaçâo and Armillaria mellea (which must be Botanic Garden in Mexico has Zoobotânica de Belo Horizonte in Brazil incorporated into the tuber to recommended Guiacum coulteri be partners with universities to study the maintain growth to maturity). planted in local parks and public chemical composition and biological Similarly, Cistanche deserticola is gardens, as well as making seeds activites of local medicinal plants parasitic to the roots of the desert available to local schools and community (Nogueira, pers.comm.). shrub Haloxylon spp. The Haloxylon organizations (A.de Avila, pers.comm.). genus is notoriously difficult to The Botanic Gardens of Adelaide in cultivate, and is also know as ‘coal of The Tasmania Herbarium in Australia Australia, as well as developing the desert’ because of its firewood used its living collections to support education programs for schools based properties. The conservation of these screening by a large pharmaceutical around indigenous knowledge and the species cannot be removed from the company searching for active medicinal traditional uses of plants, work closely habitats they exist within. compounds, in accordance with access with hospitals on harmful plants and and benefit sharing regulations toxicology (Christensen, pers.comm.). (Papworth, pers.comm.). Traditionally, in situ conservation has involved the protection of species within their natural habitats in various forms of land set aside as nature reserves or other protected areas. This approach cordons off certain areas and restricts their use. Though often hampered by weak enforcement capacity, protected areas are of critical importance since we have yet to master the sustainable use of medicinal plant resources in the wild.

Botanic gardens are involved in the management of natural habitats in this way, as well as carrying out field-work, such as wild population surveys. A priority for medicinal plant conservation is the carrying out of ecogeographical surveys, followed by proper targeted in situ species conservation with as many samples of genetic (therefore chemical) variation as possible preserved Botanic garden display including various , which are commonly used for (Heywood, pers.comm.). skin conditions.

18 Plants for life: Medicinal plant conservation and botanic gardens NGO representatives but most importantly the rural populations of people living near wild medicinal plant populations. Preferable methodologies will improve the understanding of impacts on the livelihoods of the poor of both harvesting medicinal plants and of measures to ensure the conservation and sustainable use of medicinal plants.

Community-based conservation Community-based conservation must work therefore be integrated with development at every level; from village to region to Botanic gardens are increasingly involved world. A wide range of stakeholders in the development, implementation and must be engaged from the start; from support of local, community-based scientists to traders to government and projects, for example using collections to support local initiatives in primary healthcare. The Etnobotanica Paraguay project, run North Carolina Botanic Garden and Medicinal plant conservation is about by the Conservatoire et Jardin the North Carolina Department of plant resources, hence emphasising the Botaniques de la Ville de Geneve, is Agriculture collaborated on a project to idea of conservation not for conservation’s researching the use of local medicinal mark Dionea muscipula plants growing sake but for the conservation of resources plants and running targeted education in the wild. Roots are painted with a for use (Hamilton, pers.comm.). campaigns to encourage the use and dye that glows under ultra-violet light, Community-based conservation protection of appropriate species, as enabling the identification of wild emphasises the things about these plants well as setting up community gardens harvested specimens. This is proving a that give people drive to do something and looking at the best application of deterrent to would-be poachers, who about them i.e. concerns about health, the plants. plucked thousands of Venus fly-traps money (income generation) and cultures from the protected Green Swamp area (important religious elements, heritage Malabar Botanic Garden in India is in a single afternoon in 2005 (Nature protection). Recent forestry research has promoting the cultivation of the state’s Conservancy, 2006). shown that, when their rights are native medicinal plants, by giving training recognised, communities are more in relevant techniques to local farmers. Aburi Botanical Garden in Ghana in effective at protecting forests than Guidance is given on the medicinal partnership with BGCI, the UNEP national parks (Rights and Resources plants‘ cultivation, storage and trade. World Conservation Monitoring Centre, Initiative, 2007). In the last two years over 200 farmers the Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh have been trained, and a farmer’s society and the University of Ghana ran the However, response strategies designed to has been formed to share knowledge Conservation and Sustainable Use of provide incentives for biodiversity and to promote the mass cultivation and Medicinal plants in Ghana project. This conservation by ensuring that local people trade of medicinal plants. This has project aimed to improve communities’ benefit from one or more component of provided a valuable opportunity for these access to medicinal plants, and to biodiversity (such as products from a farmers to expand and diversify their encourage their sustainable use. It set single species) have proved very difficult crops, safeguarding their incomes. up a 50 acre model Medicinal Plant to implement (MEA, 2005). Garden, based on community ethno- At Nature Palace Botanic Garden in botanical surveys, which was planted Uganda the Poverty Alleviation and with 1,361 medicinal plant seedlings, Health Promotion through Conservation and also set up a plant nursery to hold project engaged 50 subsistence 5,000 medicinal plant seedlings for farmers who are now cultivating rare distribution to herbalists. medicinal plants for income generation. The farmers have formed an The National Botanic Garden of Association (the Kasanje Conservation Belguim works closely with Kisantu and Development Association), which is Botanic Garden in the Congo both on now engaged in a drive to recruit more community education and the farmers (D. Nkwanga, pers.comm.). propagation of medicinal plants for distribution (Rammello, pers.comm). williamsii , used ritually in Mexico for thousands of years.

Plants for life: Medicinal plant conservation and botanic gardens 19 7. Recommendations for medicinal plant conservation by botanic gardens

The questionnaire survey has provided a wealth of information on the ways botanic gardens can support medicinal plant conservation. These echo the points made in the previous section, in which case studies from questionnaire responses have already been highlighted. A strong majority of respondents emphasised the role that botanic gardens play in conservation education, and the continued importance of raising awareness about medicinal plant resources. Also particularly highlighted was the role of research and the need for botanic gardens to develop collaborative ventures, working with partner NGOs and local communities.

Rescuing castanea from granite mining.

Logically, the information We have also indicated whether these required for such a species are held in botanic garden prioritisation exercise is: collections. Several species were i) which species are most mentioned more than once, and these threatened; ii) which species 35 priority species are presented first. are most valuable in terms of BGCI will pay particular attention to work healthcare and of livelihoods with its member gardens to conserve and iii) our ability to conserve these species (See Section 8 and the species in question. Annex 7).

Botanic gardens are well Prioritise actions Encephalartos ghellinctii , vulnerable in the placed to define local wild, slow-growing and rare in cultivation. priorities. Globally, BGCI can assist by 1. Research assessing the extent to which plants are Prioritise species already in cultivation by botanic gardens, It is widely recognised that medicinal plant what their threat status is and (through conservation is hampered by a lack of Taking into account the sheer number of collaboration with other organisations) good quality information. It is therefore medicinal plant species around the world what the priorities for practical action are. essential to collect accurate data regarding (c.70,000) and the number which may be plant population density in the wild in the threatened (c.15,000) comprehensive and Annex 5 lists all the species that were past and present, the current commercial consistent information on the threat status suggested to us as priority species for demand and future projections, methods of of medicinal plants at a global level is not conservation action over the next 5 years, collection and threats to these plants. yet available. This limits the extent to as well as their IUCN and CITES status. Botanic gardens are well placed to which a rational prioritisation can be In most cases the information provided undertake research to determine the undertaken for medicinal plant reflects species of national concern as taxonomy, propagation and management conservation. provided by the respondents. techniques for medicinal plants.

20 Plants for life: Medicinal plant conservation and botanic gardens Specifically, the following research areas demonstrated in different ways. were highlighted in questionnaire For medicinal plants; why should wild responses; harvest be curtailed when it will always be the easiest option? Why should • Regionally up-to-date lists of species consumers re-visit their consumption used for medicinal purposes would habits and make a decision on which enhance the opportunity to use them products they will use and which they sustainably. won’t? An educated public can influence • Locally used medicinal plants can then both the pattern of trade and, be categorised according to their use, optimistically, governmental decisions. value, ecological characteristics and management, by way of prioritising Practical suggestions for educational species for conservation action. initiatives included the following; • Species-specific baseline data on the status of populations in the wild and on • Botanic gardens should be aware of what entails a sustainable harvest limit, the medicinal properties of plants both culturally and commercially, is within their collections. Interpretation required for priority species (to include panels can illustrate both the values harvesting techniques which are and vulnerability of medicinal plants adding. Booklets can be prepared and suitable for village level use). and promote an understanding of circulated on the latest cultivation medicinal plant conservation, effecting methods and post-harvesting 2. Educate an attitudinal change about the use of processes for key species. natural resources and medicinal plants. • Targeted education campaigns can It has often been argued that a major Botanic gardens can pro-actively also be linked to outreach reason for our failure to conserve natural improve people’s access to this programmes, for example to health ecosystems is that we do not realise how information. care workers dealing with first line valuable they are. In fact, a country’s • Model gardens can be created to be medicinal aid, or with school botanic ecosystems and its ecosystem services demonstration areas for people living projects. Mobile exhibits have been represent a capital asset. The benefits near to threatened species for shown to be particularly useful. that could be attained through better conservation knowledge. Stakeholders management of this asset are poorly can be taught appropriate ex situ 3. Collaborate reflected by conventional economic management techniques such as indicators, so this must be clearly domestication, management and value Much mentioned in questionnaire responses was the need for a collaborative approach to medicinal plant conservation and the recognition that botanic gardens are well placed to facilitate this and add both key botanical knowledge and key knowledge about local people, industries and landscapes.

Key messages for botanic gardens were to:

• Joint plan rather than work in isolation, check who else is doing what before deciding priorities. • Diversify working partners, for example work with forestry, agriculture and health industries, as well as NGOs. • Develop regional approaches to the management of species occurring in neighbouring countries. • Develop joint outreach and extension programmes and contribute to these by bringing botanical expertise on specific taxa. • Inform legislation and policy development and assist with national implementation and interpretation of international statutes. For example, training Customs officials on the identification of CITES listed medicinal plant parts and derivatives. • Encourage private sector support for sustainable and ethical sourcing.

Plants for life 21 4. Conserve • There are simple ways botanic gardens can collect and promote indigenous The role of plant and seed collections as a knowledge. For more information on conservation resource was widely the collection of indigenous knowledge acknowledged as an important piece of go to www.kew.org/ethnomedica/. the conservation jigsaw puzzle. It was emphasised that ex situ methods are 6. Develop alternatives to wild harvest, made more relevant when they feed technology transfer directly and specifically into targeted in situ conservation, and that this should Another key questionnaire response, become a normal partnership. Seed emphasised again and again, was the banking was frequently cited in role of community involvement in questionnaire responses as a vital back- conservation. This is imperative at all up to other conservation methodologies, stages of project development and and one that should be supported and 5. Preserve indigenous knowledge implementation. At a local level botanic expanded for medicinal plants specifically, gardens can provide communities with since most efforts have been directed to In 2004 the United Nations Conference valuable horticultural expertise and crops thus far. Further, climate change on Trade and Development (UNCTAD) market information. The transfer of science is turning its attention to the warned that a biodiversity crisis is being cultivation methodologies to farmers and predicted effects of temperature rise on accompanied by a cultural diversity crisis other stakeholders via training initiatives individual plant species. The alteration of and the weakening of the customary laws should be encouraged, as should the a species’ environmental niche will in turn that traditionally regulated the use of development of harvester organisations affect whole ecosystems; habitats will natural resources. The growing and best practice horticultural knowledge shift and their composition change. awareness of loss of indigenous shared between these. Additionally, Ex situ collections that attempt to recreate knowledge and the implications of this investments in technology transfer, habitats become even more relevant in was reflected in questionnaire responses. research, training and capacity building, this light. can make the private sector voluntarily • Target 13 of the GSPC calls for the respond to environmental management. decline of plant resources and associated indigenous knowledge that • A recent study of 150 traditional healers support livelihoods to be halted, since in South Africa found that 72% said both physical habitat and ancient they would appreciate proper training knowledge, once lost, will be gone on how to domesticate frequently used forever. medicinal plants (Manzini, 2005 ). • There are inherent conservation values • During storage considerable amounts in the way plants were collected for of medicinal plants are wasted due to traditional healing, many of which have humidity, attacks, inappropriate now fallen out of use. In , storage facilities and lack of awareness for example, the collecting of bark, on the part of collectors. (Hamuyan et roots, branches etc. from a plant that al ., 2006). showed signs of having been collected from by another n’anga (traditional healer) was prohibited. It was believed Botanic gardens should therefore: that when a n’anga used a plant to treat a patient, the patient’s disease • Maintain and develop living collections was transferred into that plant. of local medicinal plants and make When another n’anga subsequently them available for teaching and used the same plant to treat a patient, research use. the disease of the previous patient • Set-up and maintain seed and would be transferred to the new germplasm banks, specifically for local patient. This belief ensured that the medicinal plants and those critically plant recovered from the effects of endangered. Ensure that the best and collection (Mavi and Shava, 1997). most current seed conservation • There have been clashes between technologies are used, to ensure long- traditional healers and external term preservation. organisations, based around the • Foster ecological and floristic studies in ownership of indigenous knowledge. sites of origin of plants. Botanic gardens are likely to have • Maintain familiarity and compliance detailed specific knowledge about the with regulations, for example CITES, landscapes, people and flora of an and with the conservation status of area and are well-placed to build medicinal plant holdings via, for community links and to help with the example, the IUCN Red List. documentation of traditional knowledge • Contribute to the development and on medicinal plants that is available in testing of conservation methodologies. the public domain.

22 Plants for life: Medicinal plant conservation and botanic gardens Compliance will maintain wild medicinal Prunus africana and protective folklore have therefore plant resources, prevent negative Prunus africana (Pygeum, African given way to market demand. Prunus environmental impacts, ensure cherry) is found in mountain tropical africana was listed on CITES Appendix compliance with laws, regulations and forests in central and southern Africa II in 1995, is assessed as Vulnerable on agreements, respect customary laws and and and has been used for the IUCN Red List of Threatened apply responsible management and centuries for its hard and durable timber Species and mentioned most business. as well as for the medicinal properties of frequently in questionnaire responses, its bark, which is used to treat malaria, despite being abundant in parts of its Botanic gardens can play a valuable role fevers, kidney disease, urinary tract range, for example in South Africa (van in promoting the ISSC-MAP. infections and more recently prostate Jaarsfeld, pers.comm.). enlargement (benign prostatic Our survey showed the growing hyperplasia). Overall, the medicinal retail Cordoba Botanic Garden has produced recognition of the importance of trade for P .africana is estimated to be guidelines for a Pygeum management sustainable wild harvest as a US$220 million/year (WWF, 2001). plan in Equitorial Guinea and Limbe conservation response. Botanic Garden is involed in teaching As long as the tree is not completely techniques for the sustainable harvesting • Data on the natural ecological girdled it can bear repeated harvests. of Prunus bark as well as providing distribution of a species compared with These limits should be relatively easy to seedlings for local nursery initiatives. good data on volume harvested is determine. After all, the tree has been needed in order to develop sustainable used sustainably for hundreds of years. Prunus africana is recorded in use regulations and management Indigenous knowledge maintained that, cultivation in only 3 botanic gardens measures, such as an annual harvest post-harvest, bark grows back more (PlantSearch database). However, it is quota. quickly on the side of the tree that faces likely that this species is in fact being • Along the market chain, mechanisms the sunrise. Since the tree heals faster cultivated much more widely. As part must be in place to ensure a better this side, medicine made from this east- of our east African medicinal plants price for those who have observed facing bark will heal a patient faster. programme, BGCI will gather further sustainable harvest limits and good Thus only one side was stripped. information on the distribution in collection practice, such as certification cultivation of this species and share along the lines of the FSC (Forest When harvested sustainably, each this information with relevant partners. Stewardship Council) and MSC (Marine batch of bark amounts to about 55kg Stewardship Council) Standards. which currently returns US$10 - 20 to the collector. When completely For more information on the ISSC-MAP stripped, a large tree may yield up to a go to www.floraweb.de/map-pro/. metric ton of bark worth US$200 (Future Harvest, 2000). Harvest limits

Whatever the conservation action, projects must be appropriate to • Micro enterprises that add value the organisation and set realistic, through simple on-site techniques like achievable targets not removed drying, cleaning, grading and from reality considering the area packaging can strengthen the position you are working in. in the market of collectors and farmers. • Local, small-scale cultivation provides 7. Sustainable wild harvest Expect slow progress; an inherent an alternative to wild harvest, though problem in conservation is that it there is a distinction between Wild collection is sustainable as long as is given low priority compared to cultivation for self-medication and the amount of medicinal plant material of the day to day activities of people cultivation for income generation. a given species collected each year in a going about their lives. • Medicinal plants in particular have very certain region does not exceed the specific requirements concerning soil annual, natural increase of the species in However, considering the scale and environment that affect the active the same location. If collection exceeds and urgency of the problem there compounds in the plants. They are the natural increase over several is little room for reticence. often more difficult to cultivate than consecutive growing seasons the species other crop species, therefore may become regionally threatened “You must be the change you interventions are needed to reduce (WWF/TRAFFIC Germany, 2002). want to see in the world” cultivation risks and increase the (Mahatma Ghandi). dependability of inter-cropping as a The International Standard for way to supplement the opportunity Sustainable Wild Collection of Medicinal cost of wild harvest. and Aromatic Plants (ISSC-MAP) has • Small home gardens where plants can been developed by the IUCN/SSC be cultivated for self-healing have been MPSG. It has six principles and 18 shown to be successful and deliver criteria, addressing ecological, social and multiple benefits. economic requirements for sustainable wild collection of medicinal plants.

Plants for life: Medicinal plant conservation and botanic gardens 23 8. Towards an action plan for medicinal plant conservation by BGCI

• Link this data to the PlantSearch database and make available via an information portal. Continue to develop PlantSearch as a means of monitoring and recording medicinal plants in botanic garden collections, as well as identifying regions where this is a priority. • Coordinate the collection of case studies, analysis of best practice and sharing of lessons, helping to improve both collection management and conservation practice.

Use the information available for educational purposes (see below).

2. Provide education and training materials on medicinal plants and their conservation

• Identify and publish case studies about success in medicinal plant conservation. • Provide information and educational materials about relevant policy and scientific issues, for example the ISSC- MAP and CITES and ABS requirements. • Develop models and outreach materials for 35 priority species relevant to all levels of botanic garden visitors, staff and volunteers, as well as for donors and decision makers.

The role of BGCI is to support and enable the IUCN/SSC MPSG and Plantlife Develop education materials that inform botanic gardens to act on the International, as well as various national key stakeholders about the need for recommendations made for medicinal and local organisations and stakeholders. botanic gardens and their role in plant conservation in the previous section medicinal plant conservation. of this report. The questionnaire survey Activities at the global level and consultation during this project 3. Promote the role of botanic gardens resulted in a very wide range of 1. Information gathering and in CITES suggestions of activities BGCI could awareness raising for over 400 undertake. These suggestions, together suggested priority species (at Annex 5) Questionnaire responses to CITES issues with discussions between BGCI staff, favoured the promotion of appropriate member gardens and other medicinal • Collect detailed information on the ex cultivation of CITES listed species and plant conservation agencies have led to situ conservation status of these species local community participation in this, the development of an action plan for and work towards ensuring that all are incentivising compliance and BGCI’s medicinal plant conservation work, secure in ex situ collections (at least 5 conservation without threatening as well as the identification of key partners botanic gardens), with well-documented, livelihoods. It was felt the focus of for future activities, such as TRAFFIC, diverse genetic representation. capacity building should be on

24 Plants for life: Medicinal plant conservation and botanic gardens developing countries, rich in biodiversity In its initial phase (based on BGCI’s Five 4. In-situ conservation and but poor in resources, for whom Year Plan 2007-2012 ) the action plan reintroductions into the wild implementation of CITES is harder. includes the development and There was also a strong case for implementation of a series of new • Enhancing in situ conservation through developing better identification and projects and programmes for selected the establishment and protection of authentification tools to enable better priority medicinal plant species in the important medicinal plant areas trade practice and enforcement. regions and countries where they managed by local communities, as well Education and training across all naturally occur, as identified in this report. as reintroductions into the wild of stakeholder levels was thought medicinal plant species that are extinct necessary. BGCI will: The action plan at regional and national in the wild, or critically endangered. levels (which also feeds information into • Publish and distribute an updated our global activities) pursues an At Annex 7 is our tabular, project and CITES Manual for botanic gardens, integrated, four-step approach of both species specific regional action plan for making this available in English, ex situ and in situ conservation action: medicinal plant conservation. Spanish and Chinese. • Distribute CITES information to all 1. Conservation status assessments stakeholders. The PlantSearch database now includes information on • Training and capacity building for red all CITES listed plants, so that botanic listing on medicinal plants through gardens can be aware of the CITES regional and national workshops and status of plants in their collections. working with IUCN/SSC MPSG. Go to www.bgci.org/plant_search.php/. • Help botanic gardens to develop 2. National ex situ collection surveys identification and authentification tools and gap analysis for plant materials so that CITES can be implemented effectively for those • Development of species-specific action species that are listed. plans for botanic gardens, with focus • Help botanic gardens to help local on endemic medicinal species under communities to build their capacity to severe threat. comply with CITES. • Collect and compile information so that 3. Enhancing ex situ cultivation local species that do fulfill listing matching local needs criteria can be included in CITES and to aid with the proper development of • Compiling and promoting local non-detriment findings. traditional knowledge in medicinal plant management for enhancing sustainable Activities at the regional/national use. level • Establishing community-based medicinal plant nurseries suitable for BGCI’s action plan for medicinal plant alternative income generation, conservation at regional and national including the development of levels draws on its ongoing work and propagation and harvesting techniques global partnerships to secure plant which combine traditional and scientific diversity. knowledge.

Plants for life: Medicinal plant conservation and botanic gardens 25 9. Conclusions

This work has aimed to gather Indeed, medicinal plants conservation information from a wide stakeholder base can be viewed as a microcosm for plant to identify the issues to be addressed, conservation as a whole; viewing the problem from different angles and priority perspectives. “It speaks of supply, it speaks of Typically of conservation debate, complex demand, and it speaks of competition sustainability issues are at play, in this and control. Humankind’s use of species case surrounding a widely misunderstood and ecosystems is critically determined resource whose population and trade is by these variables” notoriously hard to measure. (Murphree, 2003).

The wide range of habitats and plant Against this backdrop, and in the face of types, as well as the variety of cultural, multiple threats from trade, habitat loss social and economic conditions which and climate change, botanic gardens affect the use of medicinal plants present have an important role to play in securing substantial challenges to their medicinal plant diversity for people and conservation. planet.

26 Plants for life: Medicinal plant conservation and botanic gardens 10. References

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28 Plants for life: Medicinal plant conservation and botanic gardens Acronyms Acknowledgements

ABS Access and benefit sharing BGCI is extremely grateful to all those who participated in the questionnaire survey: BG botanic garden BGCI Botanic Gardens Conservation International Aburi Botanic Garden, Ghana Quarshi Research International, Pakistan CBD Convention on Biological Diversity Academy of Sciences, Republic of Uzbekistan Reading University, UK CITES Convention on International Trade in Adelaide Botanic Garden, Australia Regenerations International Botanical Garden, US Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora Agricultural University of Tirana, Albania Royal British Columbia Museum, Canada FAO Food and Agriculture Organisation Alice Springs Desert Park, Australia SANBI, South Africa FRLHT Foundation for the Revitalisation of Local Al-Quds University, Palestine Shangri-la Alpine Botanic Garden, China Health Traditions, India Bahia Blanca Botanic Garden, Argentina Tciticin Botanic Garden of the Russian Academy FSC Forest Stewardship Council National Botanic Garden of Belgium of Sciences, Russia GSPC Global Strategy for Plant Conservation Black Hills State University Herbarium, US The Ministry of Environmental Affairs, Eygpt GTZ Deutsche Gesellschaft für Technische Bouganvillea, S.A, Costa Rica TRAFFIC International, UK Zusammenarbeit Center for International Forestry Research, TRAFFIC US, US ISSC-MAP International Standard for the Sustainable Wild Indonesia Tropical Research Institute Central America, Collection of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants Central Council for Research in Ayurveda and Costa Rica IUCN World Conservation Union Siddha, India Turpan Desert Botanic Garden, China IUCN/SSC MPSG IUCN Medicinal Plants Specialist Group Natural Chemotherapetics Research Laboratory, United States Fisheries and Wildlife Service, US IPEN International Plant Exchange Network Museum of Kenya, Kenya University Alfredo Perez Guerro, Ecuador MDG Millennium Development Goals Chicago Botanic Garden, US University Castilla-la Mancha, Spain MEA Millennium Ecosystem Assessment Chinese Academy of Sciences, China University of Gent, Belgium MSC Marine Stewardship Council CITES, Switzerland University of Madrid, Spain NCARTT National Center for Agricultural Research and Delft University Botanic Garden, Netherlands University of Otago, New Zealand Transfer of Technology, Jordan Dunedin Botanic Garden, New Zealand Virginia College of Natural Resources, US NGO Non-government Organisation Ethnobotanical Society of Nepal, Nepal Visva Bharati University, India PIINTEC Pyongyang International Information Center Fauna and Flora International, UK Wageningen University and Research Centre, for New Technology and Economy, Korea Forest Research, Morocco Netherlands PROTA Plant Resources of Tropical Africa FRLHT, India Wildlife Wing, Himachal Pradesh, India RGB Royal Botanic Garden Guizhou Botanic Garden, China Winrock International, Nepal SANBI South Africa National Biodiversity Institute IMPLAD, China Wuhan Botanic Garden, China SSC Species Survival Commission India Botanic Garden, India spp. species Institute of Botany, Mongolian Academy of And to the Rufford Maurice Laing Foundation, ssp. subspecies Sciences, Mongolia who generously supported this study. TAM Traditional African Medicine Institute of Ecology and Biology, Vietnam TCM Traditional Chinese Medicine Jardin Botanico de Fundacao Zoobotanica de Thanks are particularly due to Patricia de TRAFFIC Wildlife monitoring network, joint programme Belo Horizonte, Brazil Angelis, Alan Hamilton, Vernon Heywood, the of WWF and the IUCN Jodrell Laboratory, RBG, Kew, UK TRAFFIC team and additional speakers at the TRIPS Trade Related Aspects of International Kenya Resource Centre for Indigenous medicinal plants session at the 3rd Global Property Rights Knowledge, Kenya Botanic Gardens Congress in Wuhan, China; UK United Kingdom Komi Scientific Centre, Russian Academy of Danna Leaman and Zimian Ding. UNCTAD United Nations Conference on Trade and Sciences, Russia Development Krishna Botanic Garden, India UNEP United Nations Environment Programme Las Palmas Botanic Garden, Canary Islands US United States of America Marie Selby Botanic Garden, US WHO World Health Organisation Mediplant, Swiss Commission for the WTO World Trade Organisation Conservation of Cultivated Plants, Switzerland WWF World Wildlife Fund Elisabth Carey Miller Botanic Garden, US Ministry of Environment, Cambodia Moonbranch Botanicals, US Nanjing Botanic Garden, China National Museums of Kenya, Kenya National Resource Center for Medicinal and Aromatic Plants, India Nature Palace Botanic Garden, Uganda NCARTT, Jordan Nordic Gene Bank, Sweden Pakistan Museum of Natural History, Pakistan Philodassiki Botanic Garden, Greece PIINTEC, Korea Plantlife International, UK PROTA, Kenya and the Netherlands

Plants for life: Medicinal plant conservation and botanic gardens 29 Annexes

Annex 1 – The Global Strategy for Plant Conservation: 2010 Targets

A) Understanding and Documenting Plant Diversity (C) Using Plant Diversity Sustainably

Targets in this theme are: Targets in this theme are:

(i) A widely accessible working list of known plant species, as a (xi) No species of wild flora endangered by international trade; step towards a complete world flora; (xii) 30 per cent of plant-based products derived from sources (ii) A preliminary assessment of the conservation status of all that are sustainably managed. known plant species, at national, regional and international levels; (D) Promoting Education and Awareness About Plant Diversity (iii) Development of models with protocols for plant conservation and sustainable use, based on research and practical The target for this theme is: experience. (xiv) The importance of plant diversity and the need for its B) Conserving Plant Diversity conservation incorporated into communication, educational and public –awareness programmes. Targets in this theme are: (E) Building Capacity for the Conservation of Plant Diversity (iv) At least 10 per cent of each of the world’s ecological regions effectively conserved; Targets in this theme are:

(v) Protection of 50 per cent of the most important areas for (xv) The number of trained people working with appropriate plant diversity assured; facilities in plant conservation increased, according to national needs, to achieve the targets of this Strategy; (vi) At least 30 per cent of production lands managed consistent with the conservation of plant diversity; (xvi) Networks for plant conservation activities established or strengthened at national, regional and international levels. (vii) 60 per cent of the world’s threatened species conserved in situ;

(viii) 60 per cent of threatened plant species in accessible ex situ collections, preferably in the country of origin, and 10 per cent of them included in recovery and restoration programmes;

(ix) 70 per cent of the genetic diversity of crops and other major socioeconomically valuable plant species conserved, and associated indigenous and local knowledge maintained;

(x) Management plans in place for at least 100 major alien species that threaten plants, plant communities and associated habitats and ecosystems.

30 Plants for life: Medicinal plant conservation and botanic gardens Annex 2 – Source data for list of medicinal plants included in BGCI’s PlantSearch database (number of species shown in brackets)

Africa: • Traditional use of medicinal plants among the tribal communities of Chhota Bangal, Western Himalaya (35) • Useful medicinal plants of Africa (494) Source: www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi? Source: http://database.prota.org/search.htm artid=1435742 • Threatened South African medicinal plants (146) • Medicinal plants of the Chamoli district, West India (11) Source: Wendy Foden, SANBI Source: http://www.plantlife.org.uk/international/plantlife-med- • Medicinal plants that are of common use in Africa and plants-projects-allachy-India-Chamoli.htm Madagascar (83) • Critically endangered and (110) List of Source: Safowora, 1996. species banned from export (27) (www.conserveafrica.org.uk/herbal_industry.pdf) Source: Suma Taqadur, FRLHT • Medicinal plants used by majority of the population and • FRLHT Red List (104) frequently cited by most traditional healers in (10) Source: http://envis.frlht.org/iucnlist.php Source: www.conserveafrica.org.uk/herbal_industry.pdf • FRLHT list of 7,637 Medicinal Plant Species • Commonly used African medicinal plants for which a standard • 930 Traded Plants of Conservation Concern would be useful (53) Source: http://envis.frlht.org/digital_herbarium_930.php Source: http://www.aamps.org/aamps%20specieslist.pdf • Medicinal plants used in Uganda (7) US: Source: http://www.plantlife.org.uk/international/plantlife-med- plants-projects-allachy-uganda.htm • Threatened medicinal plants of the US (208) •Investigations on West African medicinal plants (8) Source: Patricia de Angelis, Chair MPWG, PCA Source: http://www.iupac.org/publications/pac/1986/pdf/ • American Medicinal Plants of Commercial Importance (133) 5805x0653.pdf Source: http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/HerbHunters/ • Threatened Kenyan medicinal plants (96) hhunters.html Source: Stella Simiyu • Medicinal Plants and Herbs of Eastern and Central North • East and Southern Africa: TRAFFIC evaluation of priority plant America (500) species in the region (110) Source: A Field Guide to Medicinal Plants and Herbs: Of Source: Marshall, N.T. (1998) Searching for a Cure: Eastern and Central North America (Duke, Foster, Peterson, Conservation of Medicinal Wildlife Resources 2000) • Indigenous plants that are harvested as a source of active • Medicinal plants of the South West (48) ingredients for export purposes (19) Source: http://medplant.nmsu.edu/plantindex.htm Source: Cunningham, A.B (1993) African Medicinal Plants • NatureServe list of US medicinal species and their • Cameroon Medicinal Plants (62) conservation status (538) Source: http://www.africaphyto.com/eng/plantes.htm • Selected African Medicinal Plants (155) Europe: Source: Iwu, M.M (1993) Handbook of African Medicinal Plants • Europe’s threatened medicinal plant species (20) • Drug candidates from African Forests (12), African Medicinal Source: http://www.traffic.org/plants/executive-summary.html Plants with Oral Health implications (12) and African and http://www.traffic.org/plants/recommendations.html Medicinals on the World Market (8) • Cultivated Species of Bulgarian Wild Medicinal Plants (268) Source: http://www.africanethnomedicines.net/i.elujobaetal.pdf Source: http://www.worldwildlife.org/bsp/publications/europe/ bulgaria/bulgaria20.html India: • Main threatened Turkish medicinal plants (8) Source: http://www.fao.org/docrep/005/Y4496E/Y4496E44.htm • Medicinal plants of Northern Areas of Pakistan (109) • European Cooperative Programme for Plant Genetic Source: http://www.wwfpak.org/nap/dnap_medicinalplants_ Resources Medicinal and Aromatic Plants Working Group: 10 survey_na_ibrahim.php priority species • Medicinal plants that are easily cultivated (22) Source: http://www.ecpgr.cgiar.org/Workgroups/Med_ Source: State Forest Research Institute, Arunachal Pradesh, aromatic/AppendixI.doc India (http://www.arunachalpradesh.nic.in/med-plant.htm) • 16 target species for SEED net MAP project • A-Z Catalogue of Indian Medicinal plants (500) Source: http://www.ecpgr.cgiar.org/Workgroups/Med_ Source: http://www.sbepl.com/medicinal-plants-10.html aromatic/MAP2_draft_Jan2005.pdf • Ethno-medicinal Plants Used by Gond Tribe of Kukrakhapa, • Main European Medicinals (83) District Chhindwara, Madhya Pradesh, India (32) Source: http://www.phyto-lexikon.de/liste/liste.html Source: (http://www.naturalhealthweb.com/articles/ • Mediterranean Medicinal Plants (1404) acharya1.html) Source:http://medusa.maich.gr/query1/?genus=&species= • Medicinal plants of India (39) &use=medicine&Major_Parts=Any&Major_Chemistry=Any& Source: http://www.bsienvis.org/medi.htm country=Any • Medicinal plants of South India (4) Source: http://www.rosneath.com.au/ipc6/ch02/brooks2/ index.html

Plants for life: Medicinal plant conservation and botanic gardens 31 China:

• Medicinal Plants in China: List of 150 commonly used species Source: World Health Organisation http://www.wpro.who.int/internet/files/pub/69/toc.pdf • Herbal Pharmacology of the People’s Republic of China (243) Source: The Southwest School of Botanical Medicine http://www.swsbm.com/Ephemera/China_herbs.pdf

South America:

• Amazon Medicinal Plants (233) Source: http://www.rain-tree.com/plistbot.htm (Tropical Plant Database) • Important medicinal plants in Bolivia (8) Source: http://www.positivehealth.com/permit/Articles/Herbal/ lunny22.htm • TRAFFIC priority species (2) Source: http://www.traffic.org/dispatches/archives/september 98/medicinal-projects.html • 10 South American plants screened for anti-viral properties (10) Source: http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi- bin/abstract/55001305/ABSTRACT?CRETRY=1&SRETRY=0 • Iracambi medicinal plants project in Minas Gerais (Brazil) and the international standard for sustainable wild collection of medicinal and aromatic plants (ISSC-MAP). (12) Source: Gullia and Franz, IUCN/SSC MPSG Newsletter Vol. 11.

General:

• Medicinal and Aromatic Plants included in the CITES Appendices (229) Source: Schippman, U. (2001) Significant Trade study • IUCN species where main threat is over-harvesting for medicinal use (26) Source: IUCN • Plants for a Future Database of Medicinal plants (7,500) Source: http://www.ibiblio.org/pfaf/database/latinA.html

32 Plants for life: Medicinal plant conservation and botanic gardens Annex 3 – Medicinal plants questionnaire

Safety Nets for Medicinal Plants Project 5. We want to help botanic gardens help medicinal plants. Questionnaire Where do you think BGCI should focus our capacity building over the next 5 years? Linking more than 800 botanic gardens in 118 countries BGCI (www.bgci.org) forms the world’s largest plant conservation There are a range of resources available on medicinal plants and network, with a mission to mobilise botanic gardens and engage conservation programmes but little specifically targeted at partners in securing plant diversity for the well-being of people botanic gardens. We want to maximise the potential for skill, and the planet. One of the specific aims of our 5 year plan best practice and knowledge sharing. (2007 – 2012) is to enhance the conservation of threatened medicinal and nutritious plants to address human well-being Your input will help focus conservation efforts and feed into the and livelihood issues as a contribution towards Targets 3 and 13 production of a new report and action plan containing case of the GSPC. studies and best practice to utilise the skills of botanic gardens in conserving threatened medicinal plant species. To this end, we have begun to identify the threatened plant species held in botanic gardens according to the BGCI Optional contact details: PlantSearch database and we are working to improve the information held so that it can be used as a planning tool. We Your name: have also identified several successful models of medicinal plant conservation work undertaken by botanic gardens. They Your institution: include: Email: • Working with communities to document and use indigenous knowledge Does your institution currently run any projects with • Educating on the value and used of sustainably harvested medicinal plants? Please give brief details: medicinal plants • Collecting and developing gene pools of wild stock plants • Research to discover and investigate medicinal plant properties • Using collections to support local initiatives in primary healthcare, particularly in developing countries • Using collections to support screening programmes for pharmaceutical companies, in accordance with guidelines on access and benefit sharing, and to assay the value and safety of particular medicines • Improving the agronomy of cultivated medicinal plants Many thanks for sparing the time to help! Please return any • Cultivating medicinal plants, to tackle unsustainable harvest comments to Belinda Hawkins at BGCI at: and improve ease of harvest • Practice of horticultural therapy, using plants and gardening [email protected] to treat mental and physical disorders • Educating end consumers and supporting standard setting for BGCI medicinal plant production Descanso House 199 Kew Road Now, in order to successfully match medicinal plant Richmond conservation needs with the capabilities of gardens we would Surrey greatly value your input. This will help to define priorities for TW9 3BW both in situ and ex situ conservation programmes and to facilitate best practice and priority activities for implementation. +44 (0)20 8332 5953

1. Out of the thousands of threatened medicinal plant species, which, in your opinion, are outstanding priority species for conservation action over the next 5 years?

2. In your opinion, what are the immediate priorities for medicinal plants in relation to CITES?

3. In your opinion, what are the priority methodologies for medicinal plant conservation?

4. How do you think botanic gardens can best complement the medicinal plant conservation being undertaken by other NGOs or agencies?

Plants for life: Medicinal plant conservation and botanic gardens 33 Annex 4 – Analysis of questionnaire responses

79 questionnaire responses were received from a wide range of The following pie charts and table relate to the suggested individuals and organisations. The first three pie charts show the priority species; their status within botanic garden collections range of participants in the questionnaire survey, by and whether they have been assessed using the IUCN geographical region and by institution type. categories and criteria, either on the 1997 Red Data List or the 2007 Red List of Threatened Species.

Central and South America 7% Southwest Number of species from priority 30 (discounting the 5 genera Australia and Asia and suggestions) that are held in botanic garden collections North Afirca Africa New Zealand (according to PlantSearch) 8% East Asia 9% 5% 14%

Held in 6 to 15 BG collections Held in16 to 35 Held in plus 35 BG collections BG collections India 7% 4 species 4 species (13%) (13%) Canada 3 species and North Europe (10%) 8 species America 33% (27% of 13% priority 30)

11 species Held in 0 BG (37%) collections Held in 1 to 5 BG collections Commercial Government 4% Departments Research 5% Other Institutions 4% 18% Percentage of suggested species (out of total 428 species mentioned) that are either on the 1997 IUCN Red List of NGOs Threatened Plants or the 2007 IUCN Red List of Threatened 15% Species

Botanic Garden Universities 34% 20% 17% Appear on Red List

83% Do not appear on Red List

Developed Developing Countries Countries 47% 53%

34 Plants for life: Medicinal plant conservation and botanic gardens Within the 35 priority list 5 genera were suggested: Aloe spp., Aquilaria spp., Cinchona spp., Hoodia spp. and Panax spp. These have been discounted from the above graph and looked at separately. For Aloes , Aquilarias and Cinchonas only those species that have been assessed as CR, EN or VU on the 2007 Red List of Threatened Species have been screened against the PlantSearch database. For Panax spp. we have used both the 2007 Red Listed species and those specifically suggested to us as of conservation priority. Only 3 Hoodia spp. appear on the 2007 Red List and all are classified as LC.

Number of species from priority 5 genera that are held in botanic garden collections

Other species and IUCN Number of BG collections Red List status (PlantSearch)

Aloe – 21 spp. on 2007 Red List, 740 BG records Aloe ballii (EN) 6 A.ballyi (VU) 11 A.erinacea (EN) 11 A.helenae (CR) 9 A.peglerae (EN) 32 A.pillansii (CR) 16 A.ramosissima (VU) 19 A.squarrosa (VU) 17 A.suzannae (CR) 34 Aquilaria – 9 spp. on 2007 Red List Aquilaria banaensae (VU) 0 A.beccariana (VU) 1 A.crassna (CR) 1 A.cumingiana (VU) 0 A.hirta (VU) 2 A.malaccensis (VU) 3 A.microcarpa (VU) 0 A.sinensis (VU) 6 Cinchonas – 4 spp. on 2007 Red List Cinchona lucumifolia (VU) 0 C.mutisi i (EN) 0 C.rugosa (VU) 0 Hoodia spp. – 3 spp. on 2007 Red List 13 species held in 41 BG collections (see Hoodia spp. box in section 5) Panax – 1 spp. on 2007 Red Lis t Panax zingiberensis (EN) 1 P. quinquefolius (not assessed) 8 (see P. quinquefolius box in section 5) P. ginseng (not assessed) 13 P. stipuleanatus (not assessed) 0 P. vietnamensis (not included on 2006 Red List, EN on 1997 IUCN Red List of Threatened Plants) 0

Plants for life: Medicinal plant conservation and botanic gardens 35 36 Annex 5 – Suggested priority species for conservation action

s Plant This list presents the species that were suggested to us as whilst others may be globally threatened. It is a compilation 428 species or genera were mentioned, some more than once. priorities for conservation action over the next five years in of all the answers suggested to BGCI and represents Therefore, at the beginning of the table are the top 35 species, answer to Question 1 of the medicinal plants questionnaire. multiple and varying stakeholder priorities. mentioned several times in questionnaire responses and suggested for Some of the species are only of local conservation concern, as key priority species for immediate conservation action. life: A * next to species name indicates some conservation work already undertaken or supported by BGCI Medicnal The 35 most frequently mentioned species or genera

Species Region CITES (Appendix) IUCN (2007 categories at Annex 6) BGs Of interest plant Aconitum ferox E.Asia, Himalaya, N.India 1997 Indeterminate 9 very poisonous plant, used for leprosy, choleras, rheumatism and fevers •Aconitum heterophyllum E.Asia, Nepal/western Himalaya, India 4 very poisonous,simple contact has caused numbness in some people, but is anti-inflammatory, aphrodisiac and vation conser astringent. Aloe spp. Particularly Aloe turkanensis tropical Africa II (except A.vera ) 890 21 species listed 2006, of which 9 are n/a gel from leaves used for burns, wounds and skin disorders whilst sap is a digestive stimulant and laxative species listed CR, EN or VU. 158 species listed 1997 Aquilaria spp Indomalaysia II (31 species) 2006 9 species listed, 8 of which are n/a fragrant resin-impregnated heartwood of the tree used for incense and as an imporant medicine in TCM CR or VU Balanites aegyptiaca N tropical Africa to E Med 10 medicinal bark, roots contraceptive, fruit pulp used against worms in drinking water and *Cinchona spp . Andes to Costa Rica 2006 4 species listed, 3 of which are n/a source of alkaloids especially antimalarial quinine, still not completely superceded by synthetics EN or VU. 1997 6 species listed botanic *Cordyceps sinensis Asia 0 a form of parasitic fungus that grows on insect larvae, eventually consuming the whole caterpillar. Said to have good 'yin yang balance' in TCM because of it's half-animal, half-plant appearance. Coscinium fenestratum Southern India, Sri Lanka 1997 Rare 1 widely used in traditional medicinal systems of Ayurveda and Siddha to treat diabetes gardens Dactylorhiza hatagirea Himalaya, India, Pakistan, Nepal, Tibet II 0 extract from the tuber used to treat wounds ad as a tonic for fevers *Eucommia ulmoides China 2006 LR:nt, 1997 Rare 97 possibly not known in wild, TCM tonic for arthritis and tooth fillings Gastrodia elata SE Asia II 2007 VU 4 dried and powdered a common TCM cure for headaches Gentiana lutea Europe, W Asia 48 contains some of the bitterest compunds known to science *Hoodia spp. Particularly H.gordonii southern Africa 50 species listed on II 2006 3 species listed as LC, 1997 5 n/a traditionally used as an appetite supressant by the San bushment of South Africa, now used to treat obesity species listed as VU or Rare *Magnolia officinalis China II 2007 LR/nt 1997 VU 39 bark and flowers important in TCM Nardostachys grandiflora ( syn : Nardostachys jatamansi) Nepal/Himalaya II 3 rhizomes with oil formed prized salves in Roman times *Neopicrorrhiza scrophulariflora (syn: Picrorhiza Nepal/Himalaya II 0 rhizomes anti-bacterial and anti-inflammatory and have been shown in clinical trials to boost the immune system. scrophulariiflora) Often used to treat scorpian and snake bites *Nothapodytes nimmoniana southern India 0 yields Camptothecin, important anti-cancer alkaloid. Destructive harvesting and habitat loss has led to species decline of 50-80%. Oroxylum indicum Nepal/Himalaya, southern India II 16 bark used to treat ulcers and for animal de-worming, potential anti-cancer drug with several claims Osyris lanceolata E Africa 1 East African sandalwood, known for it's scent and medicinal qualities, can fetch as much as US$15,000 a tonne. Paris yunnanensis (syn: Paris polyphylla var.yunnanensis) China 2 used in TCM said to 'reduce heat, resolve toxicity, reduce swellings and stop pain' *Panax spp. Particulalry P. vietnamensis and population N America, E Asia 2 species on II P.zingiberensis 2006 EN, 1997 2 n/a long history of use going back some 5,000 years, regarded as a cure all specific P.ginseng species listed as EN *Podophyllum hexandrum ( syn : Sinopodophyllum emodi) Nepal/western Himalaya II 45 contains podophyllin, which interferes with cell growth and has been used to treat ovarian cancer Prunus africana tropical and S Africa II 2007 VU 3 common treatment for prostitis Rauvolfia serpentina Southern India, Vietnam II 22 source of resperine, reduces blood pressure and used to treat mental illness *Rhoicissus revoilii tropical and S Africa 5 the Bushveld Grape, given to livestock to expell worms Saraca asoca Southern India 2007 - VU 1 the tree under which the Buddha was born *Saussurea costus ( syn : S.lappa) E Himalaya I 1997 EN 6 considered one of the 50 fundamental herbs in TCM, also used in Ayurvedic and Tibetan traditional medicine systems *Sideritis raeseri Europe 1 Greek Shepherd’s tea, siad to have a positive effect on all ailments, particularly colds, respiratory problems and the immune system Swertia chirayita Himalaya, India 0 extensively used plant, used as a bitter tonic and for the treament of fever and for curing skin diseases Taxus wallichiana Nepal/Western Himalaya II 2007 DD 19 used in Ayuvedic and TCM to treat fever and muscular pain but also as a source of the best-selling anti-cancer drug Taxol Toddalia asiatica Africa 0 fruit used as a cough remedy, roots for indigestion, leaves for lung diseases and rheumatism and to treat fever. salutaris E Africa 2007 EN 1997 VU 1 bark a purgative, active against worms, leaves eaten in curries Withania somnifera Africa, India 26 narcotic and diuretic Zanha africana E Africa 0 a local 'cure all' Zanthoxylum chalybeum Africa 0 roots used to treat malaria t r e b d r o e e t s h a u s r t k n a r o a m b m u e r S l e , n n i d i n i u d , e q s i s l d u i p c , u a e s l t g c b c i i n r e i b t i s h c n n s i i a n f i d w o e h r n s c i o i o f i s r e t t o t y n i n h d e u e p r r c f m w s o , / o d l b l g m e i e a n r i m t y r d e o f t u , o m o s s ' v e e s a n s c l u r f u u o u i e n m c o h o h c s o t i a t c , o m k e p d e r n l e d s o a p s n e t o i p t a n s u a i w n e T e e c d f a i s y h e n o d u c d i y o e a r m r a d c a w m p y n n - s o - i e n l u t a h l t e r a e t o h e g u i u f y d t y l g i m u i i , s t m e c f o , s r i n a s v t c o s i e e t , b r t t c s a e s g a u a e , n c e r e s n s k r n e i r c n y t n c e c u d u i o o i x r t o 0 o u t s p e b l x d d i s i 0 l s a p c i n o i d , 0 r n r h m a p e i e a 2 H l c o , s s f g e e e a o w a u m n t c u c e e m i e o f r u o r n g o k s o p u i i r g s r s u h o l u s f o a d f r a i a d s r m s y s e s n a M s a m e a i a v g a d r i e v C d l u i t w n e e d l i k r T a e v r e g g e , d , ' . . s a , n s l v e s g i l e e i , t s b d u e t i a n k r h i r g g n n d e e - , a t t i c a a e n e e e n n n n i d o p i i t i i r t s l k k b n e s s i i c c t s u c l l a w w u i i a s t l u t - - c n i b o o d d , s t ' g s e o a n n r r v e e e e o i i n t n a l n r n l l i g g e i r a p m a a e a r a m m o t r o b o t t o c d w p e i i s w w r n z g t i p k k e e o i e i e l l g g l o o a i i u o s s e l h l f h h o o r m i d d a a o k r p t f s u c s f f O s a 6 7 7 7 7 2 8 9 2 6 7 3 5 4 5 / G 0 1 8 4 0 2 9 1 2 5 6 2 0 0 3 1 5 0 4 1 3 1 2 1 3 3 3 3 2 0 7 1 2 1 3 6 1 5 6 2 0 4 1 1 4 2 0 n 0 0 B ) 6 x e n n A t a e t s a e i n r i o g m e r t e a t c e e r 7 d a T U U U R U U U N 0 n 0 V V R V C V V V N I E 2 ( 6 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 0 9 9 9 0 0 0 0 0 9 0 N 0 9 9 9 0 0 0 0 0 9 0 C 2 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 2 1 2 U I ) x i d n e p p A ( S E T I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I C a e n i u G n r w e e c c i N n p a o o i o t r r c g t a e a a - i i n n c n b i s n i a d o a r i t o a A n f S K i . d u I p t a a , A i t n h N g c a a I s s i . m w B n n , e r v r y a r r f o e o , o r a u l E e r l o a p t n A n f H a e h a a a a e a e o a K , l t ; l p s r S y y d n a u p , u u h e M d e o e n n a a t c n a , a E s l l a o d i a d p r a a . 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Plants for life: Medicinal plant conservation and botanic gardens 37 a i d n I n i s n i m h a r B e h t o t d e r c a s , s e e r t g n i r e w o l e f n i l c u i f i d t e u c a a m i e s h i b g d t s s u o s e r m o o v i a h c t x m p a a e a y x e s s a e h n l t o a y a r l e f a d p y o r l e e d l u d s e n t t e u a n a a s o n e n y o r r e r e p t l e a h b p a l g o c u i n t r u o l i s t u p c d i s d o d d n d e i p n a n z e a i i t a s r e s l s m i t c , p g o p n e y n n s l y e u r l e g l m a l e p a s u h m s f v Y c n t ' i g e i i e o a d f g l k h l h m e t r n n r r r , d t a o a e e o s l t t n r f v s n w n a a F Y i , l c o a i t i f f k e l c t i d n s n o o m h p s x t e o e o e e n a t d o r n g f t i t v v y e e n r i n i o t m i a t t d d a e d b r n l e l e t a a r e p e i t l l t e e i u a s n a s s f e e c b b r g N u o a i p u r O s a 9 1 4 4 8 6 6 7 5 2 1 0 6 3 / G 7 0 0 0 1 0 1 2 4 2 4 4 4 0 2 3 0 5 1 1 0 7 0 1 0 3 3 0 5 1 1 4 5 5 1 0 0 7 8 0 9 3 n 0 3 4 7 0 0 4 B f ) o 6 , U x 7 e V 0 n r 0 n o 2 A t d N a e E s s , e d s i e r R e r o s C e g s e g e t a r n a a a s c e r e d 7 0 i a U R n N 0 c 2 0 E E V R C e 2 h p ( 7 7 7 7 7 c s i 9 0 0 9 0 N h 9 0 0 9 0 4 C w 1 2 2 1 2 2 U I ) x i d n e p p A ( S E T I I I I I I I C a c i r e , e n l m i r A h e l C c a s n c n o i t o o p i l c o g a r e c t a n i r i , p s o l a c i o y i i a t t r a s p t l c e a a e r a l a p n v n a N A n r a o a M i r a r i t p e p y h l u s d a W s l t a C W E J u n a S c n a u I i , i a a , A a a y i n b r a c o , a i i e o W a , a s a t e c e r c n n n l d d d i n r r a a r a a l a a N i s e i p o i r a a a n n n a a c c a c c a c f n m f h u i i i i n I I i s h s p p K a o c c c c a r r r r r l A o i m a t A e C t R a a C f a f a f f a A s s s i , n n a r e a r p , i s J J y y y a a r a r r , a a t A A A A a l i E S H e g S o i E e e o a a a , , e e e a / c s m g g g n a k l l l l i r l i Z n t , t i n d d h a h h h p p a a a a a a a a a a a a a S a a a a r d d a a a h a i h t a r A a a a i t a t t t s a o a t p a t t h e e e c c c c c c c c c c c f n o o e i n n n n i n n d d d d i i i i i i i i i i i s P I i u r i p i i u s u r r u w p o e y r r n u u u C g m r r r r r r r r r r r m m a A a a a d a e t N r i e i u e e i h o o h f f f f f f f h h o f u o o f o f f o a g u u c o o e b a n C M M H p E S N K W f H C R A A W A A A A A E C E C I E S E E S N s M S A A S C K N M A s K N H A A S R s a d e t s e g g u s s ) e a i i c r a e c i p s s r t e m s m m e n u P m i l u ( i u l d i a s u s i l m a e l n i l y s e s l o c o c i s u s i o h u a i p . a l e f d s i c a s i i u r a s n i s p s a l i l p u u h s u t l r z r a m e e e o m a c o o o c t o a a c u p l i e a g t n t a m i a m e y r i i s l a a i t u l a a h a e c n i s a r s a a e a a c p n a s t n y e t a u h h v i t a i t m l r o c l m u n i t u n r s t i e m l s t k c a c s o c e n o a c a n x p i n a i p e e e n l a i a m i d a i c p i d a i y t l r i l a c n n p u i o a i s f o s m m e i s i a t r o c c c a e i c l o d b i o s n n l s v s a r t s l a e r g y t a b a r a n n n i i m m m i e a o i m a u s r r o b a i l m m v a c a o i r n n i t e l y p s e r r e a r m l m h r a a d l u f o h u u u a e y n d u a u s n u n r i u a i c a i n i a a p a o m t i u i s a l i m s r r r a o n e i l o i k c t p l t t c i b p a h s h i m o b s a a a c p y s e r p k g r p d k o s i i d o n d d d m t h e a n a a e a h s a t p i i a n b u m g a a s g l a m a t o s e i o a v e e i i a a o n n n s u n m a i k c h s a s l a m r i i m m i i g a m u u s n n u k p a a i a l p n a p p e e e a p i p i m e e a a n r c r f l a a a r i e t l a r n s n a u u a y a a a i a i l r p e a e s r o t a r o o i i d d d r l n r o g n a a s n s s a r t e l h n i i a e b e e e e e n t c r i e a h g g r r i l m s o u s i a e a i t n o o o s s c e a o r o i c w n n t t p a n u o s s d c r b g g c i i i a a e e n o r b h c l t t r r r o u t s a d t e s s w i e a u a x u l u p t t l g r r r t n n l t s r r r r r p e h a a u i e s e e e e e a s s m b t s s s z a e e e e i l o o o r l l l l l i i i i h h h e e e e a a a a a a a a a u u r r A B C C B B p A A A * A B B * B B B B B B B B B C C C C C C * C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C * C B * B * B B O S

38 Plants for life: Medicinal plant conservation and botanic gardens n o g n i f t o c a s l , e e v l i e t l r e f w o s l d i g r n i b y n i h a l e p l i x r E e t . s s s e o k a p s m i s o t o r d e l e c s s u o i s r i e t e r V n a i I c H i s e h r c c o l f u h o d t g C i e n r . h e k , s r m n i t o o s a n r w k f e o f t r e i t s g t a e n r u n s p e e i i l o r f G c m b n e o i a e u e o f s i i s e h n t s t s i s c n r i o r o g t o y o i p u p n c r b b o 5 e a h a e o s t 8 n r c t r s s , 7 i o l s e a t n a 2 s a 1 e h i e e r i b f g h o e n f w o c c u i f c e p n u r f f i i n n g f a i n e i a e f m e a s s n m i s a s r o p t d t c d a e e i l s i n n s r n v v a t d a a d n a l r n f e i o e i n l e t u e o s c f e t m d i n w n u a m s e i n l e n d o i t s a t c a a c e o u n n l r d e s c s a s k a , p u e l s l m o i c t p l s o n s A p i n d a y s a s a u t i e l . r e l e r t s d n d s y d n a d d a r l y e a e u l r l l l c t n a s w o a o u r a F o a c m l u o h g c c o i e o r s n s a t p s s s e n h n n u k s a l i t e e l l s o e o o n v m t i r f i c a e m m o s k e m m m i o t e V o o n d d o d i n n z z e h i m e m r e i r i i e s c a s s n o a o h f i e h h h p c c r u c r c u r t r o O s a a 4 4 8 3 2 / 2 5 6 / 1 6 1 8 1 G 4 7 5 9 2 2 1 5 8 0 0 3 0 0 0 0 1 3 0 7 7 0 0 n 7 1 5 2 6 2 1 4 4 4 n 5 7 0 0 3 4 3 4 1 1 2 1 1 B ) 6 U x f e V n o r n d d o A e e t t t N a s s i i E s l l N e , i s s E r R e e o i i C 7 g c c e 9 e t e e 9 r a p p a c 1 e s s r l 7 l D a T R U R R U R U 2 6 N N 0 a 0 D C 1 6 R E V C C N V E C V 2 h ( 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 c i 0 0 0 9 9 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 N h 0 0 0 9 9 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 C 2 2 2 w 1 1 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 U I ) x , i , s I d e n i - e c p e m p p u A s t ( n 5 S I e I E 6 u l T 3 r l I I I c a I 1 I I I I I I I I I C n r e a c i l n a r o t c s a u c n i A r o f i o t t A t e r a p a n e i v r o s s s r s r e e e e a e A u a h a d c c c t s y E i y a a n u r l l a n m n a a l f a n l a r o a p p a y i a i o i p a a a A a s a t t d d c a e l d c a a a a a a a a a a a a m i e e w m i n d i J a N n n n c c c c c c c c c c c i r f I c I i i i i i i i i i i i I s i n w w a , e H o r r r r r r r r r r r f H o o m r e e a t A f f f f f f f f f f f a i n i t o n r i a n n r t m n l l l p p c r i i A n A A A A A A A A A A e H s g m m r n e e e e e a r a a a t e / o o A l l i a a a l a a e n t A n r r h p a i a h h h h h h h h a h h h p p c p e c c a a a a a a a i i i a a h P t h i i i i t t t t t t t t t t t t t a o n n t c c c c c c c c t u u o b o o o s s N i n n s t t d a b b a i i i i i i i i s p p p C u u u u u u u i u u u u i u p e r i r r r i s u d a E E g r r r r r r r r e e e e A A o o e o e o o o f f f r i i s o o o o o o h f f o s f o o E f o h o f u a u l l u u o n e b r r r S W E A A A A N V E V M A E E t S S S S S S C A A S A W A g g N E s S S w E S A S a t C S N A t E R s a d e t s e g g u s s e i a l i c a e m p l p e s e i i s s l i s i t b i s n u i s i i n e e s u s g a u n m r s k - l o u n a n i l a s u a b u c l i a b m i s n a i t c y i i a n u i a c l i n n i . i a a i p t a m a g t u a r i e r h a e a r n a r a m l u r n l t a s r y e a s y a a h i h t u l n n a i a i i l c c e a p . h l a i i a i a l o o l r s e a i a z m l d s n c o e e c n g n v l p i a l r r m t a c c l d i i t r o p s u a i a i b n l o b l i g i n i a l u e l s a a g h e a a e i e e i s n f s y u c o i m r b p r a n s s a e n e i e e s i o o w u n l t i f i c i j a e n n m l g f c a p - a p o m t n i t s b m l d o i e m d m g r n e a p s l a h m s s a l p s x a i e u n e c a u w i s i s a s s s s s s s m a e t u i a e m n s m l t e b p o l n n n u i r r . h i n k c i r d i a a a m u n m m o o o o o o o a s o y i h q p n u u u e e h v b f r o e r r r o i m t t t t t t t p d s i h n i n d t t m l o u s n r d b a n r r r r r r r a h e e n n v t m a i i o o o h m g s c p i a e u u i i i m e o e s i t n a d i m i a i a a a a a a a d e d a a a i l u y b b a s s r h h h p r l l l l l l l t s u g g s s h h r a u a i r i o u p e n e e s i i m c m m a h o a a a a a a a s o l s p p p m l a c c q m i e r r o n s e l c a i e a a i i i t e b s r e l n i u l i y m l l t n h h h h h h h o a m e s s r r s l c a a i l h i l o o m n o o d r u s s s r d n a x s a a p p p p p p p p e e s e d l m m m i i i n o y s e u a c e c c h h h u a o n i d e o l m v t t t y t n c h e o o i i e e e e e e e i s s a y y o i c c t o t h s s o n i c b p l p c e v i e e o l m m m o n p p p r r r t s s l p v c c c c c c c c y h h o o a o o o p o o o g a a e i a t y y r r r o i i i i i i i e a l o o o o o o o o o o o o r r r y r C C n n n n n n n m l c D D D p C * C C C C * C C C C C C C C C C E E E E E E E E E E D D D C D D D D D D * D D D D * D * D C C O S

Plants for life: Medicinal plant conservation and botanic gardens 39 . e s a e s i d s r e m i e h z l A t a e r t o t d e s u , a n i h C n i e p o l s s n e i a n i t n m u a t o e m h p e n m o a f o t o t d c e e n f i f f e n o e c h t w s o c i n ' m l i i s m s , o g f u g r n d i v s i l s ' o l a t , h s g r i t t u e M n n a w C a a s e l l ' T o e p p e r l n t n i c i n n d a n e e l i r a i d d e s r r i n h i m a a a t ' c r g g i n a t e d a n n s s e s h e o o e e t r a m c n e m m i r t d r a e b n l e m m i o p d s l u c a o o f i l u J c o b c O s a a a 8 6 7 0 2 8 0 0 8 3 / / 6 9 7 / 4 G 1 1 3 1 0 0 0 2 1 7 5 0 0 1 5 1 1 1 2 0 1 0 0 0 5 7 0 0 7 1 7 0 2 3 n 0 n 1 2 0 6 5 5 1 1 5 n 4 5 B N s E e h i 2 c c i ) e h h 6 c p i x w s h e e f i 6 n w o p n f 7 A d o n 9 t e c a t 9 d e u s 1 e i s r i t l e , a N i s o i r s t l U R E o e V i g s d 7 7 e c e r d t 9 9 i e o a a c 9 9 p c e - 1 1 s N p 7 E s 0 U U R U U U 8 W 0 , 6 E V V C V V V 3 2 ( R d 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 6 C e N 0 0 0 0 0 0 9 0 0 t C 0 0 0 0 0 0 9 0 4 0 s i U 2 2 2 2 2 2 1 2 2 4 l I ) x i d n e p p I I A ( n S o E T 8 I I I I I I I I I I I I 1 C n r e c n d o n c a a n c i o r i t e a i a l a m a i v r A r b a t a a c e s i c N r i r s u f , r A a n a a a a A a e A n i y y y y o i e a o l n o t a a a a m c E h a a p t c l l l l i a a a r i a a a a a A p a o a r a a C N t c c f a r i i c c c c c a i d e s a a a a a a a a a r a a a i i i i i r r o m m m m S u d a J s N r r r n r r c c c c c c c c c a c c c i i i i u i e e i i i i i i i i i i i i f f f I f m f y E n , c e s r r r r r r r r r r r r A H H H H g o s a t A A A A A A a f f f f a f f f f f f f f a s m m t l n i A n , n u a y l l l l l l l a r A A n A A A n A n n A A A A A A a a i r a A A s i r a l e e a r a a t a a r a r a r a e i g c e l i n e a a n i A e h h h h p h e h h h h h c h h a c p c c e c e c e c a a a i a m a a a s i r a h r N a i i i i h i i i r t t t t t t t t t t t t t t t t o p t m c c c c t t o o t a s f h b i n o n n n u d i i i i s p p s r p s p s p p p u u i u u u u u u i u u i i u u r r r r s u n g r m r r r a a d A A C m e e a e e i o o o o o o o o o h o o f o o o o A h W o o f A h h f o f o u u o u a s o e e r r r n r r e r r S S E H C w S S A t t S M S M E t E I S S E S t C w n w t S t E S E E S A S w s C t C w c t A S A S R a d e t s e ) g c g i f i u c s e p s s e i n c o i e t s s p a s i n u s c m s e n m o u t l n b a s u i ( t l n e i m u l s a s t i i m n i b s a i a s i y m a c i a u s u l o i s e l d o n h m u b t e s m n a m c a i n a p i d o r c a e r i n p u l s m s i a c s t a t u i f o o i i e e i i i i k e i b a t t t n a r d l l a l l r p a c a o i v i i r t a a r t h s i b c a i n a a a p e i u r n s e i u i o a i i c r p o l a i a i n o l a i u n i b s a f p n n c u y i s e u s a g o n s b g i e i n i e s w i i n n . d m c i n b e e o e m l d . n e n n s h s k i o n e l a m a b s d r o s s f i s h e i s s d . a r m o p i m u i t i i p d j u o r p r g c m e u r a n s n o a n p l s y l n c m s o m t r p c e c c n p e s s s i p u i a i i r a a i e r u a r p o t p k n l u e a i h s o e y a t a u t b u l t n o p a m l y t r c p r s o o t t m s r h e r b i s p a y m a o l n f y t t y s a p n a b d m a b w m f c l i o s i n o s i o m h e u u u a r r i g m i o u o u p a a u r a b a a a i s h e s k e a l v c n k e u m a p j w r a i a a a a a a a a a i v z i s d a a c g d a k i h l l b i a u i i i i i i p i i n a a m i e i s a a m u m s a a i d a b t r i a r i r s a r a a a u a a i n b h b b b b b b h o l a i d h m y a d e d a a i i a a i i i a u p s f n s t i i e o r r r r r r i i a t n r r d d m i r i h h n e s o r r p o a g n s n o s h r m c r i r o a l r r o s a n e e e p h o o o o o o n n n t d e m n h s a a a a p p f a o e e o k n i r i u a i e p o u y i l l l l e i i o h s s e l e e o i t e e h e p h h h h h h c t l l e e d l o s t r p a d c p r n t m i c d i i c m o u u v s r a n i o o l w r r g b n m n s r r c c h p i a c c g l u p p p p p p t t h n r r g y e i i p y o e e i i t o o o i e a a a a a y y u o l l l e a a a n n p E p r r r r u u u u u E u u G u u u u u r r e e a p E E E * E E E E E E E E E E * E H H H H H H H H H H G G G G G G E * G G G G G F F F F F E F E E E S O

40 Plants for life: Medicinal plant conservation and botanic gardens c a i s i d o r h p a s a n o i t a t u p e r h t i w e v i t c i d d a e d n n o a g y n r i o d t a a e n l i c i c e x u h l l t o n t a e o h i y n l t , s i l a h r c i a s e g i i x c t c i o h s n t s e , a n s c c i i m e t s e , s o o s s c t m e r d i o o y c a o h s x p n l e p a a n r e d , k h o l e e p n t a g h t a o s t r u c 0 a a c e u o i f 3 p t r E f m h o h r e t o t n e n r o i c v a p k i o s t o y c x i d t h o r o i s t n t r o n s s a f y i h a c l t a i e o r t t o d e n d a n i l e e v i s o r c d s a d i u c i o w n u h d f o c a , i e n n s s r e i ) M s t r o e g e m r C c t n s u c u a i a c T y t r c a e r w o r a t n d l y n o a p b m i x a a l l ( n n t e 0 n a i n e i c p k r i u , 0 g d o v l i i t G i e n b 0 n n e t t t a i o i o r o e v 7 l t r c e n i t d n r i u a d t e u v r a f r c o , k a o s o i e f e r l a n l d v t a g v v e w i d a k g r e a a e o l l a f d c t s e u n d f f ' n r e s o s u a e p m e n s e o s o o s s n r e t f i s a y y h u y m l i u l l e c m l l t o e r o d d , d , t k a a n i J z n u e e y m r x e i i c c u t s s a a o a s o o f h r l o o s S f l u r u f b c l b h u O s a a 0 7 0 9 3 1 / 8 8 6 0 0 / 3 0 G 1 0 0 1 0 2 4 6 1 1 1 4 0 0 n 3 2 7 0 0 0 0 3 0 0 0 0 0 6 0 6 0 4 0 1 4 4 4 0 1 3 0 n 4 0 0 4 1 0 1 3 5 B ) 6 x e n n A t a e r s a U e i R r V o 7 7 g e 9 9 t 9 9 a d c 1 1 c / 7 D R U U R U N C N N C N 0 0 D E L E C V V E C L V E 2 ( 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 9 0 0 0 0 N 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 9 0 0 0 0 C 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 1 2 2 2 2 U I ) x i d n e p p A ( S E T I I I I I I I I I I I I I I C r a n a r c c s i e r a c a e g r c n a h i a m r o d s c A e a e c s d a m M N n a a g l i A , o a g a d i W d c N t n n i . r I a a r r a f u u B t v o M t A t r a , a o n t S e a a n , c c s , a a i i d a r r n a e a c c n i i f f i n y p n i r a o r n A A a f a o e l h c l o a a r a p A a i i a a a a a a z C S S l f m u c c a c c c c c d d a i a i a a a a a a a r r r r e i i i i i o E m N J A d d r t C r n n r r r r e c c c c c c c a a a a i o p f i i i i i i i f I I f f f f m r a n n a c c c c c e o r r r r r r r d d H g a a o r N i A s t A A A A a a o A o f f r f f f f f c A s s s s t n n i n n t e x n n a n u c l l l l l l l b a r r a a a i A A i A A A n A A r i a E i a a S i r m e , n p t e e e t o i a a t a r a a a a e e l g g g g e x r i e a a n m c s e h h h h n p h h h c a p a p c n c e c c c c a a a a a a a d i a a h h r a n a a d i e M i e i i i i i i m t t t t t t t t o p i n t t u e c c e c c m o t o o A b i b n n n n n n d b u d x t d d n i i i i e p s p p p p p p u i u u u u u i u a i i i n r r r c u u g s g t E M g a r r r r a A a a a e e a a a m o e r o o a o o o o o o r h o o o f f o f o h f o r p E h h h i r u u l u s a o o i e e r r r r r r r r S A C C S e t E S N S A t A A S E E M t M N s I A S g C A s S A M t c w S S C C t t t C S N M V E t M M R a d e t s e g g u s s s e i l i a c a n e i b c p i o f l s i f a t o B h . . n s p a p p u s a r i e i i l s s s a l i i i i i m o e i i s d s i s e s s s r a a a a a o p i i i h u i l s s s t l t i m l m r d t t f n s i t i d t d m l i i l s i s a i i s s m i l n a n a r a r a a e u o i n s r s i i a y a s n s i c l n m o l c s n n l l a r e o l a u e i l e d i h r u i a e f o u n l c s a l l i i l a a t a a e t e o f a a i n a s m h i g p r o b l o a o n a a g i e t m i y t a n e a e a c o l s u p g i n m s e b f n f r i d l l n n n a l a e a m t t d i l i u p i e r s i i i s o a n . x i a s r a i n r c s n e a o a a g a d t l r i u n s s u c r y c a i n t l o c r e e c c s s r a m e r t n b m p e w n a t r b u n r o s . i i i i f n y d u a a u o i a u o s t u c e e r r a t m l c i b a e f f t u l l r s o i a u p p f a c r m e y i w i g a p e e a c h m y f o f d a s u s a f d k d s o m f o c u a a e c c n p o c r s u i s r i f i a h r c f b h c a s t c e a p i t e h o h o f y a a a a n u l u b s i i a i n e e r a s a b a a r u c i d o c m y o a s o i n s a h a a i e h s a h m n n n n f q s s r c s a a e n i t c w d l p a a a a a t s i i a d a a i u h h i n b l u i i i a m s a e n e e e h u a s t a a i e i l m i a t a t s u s o n l l l e t o a z r r n c i a r e a i p r p a a a y t a a a a z s i i s a s o c n s i s i d n i n s f i o s a s l l l o r o o o l l n a i e a a e a n a r l r r x i h c r o o o t i h u i i e a e n a o c o g e e r i e o n o s a d h u c l o o c m r y n n n o o p i t o t s r i e e i c r r r s e o w r e s i k e r h h h i t i n n r t t e s t t v t o e p y r r n n n c i u s r r n c y g r g g e e e p p r d d m o p p i o h r p d p p p n e n h n s n u p p p p c e g e y y y o o o o i o e e a a a a a a a n t u u u y y y y y y c b e a e i l n n a a e e M o o o o o i e e y u u p H H H H H H H H H J J K K K K K L L L L O O N N M M * M M M M M M M M M M M M M M M M L L L L L L L L L O S

Plants for life: Medicinal plant conservation and botanic gardens 41 s k c i t s - g n i w e h c , n o s i o p w o r r a , m u g g n i w e h c n i d e s u a , l m a h n t i s c i a d , e a m m y o l l c a u c a l o l g , , ) n e o e i f f s g o n n c e i t f k r r o a e e l t r l p i m a e t y k v h n h t n o i e r s a c m o e p s f e r m a n g i i t , e u r s d 4 m d u e s s l o i o t l t t a u n i a , t l 3 a i e l ( n m o n p , e i u t , k c e n i o d n h i e d p o r r d e , o d r t r a s m e w h l g n l v i g a t i a o a n d s h n g e o n m o r a e i a e e t m r n l s t i i i d - n f d s m e i e e f a a s c o k f a r i i l c b t c l u O s a a 1 3 / 5 8 5 1 8 3 3 / 8 1 0 7 9 1 4 8 0 5 4 0 G 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 n 3 5 1 0 0 3 1 3 1 1 1 8 0 0 0 7 n 4 1 5 2 0 0 1 2 2 1 1 2 2 4 3 0 9 4 5 4 1 3 0 2 1 5 B ) 6 x e n n e A r t a a e r R s a e N i 7 R r E 9 o 7 9 7 g 9 e 1 9 t 9 9 t a c 1 c e e 1 n l : : r r 7 a a D N N R R N N 0 0 E R E L L E R E D 2 ( 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 0 9 9 0 0 0 9 0 0 N 0 9 9 0 0 0 9 0 0 C 2 1 1 2 2 2 1 2 2 U I I ) I x i - d s n e e i p c p e A p ( s S E 8 T 1 I I I I I I I 2 I I I I C a i d n I n d d r n l r a e o c a n n n W a i o h w d c i l C a O n T W o d m i r t a n S a c a a i o r v w a t a a a f r c c c n i d A s i i i a e r a r r i a e n , f i h f f s a a s y a a a n i n A C A A n y n a c c l i o s l a o i i a a i a z o a i a S l h z r a r S S A N a n s c c c c a d a e e i C a a a a a a a a a y a i e i a o m A i d d o r t C n r a c c c c c c c c c a i t f p t f p i M i i i i i i i i i I f m m l m s E a n a n e r r r r r r r r r o a H o s o r a a A , t a c A a A A E A f f f f f f f f f a a a a r t n r i J e a A N t a l l l y y l y l l y r r A A A n a A a A A A A A i a m u S g r m m n , p e e e o i i a , a a a a a a r a a , a , e a a a e c c s r l l l l e a a i i i a a a E n t i i n c s h h c a h h h h h h h p c p p a c c e c c a a a i i i h d H i e i i i a a i a r i i a r m A i t t t t t t t t t s t s s o a p n n t p m c c e c c r t o o o f f A s s s i i x a t t n i i i i e p p s s s s p p p p u u u u u u u u u r e r i y r r a s u t A g r r r r m m m m E e d e e A A a A A A m e o o i i i u W u u o i o o o f o o o s f o f E o o f o o o i i o e u a g u u o e b r r e r r n r r A t E S E E M S N n E S A A t S t S t E s H E E E H t A S I S S A H R R N S E E w S R S t t V V N K E H R s a d e t s e g g u s s ) ) . e e s p i n e i p c d s s i e r m o y p i n u e a s t b M a s c a u ( i r t m s r n e r a e s o s u m t r n f s e s e l i s s s e c c a f u n d o A n s a i i u o r n d i i a i l r e i e l a s n a s r m c r n s e o o h a i c i i r a p m a l o o e m r n u t m a l u b o t s c l f s l s t h i z s a s t c i o h u i a n u u a l i u u i l d u u i h i t m e a c c t u u a s g n a c i n f r l l l a r n i s l s h l o t e l i u s a l f n p m u f l b i d e a m n h n a n a i r u a i u r u f n a a a n a o a e r a s r a o i S d c t a o a o s n r s a a e c n r i s p o h s c s a f a r s a ( t c t e i s r a n n i a l n s n i i a d n a l i s f n n a m e s t d i r c l n o s i e c e e g a m r g a f a n n n a a p g b c i a b m l y o u a e r g r n i i i i o a a n o e m n n o t t u l a i e s d n n o a t e i e n s m o o m t i e r c m e u i y u l n s c s e o d i a a i s s s n a m a g e c t r r l e m q c t i m u v n n e m o d l d e a z i . l u i i r r s l s v s r u o i u c m i p p n l i u u u r a u a i a s s l d d l r a n s e e m a u y p o o h s a e l t h p y e t t a l i i m s a g k i p a a p o s u s r n a h h h a l r u n n n j i h c n h v e b e c r a o n p a e l y a t t t b a a b c u i a m m z i t a i i g o b u t i o e a g i e e i a a i i c a a c i o s m e a n p h i n n n i a v s q g t u u c a a a a w m m m a n u e r p g s g o n d d a a i n n l l l r d i h a a a s n a a a a o o m p t r n n n n o r s u u u b i i e r o s e o n h a e o o o e i x x x r r x n r o c a u u u i e e e o i a s s r a t g s l l h a l a a t t t t i u s t t i p h a o e r e l l c t l l p a r a a a e a n e i b d m o h e s m m m y y m u u c c c c c t r g g p n m m m i i i o o n t l l a e e e y a y p p o e a u n u p n n n n e h b i i n o c i i i e i i y e u e e e n s n m c t c c c c c l r r r r r r s z e a a a t s r r r r r o o l l l l i i i i i h h e e a a a a a a a O P P P P p O O O O O O * O O O O O O O O P R R R P * P P P P P P * P P P P P P P P P P P P P P P * P P P P P P P * O S

42 Plants for life: Medicinal plant conservation and botanic gardens g n i d l o h r o f d e s u l l i t s h t i p d n a l a n i c i d e m , e y d r i a h a s a d e s u s n l a a i m r o e t R a , m n l o i a t i c t i s n r a e t g p o u u r b e h s e d g r s t h c e n t l i a i f h i n s w d o g r i u t n d r a i c t e c b t t e h a o s d t i r n o c n f a o o e o t s s h l s l e n w a e h o t , s s m y i s t n r s o s r a e b p e s e r r n r m b a i e e r w t w c e b e n o w e o i g u r d o p n a l r f h l f s k s r e a O s a a 3 0 3 2 5 9 / 8 4 4 0 1 4 8 1 / 2 2 0 G 4 2 1 1 0 1 1 0 1 4 3 5 2 3 0 6 n 1 9 6 7 1 0 0 1 0 5 0 4 0 1 8 1 4 0 4 1 6 2 n 0 3 3 2 2 3 3 4 0 1 3 B ) 6 x e n n A t a e e t r s a a e i n r R i o 7 g m e r 9 t e 9 a t c 1 e 7 d U N N N N 0 n 0 E V E E E I 2 ( 7 7 7 7 7 7 0 9 9 0 0 9 N 0 9 9 0 0 9 C 2 1 1 2 2 1 U I ) x i d n e p p A ( S E T I I I I I C a c i r e a i a m s c i A n e r r n e N e o r m c d c A n n a a o d M c n a i a n d s a a n a e n a A c c e i p i o i a , i r s r n o f t e f r a d A l A p r a A u a r . e i o v r E a a t h o r S s r i t u a c c u t i i d A e u c W d r r C a a a a W E a i l e f f o s a a r r y y y y o n f d f n a d d t A A y l n S n a a a a a o M o , i l l l l a a c A a n a n y i i o O l i e a a a a a a a h S S d p a s a d r W a a r d a c c c c l d f S a l a a a a a r n C e i i i e n n e i m m m m n d d a a t n r r r d J r c c c c c a i i i i A a f i I a o z m l i i i i i I h f f f W o a n n i i c o l r r r s r r t a H H H H o m r W p o , a O A A A a E g f f f f f e e i n s r a H e n t K e s r a S e a l l l l l l l r a p p n n n n A A A A A i c i B H i n , g m , a r i p e e r r r a r a a a a a a a / e i g o o i b a , l p a o a a a o n t t n p a a e e a e h h h h h h c p e c c c c n c c i a a a a a r r i m i s i i c h r a t r i i i i i i i m i a a t t t t t t t t t t i o o a n p t p c c e a e c c c c s e o o s a s s u u i i e i t c t d i i i i i i e s s s p s p p p p p p b r p u u u u u u r m r e y r y r u p h t g c r r r r r r A E E a e h b d a A A A t e e e e e o o a W o o o o o f f u o f i o f o f o f o i o o o r g u t g u a o e b r r r r r r r n A A C N E w w K w A J E t E w E M s t t A V E C S A E N E S A S N t t A S S t S t S S S N N E K I M E R s a d e t s e g g u s s ) s e s i u e l c d o i e b o m p a t o t l m u s ) a l a ) u p s l y t r m a m h i u u h t n a u s c c n m P i c a n i i d a a ( s n e s y l e a c e p s a t e i a h i u u r c n s i h a e p t o t a S s a a t s i a d m d a i e y s c i ( t m n y s n i n i i l o l a r n i h e l a u n g r G a s m t r e a o p t d i a o r a t a e h ( a t a u s p a a r s c a n f l r s l u t m n i d s e i e e m d a a r a i j h i o i l i b c o i i c g l o a n m a n a u l a r a e r n a a u i s a e g e u o c g y n p n d t i b r t r i r o a t h m n i a u h t a c l a u a g r d s i n n n a i a r a n i r n u t n a t h a a n d i i t s c s a o g a n a y n a r e e p n n t e n a i r i . b o o i s i t a r e e e a i d a e a i o a c e a b a r n o n p b t c n s u . e s t e l a l m i d r r r s l i r t c i r l o s r n o p e u n n u m g c b o n h d e n t o o e b i l i s a i c p i t p a o e u g d d d p s u r b l i y n b m u e e y r p s h r a g i f a a r e c e e h r l i l y h s e t e a c p h a t n f a n s n n o m s a a o a y s m a a a c i d e u e r i n g i n s s a h u t c y i t u r i a s c n i e e c e w n a r t r m s o r o a a a t a s a c e e a u u l l l a m o c s a a h a m m n o s d m a a o a a l d d b a i o h u o n m i j i s s s d c a a i l s a i n n n o o o a s i n a u t i p l a u u n l l c h c i r c c i i i o o o e d t r h u m m m a i d u a a a u o e r u e m e c m e o h a e i e r b c o o a v n n r e e z p a r a e c i e d d d d d i s m m e u u u l c r c e l l n n t t l l i n u a l l a b u a c c a a h e p l g p u c v e l y o a a e h e e e o o o o o o o y s s a a r l l o l e n n c c u u l i h h e t s r r r r m h r r e e e a e p l d t h h h h h h h h h h h h o u u a t t t t t t o o o i i i h e e e e c c c c c c c a a a a a a a R R S S p R R R * R R R R R R R R R * R R R * S * S S S S S S S S S S S S S S S S S S S S S S S S S S S S S S S O S

Plants for life: Medicinal plant conservation and botanic gardens 43 m o r f ; t n e m l i a y n a m r o f d e s u s i s m r o f s u o i r a v n i k r a b , d n a m e d h g i h n i d M n C a T d n e i d s a e r t y e y l e e r d a i o i s r w a l , d ' a e n l c l e a i m r t a t s e o ’ e r d t r l k u r i u o s a d c c d ' l b , d o a r u n l c e f e a t e p n d r b s c o p e o n i o t i r e t f o r e t e m l p o t a ‘ t d c n d s e m r i i e i m s a o a f h a t t m u c n s O s a a 0 3 6 2 4 8 / / 0 3 1 6 G 0 5 1 6 2 0 2 5 6 0 8 0 8 5 2 5 0 0 0 0 0 4 2 5 1 n n 0 2 1 1 1 2 3 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 B ) 6 x e n n A t t n a / s R e L i r o s g e i e t c a e c c c l l p : : 7 s R R R N 0 0 L L C 1 E 2 ( 7 7 7 7 7 0 0 0 0 0 N 0 0 0 0 0 C 2 2 2 2 2 U I ) x i d n e p p A ( S E T I I I I I C d n a n r a c e i r c f a n i A a i s o , d A c a n c I i C n r o o e d t a i n t n m i n a a a t a A a c i i n v a e s r a r e c N f y n i y g e , a r a A a a a l r f r y l i s l a a c a i i a a a A e e a A s i a n a t r c c c k i d d i a a a a a a A c i i i M f o o r m l i s N r r n n r d c c c c c c i t i i i i i i f f A I I f u a c y p o e r r r r r r H o t W T c a o A A A f f f f f f o f i t l n n n a a r M , , i c l l l r r r a n A A A A A A a a a p l t i o c m m a e e e e e a a r a , i e e e i c c a n x o a a a a a a n l r i i i h h h c h h h p c p p p p a e c a a a a a i n m r s i i i r h h h e f i i i r r g i t t t t t t t o n n a t e t t t t c c c c c h c s o o o o o a s s s f f i o i t t a i i i i i i p p s p A g u u u s u u u a n r r r r r r i n u u u M g i r r r r r r C A e e d d A A A A A r i e o o o i i f o o o f f f f u o f s o o r u a u u u u u o o o e r s r r n n e N S o E t V V E E I t A S S S p A A E A W A E w E A s t I I E E A S E s A E A E s S S R b s a ) s d i s e t n e s l e g g o s g s u a f s a i s n e i i h c u e a p B s s : e e ) n d t s i a y s i a n n o s u l m s e ( t a m e y r s l m u i o a i m s s x a r s t i e i u n a p i s u i t s s n o b s n s t b D i i t s a i n n s t a s l g e ( e u t o r h a i n y a i s a i r s a u e t m l e a i a l r t i a a l c g e a b n e l n a l n e l n a l i t a a l i c d a a n a n e i e m f i l g d n p i a l i i o a n a t i e l i a a t g s i s a l a h r r s m n a n f p i u a c u g m o d i t r i i c n u n i o o g o x u p c a n i e a c o a f u w i l m a a c q h l s a y . i c r i n c f a s c t e t g s m n i m f i c i g a i i n r a a d c c i n e m c n d l p f f c m s e i f t i c s a a i i i o c u a o a i m u s f m m m m m d d i l u l n e l i o e s p p a t a a u s r l r b t b a u c p . m b o j f u u u u l u n e l a i f m i s e o n b s d l r h u a a a l l l l l l e p i s m q a i i r p a m u a d s a e m a e u a a c g o n a y y y y y y d i d a a f n i l t a h u a i u g g p g e a r u m i s s x x x x x x a b o s a a n y n n r a a a h a a r r i o c c c i a s i m i i i t n t b i o s n a u o o o o o o c r p a a e m e l l r r g u u n r a m i n a a n e i i a i c a c e c i e a i s s n i h h h h h h a o r i n u n a a u r r i e s b b e e s e e a x r a c l m i t t t t t t h i h c l b h u u l o l c b e r r c c g c e e a b t o o e t a n a a y c d t r l l c h g n n n n n n n g a i l r m x x c l l i e a a m t s o n a e i i l t r v s r i i i i i o a e a a a T h h a a a a a a a U i a a y a e e r r r r u u p * T T T T T T T T T T T T T T T U Z Z Z Z Z Z Z X W W W V V V V V V V V V V U * U U S O

44 Plants for life: Medicinal plant conservation and botanic gardens Annex 6: The 2007 IUCN Red List of threatened species categories (basic definitions)

Extinct (EX)

Extinct in the Wild (EW)

Critically Endangered (CR)

Adequate data Threatened Endangered (EN) 1. Conservation Dependent (cd). Taxa Vulnerable (VU) which are the focus of a continuing taxon-specific or habitat-specific Evaluated Near Threatened (NT) conservation programme targeted towards the taxon in question, the Least Concern (LC) cessation of which would result in the taxon qualifying for one of the Data Deficient (DD) threatened categories above within a period of five years. 2. Near Threatened (nt). Taxa which do Not Evaluated (NE) not qualify for Conservation Dependent, but which are close to qualifying for Vulnerable. The structure of the categories (2001 Categories and Criteria, version 3.1) 3. Least Concern (lc). Taxa which do not qualify for Conservation Dependent or Near Threatened. EX – Extinct EN - Endangered LC – Least concern A taxon is Extinct when there is no A taxon is Endangered when the best reasonable doubt that the last individual available evidence indicates that it meets A taxon is Least Concern when it has has died. A taxon is presumed Extinct any of the criteria for Endangered and it been evaluated against the criteria and when exhaustive surveys in known and/or is therefore considered to be facing a does not qualify for Critically Endangered, expected habitat, at appropriate times very high risk of extinction in the wild. Endangered, Vulnerable or Near (diurnal, seasonal, annual), throughout its Threatened. Widespread and abundant historic range have failed to record an VU - Vulnerable taxa are included in this category. individual. Surveys should be over a time frame appropriate to the taxon’s life cycle A taxon is Vulnerable when the best DD – Data deficient and life form. available evidence indicates that it meets any of the criteria for Vulnerable, and it is A taxon is Data Deficient when there is EW – Extinct in the wild therefore considered to be facing a high inadequate information to make a direct, risk of extinction in the wild. or indirect, assessment of its risk of A taxon is Extinct in the Wild when it is extinction based on its distribution and/or known only to survive in cultivation, in NT – Near threatened population status. A taxon in this captivity or as a naturalized population (or category may be well studied, and its populations) well outside the past range. A taxon is Near Threatened when it has biology well known, but appropriate data A taxon is presumed Extinct in the Wild been evaluated against the criteria but on abundance and/or distribution are when exhaustive surveys in known and/or does not qualify for Critically Endangered, lacking. Data Deficient is therefore not a expected habitat, at appropriate times Endangered or Vulnerable now, but is category of threat. Listing of taxa in this (diurnal, seasonal, annual), throughout its close to qualifying for or is likely to qualify category indicates that more information historic range have failed to record an for a threatened category in the near is required and acknowledges the individual. Surveys should be over a time future. possibility that future research will show frame appropriate to the taxon’s life cycle that threatened classification is and life form. LR – Lower risk (from the 1994 appropriate. It is important to make Categories and Criteria, version 2.3) positive use of whatever data are CR – Critically Endangered available. In many cases great care A taxon is Lower Risk when it has been should be exercised in choosing between A taxon is Critically Endangered when the evaluated, does not satisfy the criteria for DD and a threatened status. If the range best available evidence indicates that it any of the categories Critically of a taxon is suspected to be relatively meets any of the criteria for Critically Endangered, Endangered or Vulnerable. circumscribed, and a considerable period Endangered and it is therefore considered Taxa included in the Lower Risk category of time has elapsed since the last record to be facing an extremely high risk of can be separated into three of the taxon, threatened status may well extinction in the wild. subcategories: be justified.

Plants for life: Medicinal plant conservation and botanic gardens 45 Annex 7: BGCI regional action plan for medicinal plant conservation

Region / Country General description Ongoing and planned activities Potential partners

EAST ASIA Medicinal plants are of immense • Magnolia ex situ collection survey: Chinese Academy of • China importance in China. Some 11,164 Sciences species are reported in China’s National - gap analysis with special reference to Strategy for Plant Conservation (CSPC, medicinal Magnolias (e.g. M. officinalis State Forestry 2007) as used in TCM. The CSPC, and M. denudata ) Administration recently produced in response to the - strengthen ex situ collections and GSPC, reflects the values and in situ conservation, and State Environmental conservation needs of native medicinal - reintroduction into the original habitat. Protection plants. Administration • Undertake Quercus ex situ collection The development and implementation of surveys and explore the potential to Global Trees BGCI’s medicinal plants conservation strengthen ex and in situ conservation Campaign activities in China is coordinated by its of threatened oaks. Examples of office in Guangzhou, South China, and Chinese oaks with medicinal properties supports a number of national targets, include: Quercus acutissima, particularly; Q.dentata, Q.glauca, Q.semecarpifolia . Target 3 – Research and exploration of application models for plant conservation • Explore ex situ and in situ conservation and sustainable use. initiatives for other threatened species, Target 7 – In situ conservation of notably: Aristolochia tuberosa, threatened species Eucommia ulmoides, Dactylorhiza Target 8 – Ex situ conservation and hatagirea, Cordyceps sinensis , Paris recovery plans for threatened species polyphylla var. yunnanensis, Gastrodia Target 11 – No species of wild flora elata, Eremosparton songoricum and endangered by international trade Cinnamomum mairei. Target 12 – Strengthening sustainable use and management of plant-based • Pursue conservation assessments of products Rhododendrons in China to include Target 13 – Halting the decline of plant medicinal species such as resources that support livelihoods and Rhododendron molle, R. aureum, associated traditional knowledge. R. anthopogon and R. arboreum .

SOUTH EAST ASIA Taxa of primary attention for BGCI in this • The initial phase of the project Research Institute of • Vietnam, Laos, region include Aquilaria spp., Cibotium development will include: Science, Lao PDR Cambodia, barometz, Stephania and Ardisia spp. a) Detailed target species and Indonesia Over-harvesting in the wild has led to population assessments; Hanoi University of serious declines of populations of b) Assessment of the potential for Pharmacy, Vietnam Cibotium barometz in Indonesia, and of conservation of remaining various species of Aquilaria, Stephania populations in situ and identification Department of Nature and Ardisia in Vietnam, Laos and of suitable areas for reintroductions; Conservation and Cambodia. The development of recovery c) Ex situ conservation: collection of Protection, Ministry of programmes for these taxa will serve as plant propagation material, and Environment, BGCI pilot initiatives for reintroduction of multiplication in botanic and home Cambodia threatened medicinal plants in South gardens – involvement of local East Asia into their habitat of origin. communities; Cibodas Botanic d) Production of public awareness Gardens, Indonesia materials and policy guidelines for recovery of threatened medicinal plants for decision makers; e) Reintroduction into the original habitat.

46 Plants for life: Medicinal plant conservation and botanic gardens SOUTH ASIA It is estimated that 10% of all plant species • Development of medicinal plant FRLHT • India, Sri Lanka in India are currently endangered (Pandey et conservation education programmes al. , 2007). There are estimated to be 8,000 (e.g. for high school students in PRAGYA species of medicinal plants used in different Karnataka). systems of Indian medicine. Some 930 of IUCN these are known to be traded extensively, • Enhancing the establishment of with at least 100 of these Red Listed (FRLHT, community-based nurseries and National Botanic no date). provision of training in nursery Gardens, Sri Lanka management for selected medicinal There is a gap of 40,000 tonnes in the plant species. Ministry of demand and supply of medicinal plants. Environment and The major source is the forest, and about • Focus attention on key medicinal Natural Resources, 90% are collected from the wild (Kala and plant species such as: Aconitum Sri Lanka Sojwan, 2007). ferox , A.heterophyllum, Nothapodytes nimmoniana, BGCI has supported medicinal plant Oroxylum indicum, Rauvolfia conservation projects in India ranging from serpentina, Saraca asoca, Swertia awareness raising and environmental chirayita and Coscinium fenestratum education on medicinal plants in schools to and Cinnamomum spp. in Sri Lanka. the establishment of medicinal plant gardens.

In Sri Lanka, BGCI is currently working jointly with IUCN on the assessment and conservation of Important Plant Areas.

EAST AFRICA Perhaps more than anywhere, Africa’s socio- • Pursue conservation status Plantlife International • Kenya, Tanzania, economic profile dictates reliance on assessments. Uganda traditional medicine. Native plants are the National Botanical main constituent of traditional African • Development of village-specific Research Institute, SOUTHERN AFRICA medicines (TAM) (Cunningham, 1993). Unlike home herbal health kits and home Namibia • Namibia the systems of Ayurveda and TCM, TAM is gardens with medicinal species for an oral tradition and there are few, if any, self healing, to include plants both SANBI written records of its methods and materials. of conservation concern and those Estimates of the number of species used under no perceived threat. and the number threatened within Africa as a whole are therefore almost impossible. • Develop ex situ and in situ conservation initiatives for other BGCI is working with the National Museums threatened species, notably: Aloe of Kenya and other partners from Kenya, spp., Hoodia spp., Osyris lanceolata, Tanzania and Uganda on conservation Rhoicissus revoilii, Toddalia asiatica, assessments of and management plans for Warburgia salutaris, Withania medicinal plants in the region. A similar somnifera, Zanha africana and assessment is proposed for Southern Africa, Zanthoxylum chalybeum . in particular in collaboration with the National Botanical Research Institute in Namibia.

• Madagascar Madagascar possesses some 80% endemic • Convene a series of stakeholder University of biodiversity and is known to contain a workshops to identify project Antananarivo wealth of medicinal plant species and interventions addressing immediate indigenous knowledge. However, over 70% ex and in situ conservation needs Madagascar Plants of its inhabitants live on less than US$1 a building on the results of the IPA Specialist Group day, making it one of the poorest countries assessment and focussing on in the world. The natural wealth of the species such as: Aloe suzannae, IUCN island is therefore threatened by the extreme Asteropeia labatii, A.mcphersonii, poverty of the human population, and some ambovombensis, 90% of the forest has now gone (Azafady, Leptolaena abrahamii, L.cuspidata, 2007). L.multiflora, L.raymondii and Sarcolaena delphinensis . As part of its joint initiative with IUCN – The World Conservation Union, BGCI is working on the assessment of Important Plant Areas in Madagascar.

Plants for life: Medicinal plant conservation and botanic gardens 47 MESO AMERICA The traditional medicinal systems of this • Convene a series of stakeholder Mexican Association • Mexico, Costa Rica region are highly localised, with plant workshops to identify project of Botanic Gardens species known to be of importance in interventions addressing immediate providing healthcare. There is little in the ex and in situ conservation needs INBio way of an official catalogue of medicinal and focussing on species such as: plants. The IUCN MPSG is currently Cinchona spp., Ariocarpus working on a regional Red List of medicinal bravoanus, A.kotschoubeyanus, plant species. pilalensis, Euphorbia antisyphilitica, Guiacum spp., BGCI is supporting the establishment of the Obregonia denegrii and Opuntia Mexican Strategy for Plant Conservation. In megarrhiza . this framework, a number of issues for medicinal plant conservation will be addressed.

In Costa Rica, BGCI is currently working jointly with IUCN on the assessment and conservation of Important Plant Areas.

Photo credits

All photographs are credited to BGCI except for the following: page 3, unknown (top), Conservatory and Botanic Gardens of Geneva (bottom); page 7, Stock Exchange (pills and Digitalis ); page 8, Ulf Liedén ( Gentiana ); page 9, Keira Bishop (ginseng); page 11, Paul Alan Cox and Patricia Stewart (bottom), Steven King (middle); Page 12, Gisela Royo (top), unknown (bottom); page 13, G. Ulutuncok and GTZ ( Prunus ), Ruth Butler (bottom), unknown ( Rauvolfia ); page 14, unknown ( Hoodia ), Peter Wyse Jackson (bottom); page 19 http://mynkw.totosik.pl ( Lophophora ); page 22; Fiona Walsh and Desert Knowledge Cooperative Centre (top); page 23, David Nkwanga ( Prunus ); page 25, Ruth Butler (top).

Design: John Morgan, Seascape. Email: [email protected]

Botanic Gardens Conservation International is a worldwide membership organisation working on an international scale to safeguard tens of thousands of plant species from extinction. Its mission is to mobilise botanic gardens and engage partners in securing plant diversity for the well-being of people and the planet. BGCI brings together the world’s botanic gardens, forming a community working in partnership to achieve conservation, education and development goals.

Enhancing the conservation of threatened medicinal plants to address human well-being and livlihood issues is one of the aims of BGCI’s current 5-year plan. BGCI believes that the global network of botanic gardens can play a key role in ensuring the sustainable use and protection of this vital resource. For more information visit www.bgci.org or email [email protected].

BGCI is an independent organization registered in the United Kingdom as a charity (Charity Reg No 1098834) and a company limited by guarantee No 4673175. BGCI is a tax-exempt (502(c)(3)) non-profit organization in the USA and is a registered charity in Russia.

For more information about BGCI and its activities, please contact: Botanic Gardens Conservation International, Descanso House, 199 Kew Road, Richmond, Surrey, TW9 3BW, UK Tel: +44 (0)20 8332 5953, Fax: +44 (0)20 8332 5956, email: [email protected], www.bgci.org

48 Plants for life: Medicinal plant conservation and botanic gardens This publication is supported by the Botanic Gardens Rufford Maurice Laing Foundation Conservation International Descanso House, 199 Kew Road, Richmond, Surrey, TW9 3BW, U.K. Tel: +44 (0)20 8332 5953 Fax: +44 (0)20 8332 5956 E-mail: [email protected] Internet: www.bgci.org