A Baseline Study Regarding Community-Based Conservation Management Within Two Nature Conservation Reserves in the Western Ghats/South India

Institute of Botany and Landscape Ecology

Awareness and expectations – a baseline study regarding community-based conservation management within two Nature Conservation Reserves in the Western Ghats/South India

By Lisa Katherina Andresen

Submitted to University of Greifswald, Germany For partial fulfillment of Master’s degree in Landscape Ecology and Nature Conservation

Supervisors: Prof. Dr. Susanne Stoll-Kleemann M.Sc. Balachandra Hegde

Greifswald, December 2018 Abstract

Awareness of the need for environmental protection among civilians and the government is fundamental for an effective biodiversity conversation, in particular within regions declared as biodiversity hot-spots, like the Western Ghats in South India. This topic is especially difficult, because the rural populations living within the Western Ghats are highly dependent on natural resources and thus, conflicts of interest occur between nature conservation and livelihood security. In response, the community participation approaches evolved during the last decades constituting an alternative dispute resolution towards the conventional “top-down” conservation approach, which mainly excluded civilians from protection actions. Nature Conservation Reserves (CRs), for example, foster the participation of local communities in nature protection and simultaneously benefit the rural development. This study examines the grade of awareness among the locals living adjacent to Bedthi and Aghanashini CR about the existence of these CRs. This study investigates locals’ willingness to participate in the conservation. Eight expert-interviews and a household survey with 60 respondents within the two Nature Conservation Reserves were conducted and analyzed regarding the influencing variables for awareness, attitude towards the CRs and participation. The outcomes show that the most important factors that are increasing the likeliness of knowledge about CRs and the attitude towards CRs are age, community-belonging and a close relationship towards NGOs and the government. This demonstrates the importance of conduction of effective participation- and awareness raising programs for nature conservation within the study area but also within other protected areas.

Zusammenfassung

Das Bewusstsein über die Notwendigkeit des Naturschutzes innerhalb der lokalen Bevölkerung sowie der Regierung ist fundamental für den effektiven Schutz von Biodiversität, insbesondere in Regionen welche zu den Biodiversitäts Hot-Spots zählen, wie beispielsweise die Western Ghats in Südindien. Da BewohnerInnen dieser Regionen häufig stark wirtschaftlich abhängig sind von natürlichen Ressourcen, entsteht häufig ein Interessenskonflikt zwischen Naturschutz und ländlicher Entwicklung. Um diesem Konflikt entgegen zu wirken, wurde das Konzept der Beteiligung lokaler BewohnerInnen entwickelt („participative approach)“, welche eine Alternative zum herkömmlichen „top-down“-Ansatz darstellt. Der „top-down“-Ansatz schließt die lokale Bevölkerung größtenteils aus Naturschutzverfahrenaus. ‚Nature Conservation Reserves‘ in Indien hingegen fördern einerseits den Biodiversitätsschutz und ebenso die ländliche und sozio-ökonomische Entwicklung in der Region. In der vorliegenden Studie wird untersucht, wie hoch das Bewusstsein über die Existenz angrenzender Schutzgebiete innerhalb der lokalen Bevölkerung ist und inwiefern das Interesse innerhalb der Bevölkerung besteht, sich aktiv im Schutzmanagement einzubringen. Zu diesem Zweck wurden acht Experten-Interviews sowie eine Haushaltsumfrage mit 60 Befragten durchgeführt und ausgewertet mit dem Fokus auf mögliche Einflussfaktoren für Bewusstsein, Einstellung gegenüber der Schutzgebiete und Partizipation. Die Ergebnisse zeigen, dass das Alter der Befragten, deren Zugehörigkeit zu einer bestimmten Gemeinschaft sowie die Tatsache, ob die Befragten Kontakt zu Nichtregierungsorganisationen und der Regierung hatten. Dies zeigt deutlich, dass die Durchführung umfassender Informations- und Umweltbildungsprogramme sowie eine gute Kooperation zwischen Naturschützern, zwischen der Regierung und der zivilen Bevölkerung, von elementarer Bedeutung für effektiven Naturschutz ist. Dies gilt sowohl für das Untersuchungsgebiet als auch für andere Schutzgebiete weltweit.

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Content

Abstract ...... ii

Zusammenfassung...... iii

List of figures ...... vii

List of tables ...... viii

Glossary ...... ix

Abbreviations ...... x

1. Introduction...... 11

1.1 Background ...... 11

1.2 Research objectives...... 13

2. Literature review ...... 16

2.1 Historical summary of nature protection in South India ...... 16

2.1.1 Pre- and colonization period ...... 16

2.1.2 Post-colonial period ...... 20

2.1.3 Environmental Movements ...... 24

2.2 Concepts of nature conservation management ...... 30

2.2.1. Joint Forest Management (JFM) ...... 30

2.2.2. Community-based nature conservation management ...... 33

2.2.3. Biosphere reserves ...... 35

3. The study area ...... 40

3.1 Geography ...... 40

3.2 Population distribution ...... 45

3.3 Threats ...... 46

4. Description of methods ...... cxxiii

4.1. Expert- and group interviews ...... cxxiii

4.1.1. Implementation of Expert- and Group interviews ...... cxxiii

4.1.2 Analysis of expert-and group interviews ...... cxxvi

4.2. Household survey ...... cxxvii

4.2.1. Development of questionnaire ...... cxxvii

4.2.2. Implementation ...... cxxx

4.2.3. Statistical analysis ...... cxxxii

4.3. Biases and limitations ...... cxxxiii

5. Results ...... cxxxiv

5.1 Expert- and Group interviews ...... cxxxiv

5.1.1 Awareness and attitude towards CRs and nature conservation ...... cxxxiv

5.1.2 Expectations towards stakeholders ...... cxxxvii

5.1.3 Expectations towards conservation management ...... cxlii

5.2 VFC-interviews ...... cxliv

5.2.1 VFC Agasal-Bommanalli ...... cxliv

5.2.2 VFC Vanalli ...... cxliv

5.2.3 VFC & SHG Khelasi ...... cxlvi

5.3. Household survey ...... cxlvii

5.3.1. Descriptive analysis ...... cxlviii

5.3.1.1 Sample analysis ...... cxlviii

5.3.1.2 Knowledge and perception of conservation reserves ...... clii

5.3.1.3 Attitude towards CR ...... clv

5.3.1.4 Non-consumptive use of forest ...... clvi

5.3.2 Testing of the research hypothesis ...... clvii

5.3.2.1 Assumption 1 ...... clvii

5.3.2.2 Assumption 2 ...... clxii

5.3.2.3 Assumption 3 ...... clxv

6. Discussion ...... clxviii

6.1 Evaluation of Community-based Conservation Management approach ...... clxviii

6.1.1 Benefits of Community-based Conservation Management approach ...... clxviii

6.1.2 Drawbacks ...... clxix

6.2 CBCM in Bedthi and Aghanashini Conservation Reserves ...... clxxi

6.2.1 Local awareness and attitude towards CRs ...... clxxi

6.2.2 Stakeholder for conservation management in Bedthi and Aghanashini CR ...... clxxvi

6.2.3 Evaluation of study methods ...... clxxix

6.3 Recommendations for future actions ...... clxxix

6.3.1 Awareness-raising ...... clxxix

6.3.2 Involving local inhabitants in conservation ...... clxxxi

7. Conclusion ...... clxxxiii

Acknowledgements ...... clxxxvi

References ...... clxxxvii

Annex ...... cxcv

List of figures

Figure 1: Location and zonation Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve (NBR), SATISH et al. 2014 ...... 39

Figure 2: by BALACHANDRA HEGDE 2011:33 ...... 41 Figure 3: Climate diagram Dodmane (Aghanashini Conservation Reserve), (climate-data.org) 42

Figure 4: Vegetation pattern Uttara Kannada (modified after RAMACHANDRA et al. 2013) ...... 45 Figure 5: Gradient of annual precipitation in Uttara Kannada (Ramachandra et al. 2013:23) ... 45

Figure 6: Changes in forest cover between 1979 and 2013 (RAMACHANDRA et al. 2016:9) ...... 48 Figure 7: Areas were household survey was implemented, map created by author using Arc GIS Esri 10.6.1 ...... cxxxi Figure 8: Answers on question: “What do you think are the most serious threats towards natural environment surrounding your village?”, by the author ...... clv Figure 9: Answers on question: “Does the declaration as ‘Nature conservation reserve’ cause any impact on your everyday life?” ...... clv Figure 10: Knowledge about CR within different communities, by the author using IBM SPSS clix Figure 11: Correlation between Knowledge about CR and Level of education ...... clxi Figure 12: Yearly income of respondents who know about Bedthi and Aghanashini CR ...... clxii Figure 13: Distribution of “attitude towards CR” among different communities ...... clxv

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List of tables

Table 1: CFM and JFM systems, (modified) by POFFENBERGER et al. 2006:56...... 34 Table 2: Code system ...... cxxvii Table 3: Sum socio-economic ...... cxlix Table 4: Mean and standard deviation socio-economic ...... cl Table 5: Economic – and NTFP dependency ...... clii Table 6: Perception of surrounding landscape & CRs ...... cliv Table 7: Attitude towards CR divided by CR ...... clvi Table 8: Attitude towards CR divided by use of forest ...... clvi Table 9: Non-consumptive users in each CR (1= non-consumptive; 0= consumptive) ...... clvi Table 10: Correlation different var. with “knowledge CR”, Pearson’s-test ...... clx Table 11: Correlation of different var. with “knowledge CR”, Chi²-test and Cramér’s V ...... clx Table 12: Correlation of different variables with “knowledge CR”, Chi²-test and Phi ...... clx Table 13: Correlation of different var. with “attitude towards CR”, Eta²-test ...... clxiv Table 14: Correlation of different var. with “attitude towards CR”, Pearson’s-test ...... clxiv Table 15: Correlation of different var. with “(Non-) consumptive use of forest”, Pearson’s-test ...... clxvii Table 16: Correlation of different var. with “(Non-) consumptive use of forest”, Chi²-test and Phi ...... clxvii

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Glossary

Betta (Soppina betta) “Leaf land”, submitted to Areca-growers for their green foliage supply.

Gram Panchayat Local self-governance system in India at the level of villages and small-towns.

Havyaka Brahman Hindu Community originally of priests, from the Indian state of Karnataka. Today, the members are mostly educated and better off.

Kannada Dravidian language spoken predominantly by the Kannada people in India, mainly in the state of Karnataka. One of 22 scheduled languages in India.

Khare Vokkal Community which is mainly cultivating paddy (rice) fields, but also hunting (no large mammals or monkeys).

Women Self-Help Group (SHG) Financial associated committee usually composed of 10–20 local women. All members are depositing money into a common fund. Can be linked with micro-credits.

Siddi Ethnic group in India, belonging to scheduled tribes, whose members are descended from Bantu peoples from Southeast Africa who were brought to India as slaves by Portuguese. Many community members are rather less educated.

Village Forest Community Part within the concept of Joint Forest Management (VFC) (JFM), a self governing and independent entity, in charge of protection; harvesting and sharing of benefits in the village with the Forest Department.

Abbreviations

CBCM (Community-based Conservation Management)

CBD (Convention on Biological Diversity)

CBNRM (Community-based Natural Resource Management)

GoI (Government of India)

IRS (Indian Rupees)

M (statistical mean)

MAB (Man and the Biosphere)

MDGs (Millennium Development Goals)

MoEF (Ministry of Environment and Forests, Government of India)

NBSAPs (National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plans)

WNBR (Network of Biosphere Reserves)

NBR (Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve)

NTFP (Non-timber Forest Products)

UNDP (United Nations Development Program)

UNESCO (United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization)

1. Introduction

1.1 Background

All over the world there is an increasing trend towards loss of biodiversity in ecosystems – mainly due to effects of human activities amplified by population growth and global climate change. The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) defined biodiversity as “the diversity of all living forms at different levels of complexity: genes, species, ecosystems and even landscapes and seascapes” (UNESCO 2011). To enable protection of the highest possible number of species with the available conservation resources, 25 “biodiversity hot-spots” were defined and suggested as areas to be prioritized for biodiversity conservation efforts by MYERS et al. in 2000. Furthermore, one of the 6 “hottest biodiversity hot-spots” in the world is the the Western Ghats Region in South India, which shows an especially high rate of endemic plant and vertebrate species, as well as large areas of primary forest vegetation (MYERS et al. 2000). Moreover, forest ecosystems provide a wide range of provisioning, regulating, supporting and even cultural services, the

“ecosystem services” (MEA 2003 in GADGIL et al. 2011:116). These ecosystem services can become limited due to anthropologic influence. Studies were conducted to examine the population growth-rate within “biodiversity hot-spots”. These studies have shown that growth-rate between 1995 and 2000 was exceptionally high (1.8%yr-1)1 within biodiversity hot-spots, compared to developing countries (1.6%yr-1) and the world average growth-rate(1.3%yr-1). These outcomes indicate and predict considerable human-induced environmental changes in future years within biodiversity hot-spots. Moreover, the Western Ghats are considered among the three hotspots with the most elevated risks, as assessed by a high human population density and inhabiting a rural population which is highly dependent on natural resources (CINCOTTA et al. 2000:990). As a basis to halt biodiversity loss, the United Nations declared the period 2011-2020 on biodiversity, with a focus on contributing to the implementation of the Strategic

1 Population growth is calculated by using a logistic equation and t (time a population grows); k (relative growth-rate coefficient); K (carrying capacity of a population), (REECE et al. 2014)

Plan for Biodiversity. The “UNESCO Biodiversity Initiative” therefore addresses all aspects related to conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity in a holistic manner. Moreover, biodiversity conservation was recognized as a basis to reach several Millennium Development Goals (MDG’s)2 such as MDG 7: “Ensure Environmental Sustainability”. Besides, one of five strategic goals of the “UNESCO Biodiversity Initiative” is “to enhance the implementation of participatory planning, knowledge management and capacity-building”, with the focus on traditional knowledge and the integration of local communities (UNESCO 2011: 1f). These components are also key factors of this study and will be discussed further. It has been widely recognized that community participation, traditional knowledge and traditional usage rights have a long history in India and that including these into conservation management is crucial for efficiency and sustainability of natural resource protection (PUYRAVAUD & DAVIDAR 2013:469). Different concepts support the participatory approach and have gained increasing attention during the last years in India, e.g. “Community-based natural resource management” (CBNRM) and “Joint Forest Management” (JFM), (UNDP, GoI 2006). Introduced with Wildlife (Protection) Amendment Act of 20033 , “Nature Conservation Reserves” (CRs) were declared as a new category of protected areas. This category facilitates the integration of local communities in conservation management in India and therefore constitutes an innovative conservation approach (KANAGAVEL et al. 2013). This requires furthermore comprehensive studies on expectations and concerns of involved stakeholders as well as long-term monitoring of management actions for identifying difficulties and best-practice methods, such as involving CBNRM transparency; equality among gender and communities within CRs. It is moreover crucial to safeguard effective conservation management strategies and thereby facilitate that particular level of protection, which CRs are supposed to

(PUYRAVAUD/DAVIDAR 2013:469).

2 Millennium Development Goals are eight goals, adopted by the UN, dealing with different topics of development worldwide (un.org/millenniumgoals) 3 Amendment of Wildlife Protection Act of 1972 (GoI, MOEF, 2003)

1.2 Research objectives

The present study was conducted within two Nature Conservation Reserves (CRs): Bedthi and Aghanashini Conservation Reserve, which were both declared in 2012 by the Indian Government (the Forest Department) (Government of Karnataka,

RAMAKRISHNA PR 647; 648 2011). Due to this declaration, no development projects (e.g. hydropower plans) can be built within the protected areas and furthermore, recognition on part of the government increased regarding high needs of protection for this area. In the current situation, awareness among local inhabitants is unclear and moreover, the establishment of structural adjustments for conservation management (e.g. formation of management committees) has not happened yet. Some surveys show critics which blame the Forest Department of being not interested in collaborative management and showing only minimum of interaction (KANAGAVEL et al. 2013:5261). In this study the actual situation of awareness and cooperation between stakeholders will be examined. The present study is focused on three questions:

 How can local awareness be described and what attitude towards the CRs can be found?  What influences locals’ attitude and awareness of CRs?

 How to improve the awareness and to encourage locals’ participation?

Moreover, the overall goal of the study is to identify positive and negative perceptions of local communities about CRs as well as expectations from the local perspective regarding conservation management. Accordingly, four hypotheses were formulated:

1. Knowledge about CRs is positively correlated towards level of education Rationale: It is expected that people who achieved higher grades of education are more likely to be better informed about CRs and about associated legacies, since they have better access to media and sources of information. This assumption is based on the outcome of a study, which examines local perception in nearby Dandeli Wildlife Sanctuary (The the

Western Ghats/Karnataka) by TRIGUERO-MAS/OLOMÍ-SOLÀ (2008:54 ff).

2. Positive attitude towards CRs is positively correlated towards level of education Rationale: There is mounting evidence that education has positive effects on the attitude of local inhabitants towards protected areas. Several studies describe that education facilitates a better understanding on the importance of nature protection and that conservation is the key to better employment opportunities and creation of new livelihood strategies

(ARJUNAN et al. 2005:195; TRIGUERO-MAS/OLOMÍ-SOLÀ 2008:36 f; CARO et al. 1994).

3. Non-consumptive users of forest have a more positive attitude towards CRs compared to consumptive users of forest4 Rationale: Inhabitants with a high dependency on forest products for sustenance are highly vulnerable against exclusion from protected areas for Wildlife protection purposes and are therefore assumed to have a rather critical attitude towards CRs, compared to non-consumptive users who are

economically independent of forest resources (ARJUNAN/HOLMES et al. 2005:188).

4. NGOs are crucial for conservation management and for encouraging local communities to participate in nature protection. Rationale: Studies showed that the presence of NGOs improved awareness among communities regarding forest conservation and policy advocation, since NGOs usually have non-profit interest in supporting infrastructure and development of local communities. Thus, it is assumed to be easier for NGOs to develop good relation towards local communities and act as

mediators between locals and government (BHAT et al. 1999:68;

BALLABH/BALOONI 2002:2164).

4 (Non-) consumptive users if forest will be explained in chapter 4.2.3

These assumptions need to be questioned and will be reviewed under consideration of collected data. Therefore, quantitative and qualitative social empirical research methods were used, such as expert- and group interviews and a household survey. Data collection was conducted between November 2017 and February 2018. Regarding the order of the study, starting with a literature review, background information will be given on Indian conservation history; CBNRM; different concepts of conservation management and a case study in the Western Ghats. Following this, the study area will be introduced. It proceeds with describing methods and results of the survey and of the interviews will be explained. The study completes with a discussion and conclusion part, containing recommendations for further actions.

2. Literature review

2.1 Historical summary of nature protection in South India

The aim of this study is to examine awareness of environmental conservation and interest in participation among inhabitants of the study area. Many different factors are considered to have a high influence on civilians’ behavior regarding the environment. However, there is strong evidence that pro-environmental behavior5 is deeply connected with the attachment of inhabitants towards their surrounding nature, which is in turn often dependent on a range of rights to use natural resources.

These usage rights are mostly determined by the government (IMRAN et al. 2013:291). Therefore, administration of forestry and resource-use has high influence towards pro- environmental behavior of inhabitants (COAD et al. 2008). Moreover, it is crucial to look at the historical development of forestry administration and nature conservation to understand local’s behavior at present. In the following chapter, a brief introduction to the development of forestry management within the context of colonialism in India, especially in Karnataka, will be given. Furthermore, important environmental movements that shaped the present landscape of environmental conservation throughout the study area will be discussed.

2.1.1 Pre- and colonization period

The present situation of forestry and forest conservation in India is largely influenced by the time period under British colonialism. This refers to the present administrative pattern of forest management as well as the distribution of natural resources (NAYAK

2015; RAMACHANDRA 1990; GOKHALE 2004; MALHOTRA et al. 2001; KUMARA et al. 2008). Hence, for understanding the actual situation of forest conservation and the relation of

5 ‘pro-environmental behavior’ = ‘ behavior that consciously seeks to minimize the negative impact of one’s actions on the natural and built world.’ (IGI Global Lexikon)

16 locals towards forest management and resources, it is crucial to analyze the early colonialization and post-colonialization period (GUHA/GADGIL 1989:2). Traditionally in the Western Ghats, management of forest and natural resources in the surroundings of villages was organized by the social village network, due to social and religious norms. Responsibility hereof laid by the headman of the village. This concept functioned without any interference of the state and ensured a sustainable concept of NTFP6 extraction. Furthermore, the concept of “kans” or “sacred groves” which belonged to local deities, protected large parts of forests and wildlife populations, since only priests of the villages could give permissions of use and thereby ensured the protection of them. Therefore, large patches of “primary forest” (=natural forest; in contrast to “secondary forest”, which is reforested after over-exploitation) could remain throughout the pre-colonization period. This can be considered the first concept of forest conversation in the Western Ghats region (BUCHANAN-HAMILTON 1870;

MALHOTRA et al. 2001:8 ff; GADGIL et al. 2011:10).

Loss of village-based forestry

At the beginning of the 19th century, the influence of British colonialism in India increased. The British surveyed all kans to systematically explore forest resources, especially timber (GOKHALE 2004:3556). In most areas, access to kans and other natural resources were no longer controlled by a village-based system, but now underlies state control (NAYAK 2015:252). In consequence to this, large areas of primary forest were exploited for timber, mainly for teak and other hard-wood species, and were used for ship-building and extension of railway network by the government (NAYAK 2015:203). Due to this, local villages experienced loss of their rights to use forest resources and in consequence, their needs of NTFP could not be satisfied anymore. This constituted not only a big impact on the local’s everyday life, but also caused a huge impact on local management of natural resources and is assumed as major reason for degradation of kans and other forest parts (CHANDRAN/GADGIL 1993; BUCHANAN-HAMILTON 1870; GOKHALE

6 NTFP = Non-timber Forest Resources

2004:3557; GADGIL et al. 2011; LELE 1993). Comparing the actual state of kans within districts where local landlords obtained their management rights and districts where kans fell entirely under state control, studies show that degradation is much higher within kans which came under state control. Apparently within these areas, clear felling; arecanut cultivation and NTFP exploitation were much higher, compared to areas under control of traditional village-based systems (CHANDRAN/GADGIL 1993). Furthermore, studies argue that monopolizing land usage rights of kans by the Forest Department changed the relation and appreciation of local people towards forest areas insofar, as locals became detached and less connected religiously towards their natural environment. Instead, inhabitants rather considered forest as a source of natural resources (GOKHALE 2004:3558).

Upcoming forestry legislations

In 1822, after protests among peasants who suffered from the loss of their land usage rights, the British government recognized the “Betta Land” or Soppina Betta = “leaf land”, as areas meant to support areca growers and spice garden owners with green foliage and NTFP. These areas measured about six to nine acres per owned acre of plantation or spice garden, bordering the villages. However, land provided as betta land was mostly overexploited and degraded. Overall, the concept of betta land primary served the government to (1) set up an entire demarcation of space; (2) to have control over land use and (3) to legally explore further forest for commercial purposes, such as railway supply etc. (BUCHY 1996:148; NAYAK et al. 1999:223; KUMARA et al. 2008:31 f; BHAT / HUFFAKA 1991:376). In 1864, the British government established the “the Forest Department”, to form a legal institution which ensured state control over all forests in the Western Ghats. At this time, increased demand for hardwood due to the expansion of railway network disambiguated the limitedness of timber in the Western Ghats. Thus, forest conservancy became an important administrative question for the first time in the Indian government. The main goals of the the Forest Department until that time were

18 the production of timber and generating revenue, which resulted in neglecting the ecological basis of subsistence cultivation; hunting and gathering (NAYAK 2015:253,

GUHA /GADGIL 1989:145 ff). In addition, the passage of the Indian Forest Act 1878 represents an important milestone in Indian forestry. With this Act, i. a. three classes of forests with different status of use and ownership were defined: a) Reserved Forest (completely protected by the government, no usage by villagers) b) Protected Forest (under state control, limited protection and specified usage by villagers allowed) c) Village Forest (open for villagers, but still regulations by state existing)

This was considered the first step of “scientific forest management”, however, the act still aimed to classify forests rather for commercial than for conservation purposes. Moreover, patches of protected forests were gradually converted into reserved forests, which enabled the government to further expand timber exploitation and to meet the increasing demand for forest resources (GUHA 2001:213 ff; BUCHY 1996:148). The Land Acquisition Act in 1894 can be seen as a trigger-event in the history of land usage rights in India. This act empowered the government to finally acquire all land, even private land, for public purposes (e.g. timber extraction for road-, ship- or railway construction) after paying a governmental fixed compensation to locals in return. This development caused even larger impacts in local societies, since many people, especially tribals; forest-dwelling communities and farmers lost access to animal fodder; leave manure and NTFP and therefore also lost their livelihood (GUHA/GADGIL

1989:125; FERNANDES/PARANJPYA 1997:8 f).

The comprehensive governmental expansion of land-acquisition provoked countrywide protests. However, many of these movements were oppressed by the British government, they showed resistance among rural and local population (GUHA 2001:213ff). Selected examples of resistance will be reviewed in chapter 2.1.3.

Between 1878 and 1942, a large number of different privileges and laws were adopted, which cannot be further discussed. Overall, most policies completely ignored the needs, demands and interests of villagers. Gradually, an entirely artificial framework was created, consisting of laws that needed to fit many different circumstances, including different scales of geographic zones; classing people into different groups (cast, tribes, socio-professional categories) and classifying different types of needs. Thus, laws needed to be very complex. In the end, legacies were very confusing and led towards destabilization of the social system of landowners (BUCHY 1996:163; 172). In general, this time period was characterized by uncertainty and instability of the legal system of forestry management and is likely to have had a high psychological impact on villagers. The attitude of local people towards the use of natural resources and towards the administrative institution (the Forest Department) was strongly affected. There was a verifiable decline in pro-environmental behavior and decrease of responsible- and sustainable use of resources (BUCHY 1996:151 ff). Petitions from peasants and other interest groups, who highly criticized several laws and high numbers of occurring conflicts between civilians and the government, could not significantly improve the administrative situation of forest management (BUCHY 1996:191).

2.1.2 Post-colonial period

After political independence of India in 1947, land acquisition for public purposes by the government was still legally specified in the Indian Constitution (articles 31 A; 298). Ongoing centralization of forest administration extinguishment of rights of forest- dwelling communities and extended processes of displacement of people caused further restriction and degradation of local people’s livelihood. According to SAXENA, two concepts, “eminent domain” and “public purpose” supply legal and moral

20 justification of laws of acquisition to the government (NAYAK 2015:261; SAXENA 2008:365). However, it is crucial to look at several acts and amendments that were passed by the government and gradually shifted their focus from generating revenue towards conservation of biodiversity, protection of natural environment and rights of forest dwelling communities.

The Wild Life Protection Act of 1972 (WLPA 1972) according to SAXENA (2008:261) downgraded privileges of several groups of people on the one hand. Nevertheless, on the other hand, this Act provides a basic legal framework for a declaration of protected areas; for the conservation of wildlife and its habitat, including e.g. National Parks

(KUMARA et al. 2008). Meanwhile, a number of different categories of protected areas exist in the Indian constitution, which will be shortly explained in the following:

National Parks (IUCN category II)7

For National Parks, the highest degree of protection is afforded and hence, officially almost no human activities are allowed inside (KUTTY/KOTHARI 2001:50). “Whenever it appears to the State Government that an area, whether within a sanctuary or not, is, by reason of its ecological, faunal, floral, geomorphologic or zoologic association or importance, needed to be constituted as a National Park for the purpose of protecting, propagating or developing wild life therein or its environment, it may, by notification, declare its intention to constitute such area as a National Park.” (WLPA 1972, art. 35(1)). Today India has 105 National Parks, encompassing an area of 39.9 km² (1.21 % of the total surface area) (wiienvis.nic.in, 2018).

Wildlife Sanctuaries (IUCN category IV)

“The State Government may, by notification, declare its intention to constitute any area other than an area comprised within any reserve forest [...], as a sanctuary if it

7 IUCN protected area categories, are categories of classification protected areas in a system developed by the International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN) (BURHENNE-GUILMIN 2011)

21 considers that such area is of adequate ecological, faunal, floral, geomorphologic, natural or zoologic significance, for the purpose of protecting, propagating or developing wild life or its environment.” (WLPA 1972, art. 18(1)). Within sanctuaries, certain human activities, e.g. livestock grazing, and collection of leave manure may be prohibited and though assigns a lower degree of protection towards sanctuaries

(KUTTY/KOTHARI 2001:52). In total, there are 543 Wildlife Sanctuaries in India (ENVIS 2018a).

Tiger Reserves

Since the Tiger cannot be preserved in isolation, conservation of the complete habitat for this animal is required, also including many other species and plants. These reserves are no legal entity as such, but belong to National Parks or Sanctuaries. The first Tiger Reserve was opened in 1973 in Bandipur (State of Karnataka) (KUTTY/KOTHARI

2001:51f). At present, 50 Tiger Reserves exist all over India (JHALA et. al. 2008).

Biosphere Reserves

Proposed by UNESCO in 1972, Biosphere Reserves were under the “Man and the Biosphere” Program dealing with conservation of biodiversity and its sustainable use as well as with securing living conditions for people and also rural development

(KUTTY/KOTHARI 2001:52). 11 out of 18 Biosphere Reserves declared in India are also part of the UNESCO “Man and the Biosphere” program (UNESCO 2016). For more details about the concept of Biosphere Reserves see chapter 2.2.3.

Conservation Reserves

“The State Government may, after having consultations with the local communities, declare any area owned by the Government, particularly the areas adjacent to National Parks and sanctuaries and those areas which link one protected area with another, as a conservation reserve [...].”(WLPA 1972, Art. 36A (1)). The overall goal always has to be protection of “landscapes, seascapes, flora and fauna and their habitat [...].” (WLPA 1972, Art. 36A (1)). Within these reserves, not only conservation of habitats is focused, but also to ensure subsistence and sustainable development of livelihood for locals in this area (ENVIS, 2018b). Additionally community committees for conservation management are playing a key role within these conservation categories. Both Bedthi and Aghanashini Conservation Reserve belong towards this category. Therefore, this category will be further discussed in the following chapter.

Besides governmental administration of nature conservation, the legal framework for public participation in forest protection and livelihood development is also relevant for this study. Already in 1930, formation of “Van Panchayats” (village forests) was established, which allowed villagers to elect the deputy commissioner (dc); a council (panch) and a head of the council (sarpanch) who were in charge of forest management (distribution of forest produce, regulation of grazing, cutting, etc.). However, the the Forest Department demanded a share of commercial reward from these forests; the remaining amount was invested for local developments like roads and schools. Overall, the Van Panchayat system contributed to forest protection and development in many regions all over India (GUHA 2001:229). Moreover, within the WLPA 1972 participation of the public is limited and there is a lack of transparency in the acquisition processes (SAXENA 2008:380), this was attempted to improve within following legacies.

In 1990, the Joint Forest Management Resolution (JFM Resolution) was passed and constitutes an important step within participatory forest management in India. This concept encourages partnerships between forest villagers and the Forest Department

23 due to defined responsibilities regarding forest protection and development. This initiative requires the government to involve forest dwelling communities into forest management and it was implemented by most State Governments throughout the country (SHIVAPRASAD/CHANDRASHEKAR 2014:12). This concept will be discussed more detailed in chapter 2.2.1. The first governmental act issued in independent India that addressed community ownership of NTFP- usage rights and management of forest at the legislative level, was the Scheduled Tribes and Other Traditional Forest Dwellers (Recognition of Forest Rights) Act 2006 (more common: Forest Rights Act, FRA 2006) which was passed in 2006. This act aims to partially terminate injustice against forest dwelling communities caused by forest laws and thereby starts to give communities and the public a platform to participate in wildlife and forest conservation (SHIVAPRASAD/CHANDRASHEKAR 2014:9, 13). Overall, there is strong evidence that colonial forestry marked an ecological, economic and political turning point in Indian history (GUHA/GADGIL 1989:148). It is necessary to take into account reactions among the people affected by this process, particularly since this study focuses on the environmental behavior of local communities. Therefore, the following chapter deals with environmental movements and resistance against governmental exploitation and loss of usage rights for natural resources.

2.1.3 Environmental Movements

In the following, people’s view of governmental forestry management will be examined, to gain a better understanding of the evolving relationship between government and civilians in Uttara Kannada. Furthermore, methods of civic engagement for their rights, as well as attempts of self-organization and resistance against governmental exploitation will be analyzed.

Therefore, selected examples of movements with a focus on state-controlled forestry will be discussed, among them the Chipko Movement, which is considered by several authors to be among the most important environmental movements in India (SHIVA 1988:72). Besides, the Appiko Movement which took place in Uttara Kannada will be clarified. Finally, there will be a description of developments that led to the declaration of Bedthi and Aghanashini CR.

“Movements are major social and political processes, […] and they transcend individual actors. They are significant precisely because they involve a multiplicity of people and events which contribute to a reinforcement of social change.” (SHIVA 1988:64)

With the beginning of British colonialization, there has already been upcoming resistance among different groups of population, such as agriculturists and arecanut- or spice garden cultivators. However, within the districts of Sirsi, Shrinagar and Yellapur, around the 1870’s the first petitions were set up, mainly by arecanut cultivators who were largely affected by the governmental extension of reserved land and quickly recognized their shrinking rights of land use and which impacts this would cause towards their traditional cultivation methods. In 1886, a committee counting about 20 members was formed, advocating resolving disagreements between government and people concerning the exercise of ancestral rights. This movement was even supported and widespread by the local press. Thus, after many more petitions, also within different districts were tabled. During this time, petitions where still objective and even contained proposals for the participation of locals in forestry administration to improve methods due to better cooperation between government and local people. But over time and with intensifying economic and social crisis, the relationship became more critical and around 1920, dialog became highly problematic

(BUCHY 1996:189 ff).

Active boycott and resistance

In 1920, all over India the “non-cooperation movement” was formed, which accounts for a significant movement in the Indian independence movement from British colonialism. In 1930, another important movement that clearly showed dissatisfaction and anger of civilians in Uttara Kannada, was forest satyagraha8 (1930). This anti- forestry movement was followed by several hundreds of people, mostly agriculturists, primarily motivated to recover forest usage rights and to achieve privileges for extension of agriculture. Until 1933, this movement intensified, and self-organized groups of several hundreds of people damaged governmental forest areas by the felling of trees, etc. This was followed by several attempts to achieve conciliation, for e.g. the establishment of a new institution for investigating forestry questions by the Forest Department. However, this was mostly boycotted by peasants and seen as

“farce” (BUCHY 1996:206 ff). These movements show that already with the early beginning of colonialism by the British and associated with this alteration of traditional land usage rights, structures for communicating and organizing public resistance formed fast. These enabled civilians to demonstrate their grievances and discontent about their own situation. Moreover, civil power became more established during the late colonial period. To concentrate on environmental movements with the highest impact and therefore most interesting for the present situation of forestry administration, the Appiko (“embrace”) Movement will be discussed below. This movement was formed in 1938 in Uttar Kannada.

8 Satyagrahas existed in different forms (salt-/forest s.), induced by Gandhian resistence, also known as disobedience protests (KARAN 1994:32-41)

Appiko Movement

This movement was inspired by the Chipko Movement9, which is considered as one of the strongest forms of opposition against environmental degradation, formed in the Himalayan region and showing a prototype of methods and organization for addressing comparable problems all over India (KARAN 1994:32-41). Inspired by this movement Pandurang Hegde and others succeeded in mobilizing villagers to protest against the ongoing clear-felling by the government in order to promote teak plantations and to fight for the right to use the forest for basic needs. The Appiko Movement set up to meet three goals:

1) Protecting the forest resource of the Western Ghats 2) Creating an atmosphere for the natural regeneration of trees 3) Rational use of natural resources

The completely non-violent method of only embracing trees became successful in such a way that it spread from nearby the study area towards all over Uttara Kannada and even all over Karnataka. Finally, the state Forest Minister decided to stop felling natural forests and an environmental non-governmental organization was formed (“Parisara Samrakshana Kendras” =”Environmental Conservation Center”), to carry out the above-named objectives (HEGDE 1996:173) This NGO is still active until today. According to different authors, Appiko Movement is considered a watershed in the history of protest movements in India (MURTHY 1986:775).

Furthermore, it is necessary to take into account the civil activities, directly linked to Bedthi and Aghanashini CR, which have led to a declaration of these CR.

9 Initiated by large degradation of forests and water resources, as well as by construction of Tehri Dam and accompanying displacement of 40.000 people, Chipko Movement prevented felling of trees by embracing them by activists. This led to national and international publicity (KARAN 1994:32-41)

Bedthi Dam Project

The Bedthi Hydropower project was planned by Karnataka Power Corporation Limited (KPCL) and was expected to supply 1,060 MU10 a year to the state grid and the area to be submerged was 9,800 hectares of agricultural and forest land, as well as 25 villages and about 4000 tribals were planned to be relocated (REDDY 2012) . Effects would have been of large ecological degradation as well as cause social vulnerability (DANDEKAR

2011:2; HEGDE 2011). Furthermore, the entire amount of power generated was planned to benefit industries in metropolitan areas, while there would be no improvements for local sectors or livelihoods. In contrast, local agriculture would suffer from external costs of the development project (PARANJPYE 1992:125)Therefore, plans for construction of the dam were accompanied with opposition and protests by local people, first lead by the women Anusuya Aharma and later on by different NGOs who joined the campaign (NADKARNI 2005:86). In 1980, a seminar was organized, participated also by officials from the Forest Department and Planning Department, to discuss outcomes from the project evaluation made by an NGO. Furthermore, the seminar aimed to gain public attention and inform about possible impacts of the development project. What is interesting and remarkable, is that there have been many attempts of different officials from the government to execute the project plans for hydropower in the Bedthi region and to push through any local opposition. However, resistance and civil protest were always strong and fast enough to hinder the project implementation (GADGIL /GUHA 1992). Similar to Bedthi, there were different plans for development projects concerning Aghanashini River, which were not executed yet, due to different reasons. Fortunately, in 2012, ecologically most sensitive zones could be brought under protection in a stable legal framework. Using five different steps of ecosystem evaluation, these zones were selected and declared as Conservation Reserves.

1) Fragmentation 2) Corridor convexity

10 Milion units of energy, Indian Unit of gigawatt-hour (THE HINDU, July 24th 2008)

3) Endangered species 4) Umbrella/Priority species 5) Special Ecosystems

6) Threat Index (HEGDE 2011:21)

These declarations provided legal protection against any new development projects and the effort can be, according to local people, mainly related to engagement and work done by civilians and NGOs. Due to people’s movement in this region in the last decades, Bedthi and Aghanashini are still free flowing rivers today (DANDEKAR 2011:4). However, the Nature Conservation Reserves initially faced opposition by parts of local communities, due to confusion about rights to use natural resources within the areas (The Times of India 2010). After looking at several developments in forestry administration and protection during Indian colonial and post-colonial history, a conclusion can be drawn regarding factors that might have influenced the relationship between civilians and the government.

Overall, strengthening of civil power during the past decades can be noticed in India. The expanding ability to enforce interests of civilians, even if forestry laws and governmental intentions are not supportive or even contrary, was demonstrated. For most of the movements, important issues were the right of access to forest resources for local communities’ livelihood; non-commercial use of natural resources; prevention of land degradation; displacement; human rights and social justice (GADGIL/GUHA 2005). With the beginning of 19th century, state monopoly and commercial exploitation of forest stood in contrast to subsistence ethic of forest and until today, there is an ongoing conflict between villagers and the Forest Department (GUHA/GADGIL 1989:172). This seems to have remarkable impacts on the relationship between government and civilians in some areas. Especially the situation of tribals and indigenous people is difficult until today, due to lack of information and abilities (World Commission on dams 2000:110 in NAYAK 2015, p. 265).

Furthermore, there are also positive examples of cooperation between the Forest Department and civilians such as the concept “Village Forest Communities” (VFCs). These will be discussed in the following chapter. Factors that might have influenced the relationship between locals and the Forest Department most, and subsequentially the consequences of this, for approaching CBCM will be further analyzed in the discussion part.

2.2 Concepts of nature conservation management

In the following, different approaches that are encouraging the involvement of local inhabitants in conservation management will be analyzed.

2.2.1. Joint Forest Management (JFM)

Joint forest management (JFM), or joint forest planning management (JFPM), is based on a participatory approach with a “co-management” relationship between local village communities and the Forest Department. This concept involves, among others, the formation of “Village Forest Communities” (VFCs) and “Women Self-help Groups” (SHG’S). JFM was established to change forest management from its former focus on commercial exploitation of forests, which was associated with neglecting of interests of local communities, towards the involvement of local inhabitants; forest protection and sustainable use of forest resources (BHAT et al. 1999:57f). The term “participatory approach” or “participatory development” originated in the 1970s and seeks local people to become involved in development projects within their region, for ensuring higher grade of sustainability and effectiveness of implemented projects. Thereby, the participatory approach has become an alternative to “top- down” development (CORNWALL 2002:11; MOHAN 2008:45). The participatory approach can be implemented at different steps and in different forms within the management

30 of development projects, e.g. participation by consultation or collaboration (TUFTE et al. 2009:5 f). This also applies for JFM. Initiated at first by the government of Orissa and West Bengal in 1989, who recognized a Self-initiated Forest Protection System (Arabari experiment11), JFM evolved officially in 1990 in Indian Government (Karnataka the Forest Department, JFPM 2013; BALOONI 2002:88). Basic objectives of JFPM in Karnataka are (i) to raise an institutional change in forest management, (ii) include local communities in forest planning and management decisions and (iii) reduce further loss of forest cover and resources and support sustainable resource use. Following these, several key-actions are identified: e.g. building VFCs; preparing micro plans and site-specific planning; study of resource management options; involvement of NGOs; increasing participation of women (RAO et al. 2001:2). Moreover, “only degraded forest areas in Protected Forests” were available for JFM (ARNOLD 2001:50).

Village Forest Communities (VFCs)

Formation of VFCs is defined as key process for JFM at basic level, since these committee’s function as self governing and independent entity. VFCs oversee planning; implementation; protection; harvesting and sharing of benefits together with the Forest Department. There are defined guidelines concerning the administration of VFCs such as the number of people within management committee; percentage of women in the committee; the section forester (the Forest Department) who is functioning as a secretary in every committee. In 2000 in total, more than 500 VFCs were formed and 56.632 ha of forest was put under protection in Uttara Kannada (RAO et al 2001:3f; BHAT et al. 1999:28).

Other approaches of participatory conservation do exist, for e.g. the concept of “Van Panchayats” (see chapter 3.2). However, the introduction of JFM is seen by several

11 Involvement of village communities in forest protection, in return government provided them 25 % of revenue from protected forest (BALOONI 2002:88)

31 authors as a fundamental change in the mindset of government, facilitating the transformation from government-managed to people-managed forests. Many positive economic and ecological impacts due to JFM were noticed, such as increased fuel wood availability and increase of sale of NTFP. Especially in villages bordering less degraded forest land and large forest areas, JFM was most successful, as well as in mangrove forest areas in southern parts of India, where management was improved and lead towards better flooding protection (ARNOLD 2001:51). Anyhow, the concept of JFM was significantly driven forward and supported by the commitment of NGOs, which developed side specific participatory management models, based on governmental policy directives (BALOONI 2002:94). Further impact of NGOs will be discussed in chapter 8.

Nonetheless, several issues occurred within the implementation of JFM that are unsatisfying and cause difficulties which are still to overcome. One of the major goals of JFM is to encourage equity in participation, especially for women and minorities

(source). This was analyzed in a comprehensive study by BHAT et al. (1999), who concluded, that about nine years after implementation, women and minorities were still underrepresented in management committees (BHAT et al. 1999:13). RAO argued that even if the woman in a family was part of VFC, her husband was the primary member and contact person (RAO et al. 2001:17). Furthermore, BALOONI (2002) noticed a lack of equity in benefit sharing within one VFC as well as between VFC and the

Forest Department. This can lead to discrepancies within one village. BALOONI further emphasizes the importance of respecting user rights which are traditionally given towards village members and should not be extinguished abruptly, but be treated sensitively. Further problems occur with the acquisition of lands for use by VFCs, since there is a great bureaucratic effort needed. This is further increased by local (illegal) encroachment of land (BALOONI 2002:99). Moreover, in some cases occurs mismatch between objectives of forest protection and silviculture practices. BHAT criticizes, that focus of the Forest Department was on conventional plantation model such as before implementation of JFM (BHAT et al. 1999: 25; RAO et al. 2001:19). Further institutional difficulties in the implementation of JFM are e.g. high transaction costs; lack of

32 appropriate marketing structure; policies and acts which seem to be conflicting and ambiguous. They furthermore vary between different states in India and have no statutory basis. This makes them reversible easily and creates uncertainty (BALOONI 2002:100). Very important is the lack of transparency, for example regarding protection-management decisions (which species for re-forestation) and in financial issues, which are criticized by several authors (RAO et al. 2001:16; BHAT et al. 1999:28).

Overall, according to POFFENBERGER et al., “current Joint Forest Management (JFM) programs still continue to be top-down […] and bypassing indigenous community forest management institutions and local government organizations” (POFFENBERGER et al. 2006:9).

2.2.2. Community-based nature conservation management

Besides JFM, different approaches for conservation and development evolved in India, with the ratification of the worldwide Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) by the Indian Government in 1993. This convention required all parties to develop a National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plans (NBSAPs) as an instrument for the implementation of CBD (GoI, UNDP 2006, p.3f). Especially in India, a country where the rural population is highly dependent on natural resources, the link between nature protection (ecological security) and livelihood security is of great importance, since rural people are an important stakeholder in nature conservation (GoI, UNDP 2006:3).

Against this background, the concept of Community-based Natural Resource Management (CBNRM) has become a vital approach in India and is aiming at enabling both, conservation of biodiversity and securing local livelihoods (UNDP 2006:4). This approach can be referred to as “the joint management of natural resources by a community, based on a community strategy, through a participatory mechanism involving all legitimate stakeholder” (MENON et al. 2007). As highlighted by LEACH et. al.,

33 caution is required in respect of forming new institutions that are considered to replace indigenous systems, since this might result in decreasing community involvement. CBNRM, therefore, seeks to facilitate already existing and highly dynamic sets of rules which adapt to social, political and ecological circumstances that are changing with social actors and their behavior (LEACH et al. 1999:240). POFFENBERGER et al. contrasts different CBCM approaches and compares JFM and Community forest management (CFM), whereby the latter shows many parallels to CBNRM (POFFENBERGER et al. 2006:65 f).

In the table below, structural differences between these two approaches are pointed out (tab. 1).

JFM/forest development Community forest Component agency management Based on indigenous Management JFM committees centralized community institution institutions under district forest with recognition from district development agency (FDA) councils Authority Top down from FDA to JFM Community representatives: structure committees village meetings the Forest Department Consensus decisions based on Planning and with top-down planning local knowledge and decision-making decisions following national community needs; traditional JFM scheme management practices Landscape-level planning: Scheme implementation: integration of achievement of targets, timely Orientation forests and agriculture, long- expenditure of annual term sustainability of natural scheme budget resource management use Sharing arrangement between All for use within the Benefit forest department and community: primarily distribution community: market for subsistence needs orientation protection of watershed and Implement schemes according sacred forests; equitable to Activities distribution of forest guidelines, achieve targets; products; resolution of spend budgets on schedule disputes Table 1: CFM and JFM systems, (modified) by POFFENBERGER et al. 2006:56.

Biodiversity conservation through CBNRM

So far, CBNRM mostly was implemented in North-east India. The project “Biodiversity conservation through Community-based Natural Resource Management” (2008 – 2012) by the United Nations Development Program (UNDP) and Ministry of Environment and Forests, Government of India (MoEF) is often named as a good application example of CBNRM. The goal of the project was to “make national and state-level policies more responsive to the strong linkages between rural livelihoods and biodiversity conservation in Arunachal Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand and Orissa” (UNDP India, official website). Achievements of this project were e.g. “set up/strengthened decentralized people’s institutions to sustainably manage natural resources”; preserving of traditional knowledge and biological resources through documentation of value and use of these; baseline mapping of natural resources; in- situ and ex-situ conservation measures; action against illegal felling and trade of timber (UNDP India, official website). Since this comprehensive project has taken place in the northern states of India, DANIELS et al. further recommend the “revitalizing of community-based systems of sustainable management of village forests and protection of sacred groves and trees” as strategy against loss of biodiversity, also in

Uttara Kannada (South India), (DANIELS et al. 2009:131; ORMSBY/BHAGWAT 2010:1).

2.2.3. Biosphere reserves

The World Network of Biosphere Reserves (WNBR) was initiated in 1976 as a program within the Man and the Biosphere (MAB) program by UNESCO. MAB, as an intergovernmental scientific program, puts its focus on improving the relationship between people and their environment, by combining the application of natural and social sciences, economics and education (UNESCO, MAB Strategy 2015 – 2025:3). To facilitate support of member states and stakeholder in the conservation of biodiversity and ecosystem services as well as the sustainable use of natural resources, the MAB Strategy 2015 – 2025 was developed and adopted by MAB International Co-ordinating

Council (ICC) in 2015. Along with Lima Action Plan12, MAB Strategy 2015 – 2025 specifies key actions and guidelines to ensure “effective functioning models for sustainable development” within Biosphere Reserves worldwide (UNESCO, Lima Action Plan 2016:2f).

Biosphere Reserves are defined as “Science for Sustainability support sites”, where interdisciplinary approaches and interactions between social and ecological systems will be applied, in order to comprehend and manage changes within these (UNESCO, Biosphere Reserves official web site). Therefore, Biosphere Reserves combine three functions: conservation, development and logistical support. In practice, biosphere reserves comprise three different zones: “(1) one or more legally constituted core areas, devoted to long-term protection; (2) adjacent buffer zones; and (3) an outer transition area where sustainable development is promoted and developed by public authorities, local communities and enterprises.” The international congress in Sevilla (1995) constitutes a remarkable turning point in the implementation of the Biosphere Reserve concept and with notable changes compared to Post-Sevilla practices

(ISHWARAN et al. 2008:118). Furthermore, with integrating traditional and local knowledge in ecosystem conservation, Biosphere Reserves encourage a multi- stakeholder approach and especially foster involvement of local communities in conservation management (UNESCO, MAB Strategy 2015 – 2025:4). As defined by

ISHWARAN et al. (2008), Biosphere Reserves serve as learning laboratories for sustainable development, wherein each reserve can be seen as “context-specific experiment”. Fundamentally Biosphere Reserves are based on the “ability of knowledge to serve as an improvement of conservation and development relationships” (ISHWARAN et al. 2008:129).

The first Biosphere Reserve founded in India (in 1986), is the Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve (NBR), located in the Western Ghats and covering 5670 Km², see fig.: 1. Due to its high biodiversity with more than 3700 plant species and 684 vertebrate species (156 are endemic to this region), the Nilgiris were chosen as the representative site for

12 Adopted by the 28th MAB ICC (March 2016) in Lima, Peru (UNESCO, Lima Action Plan 2016:2)

Biosphere Reserve concept. Furthermore, about 2 million people (1996), belonging to about 30 different communities, are living within NBR, contributing a high diversity of human culture and tradition, but also intensify pressure on use and exploitation of natural resources. Within the area of NBR, six different Protected Areas and two wildlife sanctuaries are located (DANIELS et al. 1996:2f; ARASU 2018; SATISH et al.

2014:8136; LAL et al. 1994:212). Therefore, following objectives of NBR were defined: “a) To conserve in-situ genetic diversity of species; b) To restore degraded ecosystems to their natural conditions; c) To provide baseline data for ecological and environmental research and education; d) To function as an alternate model for sustainable development.” (KUMARi 2015:94). Besides, management of NBR was committed towards five councils (committees): (1) Governing Council; (2) Eco- development Council13; (3) Biosphere Protection and Co-ordination Committee; (4) Management Committee and (5) Research and Monitoring Committee, consisting of different representatives from Department of Forest; Agriculture; Science and Technology; Environment, as well as representatives from Man and the Biosphere

Committee; Technical Advisors and Scientists. However, DANIELS identified several points of criticism regarding management of NBR. These refer e.g. towards lack of coordination and inter-departmental cooperation; no changes in management towards following the MAB approach, but instead adhering to routine forestry management; lack of human community participation and protection of traditional rights (DANIELS et al. 1996:14f). Besides, similar aspects were criticized by PUYRAVAUD/DAVIDAR, almost 20 years later, who describe NBR as “nomenclature” for existing protected areas, which fails to offer the protection level it is supposed to. The authors name as major reasons: “a lack of coordination and the exclusion of civil society; […]communication gap between different departments’ as well as the absence of a transition zone bordering protected areas of NBR” (PUYRAVAUD/DAVIDAR 2013:470). A more recent analysis, conducted by KUMARI (2015), identifies deforestation and change in land use as the most critical threat towards NBR, along with tourism and construction of development projects. Furthermore, SATISH et al. (2014) ascertained, after examining deforestation

13 Eco-development is a program funded by the World Bank and deals with biodiversity conservation objectives through the use of socio-economic investment tools.

37 rate in NBR between 1920 and 2012, high changes in forest types (particularly affecting economically important forest types) and estimated an overall loss of forest cover of 1,423.6 sq km, which accounts for 24.5% of the total forest referring to the state in

1920. However, according to SATISH et al., degradation of the forest was reduced after the declaration of NBR, due to conservation effective management (KUMARI 2015:96;

SATISH et al. 2014:8139).

Apart from NBR, 18 more Biosphere Reserves exist in India of which 11 are part of the “UNESCO Biosphere Network”. Overall, several changes in concept and application of Biosphere Reserves occurred, initiated by accumulation and transfer of knowledge within natural and social sciences and leading towards better integration of all stakeholder such as decision-makers and local communities. Meanwhile, in many reserves, confidence between the rural population and Biosphere Reserve management was built, which facilitates further implementation of integrated conservation (ISHWARAN, PERSIC & HOANG TRI 2008:130). As POFFENBERGER et al. (2006) puts it, there is a great need for encouraging communities to sustainably manage their forests and farmland which “allows them to gradually integrate new production activities into their ongoing resource management systems” (POFFENBERGER et al. 2006:59). However, it is furthermore crucial, to gather data about villagers’ perception of the Biosphere Reserve management, to ensure ongoing cooperation and thereby coexistence of rural development within transitional zones and protection of biodiversity within core zones ISHWARAN et al. 2008:129).

In conclusion, there are many threats identified in NBR, that also exist within the study area in Bedthi and Aghanashini CR, such as deforestation and alteration of land use. Parallels exist furthermore, between difficulties in the management of Bedthi and Aghanashini CR and NBS, especially in the integration of local communities. In this study, the focus lies on the examination of local perception and awareness of Bedthi and Aghanashini CR. In the following chapters, methods and results of the conducted survey and interviews will be examined and discussed.

Figure 1: Location and zonation Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve (NBR), SATISH et al. 2014

3. The study area

3.1 Geography

The study area is located in the Western Ghats Region in the federal state of Karnataka, South India. the Western Ghats are a mountain range that runs for 1600 km parallel along the western coastline of India, passing six federal states and covering a 14 total area of 160.000 sq km (KUMARA 2008:16). The Western Ghats belong to India’s geologically oldest mountains and are older than the Himalayan Mountains. Parts of its underlying rocks were formed during break up of supercontinent Gondwana, 150 million years ago, but its present structure with steep western scarp and gradual merging with the plateau in the east resulted during more resent faulting (DANIELS et al.

1996:8; BARRON et al. 1981). The Western Ghats have been declared as World Heritage by UNESCO in 2012, due to their geomorphic feature, as well as their major influence on large-scale biophysical and ecological processes over the entire Indian peninsula (UNESCO 2012). Furthermore, the Western Ghats are considered one of six most important biodiversity hotspots on earth, due to their high number of plant and vertebrate endemic species (MYERS et al. 2000:856).

The study was implemented within two different conservation reserves: Aghanashini Lion-tailed-Macaque Conservation Reserve (LTM-CR) and Bedthi Conservation Reserve (B-CR). Both areas are placed within the district of Uttara Kannada (North Kannada), which is located between 13,769° - 15,372° north and 74,124° - 75,169° east and belongs to Karnataka. Uttara Kannada covers an area of 10.291 km² in total and is divided into 11 local administrative divisions, called taluks (RAMACHANDRA et al. 2013a:13). LTM-CR is located within the following taluks: Sirsi, Siddapur and Kumta and covers a total area of 299.52 km². B-CR is located in Yellapur, Sirsi and Ankola and covers an area of 57.07 km² (HEGDE 2011) see Fig. 2.

14 Different sources show varying data regarding area of the Western Ghats

Figure 2: by BALACHANDRA HEGDE 2011:33

Climate and vegetation

The Western Ghats have great influence on Indian monsoon weather patterns since they act as barrier and thereby intercept rain-laden monsoon-winds coming from the south-west during late summer. In general, this region shows typical characteristics of tropical monsoon systems (UNESCO 2012). Therefore also Uttara Kannada has a tropical climate with roughly four seasons: rainy season lasts from June to September, and is characterized by high humidity and high temperatures due to heavy rainfall, caused by south west monsoon (71 % of annual rainfall); this is followed by post monsoon period between October and December; dry season lasts from December to February; hot season continues for March till May and shows thunderstorms

(RAMACHANDRA/GANAPATHY 2006:13). Annual precipitation in Uttara Kannada reaches 2750 mm rainfall in average but differs from 3554.6 mm in the coastal area, west of the mountain range (Ankola) to 1176.8 mm annual rainfall east of the mountain range

(Mundgod). Both CRs are located rather east in the mountain range and therefore show annual precipitation above 2400 mm, see fig.: 3 & 5 (Ministry of Water resources 2008). Uttara Kannada is drained mainly by four rivers which are Kali, Bedthi, Aghanashini and Sharavathi, all floating west towards the Arabian Sea. Bedthi originates in Hubli, merges with Shalmala and floats about 161 km until it floats into the ocean. Aghanashini originates near Sirsi and floats for about 70 Km before reaching the coastline near Kumta (RAMACHANDRA et al. 2013:31). Temperature is strongly influenced by altitude. Both CR are located in about 30 to 500 m.a.s.l. where, according to PASCAL et al. (2004), the monthly mean temperature remains above 20 °C in the coldest month (January) and below 30°C. The annual average temperature is about 25 °C (see fig.:2).

Figure 3: Climate diagram Dodmane (Aghanashini Conservation Reserve), (climate-data.org)

Due to the high variety of climate conditions within the overall area of the Western Ghats, vegetation has evolved a great diversity of plant formations and species richness. About 4000 plant species of which about 1500 are endemic to this region have been recorded. Therefore, the Western Ghats rank among the “hottest” biodiversity hotspots on earth, as already mentioned above (PASCAL et al. 2004:282;

MACKINNON/MACKINNON 1986; KUMARA 2008:4). Besides, the Western Ghats is one of the five major forest regions in India and furthermore, Uttara Kannada is the district with highest forest cover (80 %) among all districts of Karnataka (KUMARA 2008:4;

RAMACHANDRA et al. 2013a:1). Forest cover starts within a few kilometers from the coastline with mostly dense semi-evergreen species like e.g. Cinnamomum malabaricum, Holigarna arnottiana, Dalbergia latifolia, Ficus spp., etc. Moving east towards the mountain ridge, average annual rainfall exceeds 2250 mm, here forest is characterized rather by evergreen species, such as Dipterocarpus indicus, Diospyros candolleana, Artocarpus hirsutum, see fig.: 4. In areas with average annual precipitation less than 1000 mm, moist deciduous forest occurs, characterized by e.g. Terminalia paniculata, Terminalia tomentosa, Xylia xylocarpa Careya arborea, Spondias spp. and Tectona grandis (RAMACHANDRA et al.

2013a:46; RAMACHNDRA et al. 2016:17 f). Besides, semi-evergreen and evergreen forest – Myristica swamps occur as further vegetation composition in this district. This type of freshwater swamp occurs below 600 m a.s.l. and is dominated by Myristicaceae (Family of nutmeg). Myristica swamps are an important habitat for numerous critically endangered plant species (e.g. Madhuca bourdillonii; Syzygium travancoricum) and animal species. Moreover, a newly described and until now only in this region occurring species (Semicarpus kathlacanensis) was documented in these swamps

(CHANDRAN/MESTA 2006:1). However, at present Myristica swamps very rare and are considered endangered habitat (BIRASAL 2014:4; KUMARA 2008:11). Furthermore, the Western Ghats harbor several wild forms of cultivated plants, such as Pepper, Cardamom and Jackfruit

(GADGIL et al. 2011:10).

In many parts of Uttara Kannada, there can be distinguished between primary and secondary forest. Secondary forest resulted from slash and burn cultivation (shifting cultivation) which was conducted during pre-colonial and early colonial period and was widespread among locals in Uttara Kannada. This practice caused clearance of primary forest and turned it into cultivable land, which started succession after abandonment from growth the of deciduous species, and later on evergreen trees if undisturbed.

According to RAMACHANDRA et al., the percentage of evergreen species has increased by now in many parts of Uttara Kannada (RAMACHANDRA et al. 2013:46). Today this method disappeared in most areas, but still slight differences in vegetation pattern between both CRs occur. In Bedthi CR exists broadly moist deciduous forest, as well as evergreen forest, whereas in Aghanashini CR mostly evergreen forest occurs

(RAMACHANDRA 2006:25). Furthermore, fauna of the Western Ghats is characterized by high species diversity and endemism. According to PASCAL et al. (2004) and KUMARA (2008), about 218 fish species, 156 reptile species and 121 amphibian species are documented. Among these, more than half are endemic to the Western Ghats and there are still remaining gaps in the documentation of biodiversity in some of the forest areas. DANIELS (1989) has documented 419 taxa of birds throughout the whole district of Uttara Kannada (55% residential and 44 % winter visitors). Besides, Uttara Kannada shows high diversity of wild mammals such as Elephants, Tigers, Leopards and Lion-tailed Macaques (LTM) (Macaca silenus). In Aghanashini CR for example, was the largest known population of LTM documented, which are endemic to the Western Ghats and classified as endangered. And Bedthi inhabits populations of endangered Hornbill species

(Coscinium fenestratum) (DANIELS 1989; KRISHNAMURTHY/KIESTER 1998; IUCN 2012).

Further endangered species documented in Uttara Kannada district are (KUMARA 2008).

Dry deciduous Moist deciduous Evergreen Water body Evergreen shrubs Coastal

Figure 5: Gradient of annual precipitation Figure 4: Vegetation pattern Uttara in Uttara Kannada (Ramachandra et al. Kannada (modified after RAMACHANDRA 2013:23) et al. 2013)

3.2 Population distribution

Compared to adjoining plains and coastal regions, the Western Ghats never have been populated densely, compared to other parts of India, due to its difficult terrain and occurrence of Malaria. Settlements were small and dispersed, while bigger towns occurred only at the eastern part along rivers or at the western parts near the coast. Only with an increase in communication, transportation and technical progress in construction machinery, the Western Ghats became populated more densely (GADGIL et al. 2011:12). Today, the Western Ghats show highest population density, compared to other biodiversity hotspots. Therefore, human activities cause the biggest threat towards wildlife and biodiversity, since expanding population results in increasing needs of resources and land. According to Census 2011, Uttara Kannada has a total population of 1.437.169 (29.15% urban population) and a population density of 140

45 p.p. km² (398.1 P.p. km² in overall India (CINCOTTA et al. 2000:991 f). Since 2001, the population has grown by 6.2 % in Uttara Kannada. Sex ration in this district amounts for 979 females per 1000 males and percentage of literates is 84 % in total (90 % for males and 78 % for females). Villages are scattered throughout the forest areas mostly outside of the borders of Bedthi and Aghanashini CR. (GADGIL et al. 2011: 10 ff; HOSETTI/

VENKATESHWARLU 2001; Census 2011).

3.3 Threats

Land use change

Overall, land use changes, driven by anthropogenic activities, cause major threats towards ecosystems of the Western Ghats, since land use changes come along with an alteration in landscape structure and thereby affect functional aspects of an ecosystem

(AMEZTEGUI et al. 2010:632). Traditionally, land use was dominated by paddy cultivation in valleys and millets- and legume cultivation along hill slopes; shifting cultivation and changed to cultivation on terraces later on. Horticulture of arecanut plantations has a long tradition in the Western Ghats region and were cultivated in a very similar method like today, as reported by FRANCIS BUCHANAN-HAMILTON in 1807. Besides arecanut cultivated in the hills, horticulture was dominated by coconut along with the coast, combined with mango and jackfruit cultivation. Furthermore, cattle and buffalo were kept in areas of deciduous forest. With colonization, e.g. tea, coffee, rubber and cashew were cultivated additionally to pepper and cardamom which are native to the Western Ghats. Earliest plantations, recorded in 17th century, produced timber, mainly teakwood. However, fast exploitation of timber at first started by British colonization th in 19 century (BUCHANAN-HAMILTON 1807:157; GADGIL et al. 2011:10; CHANDRAN 2000:5). In general, large-scale land use change from forest to tree logging, agricultural land and infrastructural development is altering ecosystem structure and thereby affecting goods and services of the ecosystem, which furthermore can result in habitat

46 fragmentation (BUSKIRK et al. 2000; BOGAERT et al. 2004). The increasing number of arecanut plantations in valleys leads to human-wildlife conflicts (RAMACHANDRA/KUMAR

2011:242; KUMARA 2008:26). In addition, alteration of plant and animal community composition and thereby changes in species diversity can be side effects, caused by land use changes (CAGNOLO et al. 2006). Today, 12 % of land in Uttara Kannada is under cultivation, according to RAMACHANDRA et al. (2013a:46). Evergreen forest cover has decreased from 57.31 % (1979) to 32.08 % (2013) and agricultural land use has increased from 10.02 % (1979) to 14.13 % (2013) in Uttara Kannada, see fig.: 6

(RAMACHANDRA et al. 2016:7). In areas of deforestation, increasing runoff of rainwater occurs, as well as degradation of soils due to loss of nutrients and important minerals

(KUMARA 2008:6).

Non-forest

Patch

Edge

Transition al

Perforated

Interior forest

Figure 6: Changes in forest cover between 1979 and 2013 (RAMACHANDRA et al. 2016:9)

Non- timer forest Products (NTFP)

Non-timber Forest Products (NTFP) are used for many different purposes, e.g. food, roofing, household furniture, utensils, fodder, medicinal and commercial purposes

(MITHTHAPALA 2008:83). Collection of NTFP was practiced ever since the Western Ghats were populated. They play a significant role in livelihoods of the rural and rather poor population, but are collected by most of the inhabitants of the Western Ghats. It can be distinguished between marketable and non-marketable NTFP and due to increasing demand, commercial NTFP-selling has increased during the last decades in all over India. In Uttara Kannada, revenue from NTFP is about Rs 685 million/year, which is almost double the revenue from timber (Rs 372 million/ year)

(SHIVAPRASAD/CHANDRASHEKAR 2014:9f; MURTHY et al. 2005:1578). Depending on the type of forest, up to 59 different plant species (evergreen forest) are used for different purposes (MURTHY et al. 2005:1574). Major crops were fruits, spices and herbs like e.g. Pepper, Cardamom, Ivory, Honey, Wax, Myrobalan (Amla), Bamboo and Reeds, but also fuel wood and other biomass for heating, cooking and processing of other NTFP. With overexploitation, due to the expansion of human settlements, a collection of some products is either completely banned (ivory, cane), or restricted nowadays

(GADGIL et al. 2011:11; CHANDRAN 2000:4). Overall, Uttara Kannada was important for

Spice gardens (BUCHY 1996:171). Further important NTFP, collected within the area of Bedthi and Aghanashini CR, are e.g. Garcinia (Garcinia indica) and Soap nut (Acacia sinuata) (MITHTHALPA et. al. 2008:84).

According to KUMARA/SINGH (2004), hunting, especially for large mammal species, is still widespread in some regions of the Western Ghats. Although prohibited, poaching and hunting are executed by using traps or guns for both illegal commercial purposes and personal consumption. However, due to beliefs and religion of local people several species are less hunted (mostly diurnal primates like LTM) than others (Sambar, Gaur, Leopards). Still hunting and poaching can cause local decline or extinction of large mammals (KUMARA/SINGH 2004:325; KUMARA et al. 2008:28).

Industrialization

With the beginning of the colonization period, many industries were developed in the Western Ghats region, such as saw mills, brick and tile factories, paper, polyfiber, matchwood, etc. These industries have enlarged to such extent, that today most industries are depending on the importation of wood resources. Furthermore, the Western Ghats are rich in iron, manganese and bauxite ores which are extracted in large scale mining and further exported from Goa. Mining activities often violate existing laws and cause serious damage to forest and river ecosystems; to agriculture through soil erosion, as well as social disturbance in the Western Ghats region. Within Uttara Kannada total mining area of 148.94 km² is situated mostly north from Bedthi and Aghanashini CR (GADGIL et al. 2011:11; RAMACHANDRA et al. 2016:10;

RAMACHANDRA/KUMAR 2011:53). Further industries, such as salt production, as well as implementation of hydroelectric (Supa Dam15; Gerussoppa Dam16 built in 2001) and nuclear power projects in Uttara Kannada induced decline of vast evergreen forest patches and caused displacement of farmers living nearby river estuaries and marine pollution through effluents of e.g. mercury into the Arabian Sea (HEGDE 1999 in RAMACHANDRA/KUMAR 2011:53;

RAMACHANDRA et al. 2016:3). Further development projects, like road construction and building of transmission lines, can lead towards habitat fragmentation and restrict movement of wildlife species, such as Lion-tailed macaque (LTM), which are depending on the unbroken natural canopy (KUMARA 2008:27; GADGIL et al. 2011:11).

Overall, regarding protected areas (PA’s) in general, greatest threat constitutes vast economic growth and commercialization (e.g. opening up PA’s for development projects by local government) (KUTTY/KOTHARI 2001:67 f).

15 The second largest dam in Karnataka was finalized in 1987, catchment area of 134 Km², two electricity generators of 50 megawatt each (RAMACHANDRA 2013:71) 16 Installed in 2001 with catchment area of 7 Km² (RAMACHANDRA 2013:76)

4. Description of methods

4.1. Expert- and group interviews

4.1.1. Implementation of Expert- and Group interviews

Expert- and group interviews are used to get a general understanding of the overall situation which is to be examined (ATTESLANDER et al. 2010:140 ff). Theoretical sampling was conducted for the selection of interview partners. All interviews took between 30 to 60 minutes. Methodically, guided interviews were chosen for both, expert- and group interviews. According to FLICK, guided or semi-structured interviews are based on open questions, which follow a specific guideline. As a result, the received data gain comparability and already become structured (FLICK 1999:112 ff; MEUSER/NAGEl 1991;

GLÄSER/LAUDEL 2010:40). This concept further enables to define key issues and relevant topics (CROPLEY 2011:137). However, semi-structured interviews require basic knowledge of the research topic and demand the researcher to lead towards beforehand defined questions (CROPLEY 2011:138). Furthermore, all interview- questions are non-standardised and open questions, which enable respondents to formulate their answers completely independently (ATTESLANDER et al. 2010:146;

GLÄSER/LAUDEL, 2010:150 ff). As guideline basis, often theoretical preliminary considerations; other research and own investigations are applied (see MAYER 2008:43). Accordingly, different studies from the same area or with similar topics were considered to develop the interview guideline in this case (TRIGUERO-MAS/OLOMI-SOLA 2008; DANIELS et al. 1993; BUER, SOLBRIG,

STOLL-KLEEMANN et al. 2013) .

Expert interviews

Experts can be considered specialists for a certain topic or representatives of an interest group (FLICK 1999:109 f in MAYER 2008:38). Since it is never obvious, who might

cxxiii be an expert, it is crucial to conduct semi-structured interviews in advance to identify different experts (ATTESLANDER et al. 2010:140).

MAYER recommends choosing experts from different levels of organization or hierarchy to ensure that different perspectives of one group of interests are considered (MAYER 2008:42). Therefore, in this study, two representatives from the Forest Department (Mr. Kumar, Deputy Conservator of Forest (DCF) and Ms. Bhat, Range Forest Officer (RFO)) were selected. Additional, one representative from “the Western Ghats Taskforce” (NGO) and two VFCs presidents were chosen for expert interviews. The objective was to get background information from a local perspective about a) Overall situation in CRs during the last years b) Current state of awareness and local knowledge about CRs c) Possible stakeholders for conservation management

Expert interviews, therefore, followed a guideline with questions regarding implementation of Community-based Conservation Management (CBCM), cooperation and challenges with local inhabitants. The order of questions was arranged while beginning with introductory questions and later asking key questions, as recommended by ATTESLANDER et al. 2010:139. During some interviews, questions were asked in English, translated into Kannada17 and answers were translated back into English (conducted with help of a translator). Three interviews were held in English only.

Group interviews

Overall, group interviews aim to determine the attitudes of groups as a whole, as well as processes which lead to the formation of group-specific opinions (LAMNEK/KRELL 2016:388 f). Furthermore, group interviews allow participants to not only answer questions of the interviewer but also to interact among each other and discuss or manifest own opinions which are not stimulated from outside (ATTESLANDER et al.

17 Local language spoken in Karnataka

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2010:141). As CROPLEY indicates, semi-structured interviews enable, instead of whole sentences, noting down key statements and core messages (CROPLEY 2011: 138). This was done for group interviews in this study.

Group-interviews with VFCs or SHG’s (Women Self-Help Groups), followed a guideline which included questions concerning a) Cooperation with another stakeholder (the Forest Department and NGOs) b) Projects which were already implemented or planned for the future c) Challenges in the concept of VFC d) Overall attitude towards CR e) Interest in participation in nature conservation

In total, three group interviews were conducted with different VFCs and SHG’s: VFC Agasal-Bommanalli; VFC Khelasi; VFC & SHG Vanalli. The meeting with VFC Agasal- Bommanalli took place on 22nd of November, 2017 in Bommanali (Sirsi Taluk). In total, eight members participated, thereof one woman. At first, Suhas Hegde, who is founder of the NGO “Tropical Rainforest Ecological Camp” (TREC) and supported the data sampling, gave a small introduction about the study topic, the reason and focus of the meeting. This meeting was the first and therefore, translation of questions from English to Kannada and back took some time. The second group interview was taken with VFC and SHG Vanalli, on 23rd of November in Vanalli. 8 people attended the meeting, among them the VFC presidents, as well as two women. The third group interview was taken with VFC Khelasi on 29th of November, 2017 in Khelasi. Five people attended the meeting, among them the president of VFC. Suhas Hegde attended the meeting and translated questions.

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4.1.2 Analysis of expert-and group interviews

Analysis of interviews was done by using a qualitative content analysis. This method aims to gather contextual information which can be further transformed into a suitable format and thus be processed, independently from the original text (Gläser/Laudel 2010:197). Therefore, different steps are required which include I) development of category system (in the following called “codes”) beforehand of the analyzes; II) division of texts into units of analysis; III) browsing of texts for relevant information and IV) classification of information towards different codes (GLÄSER/LAUDEL 2010:197f;

KUCKARTZ 2012:43). KUCKARTZ further separates codes into different categories, which were used in this analysis:

- Fact categories: related towards objective circumstances (e.g. profession) - Content categories: describing certain topic or argument - Analytic categories: resulting from analysis of interview-material and describing conclusions towards a certain topic (e.g. consumption behavior) - Evaluative categories: measuring conditions by using assorted characteristics (e.g. height of interest in nature)

All interviews were transcribed with MAXQDA and analyzed by using a coding system (see tab.: 2).

Content Stakeholder Joint Forest Management VFCs The Forest Department Analytic Opinion VFCs useful as baseline for CBCM? (respondents opinion) 1) positive 2) negative

Is CBCM useful? 1) negative 2) positive Evaluative Attitude Own attitude:

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towards CR 1) positive 2) negative and nature conservation Attitude of other locals: 1) positive 2) negative Expectations Own expectations about CR- Observed expectations from others management Awareness Own awareness about CR Observed awareness of locals Facts Occupation NGO Forest Dept Member VFC Community Scheduled tribe (e.g. Siddi) Other (e.g. Havyaka Brahman, Khare vokkal) Table 2: Code system

4.2. Household survey

4.2.1. Development of questionnaire

The questionnaire was developed in corporation with members of TREC (Tropical Rainforest Ecological Camp) and is based on questions from quantitative surveys conducted in several protected areas in Germany and India (BUER et al. 2013:105 ff;

TRIGUERO-MAS/OLOMI-SOLA 2008). The questionnaire contains 42 questions in total and is divided into three parts:

1) Individual relation towards surrounding nature and conservation reserve: This section aims to examine general perception of respondents towards surrounding

cxxvii nature (“How high is your interest in surrounding nature from 1 to 5?”) and natural resources that are appreciated most (“nature/ touristic attractions/ agricultural suitability/ perennial water source/ others”). Interest in nature was also measured on a scale from one (very low) to five (very high). Furthermore, several questions regarding dependency on natural products (collection and marketing of NTFP; firewood consumption, use of firewood saving energy devices) were asked, as well as losses due to wildlife damage and awareness about threats towards surrounding natural environment. Additional, awareness of threats towards natural forest (this is most widely distributed landscape in CR) among respondents was examined. Therefore, five different answer possibilities for threats were given: a) Hydropower plants; b) Monoculture Plantations; c) Harvesting NTFP; d) Others; e) No specified.

2) Personal attitude towards conservation: Participants were interviewed on their knowledge about Bedthi- or Aghanashini Conservation Reserve (depending on respondent’s location). To assess their knowledge about CR, survey participants were asked directly, if they knew about Bedthi/ Aghanashini CR. Moreover, they were asked about their awareness of related legislation while asking them to estimate their knowledge about legacies in categories from one (no knowledge at all) to five (very comprehensive knowledge). Furthermore, this section aims to examine participants opinion of empowerment and conservation work on a local scale, e.g. due to questions regarding knowledge of NGOs and possible impacts by conservation reserves, as well as their expectations from conservation management. Participants were further informed by the interviewer about concept and legislation of Nature Conservation Reserves, in case they did not know, to ensure that all participants are aware of the rights they have regarding use of the NTFP; maintaining conservation efforts; etc. If participants had no knowledge about Nature Conservation Reserves (CR), questions about possible impacts due to CR were adjusted to “did you recognize any changes in the forest during the last six years?” instead of “Does the CR have any impact to your everyday life?”. All respondents were asked questions regarding their attitude towards

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CR, even if they did not know about CR before the interview. The variable “attitude towards CR” was created as a product of “impact of CR” (-1 – 1) and “meaning of CR” (1 – 5) of respondents . “Attitude towards CR” thus has a scale between – 5 to 5, with - 5 as a very negative and 5 as a very positive attitude towards CR. To identify, what might influence the attitude of people towards CRs, different variables were analyzed for correlations with “attitude towards CR” by using Chi²-Tests, correlation after Pearson and Spearman and Phi coefficient, Cramérs V, r and rs respectively to measure effect size, as well as variance analysis and Eta². Similarly, as for the first assumption, socio-demographic variables (age; gender; yearly income; community) were analyzed for correlations with “attitude towards CR” at first. Furthermore, respondents were asked about their interest in participating in conservation management committees or conservation.

3) Socio-demographic and economic characteristics: The socio-demographic and economic background was characterized by age, gender, level of education, community, the property of land, occupation, income and size of household. Regarding “belonging to which community”, most abundant communities in the study area (Havyaka Brahman; Khare Vokkal; Siddi) were recorded separately and further communities were categorized as “other”.

After a few test runs, adjustments were applied to the questionnaire to gain a better understanding of respondents; clearer image (adding a scale for extending awareness about laws in conservation area); adding further response options (e.g. NTFP) and d) questions regarding knowledge and (the concept of) NGOs, which indicates awareness about possibilities of local empowerment independently from government. Questions are both open-and closed-ended.

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4.2.2. Implementation

The household survey was conducted between 23rd of November and 29th of December in 2017. In total 60 survey interviews were conducted, and one survey interview took between 30 to 40 minutes on average. The survey was conducted in and around the region of Bedthi Conservation Reserve and Aghanashini Conservation Reserve. The map (fig.: 7) gives an overview of all places visited. For details about visited places, see tab.: 1 in annex 5. The selection of survey places was based on two objectives: I) covering the two areas equally dense and II) including different communities, who are living in the area, in the survey. People were chosen for the survey, based on three objectives:

I) cover different communities II) include people with different amounts of income and III) include people with different levels of education

The survey was always accompanied by one or two translators for translating the questions from English into Kannada and for translating the answers back into English. Furthermore, one contact person, who knew the local people living in the area, was always accompanying the survey (apart from one day). It was observed that respondents had more confidence when there was a contact person attending the interview. Besides, respondents were more open and willing to answer survey questions in comparison to respondents who were approached randomly on the street without any personal contact existing. Apart from survey day five, where the Deputy of Range Forest Officer accompanied, the survey was conducted independently from any governmental representatives. All data were collected by using SurveyMonkey18.

18 S. is a provider of web-based survey solutions, trusted by millions of companies, organizations and individuals […],SurveyMonkey Europe UC, Shelbourne Road, Dublin, Ireland

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The household survey was applied to get an overview of awareness and expectations of inhabitants of two Conservation Reserves (Bedthi and Aghanashini) regarding conservation management.

Figure 7: Areas were household survey was implemented, map created by author using Arc GIS Esri 10.6.1

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4.2.3. Statistical analysis

For testing the three assumptions that were formulated (see chapter 1.2), Chi²-Tests with Phi- and Cramer-coefficients; correlations after Pearson; rank correlations after Spearman and Eta² correlations were used. For all results, classification of the effect 19 size of r and rs is following ELLIS (2010 ). Ordinal variables were dummy-coded. Selected socio-economic variables were tested beforehand for correlations with dependent variables (age, gender, income, and belonging to CR) by using Chi²-Tests and Phi coefficient or Cramérs V respectively to measure effect size. Dependent variables were 1) knowledge about CR (first assumption); 2) attitude towards CR (second assumption) and 3) non-consumptive use of forest (third assumption). For examining correlations between “knowledge CR” and explanatory variables ((a) duration and level of education; b) knowledge about NGOs; c) VFC existing in village; d) height of interest in nature; e) appreciation for nature/touristic attractions/agricultural suitability/ water source/ sacred groves/ forest products; and f) belonging to which community), correlation after PEARSON was used to measure effect size (classification of effect size of r is following COHEN (1988)) in addition to Chi²-Test. Explanatory variables were level of education; duration of education; level of knowledge about legacies of CR; VFC existing in the village; use of NGOs; percentage of wildlife damage; awareness of threats towards natural forest; appreciation of surrounding landscape and height of interest in nature. For overall statistical analysis, SPSS 14.0 and Excel were used. At first, selected socio-demographic variables were chosen as control variables and tested for influencing dependent variables: a) belonging to which conservation reserve; b) gender; c) yearly income. Furthermore, variables were tested for correlations by using Chi²; Pearson; Spearman and Eta² correlation as well as Phi- and Cramer coefficient measure depending on scale level of each variable.

19 Ellis is defining > .10 as small effect; > .30 as medium and > .50 as large effect.

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Respondents were assigned as “consumptive user of forest” (in the following: “consumptive”, if they fulfil the following conditions: no use of biogas but firewood for cooking or washing and no usage of ASTRA dryer. If respondents used biogas and ASTRA dryer as well as no firewood for cooking or washing they were assigned as “non-consumptive user of forest” (in the following: “non-consumptive“). This is a very simplified system but it implies the most relevant factors in terms of energy and forest product consume that have been inquired in the study. Chi²-Tests and correlations after Pearson were used to examine the influence of different explanatory variables. Control variables were analyzed for possible correlations with non consumptive use of the forest as well as in the calculations before.

4.3. Biases and limitations

Different circumstances might have led towards several biases and limitations within the survey. One of the limiting factors that contributed to the sample size was the time consuming process of reaching some of the participants that lived in very remote areas of the forest. The small sample size might be a reason for lack of statistical significance of calculations for correlation among different variables. Moreover, it is necessary to conduct multiple and binary regressions for more precise definition about the percentage of explaining variance of the single variables. This has not been done in the present study due to the small sample size. Furthermore biases might have occurred due to language since most of the respondents in the household survey were speaking local and/or regional languages and translators helped conducting the survey. This can always lead to small variations of translations or misunderstandings due to Indian and German influenced English. Additionally it was sometimes difficult finding women who were willing to answer the questionnaire. Therefore, the unequal distribution between male and female might cause biases in given answers.

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Regarding the content of answers biases might occur due to own estimations of respondents regarding their own economic dependency on NTFP. These estimations might vary between respondents. Furthermore it is possible that some answers in the surveys and interviews were given out of politeness or kindness.

5. Results

5.1 Expert- and Group interviews

For better comprehension results from expert- and group interviews are divided into a) awareness about CRs and attitude towards CRs as well as b) expectations from conservation management and requirements for involved persons and stakeholders.

5.1.1 Awareness and attitude towards CRs and nature conservation

Before reporting the results it is necessary to define those terms used as codes in order to avoid misunderstandings. Awareness, in this case, can be described more precisely as “environmental awareness” which is “the attitude regarding environmental consequences of human behavior. [...] environmental awareness is a predisposition to react to environmental issues in a certain manner” (CULIBERG/ROJŠEK, 2008:132). Therefore, environmental awareness can be seen as an attitude of people towards nature (HAM et al., 2015:3). Thus, awareness should be considered hand in hand with the attitude towards nature. In the following section awareness and attitude of experts (for specification of “experts” see ch. 4.1.1) towards nature conservation and CRs as well as their observations of awareness and attitude among other stakeholders, who are concerned with Bedthi and Aghanashini CRs, will be reflected.

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With enacting the Wildlife Protection Act in 1972, the Indian government manifested awareness of environmental issues in a legal framework at first, see also chapter 2.1. Within this act several Conservation Reserves were declared. The implementation of conservation activities however was still neglected due to lack of know-how and knowledge according to DCF Y. Kumar: “Only after 1989, Tiger Reserves have been declared and more serious actions have been taken up.” (Exp. 3, l. 14 – 18). Furthermore, Ms. Himawati Bhat, RFO in Yellapur District, explains that this also applies for the study area, which has namely “been part of the protected area since a long time but only with a declaration as “Nature Conservation Area” in 2012, the conservation status has increased and thus the purpose of protection has expanded.” (Exp. 1, l. 46 – 48). It might be conceded that this came in the advent of increasing governmental awareness of the need of conservation but this was not the case according to Mr. Anant Ashishar who is working for the the Western Ghats Task Force20. Ashishar criticized that the government instead posed the biggest challenge to the the Western Ghats Task force conservation work with their opposition (Exp. 2, l. 39 – 43). This non-governmental organization is consulting the government in environmental issues as well as opposing several governmental programs which cause environmental damage (Exp. 2, l. 12 – 14). While talking to Mr. Suhas Hegde, declarations of Bedthi and Aghanashini Nature Conservation Reserve were mainly initiated by non-governmental engagement and only supported by the government in a legislative way (Interview with Mr. Suhas Hegde, November 2017). Besides, RFO Bhat admits that when it comes to implementation of new laws or conservation status, governmental institutions might be skeptical at first and require some time to adjust to innovations (Exp. 1, l. 108 – 109). The gradual implementation of new conservation categories is confirmed by DCF Kumar as well but nonetheless, he points out that government can be blamed easily and it is important not to neglect increasing bureaucratic work that comes along with the declaration of conservation reserves. Especially building of roads and construction of basic infrastructure require the consideration of a large quantity of rules. This, in turn, leads to confusion and

20 A NGO which is active in Uttara Kannada, in the field of environmental protection and also consulting the government (free after Mr. A. Ashishar,Sirsi 2017).

cxxxv frustration among parts of the local population who do not understand why some development projects are not happening and why nature protection sometimes comes in first place as compared to other important subjects (Exp. 3, l. 26 – 28; l. 31 - 33). Regarding awareness and attitude towards nature conservation among the local population, RFO Bhat furthermore confirms a noticeable increase of awareness during the last few years. She observed a trend towards less illegal activities such as smuggling and tree felling as well as an increasing number of people who are against projects that cause enormous environmental damage like e.g. dams: “Many people have more awareness now, about the consequences of their actions. If they are destroying the forest, it comes directly back to them.” (Exp. 1, l. 38; 57 – 58). Furthermore, concrete knowledge about CRs was highly varying between the VFC members who were interviewed. The range reached from 20 % of VFC members in Agasal Bommanalli (Exp. 6, l. 60) to 70 % in Kelasi (Exp. 4, l. 29) and to 90 % in Upplegatte (Exp. 5, l. 28). Regardless of knowledge about existence of Bedthi CR and Aghanashini CR environmental awareness among local population derived from participating in conservation projects, such as fire protection, sustainable harvesting of forest products, tree planting and use of alternative energy sources other than firewood (Exp. 7, l. 36-38; Exp. 9, l. 20; Exp. 5, l. 26; Exp. 1, l. 72). However, according to RFO Bhat, there is an increasing trend in technical abilities of smugglers and poachers. This leads to faster implemented, illegal actions and makes it more difficult for responsible authorities to stop these illegal activities (Exp. 1, L. 38 – 43). Overall, according to the interviewed people, awareness and engagement for protected areas has increased by the government and also by local inhabitants. There is mounting evidence that local support in different conservation activities is enhancing. Anyhow, illegal activities are still happening and the Forest Department sees an urgent need to improve its technical abilities to stop these.

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5.1.2 Expectations towards stakeholders

As mentioned above, one of the main goals of the study is to identify expectations from local inhabitants and other interest groups towards conservation management as well as to identify mutual expectations between the different groups of interest. For this reason, relevant actors who might have an influence on conservation management efforts were examined by interviewing representative experts. These actors are in the following called stakeholders and can be defined as those who are concerned by a decision or who can influence a decision. Groups of representatives with the same needs and interests will be referred to as interest groups (FREEMAN (1984) in REED 2008:

2419; WWW.NACHHALTIGKEIT.INFO: STAKEHOLDER;).

As a result of the expert-interviews and the conversations with different members of interest groups that resided in the study area three main parties were identified as stakeholders: a) the Forest Department (FD) b) Village Forest Communities (VFCs) c) Nature activists and Non-governmental Organizations (NGOs)

In the following, apparent expectations of stakeholders will be described with regard to structure, a division of competences and responsibilities of conservation management. Besides, requirements for other stakeholders who were mentioned during the expert interviews will be reflected.

The Forest Department

The Forest Department is the governmental institution responsible for the administration of forestry and protected areas in India (see chapter 2.1). Expectations towards this institution differ among all stakeholders and even between the two

cxxxvii representatives of Forest Department who have been interviewed themselves. According to DCF Kumar, the the Forest Department (“Government”) needed to provide benefits for participation in conservation. Furthermore, he supported the creation of incentives for communities as well as officers who are working in conservation but also to implement serious actions and punishment against inhabitants in case of illegal activities. Kumar overall emphasized the importance of good leadership and guidance to provide a good example to the people (civilians as well as officers) (Exp. 3, l. 35 – 41). Regarding conservation management, Kumar further stated that local participation is very important since it leads to higher sustainability if people feel responsible for their surroundings. He also mentioned the advantage of local knowledge what is needed in individual places due to the inclusion of inhabitants in conservation management efforts. He nevertheless stressed the importance to take people seriously and to keep a good connection through communication towards locals, so as to develop trust in Government (Exp. 3, l. 20 – 24). In contrast to Kumar RFO Bhat considered the the Forest Department less in a leading but rather in a supportive role like for example in providing secretaries for VFC- management and in forming new VFCs. Apart from this, Bhat mentioned the importance of conducting research for conservation by the Forest Department, e.g. on indigenous species, high yielding NTFP and new techniques of propagation. In Addition to that, Bhat stressed the relevance of developing technical progress in protection mechanisms, like for boundary marking or tracking of poaching and tree felling activities (Exp. 1, l. 13 – 17; l. 27 – 29). Ashishar had a more critical view of the Forest Department. He demanded that on the one hand Government should be more supportive of protection activities such as declaring conservation areas and considering impacts on the environment due to large development projects and on the other hand take work in Conservation Reserves more serious (Exp. 2, l. 51 - 52). Ashishar’s demands of more power in decision-making for VFCs stood in contrast towards the statement of DCF Kumar, who called for more leadership of the Forest Department (Exp. 2, l. 34 – 35; Exp. 3, l. 41). Ashishar however

cxxxviii demanded that the Forest Department should reduce its large bureaucracy and should develop more flexible working methods (Exp. 2, l. 33 – 34; 39 - 40). This went in line with Kumar’s call to members of the the Forest Department to question and understand the background of laws and to test them for best practice instead of simply following the rules (Exp. 2, l. 38 – 40). Additionally Kumar mentioned that “it is important, not to just follow the British example, like it has been done during last centuries, but to gather own experiences to learn from and thereby adjust to Indian [society]” , Exp. 3, l. 17). From perspectives of VFCs and SHG’s, the Forest Department often was considered to have a supportive role in guiding meetings and projects like e.g. plantations as well as giving financial reward to VFCs and SHG’s (Exp. 6, l. 41; Exp. 5, l. 26). Contrary, one out of five VFCs and SHG’s which were interviewed, was not fully satisfied by cooperation between their VFC and the Forest Department. According to statements of members of this VFC, there was only little cooperation with the Forest Department yet and even if the VFC existed since 2014, they received no training about how to administrate and implement VFC in their village. Members furthermore criticized lacking transparency in conservation work of the Forest Department (Exp. 7, l. 39 – 44). Other VFCs were mainly satisfied by their cooperation with the Forest Department and pleased about resulting progress and advantages regarding conservation and village development (Exp. 5, l. 26).

Village Forest Communities (VFCs)

The concept of VFCs was developed in 1990s and aimed to secure local participation in forestry (see chapter 2.2 for more information). This concept alone encouraged the formation of organizing committees with a focus on, for example, development or awareness programs in villages (see 2.1.2). Therefore VFCs were included as stakeholders in this study.

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Members of VFCs who were interviewed were mostly positive towards participating in nature conservation management and many were already implementing several conservation projects in and around their village such as sustainable NTFP-harvesting or planting trees to reforest degenerated areas (Exp. 5, l. 30; Exp. 6, l. 64; Exp. 7, l. 38). Furthermore, some VFCs are conducting awareness programs with inhabitants of their villages like workshops in bee-keeping; use of medicinal plants or in conducting “Jhata” which can be described as “mass awareness programs” (Exp. 6, l. 65 – 66; Exp. 5, l. 18; Exp. 4, l. 32). RFO Bhat made clear demands to conservation efforts of VFCs. She expected more engagement by local inhabitants who are inactive and requires them to show more persistence, e.g. in attending monthly meetings. Bhat furthermore criticized that inhabitants mainly participated if they got financial reward and she demanded them to stay active, even if there was no reward or not yet reward transmitted (Exp. 1, l. 71 – 79). However, Bhat emphasized that many VFCs were cooperating in conservation projects of the Forest Department, for example in fire protection; tracking of smuggling and poaching as well as preventing other illegal activities. Moreover, she described the VFC in Magod as a very good example: “For example here in Margod […] there was one guesthouse and this waterfall21. But the people showed interest and built up a nature amp and a ticket counter. Before, tourists were visiting the waterfall without paying, but now there is an income for some members of the VFC. So the locals they have to come up with ideas to create resources themselves also.” (Exp. 1, l. 72; l. 77 - 80). Furthermore, DCF Kumar supported the concept of VFCs as well: “In some villages, [Village Forest] Communities have been very active and there was good communication between both [the Forest Department and VFCs]”. Even though, Kumar pointed out that with shifts of VFC members, e.g. of the VFC president, communication might become more difficult to maintain (Exp. 2, l. 29 – 30).

21 At Magod Waterfalls, a hydropower project was planned, but could not been realized due to protection and civil engagement. Now it has become a tourist destination with attached station for seminars with support by the Forest Department and several members of VFC Magod are working there (free after Mr. B. HEGDE, Magod 2017)

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From the perspective of NGOs, Mr. Ashishar estimated VFCs as generally beneficial for conservation management and therefore he even requested increasing power for VFCs, especially in decision-making (for their own concerns) (Exp. 3, l. 34 – 35).

Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs)

NGOs played a key role in many nature conservation related events in Indian history (see 2.1.2/2.1.3). While talking to different people who were working in this area, it became clear that NGOs are crucial for conservation activities in the study area. In respect of decision-making by the government, Mr. Ashishar estimated the influence of NGOs as of great impact in general. He named the the Western Ghats Taskforce as an example which has several different groups with a focus on different conservation issues as well as partners in different protected areas throughout the Western Ghats. Thus, a well-organised network of nature activists and NGOs exists and enables lobbyism for nature protection (Exp. 2, l. 14 – 15; 24 – 25). A good example is Swarnavalli Swamili, the “Green Swarmi”, who aimed to mobilize masses of people to engage themselves in nature protection (www.swarnavalli.in, October 2018). The founder of VFC in Upplegatte describes furthermore, in the beginning, this VFC was supported by NGO which lead to a successful creation of structures among village inhabitants which in turn enabled participation in conservation (Exp. 5, l. 13).

Interim conclusion

In general, the interviewed stakeholders have different understandings of their own role in conservation management and towards the role of other stakeholders. DCF Kumar, for example, emphasizes the importance of good leadership of the Forest Department whereas RFO Bhat regards the role of the Forest Department as rather supportive and Anant (NGO) stresses that the Forest Department should have less power in decision-making while VFCs should have more decision-making power. Representatives of VFCs state that the Forest Department is encouraging conservation

cxli activities due to their financial support but the Department is also an important for supplying know-how. Furthermore, VFCs see themselves as an important multiplier for new conservation strategies and activities as well as for knowledge of sustainable resource use provided by the Forest Department. This goes along with attitudes from representatives of the Forest Department. Criticism came from RFO Bhat who complained that some VFCs are only cooperating if they got a reward in return. Besides, NGOs are key actors in conservation management according to Anant and some VFC representative since NGOs support VFCs and can operate between government and locals. Overall, all different stakeholders are supporting the participation of locals within conservation management and mostly satisfied with cooperation between respective stakeholders.

5.1.3 Expectations towards conservation management

With the declaration of nature conservation reserves in the area of Bedthi and Aghanashini, fixed regulations concerning conservation management were defined, see chapter 2.1.2. These include, among others, a request for developing a committee for conservation management, consisting of different community-members. Thus, it is not applied very often and requires to be thought through very well. Expectations and demands from different structural and content-related aspects of conservation management vary between stakeholders. RFO Bhat puts much importance on management which encourages self-reliance of projects, especially regarding long-term projects; in order to avoid, that local inhabitants need to communicate for minor details with the Forest Department. According to Bhat, this can be achieved by offering certain training to inhabitants (Exp. 1, l. 66 – 67). This goes along with the demand of Mr. Ashishar, to give more power to VFC members in order to make them more independent from government in making decisions regarding their own projects (Exp. 2, l. 34 – 35). DCF Kumar recommends shaping conservation

cxlii management in such a way that local inhabitants feel responsible for their surrounding environment. Thus, they are encouraged to participate in conservation management and take actions on their own, which leads to a more sustainable and useful project work (Exp. 3, l. 20 21). Besides, Bhat requires from content-related conservation management to amplify efforts in developing new technology for protection, to overcome the increasing technology used for illegal activities (Exp. 1, l. 38 – 41). Furthermore, Bhat demands for more awareness-raising activities in conservation management, for example by educating local inhabitants who are not aware of the consequences of their activities (Exp. 1. L. 112 – 113). At the same time, she calls upon conservation management not to precipitate new implementations and thus to overstrain neither government-, nor local inhabitants. In fact, Bhat emphasizes to give stakeholders time to adjust to new tasks and laws (Exp. 1, l. 107 – 108). Asking members of VFCs or local inhabitants about what they require from conservation management, the answer often is: guidance to establish conservation, protection or development projects. Some VFCs are interested or plan to establish e.g. eco-tourism or they are searching for more sustainable methods for processing crops (with help of community dryer for example) and harvesting NTFP (Exp. 7, l. 47 – 48). In concrete terms, 1) conservation of water sources; 2) regulating of illegal activities in forests, such as poaching; 3) provisioning of energy saving devices, like solar energy or biogas and 4) awareness raising among local inhabitants through conducting workshops, are implementations which should be focused on by conservation management (Exp. 5, l. 25; Exp. 6, l. 63 – 65; Exp. 7, l. 50 – 52).

Generally, conservation management is expected by all stakeholders to encourage self- reliance among participating communities and to transport knowledge and know-how from the Forest Department to local communities. Furthermore, management is expected to be contain long-term objectives and that follows transdisciplinary strategy, combining technical progress and also human progress with increasing environmental awareness.

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5.2 VFC-interviews

5.2.1 VFC Agasal-Bommanalli

This VFC was founded in 2007 and consists of 1200 household with membership today. Furthermore, there was an SHG (Women-self help group) affiliated with this VFC, consisting of about 20 members, producing dairy products; banana- and jackfruit chips. From the reward, 50 % is spent on forest development and 50 % remains for village purposes. The VFC contains members from different villages. Therefore, must be calculated, how many households were integrated and how much money each village gets. Further on, during monthly meetings will be decided, which investments should be done. There was already implemented installing of solar lamps for every household; black pepper processing machine; and construction of wholes for rainwater-collection around the villages to regulate infiltration and avoid fast runoff of rainwater. After a rough estimation, about 20 % of all members of this VFC would know about the CR but not about the exact measures and where the boundaries were. The exact reasons for CR were not clear for many VFC-members, anyhow they were convinced that CR existed to avoid construction of Hydropower plants and other environmentally unfriendly development programs. Overall, most members considered CR as an advantage for themselves as well. Different conservation activities were planned or already implemented, such as regulations, regarding the collection of the NTFP. Among these e.g. harvesting is allowed only in certain time periods and no single harvest is allowed.

5.2.2 VFC Vanalli

This VFC was founded in 2014 and includes 175 households, which is 100 % of all households in the village of Vanalli. The only NTFP, which are marketed commercially,

cxliv is Uppage and very few Kokum (Garcinia indica), which has not given many reward so far. However, the reward was divided by all households in the village. Regarding forest protection programs, regulations for NTFP-collection exist (only traditional harvest methods allowed) as well as cooperation with the Forest Department in fire control (building fire lanes, etc.); sustainable harvesting of NTFP and planting of new trees in the forest. Regarding cooperation with the Forest Department, members of VFC criticize lack of transparency, less cooperation, and support by the government. VFC Vanalli demand for better training about how VFC should function, more workshop-offers about administrative issues and sustainable harvesting, provided by the government. They further request more participation and want to become better involved in development and protection programs, implemented by the government in their region. Regarding CR, all members did not know about CR and did not know about the concept of Nature Conservation Reserves. However they were interested in participation of nature protection and provided different suggestions, what this should be focused on: a) conservation of water sources; b) reduce run off of rainwater; c) stop illegal activities in the forest such as poaching and illegal NTFP-collection; d) provide alternative energy to firewood (solar energy, biogas, and more effective processing of crops like community dryer, etc.). Regarding alternative ways of income, instead of NTFP-collection, VFC-members suggested to improve plantations and increase the valuation of these products due to e.g. self organised processing, packing, labelling and selling.

VFC Vanalli had no contact or exchange with other VFCs from neighbouring villages. (see annex 3, Interview No.:7.)

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5.2.3 VFC & SHG Khelasi

SHG Khelasi consist of two separate SHG’s: Adishakti (11 members) and Durgadevi (10 members), which exist since 2007 both. All members belong to the community of Siddi. These are growing and collecting different spices, fruits and vegetables such as Vaatehulli, Shegekai, Kokam, Uppage, Cinnamon as well as honey. All products are marketed by VFC Khelasi and accounts for about 10 % of women’s annual reward (3000 – 5000 IRS/year). Within the VFC there is one president and during monthly meetings, members are organizing themselves. They have no direct contact with the Forest Department, only through VFC Khelasi. Members did not know about CR.

VFC Khelasi consists of 220 members (70 households), which makes up 100 % of households in the village). The VFC exists since 2006 and administers an Areca- plantation of few acres. Until now, there was only one time a reward given to the VFC by the government (in 2012) amounting to 1800 IRS (22 €). This amount was invested in equipment for village-hall (chairs, tables) and furthermore, in the distribution of solar lights; LPG; Honeybee boxes and solar water heater. Making decisions follows the guideline for VFCs and is therefore done by management committee during monthly meetings. This committee consists of the VFC president, the secretary (the Forest Department) and overall at least 40 % of women. Furthermore, most people in the VFC were informed about CR, mostly through government. The overall cooperation with the Forest Department was described as very active and well functioning. Different nature protection programs were already conducted through this VFC, e.g. “Jhata” which are mass awareness programs; workshops conducted by the Forest Department on bee-keeping, fire protection, valuation of NTFP. VFC Khelasi had not much contact to other VFCs.

Interim conclusion of VFC-interviews

Overall impression of VFCs is that most are already active in nature protection and sustainable resource use. Depending on NTFP growing within their area, the VFCs

cxlvi market different fruits, vegetables or planted (areca) plantations, with varying reward. Knowledge about Bedthi and Aghanashini CRs is different between interviewed VFCs, possible reasons, therefore, will be discussed in chapter 6. Regarding participation in conservation management, most VFCs seem to be open and interest to take part. However, when it comes to cooperation with the Forest Department, many VFCs have some points of criticism and suggestions for improvement. This will be further discussed in chapter 6.

5.3. Household survey

The household survey was conducted among people living inside and nearby Bedthi and Aghanashini Conservation Reserve (CR), to gain further information on the main topics of this study, which are (1) to estimate the local attitude towards conservation of the area; (2) to identify relevant factors which might influence environmental behavior22 as well as awareness about CRs and (3) to discover how to improve awareness about CRs and to encourage participation in conservation work among locals. Along with these objectives, three main assumptions were set up to analyze knowledge about CR; attitude towards CR and attitude in relation to use of NTFP:

1) Knowledge about CRs is positively correlated towards level of knowledge 2) (Positive) Attitude towards CRs is positively correlated towards the level of knowledge 3) Non-consumptive23 users of forest have a more positive attitude towards CRs.

22 Definition of ‘Environmental behavior’, see chapter 2.1.1 23 See chapter 4.2.3

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5.3.1. Descriptive analysis

5.3.1.1 Sample analysis

Socio-demographic characteristics

The following section gives an overview of differences and similarities in socio- demographic and economic characteristics between respondents from Bedthi- and Aghanashini CR. Furthermore, the local perspective regarding the perception of surrounding landscape and nature conservation will be examined. The characteristics are not demanding to represent the real situation in both CR. The survey rather aims to cover a homogenous distribution regarding different socio-economic characteristics (age, income, etc.). All results will be described separately for each CR.

As shown in table 4, the average age among respondents from Bedthi CR was 48 years and therefore slightly higher than in Aghanashini CR (44 years). Regarding gender distribution, male respondents were predominant in the overall sample. In Bedthi CR however, the number of male respondents was slightly higher (66.7 %) than in Aghanashini CR (52.8 %). The total sample showed a gender ratio of 60:40. Overall, duration of education was measured with range from 0 to 15 years and results indicated that duration was shorter among respondents from Bedthi CR (M = 6.25 years) compared to Aghanashini CR (M = 8.97 years), anyhow standard deviation in Bedthi CR showed higher variation (SD = 5.24) than in Aghanashini CR (SD = 3.32), see table 4. Regarding the level of education, in Bedthi CR 29 % of respondents were illiterate and therefore level of education was noticeably lower than in Aghanashini CR. Percentage of graduates from primary and higher primary education was lower in Bedthi CR (33 %; 25 %), compared to Aghanashini CR (52 %; 33 %). However, there was an almost similar abundance of higher education graduates (BA degree and higher) in Bedthi CR (13 %) and Aghanashini CR (14 %), see tab.: 3.

Furthermore, participants were asked, which community they belong to. In Bedthi CR, total 33.3 % of respondents specified themselves as Havyaka Brahman, 0 % as Khare Vokkal, 37.5 % as Siddi and 29.2 % were belonging to other communities. In

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Aghanashini CR, 16.7 % belonged to Havyaka Brahman, 19.4 % to Khare Vokkal, 0 % to Siddi and 33.3 % belonged to other communities.

Overall, the data show relatively large deviations in most socio-demographic characteristics between the two CR. For more details, see annex 6, tab.: 3.

Bedthi CR Aghanashini CR Total (n = 24) (n = 36) (n = 60)

Sum

Male 66.7 52.8 60 Gender (%) Female 33.3 47.2 40 Illiterate 29.2 0 11.7 Primary School 33.3 52.8 45 (7 years) Level of Higher Primary School education (%) 25 33.3 30 (12 years) Higher Educ. (15 12.5 13.9 13.3 years) Havyaka Brahman 33.3 16.7 23.3 Khare Vokkal 0 19.4 11.7 Naik 0 16.7 10 Haslar 0 8.3 5 Community (%) Maharati 0 5.6 3.3 Scheduled Tribes 37.5 0 15 (Siddi) Other 29.2 33.3 31.7 Table 3: Sum socio-economic

Aghanashini CR (n = Bedthi CR (n = 24) Total (n = 60) 36) M SD M SD M SD

Age 47.54 12.43 43.50 10.17 46.17 11.69

Mean size 4.63 2.76 6.00 4.51 5.00 3.58 of households Duration of 6.25 5.24 8.97 3.32 7.88 4.36 education

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Quantity of 2.52 2.20 2.29 2.63 2.38 2.45 farmed land (acres) Economic 2.63 1.25 3.70 0.96 3.31 1.23 dependency on NTFP Economic loss due to 1.69 0.95 1.48 0.65 1.55 0.76 wildlife damage24 Table 4: Mean and standard deviation socio-economic

Economic characteristics

Beginning with yearly income, this was categorized in five different categories between < 25.000 IRS/year (category 1) and < 500.000 IRS/year (category 5), see table 5. In Bedthi CR most respondents belonged to category 1 (33.3 %), whereas all other categories were relatively similar represented between 12.5 % and 16.7 % (categories 2 - 5). In Aghanashini CR, most people belonged to category 2 (38.9 %) and category 4 (27.8 %). Thus, the yearly income of inhabitants nearby both CR slightly varies. In total, respondents from Aghanashini CR specified having a higher amount of income than respondents from Bedthi CR. In terms of NTFP-collection, 100 % of respondents from both CRs were collecting NTFP, some only for their personal need. Additionally respondents were asked to estimate their economic dependency on collecting and selling NTFP. On average, respondents from Bedthi CR estimated their economic dependency lower than respondents from Aghanashini CR (see annex 6, tab.: 3). Regarding the firewood, in both Bedthi CR and Aghanashini CR, the percentage of people collecting firewood from the forest was relatively high (Bedthi CR: 87.5 %; Aghanashini CR: 97.2 %). Regarding alternative sources of energy from firewood, about 50 % of respondents had access to this. Out of these, more than one third used solar energy devices (37.5 % in Bedthi CR and 36.1 % in Aghanashini CR), more than half

cl utilized governmental supplied liquid gas (LPG) (58.3 % in Bedthi CR and 63.9 % in Aghanashini CR) and 25 % in Bedthi CR and 41.7 % in Aghanashini CR were equipped with biogas. Less often used devices were electric stoves (16.7 % in Bedthi CR and 2.8 % in Aghanashini CR) or Astra dryers25, for processing NTFP, were sometimes used by one household or by several households as a group acquisition. In Bedthi CR 16.7 % replied to use Astra dryer, whereas in Aghanashini CR this was used by 25 % of respondents. Furthermore, the existence of cooperatives and Village Forest Communities (VFCs26) was requested. In the case of Bedthi CR, in 45 % of villages, VFCs existed. In Aghanashini CR, 38.2 % responded that a VFC existed in the village. Besides, respondents were asked for their profession; for marketing channels for selling NTFP; types of NTFP they collected and for which purposes NTFP and firewood was collected. Details are listed in tab. 5. Overall, the economic characteristics show rather small deviations between respondents from the two CRs regarding profession; the purpose of collecting NTFP; collection and use of firewood and economic loss of due to wildlife damage. However, there are large deviations recorded regarding yearly income; marketing channels for NTFP and number of villages with VFC existing, see tab. 4 & 5.

Bedthi CR Aghanashini Total (n = 24) CR (n = 36) (n = 60) Sum

No answer 12.5 0 5 < 25.000 (1) 33.3 2.8 6.7 Yearly 25.001 - 50.000 (2) 16.7 38.9 36.7 income (%) 50.001 - 100.000 (3) 12.5 22.2 20 100.001 - 500.000 (4) 12.5 27.8 21.7 > 500.000 (5) 12.5 8.3 10 Owning private Yes 41.7 80.6 65 land (%) Profession No answer 0 2.8 1.7 (%) Settled agriculture 75 83.3 80

25 Electric device, similar to large oven, used for drying NTFP 26 See chapter 5

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Labour work 8.3 5.6 6.7 Mainly Selling NTFP 0 2.8 1.7 Cattle breeding 0 2.8 1.7 Governmental Work 16.7 2.8 8.3 Collecting Yes 100 100 100 NTFP Food- and household 95.8 100 98.3 Purpose of Commercial 66.7 88.9 80 collecting Medical 87.5 72.2 78.3 NTFP Agricultue 62.5 69.4 66.7 Direct sale 16.7 2.8 8.3 Ways of Mediators 37.5 75 60 marketing Cooperativesociety(VFC) 29.2 30.6 30 VFC exists Yes 45 38.2 40.7 in village? Collecting firewood Yes 87.5 97.2 93.3 (FW) Purpose of Cooking 75 80.6 78.3 fw- Washing (clothes, body) 91.7 100 96.7 collection NTFP-processing 8.3 94.4 60 None 58.3 44.4 50 Solar-energy 37.5 36.1 36.7 Use of Electric stove 16.7 2.8 8.3 firewood- Astra dryer 16.7 25 21.7 saving Biogas 25 41.7 35 devices LPG (governmental 58.3 63.9 61.7 supported Liquid gas) Economic No Answer 45.8 30.6 36.7 loss due to < 10 % (0) 33.3 2.8 1.7 wildlife 11 - 30 % (1) 4.2 33.3 33.3 damage in 31 - 50 % (2) 16.7 30.6 20 % > 50 % (3) 45.8 2.8 8.3 Table 5: Economic – and NTFP dependency

5.3.1.2 Knowledge and perception of conservation reserves

Results indicate that 54.2 % in Bedthi CR and 44.4 % in Aghanashini CR knew about the CR. Regarding knowledge about CR-legacies, results show that in Bedthi CR out of 54.2 % who knew about the CR, the majority (65 %) stated having no knowledge about

clii legacies at all, 20 % stated to have rather less knowledge and 15 % had very high knowledge (n=20), see tab. 6. In Aghanashini CR, out of 44.4 % who knew about CR, 38.9 % had no knowledge about legacies, 3.4 % had rather less knowledge, 34.5 % stated to have medium knowledge, 10.3 % had rather high knowledge and 3.4 % had very high knowledge (n= 29). Moreover, respondents from Bedthi CR stated to have either an overall positive-, or no impact at all of CR in their everyday life, except for 4.8 % who noticed negative impacts (n=21). This is almost similar in Aghanashini CR, where 63.9 % of respondents indicated positive impacts due to CR and 33.3 % recognized no impacts at all. Besides, in Aghanashini CR, only 2.8 % stated to have negative impacts (n=36), see fig. 9. Regarding perception and appreciation of surrounding landscape, all respondents from Bedthi CR replied to appreciate nature most, whereas 25 % chose agricultural suitability and water availability each. In Aghanashini CR, only 52.8 % chose nature, while 55.6 % chose water availability and 16.9 % chose sacred groves. In Bedthi CR, most people estimated their interest in nature as “very high” (79 %), only 12.5 % chose “rather high” and 8.3 % chose “medium-high” interest in nature (n=24). In Aghanashini CR, 83.3 % estimated their interest in nature as “very high”, 2.8 % chose “rather high” and 13.9 % chose “medium” (n=36). Besides, inhabitants indicated awareness of different threats towards the natural forest. Respondents from Bedthi CR mostly chose monoculture plantations as the most serious threat (58.3 %), second most chosen was harvesting of NTFP (33.3 %) and third were illegal activities (e.g. poaching); forest fire and others (25 % each). 4.2 % estimated hydropower plants to be the most serious threat. Overall 33.3 % replied that there were no threats towards natural forest at all (n=24). In Aghanashini CR, answers were very different from Bedthi CR, since 41.7 % replied that no threats existed at all. For all other options, percentage varied between 2.8 % (others) to 16.7 % (forest fire) (n = 36). Overall, interest in participating in nature conservation was high among respondents of both CRs (Bedthi CR: 91.7%; Aghanashini CR: 88.9 %), see fig. 8. Further questions regarding how respondents got to know about CR, awareness about concept of NGOs, estimation about importance of NGOs for nature conservation;

cliii meaning of living near CR, which are important tasks for nature conservation management, what is needed most for development in villages and which topics are important to learn more about, were included in the questionnaire (see annex 6, tab.: 3).

Bedthi CR Aghanashini Total (n = 24) CR (n = 36) (n = 60) Sum

Knowledge Yes 54.2 44.4 48.3 about CR (%) No knowledge 45.8 52.8 50 How get to News (Radio, Newspaper) 15.4 5.9 10 know about Verbal information 46.2 23.5 33.3 CR? VFC Meeting/ 38.5 70 56.7 Government Knowledge about concept Yes 62.5 61.1 61.7 of NGOs? (%) No answer 50 55.6 53.3 Importance of No importance(1) 25 0 10.7 NGOs for Rather less important (2) 0 0 0 nature Medium (3) 0 50 28.6 conservation Rather important (4) 16.7 6.3 10.7 (%) Very important (5) 58.3 43.8 50 No answer 33.3 8.4 21.7 Very low meaning (1) 0 0 0 Meaning of Rather low meaning (2) 0 0 0 living near CR Medium (3) 14.3 3 6.4 (%) Rather high meaning (4) 21.4 6.1 10.6 Very high (5) 64.3 90 83 Table 6: Perception of surrounding landscape & CRs

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Other (please specify)

Harvesting NTFP Datenreihen3Bedthi CR Monoculture Plantation Datenreihen1Aghanashini CR Hydropowerplants

0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%

Figure 8: Answers on question: “What do you think are the most serious threats towards natural environment surrounding your village?”, by the author

No answer

No impact

Yes, neutral Datenreihen3Bedthi CR Datenreihen1Aghanashini Yes, negatively CR

Yes, positively

0% 20% 40% 60% 80%

Figure 9: Answers on question: “Does the declaration as ‘Nature conservation reserve’ cause any impact on your everyday life?”

5.3.1.3 Attitude towards CR

Attitude towards CR measured in values between -5 to 25 with increasing value, the more positive is attitude towards CR. This variable was created by multiplying “meaning of CRs” and “impacts of CRs”. Table 7 shows that overall attitude towards CR

clv is slightly higher among respondents from Aghanashini CR compared with Bedthi CR. In tab. 8, the relation between type of use of forest and attitude towards CRs is shown.

Attitude towards CR n M SD Bedthi CR 17 2.41 6.08 Aghanashini 35 2.91 2.64 CR Table 7: Attitude towards CR divided by CR

Attitude towards CR n M SD Non- consumptive 29 3.76 4.75 use of forest Consumptive 23 1.48 2.45 use of forest Table 8: Attitude towards CR divided by use of forest

5.3.1.4 Non-consumptive use of forest

Use of forest differs among respondents of the CRs insofar, as in Aghanashini CR are somewhat more people considered as “non-consumptive users” of forest compared to Bedthi CR, see tab.: 9.

Non-consumptive use of forest n M SD Bedthi CR 24 .38 .5 Aghanashini 36 .58 .5 CR Table 9: Non-consumptive users in each CR (1= non-consumptive; 0= consumptive)

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5.3.2 Testing of the research hypothesis

5.3.2.1 Assumption 1

In the following chapter, factors which might influence knowledge about CR among local inhabitants (in the following “knowledge CR”), will be examined. As already mentioned before, knowledge about CR is assumed to be positively correlated towards the level of education and it is therefore expected that people who achieved higher grades of education are more likely to be better informed about CRs and about associated legacies. This is justified with the rationale that higher educated people have more access to information, media, newspapers and places with a high level of environmental education such as the academic scene. This assumption is based on findings of a study on the local perception of Dandeli Wildlife Sanctuary (the Western

Ghats/Karnataka) by TRIGUERO-MAS/OLOMÍ-SOLÀ (2008:54 ff).

For analyzing factors that might influence people’s knowledge about CR, “knowledge CR” was tested for correlations with other variables, such as a) duration and level of education; b) knowledge about NGOs; c) VFC existing in village; d) height of interest in nature; e) appreciation for nature/touristic attractions/agricultural suitability/ water source/ sacred groves/ forest products; and f) belonging to which community. At first, the influence of selected socio-economic variables (age; gender; belonging to CR; income) was tested for effects on “knowledge CR”. The results will be described separately for each CR. Results indicate that “age” had a high positive influence on “knowledge CR” in both CR, Bedthi CR (r= .09, p> .05, n=24) and Aghanashini CR (r= .09, p> .05, n=36). The older respondents were, the more likely they would know about CR. Furthermore, there was a high positive correlation between yearly income and “knowledge CR” in Bedthi CR whereas in Aghanashini CR correlation was rather negative between these two variables. Moreover, “gender” had mostly small or medium positive effect sizes regarding “knowledge CR” (see tab. 6 & fig.: 12). Besides, “belonging to which CR” showed a positive effect as well, since there was relatively higher knowledge about CR within respondents from Bedthi CR compared to Aghanashini CR.

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As already mentioned above, “level of education” is assumed to influence “knowledge CR” positively. Therefore, these variables were tested for correlations. Results indicate a small effect in Aghanashini CR (x²(2)= 1.422, p> .05, V= .2), as well as a significantly large effect in Bedthi CR (x²(3)= 8.97, p< .05, V= .61). Moreover, accounted both CRs together, 34.5 % of people who knew about CRs had completed at least 7 years of education or more (12 years: 17.2 %; 15 years: 10.3 %). Besides, 37.5 % of people having a BA degree or higher, knew about CRs, whereas 14.3 % of illiterate people knew about CRs (accounting for both CRs together), see fig. 10 and annex 7, tab.: 3. Apparently, respondents who knew about NGOs were more likely to know about CR than respondents who had not heard of any NGO yet (75.9 % of people who were aware of CR also knew about any NGOs). This is shown by small effect of ‘knowledge about NGOs’ towards “knowledge CR” in Bedthi CR (x²(1)= 2.52, p> .05, φ= .32) and small significant effect in Aghanashini CR (x²(1)= 5.36, p< .05, φ= .3.). Additionally respondents who were living in villages with existing VFC, were somewhat more likely to know about CR than respondents from villages without VFC (x²(1)= .20, p> .05, φ=.10, Bedthi CR; x²(1)= .39, p> .05, φ= .11, Aghanashini CR), see tab. 12. Besides, in Bedthi CR, people who had a higher interest in nature were more likely to know about CR than people who showed less interest in nature (r= .382, p> .05, n= 24). This correlation is not significant; however, r shows a large effect size. In Aghanashini in contrast, people who had a higher interest in nature did not know more likely know about CR, compared to people with low interest in nature (r = .071, p> .05, n= 36), see tab. 10

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Furthermore, belonging to a certain community seemed to have a small impact on whether respondents knew about CR or not (x²(2)= .591, p> .05 V= .157). In both CR combined, Havyakka Brahmans (HB) were proportionally more likely to know about CR (50 % of HB knew about CR), as well as Siddi (44.4 % of Siddi knew about CR). Respondents who belonged to Khare Vokkal (KV) were less likely to know about CR (14.3 % of KV knew about CR), whereas 56.5 % of respondents belonging to other communities27 knew about CR, see tab. 11 and figure 10.

Figure 10: Knowledge about CR within different communities, by the author using IBM SPSS

27 either Kunbi, Gauli, Naik, Hasan, Haslar, Maharati

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Bedti CR, n= 24 Aghanashini CR, n= 36

r p r p

Height of interest in .38 > .05 .071 > .05 nature Age .09 > .05 .09 > .05 Yearly income .27 > .05 -.05 > .05 Table 10: Correlation different var. with “knowledge CR”, Pearson’s-test

Bedti CR, n= 24 Aghanashini CR, n= 36

X² df p V X² df p V

Level of 3 2 8.97 <.05 .61 1.42 > .05 .2 education Community 0.59 2 > .05 .16 4.24 2 > .05 .34 Table 11: Correlation of different var. with “knowledge CR”, Chi²-test and Cramér’s V

Bedti CR, n= 24 Aghanashini CR, n= 36

F df p φ F df p φ

Knowledge about 1 1 2.52 > .05 .32 5.36 < .05* .39 NGOs VFC exists village 20 1 > .05 .10 .39 1 > .05 .11 Appreciation for - 1 - > .05 2.7 > .05 -.27 nature Appreciation for 1 1 touristic 88 > .05 .19 .82 > .05 -.15 attractions Appreciation for 1 1 agricultural 50 > .05 .15 9.6 < .05* .51 suitability Appreciation for 1 1 06 > .05 -.05 4.41 < .05* .35 water source Appreciation for - 1 - > .05 4.41 < .05* .04 sacred groves Appreciation for 1 1 1.85 > .05 .28 .05 > .05 - .04 forest products Gender 4.11 1 < .05* -.41 .14 1 > .05 -.06 Table 12: Correlation of different variables with “knowledge CR”, Chi²-test and Phi

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Figure 11: Correlation between Knowledge about CR and Level of education

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Figure 12: Yearly income of respondents who know about Bedthi and Aghanashini CR

5.3.2.2 Assumption 2

The second assumption deals with the attitude of inhabitants towards CRs. For similar considerations as for assumption 1, it is presumed that respondents with a higher level of education have a more positive attitude towards CRs. Similarly, as for the first assumption, socio-demographic variables (age; gender; yearly income; community) were analyzed for correlations with “attitude towards CR” at first. Results indicate that in contrast to the first assumption, “age” does not have a large effect on attitude towards CR but shows a small negative correlation in Bedthi CR (r = - .152, p> .05) and a medium positive correlation in Aghanashini CR (r = .315, p> .05). Regarding “gender”, results indicate that in Bedthi CR female respondents show a more positive attitude towards CR than male respondents (r = .392, p> .05). In Aghanashini CR, male respondents show a proportionally higher attitude towards CR (r = -.256, p> .05). Regarding income, results show a medium effect in Bedthi CR (r = .455, p> .05) and no effect in Aghanashini CR (r = -.067, p> .05), see tab. 13 & 14.

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As already mentioned above, “level of education” is assumed to have a high influence on the respondent’s attitude towards CR, since higher educated people are more assumed to have better access to information due to newspapers; environmental information centers and other media. Additionally as explanatory variables were taken: a) Level of knowledge about legacies of Nature Conservation Reserves (1 – 5); b) VFC existing in village; c) Own estimation about how useful are NGOs (1 – 5); d) Height of own economic loss due to wildlife damage (1 – 5); e) Awareness of threats towards natural forest; f) What appreciating most in surrounding landscape (nature; touristic attractions; agricultural suitability; g) water source; sacred groves28; forest products); h) Height of interest in nature (1 – 5), see tab. 10. Results show that level of education has an influence on attitude towards CR in both Bedthi CR (F(5,46)= 1.546, p> .05, 2=.076) and Aghanashini CR (F(2,32)= .329 p> .05, 2= .02). However, the effect-size in Bedthi CR is medium and in Aghanashini CR small. Greatest influence of all chosen variables, according to the calculations, shows “community” with large effects in both CR: F(4,12)= 1.01, p> .05, 2= .25 in Bedthi CR and F(2,32)= 2.963, p> .05, 2= .156 in Aghanashini CR. Overall, Khare Vokkals show most positive attitude towards CR, followed by Havyaka Brahmans. Siddi rather remained neutral towards CRs or showed a slightly less positive attitude. Furthermore, when there is a VFC existing in the village, this appears to have a small influencing effect on “attitude towards CR” as well, see fig. 13. This is the case for Bedthi CR (r = .296, p> .05) and Aghanashini (r = .163, p> .05), see tab. 14.

Overall, level of education of the person asked shows medium and small effect respectively on the attitude towards CR of this person. Nevertheless, other variables appear to have a larger explanatory effect on attitude towards CR, for example “belonging to which community”.

28 See chapter 2.1.1

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Bedti CR, n=10 - 17 Aghanashini CR, n=15 - 36

F df1 df2 p 2 F df1 df2 p 2

Level of 5 46 2 32 1.55 > .05 .08 .33 > .05 .02 education Community 1.01 4 12 > .05 .25 2.96 2 32 > .05 .16 Table 13: Correlation of different var. with “attitude towards CR”, Eta²-test

Bedti CR, n=10 - 17 Aghanashini CR, n=15 - 36

r/rs p r/rs p

Duration of education .07 > .05 .06 > .05 Knowledge of legacies .04 > .05 .26 > .05 VFCs exist in village .3 > .05 .16 > .05 Use of NGOs -.62 > .05 .0 > .05 Percentage of damage due to .08 > .05 - .17 > .05 wildlife Hydropower -.10 > .05 -.14 > .05 Monoculture .34 > .05 -.15 > .05 Awareness of plantations NTFP- threats: What -.33 > .05 -.23 > .05 is highest collection threat for Illegal -.04 > .05 -.14 > .05 natural forest? activities Forest fire .36 > .05 -.01 > .05 No threats -.24 > .05 .32 > .05 Height of interest in nature .10 > .05 - .01 > .05 Nature - > .05 -.3 > .05 Touristic -.10 > .05 .14 > .05 attractions What Agricultural -.2 > .05 -.03 > .05 appreciated suitability most in Water source .75 < .05 .32 > .05 landscape? Sacred - > .05 .37 < .05 groves Forest -.15 > .05 .17 > .05 products Belonging to CR .39 > .05 -.26 > .05 Gender -.15 > .05 .32 > .05 Age .46 > .05 -.07 > .05 Yearly income .39 > .05 -.26 > .05 Table 14: Correlation of different var. with “attitude towards CR”, Pearson’s-test

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Figure 13: Distribution of “attitude towards CR” among different communities

5.3.2.3 Assumption 3

In this section, the behavior of respondents regarding the consumption of forest products will be examined. Therefore, a new variable, “non-consumptive user of forest”, was created by combining four different variables: use of biogas; use of Astra dryer; use of firewood for cooking and use of firewood for washing. See chapter 4.2.3 for further information. Based on several studies related to the topic of environmental behavior, there is mounting evidence that non-consumptive users of forest tend to have a more positive attitude towards CRs, whereas consumptive users of forest are more skeptical towards CRs. This is because people who are collecting NTFP in the forest for sustenance might be more anxious about losing their right of using NTFP, compared to people

clxv independent from NTFP-collection (ARJUNAN et al. 2005:188). Besides, with assessing local’s interest in the use of natural resources might give insights into their relationship towards the protected area (HOLMES 2003). People’s attitude towards CRs appears to have an influence on “non-consumptive” in both CRs. More in detail, “attitude towards CR” shows a small effect towards the type of use in Bedthi CR (r = .246, p> .05, n=17) and a large, significant effect in Aghanashini CR (r = .371, p< .05, n=36). Taking both CRs into account, among people with a more positive attitude towards CRs (categories 1 and 2), there are 100 % (categ. 1) and 72.7 % (categ. 2) of people considered as “non-consumptive users”, respectively. All people with a negative attitude towards CRs are considered as “consumptive user” of the forest, see tab. 14. Furthermore, results show that “yearly income” of people shows influence on “non- consumptive” in both CRs. This is displayed by a small effect in Bedthi CR (r = .163, p> .05, n= 21) and a large significant effect in Aghanashini CR (r = .535, p< .05, n= 36). Considering both CRs at the same time, there is a graduate increase in percentage of people belonging to “non-consumptive users”, with an increase of yearly income. Hence, 100 % of people earning more than 500.000 IRS/year are considered “non-consumptive users”; 61.5 % of people earning between 100.001 and 500.000 IRS/year are “non-consumptive users”; 58.3 % of people earning between 50.001 -100.000 IRS/year and 36.4% of people earning between 25.000 – 50.50.000 IRS/year are considered “non-consumptive users”. Among the least earning people, only 25 % are considered “non-consumptive users”. Other socio-economic variables have small or none effect on “non-consumptive”, respectively. However, the largest influence towards “non-consumptive” shows the variable “community”, which has significantly, large effects in both CRs (x²(2)= 6.112, p< .05, V= .505 in Bedthi CR and x²(2)= 14.534, p< .05, φ= .635 in Aghanashini CR), see tab. 15 & annex 7., tab.:41. Within the group of Khare Vokkals, 100 % of respondents are considered “non- consumptive users”; among Havyaka Btahmans 64.3 % belong to “non-consumptive users” and 11.1 % of people belonging to Siddi are considered “non-consumptive users”.

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Bedti CR, n=17-24 Aghanashini CR, n=36 r p r p Attitude towards CR .25 > .05 .37 < .05* Age -.06 > .05 -.06 > .05 Yearly income .16 > .05 .54 < .05* Table 15: Correlation of different var. with “(Non-) consumptive use of forest”, Pearson’s-test

Bedti CR, n=17-24 Aghanashini CR, n=36 F df p φ F df p φ Hydropower 1 1 1.74 > .05 .27 4.15 < .05* .34 Awareness dams Monoculture 1 1 of threats: 2.24 > .05 .31 2.34 > .05 .26 What is plantations highest NTFP- 1 1 3.2 > .05 .37 2.06 > .05 -.24 threat for collection natural Illegal 1 1 0.06 > .05 -.05 3.51 > .05 -.31 forest? activities Forest fire 0.53 1 > .05 .15 .21 1 > .05 .08 No knowledge about 1 1 0.8 > .05 -.18 .03 > .05 .03 threats Community 6.11 2 < .05 .51 14.53 2 < .05* .64 Gender 0 1 > .05 0 .39 1 > .05 -.10 Table 16: Correlation of different var. with “(Non-) consumptive use of forest”, Chi²-test and Phi

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6. Discussion

6.1 Evaluation of Community-based Conservation Management approach

Community-based Conservation Management (CBCM) has a recent history in India and was implemented through e. g. Social Forestry Programs in the 1980s; Van Panchayats or Joint Forest Management programs, to address conflicts between locals and the

Forest Department regarding access to forest resources (BALLABH/BALOONI 2002; ARNOLD 2001:14). Furthermore, eco-development programs, funded by the World Bank, were implemented and focus communities living adjacent to protected areas. The overall goal of these CBCM approaches is to decrease dependency on NTFP and to change communities’ behavior towards more sustainable resource use. However, many of these efforts were only partly successful and, according to some studies, not independently evaluated (ARJUNAN et al. 2005; BALLABH/BALOONI 2002; MELKANI 2001). Therefore, it is vitally important to critically discuss the benefits and drawbacks of CBCM approaches in India and moreover, to define possible problems that occurred while carrying out participatory conservation. Moreover, the outcomes can be selectively taken as an example and encourage more effective future implementation of community-based approaches within Bedthi and Aghanashini CRs.

6.1.1 Benefits of Community-based Conservation Management approach

As already mentioned before, many arguments can be found for including local communities as central stakeholders in conservation management programs. Most important reasons are for example “higher sustainability and effectiveness of protection actions if local people feel responsible for their surroundings” (DCF Kumar,

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2017). This especially refers to the use of natural resources and wildlife protection, since locals have direct impacts on forest conditions (ARNOLD 2001). The integration of rural needs moreover, leads towards substantial changes in the manner of how forests are managed as well as it creates resource flows towards local communities and thus, it can effectively decrease of poverty and increase of social justice (ARNOLD 2001). Anyhow, there is much to suggest that only with cooperation between villagers and government as well as the involvement of nature activists and scientists, conservation of protected areas and wildlife conservation is possible at all. This is due to the facts, that local communities tend to lack resources and sometimes also know-how for undertaking actions against biodiversity threats on a regional scale, whereas government departments tend to lack indispensible (traditional) knowledge on micro- level as well as human power on-site (KOTHARI et al. 1995:2762).

6.1.2 Drawbacks

Regarding a large number of participatory programs implemented in India since the late 1970s, development of key factors and objective targets is to be observed, which led to improved conservation management tools and adjustment of practices. Anyhow, there is still an urgent need for further improvement and rethinking on how to adjust participation approaches to the particular situation within each protected area. This also counts for Bedthi and Aghanashini CRs, since several issues and questions to answer arose regarding CBCM in the present survey. Anyhow, it is crucial to identify possible deficiencies which need to be addressed in future conservation management.

Central arguments, mentioned within the household survey and expert interviews, were lack of transparency as well as dominance in decision-making by government and lack of cooperation from both parts: government and civilians (Exp. 7, l. 39 – 44; VFC Vanalli; Exp. 1, l. 71 – 79). This is also designated as major issues in participatory

clxix conservation by several authors. RAO et al. (2001) critically examined community participation in JFM in Uttara Kannada and concluded that important matters such as financial issues and priority areas in which investment needed to be made were not sufficiently discussed with civilians. The author mentions further shortcomings of JFM such as e.g. (i) limited community participation while domination of FD in decision- making processes. Rather low involvement of VFC Presidents and Managing Committees within in fundamental JFPM issues, e.g. financial transactions; (ii) main focus was put on plantation types rather than regeneration types that might be cost- effective and similarly community-oriented activities; (iii) no appropriate support of

VFCs by the legal framework […] (RAO et al. 2001:17ff).

Further critical observation on JFM, but also on other participatory programs, was done by GADGIL et al., who describe the capture of resources by a few in the village, i.e. “elite capture”. Hereby, the authors address the difficulty of considering local community as uniform interest group. In many cases, the disparity of interests regarding management of common resources between e.g. farmers, NTFP collectors and those relying on timber production for commercial purposes exists. Therefore, it is insufficient regarding civilians as one a uniform group with the same needs and interests. Vitally important in this case is, to consider all different interests and not to ignore marginalized groups (GADGIL et al. 2011:59). Furthermore, there is an urgent need to establish protected areas appropriate based on wildlife functions, e.g. connectivity of habitats, and not for example on the convenience of administration. This was, according to PUYRAVAUD/DAVIDAR, an issue in Nilgiris Biosphere Reserve (NBR), where connectivity among reserves within the NBR was not ensured and thus, the protection level it was supposed to offer was not secured (PUYRAVAUD/DAVIDAR 2013:470). However, Bedthi and Aghanashini CRs were established on the basis of comprehensive prioritization of grids, following a list of criteria (fragmentation; corridor connectivity; endangered species; umbrella/priority species; special ecosystems and threat index)

(HEGDE 2011:21). Thus, the basis in terms of placement of the respective protected

clxx areas is ensured for the effective protection of wildlife. Moreover, more discussion is necessary on circumstances for CBCM.

6.2 CBCM in Bedthi and Aghanashini Conservation Reserves

6.2.1 Local awareness and attitude towards CRs

Knowledge about CRs

Regarding the level of education, the highest percentage of people who knew about CRs were those with BA or higher degree (37.5 %). Only 14.3 % of illiterate people knew about CRs. Anyhow, statistically there is only a small effect of “level of education” towards knowledge of CR among inhabitants of Aghanashini CR. Meanwhile, a large, statistical significance of “level of education” towards knowledge about CR was shown in Bedthi CR. Therefore, discussion is necessary on the exact effect of education towards knowledge about CRs and what might be further important factors. Other studies within Uttara Kannada showed a positive relation of all levels of education towards knowledge of the protected area (in this case Dandeli Wildlife Sanctuary29) near the home of respondents, compared with illiterate respondents. This was traced back to the fact that knowing to read enables people access to newspapers and other written environmental information (TRIGUERO-MAS/OLOMI-SOLA 2008:71). This raises the question, how information about the existence of CRs reaches local people living nearby respective CRs. Accounting for both Bedthi and Aghanashini CR together,

29 Dandeli Wildlife Sanctuary, located in Northern Uttara Kannada, was declared as Wildlife Sanctuary in 1975 and covers an area of 866.41 Km² (GUBBI 2012:1)

clxxi only 10 % replied to know about CR through news and radio, whereas most people were informed either by verbal information through other locals; the Forest Department; VFC-meetings or NGOs. Overall, there was no relationship found between the existence of VFC in the village and knowledge about CR, however there was noticeable probability that people who knew any NGO also knew about the CR. This goes along with the observation of POTTER, who determined that presence of NGOs in some villages in Uttara Kannada has improved awareness among communities regarding forest conservation and protection, policy advocacy and further environmental topics (POTTER, 1996). Besides representatives of VFCs stated, that most members of the respective VFC were informed about adjacent CRs. Besides, further effects on knowledge about CR and age; gender and yearly income of respondents. People between 39 and 51 years were more likely to know about CRs, compared to others. This can be explained by the fact that people of these ages are most active in attending meetings with the Forest Department, VFCs or NGOs. Anyhow, it remains unclear, why younger adults are not informed that often about CRs. However, it is important noticing that most people questioned were between 40 and 55 years. Hence, the relation between knowledge about CRs and younger people might be biased. Furthermore, community appeared to be influencing effect, since 50 %of all Havyakka Brahmans and 44 % of all Siddi knew about the CRs. However, only 14 % of Khare Vokkals knew about CRs. Interestingly, Khare Vokkals belong, as well as Havyakka Brahmans to communities which are better off, whereas Siddi belong to Scheduled Tribes in Karnataka. This is insofar unexpected since usually communities have higher levels of education, which is in turn related to a higher probability of knowledge about CRs. Overall, the first assumption can be partly confirmed since education however shows a medium effect in knowledge about CR. Though, most of other chosen explanatory variables indicate small effects as well and therefore need to be considered too.

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Attitude towards CRs

The attitude was indirectly requested and accounted from respondents “meaning of CR“ and if they had positive/neutral/negative impacts due to CRs in their everyday life (see chapter 4.2.1).

Level of education only has a small effect on the attitude of inhabitants towards CR nearby their home. These show findings of the household survey and thus results do not fully confirm the 2nd assumption which presumed that higher level of education had a positive influence on inhabitants’ attitude towards CRs. Furthermore, there was no noticeable effect of age; gender and income towards an attitude of CRs. However, there was an evident difference of attitude towards CRs between different communities. Belonging to which community even showed the largest effect on the local’s attitude towards CRs. Locals belonging to Khare Vokkals had the highest attitude on average, whereas Havyakka Brahman showed second the highest attitude and Siddi showed a rather neutral attitude towards CRs. In turn there are salient differences between average level of education among different communities. Members of Siddi, for example, show rather low level of education on average and members of Khare Vokkals and Havyaka Brahmans show a higher level of education on average. Still is not necessarily a proof for the influence of level of education, since besides other factors that differ among communities, can be influencing attitude towards CRs as well, such as yearly income or economic dependency on NTFP. For excluding these factors, a bivariate transgression would be necessary, but this was neglected due to the small sample size and lack of statistical significance. However, further variables were tested for direct correlations with attitudes towards CRs and of this, the existence of a VFC in the respective village; awareness of threats towards natural forest and interest in nature show an influence towards respondents’ attitude towards CRs. These factors may be linked with each other, e.g. VFC Management Committees are discussing sustainable resource and reforestation activities (BHAT et. al. 1999:64) and therefore VFC-members are likely to be aware of different threats.

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However, since “Nature Conservation Reserve” is a newly implemented conservation category in India (see chapter 2.1.2), many people thus might not know about legislation of the same. This can influence their attitude towards CR, because people might be afraid of not being allowed to enter the CR for NTFP collection anymore, which is not the case. Besides, not only knowledge about legacies, but also awareness about the concept of NGOs (e.g. possibilities of own empowerment, independently from the government) can be important to know for local communities, to give them motivation for being active in conservation management and to make use of their power for designing conservation activities themselves. Therefore, respondents were asked about their knowledge regarding the concept of NGOs and whether they had any contact or knowledge about nature related NGOs, operating in Uttara Kannada. Results show that in Bedthi CR 62.5 % of respondents knew about the concept and about NGOs who were working in their region. In Aghanashini CR, 61.1 % knew about the concept and 47.2 % knew any NGO in their area. Findings show a significant positive correlation between the attitude of respondents and their estimation on how useful NGOs are for environmental conservation in their region, i.e. if respondents were convinced that NGOs are contributing towards conservation, they also had a rather positive attitude towards CRs. Inhabitant’s attitude towards CRs might also be critical if locals feel disadvantaged in their needs for socio-economic development, due to wildlife protection. Considering the statement of DCF Kumar, who mentions the conflict between locals who favor construction of roads for better infrastructure surrounding their village and legal restraints which need to be considered within CRs while building roads, this conflict needs to be prevented.

Overall, the attitude of local inhabitants towards CRs near their home is particularly difficult to examine due to several reasons. First, it is difficult to ask directly for attitude because each person has different relations for positive and negative attitude. Second, the answers of respondents might be biased and answered more positively out of politeness towards the querying person. Thirdly, the attitude is influenced by a high number of factors which makes it difficult defining the most important ones.

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However, results of this study indicate that not only level of education but rather a combination of e.g. education, way of living (e.g. farmer) and general interest in nature are affecting local’s attitude towards CRs.

Non-consumptive use of forest

The third assumption deals with the type of use of forest resources by respondents. Findings show that specific attitude of respondents towards CRs has, statistically, significant large impact on the kind of forest resource use of respondents. Thus, the third assumption, can be confirmed.

Further variables which show influence on “use of forest” are yearly income and community of respondents. Among requested Khare Vokkals, 100 % of respondents were considered as “non-consumptive users”; among Havyaka Brahmans 64 % were considered “non-consumptive users” and among Siddi 11 %. With increasing income, respondents rather belong to “non-consumptive users of the forest”, probably because these people have more modern households (electro stove; solar energy equipment) and are less dependent on firewood and NTFP. In contrast, people with low income are mostly using firewood for cooking, water heating and NTFP processing and therefore are considered “consumptive users of forest”. However, only a low number of respondents with a relatively low income were requested and therefore it is difficult to generalize the assumption on findings of this study. It would be necessary to implement a larger household survey to gain safer results.

Overall, the third assumption can be confirmed, because effect size the attitude towards CR of people shows a medium effect on their “non-consumptive” use of forest resources. However, there might be further factors that have an important influence on consumer behavior, which are not integrated into the questionnaire. Furthermore, we still don’t know, if the attitude of people influences their kind of use of forest

clxxv resources, or if this is the other way round. ARJUNAN et al. mentioned that attitude is a good indicator of resource use interests of local inhabitants living near protected areas. They further found out that in general positive attitudes indicated low interest in use of natural resources in protected areas (ARJUNAN et al. 2006:196). If locals with a positive attitude towards CRs are more likely to change habits towards less natural resource use, it is of crucial importance to adapt conservation management in such a way that attitude and perception of locals towards protected areas are more in focus. Additionally it is necessary to encourage innovative socio-economic development among local communities, e.g. acquisition of biogas plants and solar power equipment, to facilitate alternatives for natural resources, such as timber, for energy production and further to give locals a more sustainable option of resource use. Moreover, as shown in several studies, attitude of locals towards the protected area is related to resource use interest (INFIELD 1988; NEWMARK et. al. 1993)Anyhow, the link between the attitudes and sustainable conservation practices still is obscure.

6.2.2 Stakeholder for conservation management in Bedthi and Aghanashini CR

A relevant part of the present study is to define different stakeholder for conservation management in Bedthi and Aghanashini CR and moreover, to find out different expectations among them and how to improve integration of CBCM as an innovative approach within Nature Conservation Reserves.

Thus, local inhabitants were interviewed as well as representatives from the Forest Department and NGOs. In some villages local communities have developed VFCs; SHG’s or Gram Panchayats, which are in charge of several issues and self-governance of villages, e.g. administration of sustainable resource use (see chapter 2.1.3). Panchayats were developed in 1930, whereas VFCs and SHG’s were introduced in mid- 1970s in India with the aim to encourage self-reliance and integration of local communities in conservation management (GUHA 2001; SHIVAPRASAD/CHANDRASHEKAR

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2014). As already outlined in chapter 2.1, relationship between local communities and government has been controversial throughout Indian history of nature protection and thus, self-governance and independence of rural population often was ignored by the government (BUCHY 1996; SAXENA 2008; GADGIL et al. 2011). The more important it is, to focus on the relation between the government and locals including their expectations and ideas amongst each other.

Summarizing opinions of expert interviews with representatives from VFCs and NGOs adjacent to Bedthi and Aghanashini CR, there was a need for more transparency and better cooperation with the Forest Department as well as request to receive more financial support; training on administration of VFCs and other and more decision- making power independent from the Forest Department (see chapter 5.1.2). Besides

NAYAK argues that to high dependence of locals on the government was not fair. He predicts the inactiveness of local people, if they have no civil responsibilities and severe possibilities in participating within development processes (NAYAK 2015:324). Moreover, representatives from the Forest Department point out that the participation of local communities in conservation management would lead to higher sustainability since locals feel responsible for their surroundings. However, DCF Kumar remarks that good leadership and guidance would be inevitable and of fundamental importance to safeguard effective nature protection. Furthermore, NAYAK (2015) claims that (local) people are usually more often talking about their rights as of their duties. Taking these opinions into account, there is a need for an appropriate trade-off between leadership on one hand and self-responsibility on the other hand. In regard of conservation management, a gradual increase of self-regulation and duties towards issues of nature protection and sustainable use of resources should be aimed at. Regarding this, it is important not to overstrain local village communities, but to train them in self-administration first and give them time to adopt traditional right towards new management strategies. At this point, it can be hugely beneficial to involve local NGOs, which can e.g. conduct awareness campaigns and support local communities

(NAYAK 2015; RAO et al. 2001).

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The involvement of NGOs in conservation management, in general, is of high importance, since they can act as a mediator between Government and civilian’s; mobilize masses for conservation issues; consult government in nature protection topics and build a lobby for nature protection as well as for livelihood security of local’s. Above all the concept of JFM significantly driven forward and supported by the commitment of NGOs, which developed side specific participatory management models, based on governmental policy directives (BALOONI 2002:94). Besides, many studies emphasize the importance of including traditional knowledge into conservation management, which was not mentioned in any interview of this study. Hence, integration of traditional knowledge and learning from e.g. tribal communities on sustainable resource use might open up further options for conservation management. Moreover, socio-cultural issues play an important role in the sustainability of NTFP resource base and therefore, activities should be based on participatory planning and management (MURTHY et al. 2005:1579). Besides, this could lead to more equality and a balanced cooperation between civilians and government. Furthermore, constructive cooperation between locals and government also increases opportunities to fight against illegal activities such as poaching and illegal collection of NTFP.

Overall, different and partly contradictory expectations towards tasks of different stakeholders exist and need to be combined within conservation management respectively. This requires a reconsideration of power structures, e.g. regarding decision power of conservation committees and an overall increase of awareness regarding the need for nature conservation and protection efforts on part of civilians as well as among the Forest Department. Regarding this, it is furthermore necessary for members of the Forest Department, to question different laws and regulations. So that these are only implemented according to the real purpose they are supposed to. Indian history of forestry and conservation has proved that stable and transparent laws are the fundamental basis for trust of locals in government and for their cooperation in conservation activities (KANAGAVEL et al. 2013:5256). This also applies for Bedthi and Aghanashini CRs.

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6.2.3 Evaluation of study methods

In the present study, a combination of quantitative and qualitative methods of empirical sociological data sampling has been conducted. Overall, this enables to improve the analytic strength of the study. By conducting expert interviews in advance, key issues to be covered in the household survey could be defined. Furthermore, an overview of general opinions was captured by interviewing representatives of several interest-groups. However, the overall extend of the household survey was rather small, due to limited time and staff for implementation. If more households would have been included, sampled data would allow more complex analysis and probably significant results. Additionally, the structure of the questionnaire can be adjusted to become shorter and get more distinctive answers. Therefore, increasing know-how in preparing questionnaires and also increasing experience with traditions and behavior patterns of local communities in Uttara Kannada will be needed. Overall, selected study methods were appropriate to meet the requirements for this study.

6.3 Recommendations for future actions

6.3.1 Awareness-raising

Based on the findings of the present study and on comprehensive literature review, several recommendations for future implementation of CBCM can be done.

Since awareness of the need for wildlife and biodiversity conservation among all stakeholders is essential for any further protection actions, this issue will be addressed at first. The focus of this study lies on awareness among local communities, living adjacent to Bedthi and Aghanashini CRs, regarding the respective protected areas and

clxxix moreover regarding benefits to locals that come along with protection of the areas, e.g. ensuring of sustainable use of natural resources and socio-economic development. Summarizing outcomes of the household survey, there is a high percentage of inhabitants who are not informed about CRs. This gives reason that first of all, more actions should be undertaken to raise awareness among locals about the existence of CRs and the associated protective legislation and rights of local communities. This can be done, as already implemented in some areas, by road signs in Kannada language or direct information by a respective representative from the the Forest Department in the villages. According to RAO et al., “it is necessary to conduct Managing Committee Meetings periodically in order to have dynamic management strategies. It indicates the level of participation of both the village community and the the Forest Department in the process of JFPM.” (RAO et al. 2001:11). However, the information directly given by government representatives might give a biased impression of the community-based concept of CRs. Therefore, it might be a better option to assign rather neutral persons with information transmission. Thus, local people might be more open and readier to ask also critical questions and their own concerns. Representatives of the Forest Department should be attending these sessions as another stakeholder on equal footing as civilians. As a neutral party, NGOs could assume the responsibility of informing communities. Anyhow, NGOs need to be financially supported for this task for being able to stem staff and financial capacities. Furthermore, it can be recommended to create cooperation with schools and colleges located adjacent to CRs, to inform children and young adults and make them familiar with the approach of the new conservation category of CRs. To encourage more support and awareness by locals, training of nature guides of children and adults might be an option as well as the, partly already implemented, organization of bird watching tours and classifying plants with villagers. This has high educative value, but also demonstrates locals about their comprehensive knowledge and about high biodiversity within their region. These activities should be combined with prices or any kind of reward for participation. Thus, the creation of awareness of benefits for nature

clxxx conservation and at the same time for socio-economic development of the villages might be successful.

6.3.2 Involving local inhabitants in conservation

Besides awareness raising, it is of high importance to “take people seriously and to keep a good connection through communication towards locals, so that they trust in

Government”, as formulated by DCF Kumar (Exp. 3, l. 20 – 24). Also KUTTY/KOTHARI emphasize that models of CBCM must incorporate more equal decision-making among all partners within protected areas (KUTTY/KOTHARI 2001:67).

GOKHALE recommends the following strategy of conservation management: “As a good- practice example, even management systems, followed in the Old Mysore, could be helpful in designing present-day management systems” (GOKHALE 2004:3556). I.e. to rely mainly on traditional rights of land access and natural resource use in the surroundings of the village, managed by the responsibility of village leaders and to strictly reduce the influence of government within this area. However, this might be difficult to implement nowadays, since there are many different needs and interests, as already explained, among different villagers. Furthermore, due to long-lasting negotiation of traditional rights, these practices might not be recognized anymore by all villagers.

GADGIL et al. provide further policies for greater interaction between rural people and the Forest Department to involve locals at all stages of planning and implementation of conservation management:

1) “Increasing emphasis on environmental conservation for strengthening the base for sustained agricultural production and water security, […]

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2) Greater appreciation of the role of environmentalists in forest management,

3) More adaptive, participatory and transparent planning processes, based on robust research that is open to independent expertise and knowledge including from local communities, and

4) Increasing focus on understanding and managing complex ecosystems, helping sustain their resilience and adaptability in the face of multiple challenges including climate change, conserving a range of native biodiversity rather than only individual megafauna species, and helping revive/sustain threatened species of both plants and animals.” (GADGIL et al. 2011:253).

As indicated by RFO Bhat, increase of illegal activities such as poaching and tree cutting has been observed within Bedthi and Aghanashini CRs (Exp. 1, l. 38 – 41). Regarding illegal activities, it can be recommended to e.g. particularly involve encroachers in conservation management. Additionally it is necessary to overcome the lack of demarcation and confusion over boundaries of CRs to safeguard that inhabitants know about the spatial expansion of CRs. The findings of the present study show the influence of VFCs towards knowledge and awareness about CRs (see chapters 5.3.2.1 & 5.3.2.2). Thus, there is high potential to enhance effective participation in conservation management with improving cooperation between VFCs and the Forest Department. Regarding this, RAO et al. recommends allocation of some budget from the Forest Department to VFCs which are not externally supported and to work out long-term strategies for sustaining VFCs (RAO et al. 2001:19). Hence, there is planning security for VFC’-members which makes it more attractive for investment and commitment within VFCs.

Furthermore, Bhat et al. advocate for establishing evaluation systems of VFCs, such as “Group Progress Indicators”, which is using household survey and applying group progress indicators by selecting 10% of the existing VFCs regularly every one or two years to examine the progress and to adjust occurring deficiencies (RAO et al. 1999:87).

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This might be a practical possibility to have reliable data on the functioning of VFC (and its cooperation with the Forest Department) and furthermore, to show that needs and critics of local communities are taken seriously.

7. Conclusion

“Cultivating and conserving diversity is no luxury in our times: it is a survival imperative.” (Vananda Shiva 2005, in “Earth Democracy: Justice, Sustainability and Peace”).

In this citation, the famous Indian scientist and social activist Ms. Vananda Shiva allows different interpretations of “diversity”. Possible meanings range from a social (cultural/gender) to a biological diversity, all of whom are of crucial importance for the survival of our planet, as the author puts it. These forms of diversity are of upmost importance for the effective implementation of participatory approaches in nature conservation and part of the management of Nature Conservation Reserves. The underlying idea being that if all the socially and cultural varying communities living within the protected areas are equally represented within conservation committees by both women and men, the disadvantage of minorities can be prevented. Similarly, biological diversity within Nature Conservation Reserves needs to be conserved for the maintenance of ecosystem services. „Biodiversity hot-spots“ such as the Western Ghats region in India and their ecosystem services are under pressure of the ongoing population growth and shows an exceptional high human population growth-rate. It is of crucial importance to establish and obtain a conservation management which is taking into account the high diversity of needs and interests of the different stakeholders within the protected areas. According to the prevailing scientific and political opinion that only participative approaches enable such conservation management, local communities as well as representatives of government and non-governmental organizations should be

clxxxiii included in equal terms in planning as well as implementing activities. This work provides a baseline study regarding CBCM within two Nature Conservation Reserves in the Western Ghats region. The main questions have been (i) How can local awareness be described and what attitude towards CRs can be found? (ii) What influences locals’ attitude and awareness of CRs? (iii) How to improve the awareness and to encourage locals’ participation? Different observations have been made while analysing the expert interviews and the household survey conducted within the catchment area of Bedthi and Aghanashini CR: awareness of local communities about existence of CRs was surprisingly low within all communities and independent from level of education or yearly income. However, members of Havyaka Brahmin and Siddi were more likely to know about CRs compared to other communities, whereas attitude towards CRs was mainly positive throughout all interviewed persons. Against the assumption, inhabitants with higher education level and higher yearly income were not likely to be informed of adjacent CRs. Main factors increasing the likeliness of knowing about CRs among locals were community-belonging and good contact towards NGOs or government since this enabled an effective transfer of information. Interestingly, attitude appeared to be closely connected towards type of forest resource-use. If locals were less economic dependent (“non-consumptive user”), they were more likely to have a positive attitude towards CRs, compared to locals who were more dependent on natural resources (“consumptive-users”). Hence for improving awareness of civilians about CRs the implementation of effective participation- and awareness raising programs for nature conservation is recommended within Bedthi and Aghanashini. So far, Bedthi and Aghanashini CRs have shown successful implementations of CBCM approaches by e.g. establishment of VFCs and SHG’s. According to Rao et al. (2001), Aghanashini VFC even obtained the highest reward in Uttara Kannada since its formation compared to other VFCs. Overall, the category “Nature Conservation Reserve” is the most appropriate for Bedthi and Aghanashini CR. Along the lines of this category both conservation and protection of biodiversity as well as socio-economic development are key aspects. However, different challenges in implementing CBCM efforts were detected during the process

clxxxiv of this study. For example, low participation rates of local communities and lack of transparency within governmental transactions were identified. Nonetheless, there is mounting evidence that benefits of participative approaches are predominant. This is also determined by the UNESCO World Heritage Committee which requires to “facilitate increased engagement with all stakeholders for building awareness and support, foster participatory governance approaches, and ensure equitable sharing of benefits […]” in the the Western Ghats (UNESCO World Heritage Committee 2011). Besides the category of Nature Conservation Reserve there might be further categories suitable for these protected areas. One is the declaration as Biosphere Reserve which would increase attention towards conservation needs of this particular area not only on the national level but also on the international level. Several criteria for declaration as Biosphere Reserve are already met such as representing special landscapes and habitats of the region as well as unique cultural and traditional identities. However, several further criteria need to be met such as zonation into a core zone; buffer zone and development zone. Additionally adequate administration and organization structures need to be established and a comprehensive frame concept needs to be developed. Due to this, there is a crucial need for improving conservation management strategies in Bedthi and Aghanashini CRs focused on local participation and accompanied by scientific monitoring. Regarding the engagement and hard work of many locals; representatives from the Forest Department and NGOs there is high potential for Bedthi and Aghanashini CRs to become model region for biodiversity conservation and sustainable development in the Western Ghats.

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Acknowledgements

At this point I want to thank all persons who supported me in many ways and made this work possible.

My heartily gratitude goes towards my supervisor Prof. Dr. Susanne Stoll-Kleemann, who accepted to supervise this work. Sincere thanks to my second supervisor Mr. Balachandra Hegde (M.Sc. Landscape Ecology and Nature Conservation), who encouraged and greatly supported me during this work. Furthermore, I want to thank Mr. Suhas Hegde, Mr. Omkar Pai, Mr. Deepak Naik, Mr. JK and Mr. Shrinivas for supporting me during data-sampling and field work. Thanks also to Ms. Dipl. Psych. Ramona Stock for supporting me with the analysis.

Thanks to Karnataka Forest Department for providing permission to work in the field and especially to Range Forest Officer Himawati Bhat and Deputy Conservator of Forest Yatish Kumar for the interviews. I also would like to thank Mr. Anant Ashisar and all persons participating in the interviews and the survey for their support.

Besides, I would like to thank the families of Mr. Suhas Hegde and Mr. Balachandra Hegde as well as the Team of Drongo and TREC, for taking care of me during my stay in India and enabling me insights in their everyday life and discussions about conservation management.

I want to thank my fellow students and friends for supporting this work and for making studying in Greifswald such a great and unforgettable time.

I also want to thank my family and my boyfriend for their love and continuous support during my studies.

At last, regards to Kamakshi, who is a very strong and independent woman. Thank you for becoming such good friend.

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Annex

Annex 1: Questionnaire

Household survey conducted in two nature conservation reserves in Uttara Kannada/North Karnataka (India) regarding attitude of local communities towards conservation management

A. Individual perception of the respective conservation reserve and surrounding landscape concerning livelihood and biosphere

A.1 What do you appreciate most about the landscape, you are living in? (Several answers possible) a)Nature; b)Touristic attractions; c) Agricultural suitability; d)Perennial water source; e)Others:, f)No specified

A.2 How high is your interest in the nature around your home?  Scale: 5= very high; 4= rather high; 3= medium; 2= rather low; 1= very low; No specified

A.3 To which extend does your livelihood depend on the nature/natural resources from the area around you?  Scale: 5= very high extend; 4= rather high; 3= medium; 2= rather low; 1= does not at all depend on natural resources from the area around me; No specified

A.4 Are you harvesting Non-Timber-Forest-Products (NTFP)? – Yes/No; No Specified

A.4.1 How do you harvest NTFP? (Several answers possible, the answer will depend on the explanation the person provides about her/his harvesting methods) a) Traditional harvesting methods; b) Modern harvesting methods; c) Others:; d) No Specified

A.4.2 Which NTFP do you collect? (Several answers possible) a) Uppage, Garcinia cambogea (Malabar tamarind); b) Shegekai, Acacia sinuate; c) Sapindus emarginatus (Soapnut); d) Rattan, (Calamus sp.) Cane (for baskets); e) Bamboo; f) Echalu, Phoenix sylvestris (Silver Date Palm); g) Vaatehuli, Artocarpus lakoocha (Monkey Fruit?); h) Kokum, Garcinia indica ; i) Others:; h) No Specified

A. 4.3 For which purposes do you collect NTFP? (Several answers possible, this is just a basic range of answers, for more concrete information, we can refer to other studies)

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a) Food; b) Household articles (e.g. fencing); c) Commercial purposes; d) Medical purposes; e) Agricultural purposes; f) Others:; g) No Specified

A.4.4 Which marketing channels do you use? (Several answers possible) a) Direct sale; b) Through mediators; c) Through a cooperative society; d) Other channels:; e) No Specified

A.5 Do you collect firewood? – Yes/No, No Specified A.5.1 For which purpose are you collecting firewood? a) Cooking; b) Water heating; c) processing NTFP; d) Others:; e) No Specified

A.6 Do you use energy saving devices? –Yes/No, No Specified A.6.1 If yes, which energy saving devices do you use? a) Solar; b) Boiler; c) Astra; d) Others:; e) No Specified

A.7 Do you have access to LPG (governmental supported Liquid gas-supply)? – Yes/No, No Specified

A.8 Do you have to report any damages caused by wildlife species from the last year? – Yes/No, No Specified A.8.1 Which animals have caused the damages? a) Monkeys; b)Wild Boars; c) Others:; d) No Specified

A.9 What do you think are the most serious threats towards natural environment surrounding your village? a) Hydropowerplants; b) Monoculture Plantation; c) Harvesting NTFP; d) Others:; e) No Specified

[alternative A9: if people don’t know about the conservation reserves: ] A.9 What has changed in the Forest in the last years? Why do you think are the reasons for this?

B. Personal attitude related towards conservation of respective conservation areas B. 1 Do you know about the declaration as “nature conservation reserve” of the surrounding region in which you are living? – Yes/ No, No Specified B.1.1 If yes, how did you get to know about it? a) Newspaper; b) Verbal information; c) Other:; d) No Specified

B.1.2 If yes, what is the most important task from your point of view, for the conservation area-management in this conservation reserve? (Open question) B.1.3 If yes, to which extend are you aware of legal consequences (empowerments/ restrictions) the designation as conservation reserve has for you, as an inhabitant of the area? – 5 = very high; 4= rather high; 3= medium; 2= rather low; 1= very low; No specified

B.1.4 Of which legislations do you know? Open question B.2 Do you know the concept of nongovernmental organizations? B.2.1 Do you know about any NGO or other Organisation related to nature conservation in Utthara Kannada? – Yes/ No, No Specified

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B.2.2 Of which NGO or Person do you know? How often do you have contact with them? How many times are they visiting you? Open question B.2.3 How useful do you think, NGO's can be for nature conservation of this area? Scale 5= high; 4=rather high 3=medium; 2= rather low; 1= no political impact at all; No Specified

B.3 Does it have any meaning to you, to live near a “Nature conservation reserve”?  Scale: 5= it is very important to me; 4= it is rather important; 3= medium; 2= rather less important; 1= It has no meaning to me; No Specified

B.3.1 Please specify your answer: (open)

B.4 Does the declaration as “Nature conservation reserve” cause impacts on your everyday life? (Only one answer possible) a) Yes, positively; b) Yes, negatively; c) Yes, neutral; d) No impact at all; e) No Specified

B.5 What is needed most from your perspective, for the socio-economic development of your village? (Several answers possible) a) Basic infrastructure (Electricity; Water); b) Better road network; c) Better internet infrastructure d) More employment-offers; e)Better education system; f) Better health system (mobile clinic) g) Higher number of free-time activities (library bus, cinema); h) Higher number of cultural offers e) Development of alternative source of income; j) No Specified

B.6 Are you interested in taking actively part in decision-making for conservation work and conservation management (are you interested in joining the community committee) ? – Yes/No, No Specified B.6.1 Could you imagine participating in some of the following tasks? (All possibilities are considered to allow a certain training beforehand) (Several answers possible) a) As a representative for the village, I am living in – Yes/ No b) In doing publicity work (writing articles, creating information material, giving workshops for children and adults in different topics, like traditional harvesting systems/ bee-keeping, etc.) – Yes/ No c) As part of a Working group to suggest own ideas for new plans of conservation management– Yes/ No d) As working in eco-tourism (e.g. becoming local tourist-guide) – Yes/ No e) As a contact person for conservation-fieldwork – Yes/ No f) In conducting monitoring (e.g. bird watching and other) – Yes/ No g) Others: h) No Specified

B.6.2 Which workshop-topics would be most interesting for you (valuation of NTFP/Bee- keeping, etc.)? (Open question) C. Socio-demographic background C.1 What is your age? C.2 Male/Female C.3 Which Community are you belonging to? (Only one answer possible) a) Kunbi; b) Gauli; c) Havyaka Brahmans; d) Khare vokkals; e) Siddi; f) No Specified

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C.4 For how long are you living in this area? C.5 Landholding, do you own land? a) Private land; b) Acquired land; c) No Specified

C.6 How much Land do you own? C.7 What field are you working in? a) Settled agriculture (Arecanut-production); b) Settled Agriculture (Rice fields); c) Cattle-breeding for dairy products; d) Gathering of Non-Timber-Forest-Products; e) Landless Labors f) Other:; g) No Specified

C.8 Education (for how long did you go to school?) a) No school visit; b) Primary education ( at least 7 years); c) Higher primary education (at least 12 years); d) Higher education (BA degree and higher)

C.9 What is the size of the household you are living in (how many members are living in the household)? C.10 Are you part of Gram Panchayat? - Yes/ No, No Specified C.11 How high is your yearly income roughly?

Annex 2: List of Interview partners

l. Person Designation Place Date of Name audio file Notes no interview 1 Miss. Range Forest Magod 28.11.17 Magod_Interview_ Himavati Office (RFO) Range_Forest_Ofic Bhat er_Bhat_28_11_17 2 Mr. Head of Sirsi 07.01.2017 Interview_Anant_A Accompanied by Anant Vruksha-Laksha shisar_07_01 Balachandra Ashisar Andolana & Ex Hegde and Director of Suhas Hegde Western Ghat Task Force 3 Mr. Deputy Yellapur 26.11.17 Interview_DFC_Yell Yatish Conservator of apur Kumar Forest (DCF) 4 President of Kelasi, 29.11.17 Khelasi_VFC_29_11 Accompanied by VFC Kelasi Bedthi _17 Suhas Hegde 5 Mr. President of Kudegod, 10.12.17 Upplegatte_Aghana Accompanied by Naga VFC Kudegod Aghanashini shini_10_12_17 Omkar Pai Naik CR

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Annex 3: Audio files (see CD)

Annex 4: Transcripts and protocols

Interview number 1 Name of audio file Margod_Interview_Range_Forest_Oficer_Bhat_28_11_17 Date of recording 28.11.17 Place of recording Magod, Karnataka Duration of recording Interviewed person Range Forest Officer Ms. Bhat Interviewer Mrs. Lisa Andresen Date of transcription 20.04.2018 Transcription rules I: Interviewer, B: Ms. Bhat, Literally transcription done word by word and soft language adaptation. [ ]: display duration of time

I: Dear Ms. Bhat, since when are you working in this position as a Range Forest Officer? Bhat: Since nine years now, since 2007. I: What have been important projects that you have been working on in this time? Bhat: Not projects, but in different wings of this Department I have served. There is the Research Wing, the Territorial Wing, Wildlife Wing. Every of these departments have its own objectives and tasks. So in the Research Wing, many different indigenous species are introduced and we have done research on different high yielding NTFP (Non-Timber-Forest- Products)-species, on high yielding timber species and we have identified some tree species and new techniques of propagation. We were using microorganisms in forest species for getting higher growth, etc. In my Survey Wing, I have tested new technologies which have been used for boundary marking. Boundary marking usually has been demarcated in the Forest Department. But due to population growth in many areas boundary marking has been destroyed and forest has been encroached. In interior forest we don't know, where encroachment has been done or a boundary has been spoiled - we don't know that. Therefore

cxcix we have introduced boundary chips. Wherever boundary stone has been destroyed, we will be informed. I: How does this work? Do you have small stones? Bhat: [2.47] Our Reserved Forest has been demarcated with Reserved Forest demarcation stones. Those stones have been incorporated with a chip, that chip will send us a message. I: Ok, interesting. Is this only here in this district? Bhat: No, the Forest Department is trying to distribute them. Earlier, we could only see encroachment, if we would go there. Because it is a vast area, it is topographically very difficult to travel. We can't travel very often to check all boundaries. So the new technology will help us, while sitting in our office, to see wherever forest area has been encroached or wherever a boundary has been destroyed. Now In the Territorial Wing is a protection Wing. Here we are using camera traps. In Territorial Wing we are only concentrating on trees, on protection of our land, of our wildlife, etc. Since we have installed camera traps, we can see movements of wildlife-poachers. In a few areas we can see smuggling or any new commerce moving around in this forest. That will help us to protect the trees from smugglers, poachers, etc. [4.50] Now we also have introduced chips for boundary stones in different trees. So, if anybody comes close to this tree or is cutting it, I will get a message immediately. They cannot smuggle the trees like earlier. I: [5.20] Do you think in the last years, smuggling and illegal activities has become more or less? Is there any development? Bhat: It has reduced very much, but still technology has improved very much. Earlier ten trees might have been cut, now they cut only one tree. But the time span in which they do all these things has reduced very much, because of the implement of technology. They use mobile phones, they use power saws. They are very much faster now. So tracking the smugglers is also very difficult, if we don't use technology, therefore we are using all these technologies also. Even encroachment has so much increased. They use for example earthmovers, clearing the forest and encroachment is easier now. Earlier, everything was done manually, so it took more time. Until then we could notice it and stop it. I: And all these new technologies you are using, is it due to the declaration as Bedthi Conservation Area? Do you have any advantages from this declaration? Bhat [7.24]: No, this area has always been part of the protected area. The conservation area has been notified because we need to concentrate more on protection And more of our effort

cc has to be put on here. Now the conservation status has increased more and the protection purpose has increased now. I: For example dams cannot be built here so easily any more. Are there other things that changed? Bhat: Yes, as you said, development projects cannot be realised so easy. Before, people found it very easy to build something, especially in their private land. Now in the conservation area, also on private land, it is not easy for them to build anything. They cannot set up anything without our permission. I: Was this problematic? Do you have trouble with locals because they want to self define about their land or their village and want less regulations? Bhat [9.08]: Yes, there are both kind of people. Some [people] need basic needs for themselves and for their village, so they ask for that. Those people most of them are against setting up development projects and against structures. Many people have more awareness now, about the consequences of their actions. If they are destroying the forest, it comes directly back to them. Not since the declarations of conservation area, but since the last years. I: Yesterday I talked to some members of the VFC (Village Forest Community) from Magod and they were really active and appreciating the projects that are running here. But we also talked to people from other VFC's and some said; there are problems with communication with the Forest Department. They also wanted more motivation. Why do you think, this happens and what could be done against this problem? Bhat [10.41]: I don't think communication with the Forest Department would be difficult for them. VFC's started 20 to 25 years ago. The people where well trained and there have been motivations for them. Now the first projects have been expired and they are not working with them anymore. Any long-term project, like Areca (Beetelnut plantations, remark), should be self-reliant. Local people should not expect the department to communicate with them for each and every thing. But these things still happen. We are providing trainings for them. The deputy RFO (Range Forest Officer) will always be the secretary in the VFC-management group. So every month meetings are happening. The thing is, only active VFC-members are communicating with the department. Some others are silent. The objective is joint forest management, the VFC's who we are given share (financial) and financial transactions, they are active. Where no financial transactions are happening, there VFC's are not participating, even if their objectives are also protection. That is the truth, actually. But still, there are many VFC's, who participate in fire protection control, poaching control and giving information to the

cci department, also without financial transaction. There might be some VFC's, where are no resources, so we cannot give them share. There they might feel that the department is not communicating with them. I: So maybe the Forest Department needs more resources to support VFC's? Bath [13.25]: Yes, obviously, the places where transactions are happening, we are visiting frequently. For example here in Magod, there was no income for the VFC also. There was one guesthouse and these waterfalls. But the people showed interest and built a nature amp and a ticket counter. Before, tourists were visiting the falls without paying, but now there is an income for some members of the VFC. So the locals they have to come up with ideas to create resources themselves also. I: So this camp is built up by the VFC members themselves? Bhat [14.31]: They should come up, so the department will help them and guide them. One or two people always come for communication. I: But some people in other VFC's complaint, that the Forest Department is undertaking actions without involving or asking the VFC before, like planting trees, etc. Bhat: Yes things like that are happening, but sometimes they don't even participate. They should come to the monthly meetings, to get informed about what will happen. If they don't participate, they don't come to the meeting, they don't gain the information. You can see, all the proceedings whatever we are planning, are happening. Now we are going to start some new projects in this area. This has been discussed now. If they don't come to the meetings, they don't get the information about it. We cannot distribute pamphlets and distribute the information otherwise. We are discussing the things, what will be the departmental work and what are the plans and what is the action plan for this year - this is what we are going to do in their area, everything is discussed in those meetings. I: We also met people, who had no idea about the conservation reserve, because of different reasons. Some, for example where living very remote and had no real contact to other people. What do you think; the Forest Department could do to make information about conservation reserves more public? Bhat [17.00]: It is like that, no person in India can say, they don't know about the law. VFC's can be included or informed while doing workshops or awareness camps that can be done. I: But there are many people who are labourers and they are working a lot, so they might have no time or access for workshops. Maybe road signs would be easier to inform local people?

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Bhat [18.14]: Yes, demarcation has to be done. But this will take time. It is the same like here, we also put plates with information, so now people now, this is a reserved forest and this is the boundary, they know now. It took years for people to know this. And we should give them time. Before that we should demarcate it. Everywhere where we undertake some new things, it is obvious that people will resist. Any new thing, people will resist. I: Why is that? Bhat [20.08]: That is human tendency. It will take time to adjust. Any new law, we will first resist it and then gradually we will get into it. We should create the awareness, education and help to adjust people faster, by informing them. As you said, many of them don't know what and where is the conservation reserve. But they will get to know this and we should give them that time to know. The same with JFM (Joint Forest Management), in the beginning the department resisted it. And then, how can we implement this? Even the local people also, they resisted it. After a while, they got into it. The Forest Department people needed to go from door to door, to ask people to found a new VFC. This has been in the 90's. Now people are coming to my office and request us to form a new VFC. I: Do you think the Forest Department should be more strict and focus more on punishment against illegal activities? Bhat [22.55]: There are two categories of people: some do it knowingly for selling it for money. But there are some other people, they have no idea about the consequences and don't know that they have violated the law. They do it for food. Such people need to be educated. They have to learn to eat other food, like domesticated, but not wildlife. I: Thank you very much for the interview. Bhat: You are welcome.

Interview number 2 Name of audio file Interview_Anant_Ashisar_07_01 Date of recording 07.01.17 Place of recording Sirsi, Karnataka Duration of recording Anant_Ashisar Mr. Anant Ashisar Interviewer Mrs. Lisa Andresen Date of transcription 21.04.2018 Transcription rules I: Interviewer, Ashisae: Mr. Anant Ashisar:, Literally transcription done word by word and soft language adaptation. [ ]: display duration of time

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1 Interviewer: You are working for the Western Ghats Task Force, can you shortly explain, how this Group works? 2 Ashisar: Since the last 25 to 30 years we are working for the conservation of the Western Ghats under different organisations. I am the head of te group [...] (need to look up name). At the same time we have some conservation groups anti-nuclear issue groups, district-wise environ communities, throughout the Western Ghats in Karnataka. So we have a coordinated networkingsystem. Balu is also part of it. What we have been doing for the last years in these groups, we have also applied in the government. So we have stopped dams and mining projects. We have opposed it in the Government, we have stopped it and we wanted to have some policies to ban all these things in the Western Ghats. That is one thing. At the same time many constructive activities have been stopped, especially in Sacred Forests. We covered lots of programs with the Forest Department of the Government. The major success of this task force is, in the Government of Karnataka and even in the Central National Government, we have focused on the what we call: main stream. This is the Western Ghats. If the Government has plans for any big (development) project, we advise them. We have access to the top of the Government. 3 Interviewer: How can you influence the Government? 4 Ashisar: We have a big Lobby. We have the opportunity/opposition? There are many members in different commitees, like for wildlife. Many of our activists are Wildlife Wardens. We are working together with some environmental organisations, who are for example protecting Lion Tailed Makaques, Hornbills. Not only in the Western Ghats, also in the plain areas [high plateau], we have declared two sanctuaries. One is called Bhimgard Sanctuary, the other is called Chinchulli Wildlife Sanctuary (check names!) in Gurburka (?). This area is very dry. At that time, I have been Vice Chairmen of the Wildlife Board and the Biodiversity Activity board. The Biodiversity Act came in 2003. The same is the case with the medicinal plants authority. 5 Interviewer: My study is related towards community based management, do you think this concept is useful for awairness raising? 6 Ashisar [6.09]: Yes, it can. But we mainly are trying to force the Forest Department to come out of this strict buerocratic way. They should development some voluntary-spirit. Further more, we want more power for the Village Forest Communities. 7 Interviewer: So you want to give more power to the VFC's, so that they can take more decisions on their own.

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8 Ashisar [6.38]: Exactly. 9 Interviewer: What are the challenges you are facing while declaring the Conservation Reserves? 10 Ashisar [7.40]: Actually in the Government, all steps regarding the conservation and legal aspects [laws], there is lot of opposition of the representatives of local people [politicians]. They usuall oppose. It was not possible to us to pinnpoint some legal control throughout the Western Ghats (to bring establish certain laws?). This was not possible for us, due to the peoples representatives [politicians] - not due to the local people themself, they are very innocent people. But the politicians are opposing all of our conservation activities. 11 Interviewer: But you succeeded with Bedthi and Aghanashini Conservation Reserve. How did you convey the politicians? 12 Ashisar [8.29]: Because of [...] Swamiji (Green Swami, look up name). He helped a lot. He is the head of this movement, because of his effort. 13 Interviewer: What did he do? 14 Ashisar [8.48]: He has a big influence, if he (auffordern), thousend people are following him. 15 Interviewer: And he could convince the people? 16 Ashisar: Yes, he also could convince the politicians. They go and say "Namaskara" and they agree with him. That is the interesting thing. But even now, the Forest Department is not taking their work in the Conservation Reserves seriously. 17 Interviewer: How do you want to convince the Forest Department to be more active in conservation? 18 Ashisar [9.39]: Through pressure, force, lobby, activities and awareness. That's all. But their burocracy is the problem. Because I am the Chairman of Western Ghats Taskforce, they are at least listening to me and are welcoming us. Very recently, we met with them. For the last three years, we are pressurising the Conservator of Forest, to have these management communities. They did not react yet. 19 Interview stopped.

Interview number 3 Name of audio file Interview_DFC_Yellapur Date of recording 26.11.17 Place of recording Yellapur, Karnataka

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Duration of recording Interviewed person Deputy Conservator of Forest, Yatish Kumar, Yellapur Division 08419, 261273(O) 262087(F) 261353(F) 9483497559(M) 9480807604(M), [email protected] yellapurdcf5@yahoo. Interviewer Mrs. Lisa Andresen Date of transcription 25.04.2018 Transcription rules I: Interviewer, B: Mr. Kumar, Literally transcription done word by word and soft language adaptation. [ ]: display duration of time

1. Since 2003, the category of Nature Conservation reserves and exists in Indian Wildlife Amendment Act. What do you think of this new category of game reserve? Answer: Talking about Wildlife Protection Act from 1972, until 1989 not much happened in implementing the Act, a few reserves where declared, but no real action taken, because not knowing, how to implement. - after 1989, tiger reserves have been declared and more seriously action was taken - problem, most happened after british example, needed to be adjusted to India - need to gather own experiences in conservation

2. What are the advantages and disadvantages of local participation? - important to have people, who feel responsible for their surrounding environment and take action. Is much more sustainable and useful - knowing, what is needed in individual places - people need to feel to be taken seriously and trust in government - important to keep connection through communication towards local communities

3. Why is the communication between government and community a problem in some places? - government is sometimes slow in implementing things, new categories, etc. - government can be blamed easily - need to gather own experience and learn from it - in some villages, communities have been very active and there was good communication between both, but after a while, this became less, due to shifting of members in communities or loss of motivation of people

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- conservation reserves have much higher amount of rules to follow, if it comes to building of roads, and other infra structure. It means much more buerocratic work, some people want development in their area and don’t understand, why it is not happening, why the nature should be protected in first case and human come afterwards.

3. How can the government improve in conservation work in the future? - Government need to provide benefits for participation in conservation - Government also needs to implement punishment for not following rules (poaching, illegal collecting of NTFP, firewood), very important to undertake serious actions, punishment has become much more serious in last years - important to interpret law and understand the background of individual laws, not only following, what is written, but think on your own and see, where actions needs to be taken - give incentives towards communities and Officers who are working in conservation - good leadership is very important, otherwise people have no guidance and no good example

Overall subjective impression: Impression of interviewed person: - was answering often very indirect and answers very general, not linked to the questions - he had more time than I thought and was interested to talk later again – nice  What I could have done better? - better preparation beforehand: which projects has the interviewed person be working in, for how long is he working in that position, etc.? - better introduction- question, “In which projects have you been involved?”, more general questions, and afterwards more precisely - not focus too much on own questions, be more flexible - need to know, how much time we have roughly for the interview - maybe questions more indirect and slowly going to more sensitive topics - build up the conservation on better fundament

Interview number 4 Name of audio file Khelasi_VFC_29_11_17 Date of recording 29.11.17 Place of recording Kelasi (Bedthi CR), Karnataka Duration of recording

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Interviewed person President of VFC Kelasi Interviewer Mrs. Lisa Andresen Date of transcription 26.04.2018 Transcription rules Summary transcription (nach Karbach)

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Topic Question Answer Comments General How many members are you? (Women & 220 members in 70 households (100 %) Only talked information, men)? with Organization of president VFC Since when does VFC exist? 2006 How many NTFP/ which are most important? No NTFP How much do you earn? 1 time in 2012: 1800 IRS, 50 % to Forest Department, 50 % to VFC, bought equipment for village-hall (chairs, tables, etc.). Distribution of: - Solar lights - LPG - Honeybee Boxes - solar water heater  cooperation better in fire protection, building fire landworks for controlling fire  Program: SCPTSP How big is your plantation? 2000 acres Arecanut Plantation About How to decide, where to spend the money Democratic decision (deciding in committee, 15 people, see VFC-guidelines, plantations and that you earn with plantations? 40 % ladies etc.) distribution of How to deal with conflict of interests of - benefit different members? Sustainable use Are there any restrictions/ limitations you - of NTFP follow in harvesting/processing/selling NTFP? What actions do you undertake for conserving _ the forest? Problems of How does cooperation with Forest Very good connection, attending monthly meetings, very active Forest implementation Department work? Department of VFC Person was attending the interview Conservation Do you know about Bedthi conservation Yes, through newspaper and Forest Department, 70 % of people in CR know

209 reserves reserve? about it Do you know about concept of conservation - reserve? Are you interested in participation in Yes, conservation? - Already conducting mass awareness programs “Jhata”, gathering people in village hall, holding presentation, 1 time/year - already conducted workshops in Yellapur Forest Department, training on Bee keeping; Fire protection; valuation of NTFP; etc. and multiplying these to village committee Where should conservation work focus on? What is needed next? What could be alternative ways of income? Additional Do you have contact/exchange with other - not much Why? Could VFC’s? be helpful, to share experience

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Interview number 5 Name of audio file Upplegatte_Aghanashini_10_12_17 Date of recording 10.12.17 Place of recording Upplegatte, Kudegod (Aghanashini CR), Karnataka Duration of recording Interviewed person Naga Naik, President of VFC Kudegod Interviewer Mrs. Lisa Andresen Date of transcription 27.04.2018 Transcription rules Summary transcription (nach Karbach)

Topic Question Answer Comments General How many members are you? (Women & 258 members, about 90 % of household joined Only talked with information, men)? founder and former

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Organization of president of VFC VFC Since when does VFC exist? 2007 (after voting with all members of village (almost all agreed, apart from ~ 5, who were scared of losing rights in collecting NTFP and other). In start supported by NGO)

How many NTFP/ which are most important? No NTFP Projects conducted in VFC: - restricted chakrani balli and arishina balli smugling - gas distribution - conducting workshops in Bee-keeping; sustainable use of ntfp; energy saving; awareness of biodiversity

Future plan for VFC: Uppage community drier, searching for alternative for ntfp harvesting, Santosh from Sidharpur

About No plantations in VFC plantations and - distribution of benefit

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Sustainable use - of NTFP What actions do you undertake for conserving - awareness raising (workshops) the forest? Problems of How does cooperation with Forest Cooperation with Forest Department: very active, regular meetings, every 1 to 2 months with president, secretary and implementation Department work? members. of VFC Conservation Do you know about Bedthi conservation - almost 90 % of members know about Aghanashini Conservation reserves reserve? Reserve Do you know about concept of conservation - reserve? Are you interested in participation in Yes, conservation? -

Additional Do you have contact/exchange with other VFC’s?

Interview number 6 Name of audio file Agasal_Bommanali_VFC_group-interview_22_11_17 Date of recording 22.11.17 Place of recording Agasal Bommanali, Karnataka Duration of recording

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Interviewed person Group interview with VFC members Interviewer Mrs. Lisa Andresen Date of transcription 28.04.2018 Transcription rules Summary transcription (nach Karbach)

About How to decide, where to spend the money - general meeting: calculating, how many households in which village plantations and that you earn with plantations? integrated, then, how much money which village gets distribution of - then decide basic- democratically, where to invest the money: benefit Solar lamps for every household; black pepper processing machine; Rain water collection-construction wholes around the village, to regulate infiltration of rain water - 50 % of the money goes into Forest development programs, 50 % to villages

How to deal with conflict of interests of different members? Problems of How does cooperation with Forest implementation Department work? of VFC Conservation Do you know about Bedthi conservation reserves reserve? Do you know about NGO’s working in the area? Conservation- Restoring degenerated forests? - not yet, but in future plan, to plant fruit trees instead of monocultures activities? (eucalyptus & teak), because groundwater level is sinking, this will increase in future, if water deflates, because in monoculture there is no holdback or infiltration possible - fruit trees should be local species, like Mango, Jackfruit, Cashew, ..  this could also used as an alternative source of income (6)

Awareness of Conservation Reserve? - about 20 % of VFC-members know of conservation areas, but not how big

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and where exactly and why, apart from stopping development programs (dam-building) - they think, conservation areas is also an advantage for them

Other conservation-activities - Eco-Tourism: Yes, but they need guidance, project management how to set up tourism - Forest development: In planting and maintaining fruit trees - conducting workshops with schools and other (e.g. bee-keeping; awareness camp already yearly done; grafting of mango-trees; nature medicinal plants)

Interview number 7 Name of audio file Vanalli_VFC_23_11_2017 Date of recording 23.11.17 Place of recording Vanalli (Bedthi CR), Karnataka Duration of recording Interviewed person Group interview with VFC members Interviewer Mrs. Lisa Andresen Date of transcription 29.04.2018 Transcription rules Summary transcription (nach Karbach)

Topic Question Answer Comments General How many members are you? (women & 175 households, 100 % of village are members, women and men equally 8 information, men)? members Organization of attended VFC meeting (6

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men, 2 women) Since when does VFC exist? 2014 – one president very short time How many NTFP/ which are most important? - Only Uppage so far, last year harvested - few Kokam About How to decide, where to spend the money Not harvested yet plantations and that you earn with plantations? - every single household got small amount, not much reward yet distribution of - benefit How to deal with conflict of interests of _ different members? Sustainable use Are there any restrictions/ limitations you - only selling Uppage via VFC (before it was auction) of NTFP follow in harvesting/processing/selling NTFP? - only traditional harvesting methods (collecting fully grown fruits, not whole branches, etc.) What actions do you undertake for conserving - working in fire control the forest? - sustainable harvesting - planting new trees Problems of How does cooperation with Forest - very less cooperation yet - why did implementation Department work? - no participation they not of VFC - no training about how to work as VFC initiate - no transparency workshops - need more offers of workshops administrative issues) and more guidance, on their motivation own? - Suhas explained about VFC Conservation Do you know about Bedthi conservation - No reserves reserve? Do you know about concept of conservation - No We reserve? explained Are you interested in participation in - yes, if know how

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conservation? - need guidance Where should conservation work focus on? - conservation of water source What is needed next? - water is washing away and used for paddy-land and monoculture plantations (rice-fields), therefore less water for plantations and forest - save forest, no more illegal poaching, collection of NTFP, etc - provide energy saving devices: alternative energy to firewood, solar energy, biolaer, bio gas, better processing methods for crops) What could be alternative ways of income? - best to improve plantations and NTFP: higher valuation of products (own processing, packing, labeling - direct selling Additional Do you have contact/exchange with other - No Why? VFC’s? Could be helpful, to share experience

Interview number 8 Name of audio file Khelasi_SHG_29_11_17 Date of recording 29.11.17 Place of recording Kelasi (Bedthi CR), Karnataka Duration of recording Interviewed person Group interview with SHG members (Adishakti & Durgadevi SHG), belonging to Siddi (Scheduled tribe) Interviewer Mrs. Lisa Andresen Date of transcription 30.04.2018 Transcription rules Summary transcription (nach Karbach)

Topic Question Answer Comments General How many members are you? (Women & 11 + 10 members 8 women

217 information, men)? attended Organization of the SHG meeting Since when does SHG exist? Since 7 years How many NTFP/ which are most important? Different vegetables production, Vaatehulli, Shegekai, Kokam, Honey, Uppage, Cinnamon sold through VFC - 10 % of income (3000 – 5000 IRS/years/person) About How to decide, where to spend the money - 1 president, monthly one meeting plantations and that you earn with plantations? distribution of How to deal with conflict of interests of benefit different members? Problems of How does cooperation with Forest - no direct contact, only through VFC implementation Department work? of SHG Conservation Do you know about Bedthi conservation no reserves reserve? Do you know about NGO’s working in the - TEED (this is not working in conservational field, more on economic benefit area? for minorities)

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Annex 5: List of places visited

These places are rough indications, because the survey was conducted all over within the surroundings of these places.

Bedthi CR Aghanashini CR 1 Chappramane Dodmane 2 Gudalli Kattlekan 3 Hebbarmane Kodigadde 4 Halgi Baile Kudegod 5 Hosalligadde Medhini 6 Kalagadde Kanchigadde Morse 7 Kelasi Nilkund 8 Magod Torme 9 Mavinagadde Upplegatte 10 Mensi 11 Mensimane 12 Sampigemane 13 Tattigadde Table 17: Visited places

Annex 6: Code plan of variables

Code plan:

Part A. Individual perception of respective conservation reserve and surrounding landscape concerning livelihood and biosphere Var. Variable Abbreviati Unit Var_typ no on (Messniv e eau) Respondent ID resp_id string 1 Nominal Belonging to which conservation area? (1= Bedthi; 2= cons_res numeric Aghanashini) 2 Nominal Do you appreciate Nature (includes cool climate; ap_nat numeri biodiversity) most about the landscape, you are living c in? (1= yes; 0= no) 3 Nominal Do you appreciate Touristic attractions most about ap_touri numeri the landscape, you are living in? (1= yes; 0= no) c 4 Nominal 5 Do you appreciate Agricultural suitability most in the ap_agri Nominal numeri

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landscape you are living in? (1= yes; 0= no) c Do you Do you appreciate Perennial water source ap_water numeri most about the landscape, you are living in? (1= yes; c 0= no) 6 Nominal Do you Do you appreciate Sacred groves most about ap_grove numeri the landscape, you are living in? (1= yes; 0= no) c 7 Nominal Do you appreciate Forest products most about the ap_fp numeri landscape, you are living in? (1= yes; 0= no) c 8 Nominal How high is your interest in the nature around your int_nat numeri home? (999= no answer; 1= no interest; 2= rather c 9 low; 3= medium; 4= rather high; 5= very high) Metrisch To which extend does your livelihood depend on the dep_ntfp numeri natural resources from the area around your home? c (999= skipped; 1= very low; 2= rather low; 3= medium; 4= rather high; 5= very high), see also: To which extend does your livelihood depend on the natural resources from the area around your home? (0= no answer; 1= max. 20%; 2= 20 - 50%; 3= 50-80%; 4= above 80 %) (nicht in SPSS) 10 [dep_perc; numeric], not included in SPSS yet. Ordinal Are you harvesting Non-Timber-Forest-Products har_ntfp numeri 11 (NTFP)? (1= Yes; 0= No) Nominal c How do you harvest NTFP? (1= Traditional harvesting harv_ho numeri 12 methods; 2= conventional/unsustainable) w Nominal c Which NTFP do you collect? (1= Uppage; 2= Shegekai; Wh_col numeri 3= Soapnut; 4= Rattan; 5= Bamboo; 6= Echalu; 7= c Vaatehulli; 8= Kokum; 9= Rampatre; 10= Honey; 11= 12.2 Spices) Nominal Do you collect Uppage (Malabar tamarind)? (1= yes; 0= col_up numeri 13 no) Nominal c Do you collect Shegekai (Acacia sinuata)? (1= yes; 0= col_sheg numeri 14 no) Nominal c Do you collect Soapnut (Sapindus emarginatus) ? (1= col_soap numeri 15 yes; 0= no) Nominal c Do you collect Rattan/Cane (Calamus sp.)? (1= yes; 0= col_rat numeri 16 no) Nominal c Do you collect Bamboo? (1= yes; 0= no) col_bam numeri 17 b Nominal c Do you collect Echalu (Phoenix sylvestris), engl: Silver col_echa numeri 18 Date Palm? (1= yes; 0= no) Nominal c Do you collect Vaatehuli (Artocarpus lakoocha)? (1= col_vat numeri 19 yes; 0= no) Nominal c Do you collect Kokum (Garcinia indica)? (1= yes; 0= no) col_koku numeri 20 Nominal c Do you collect Rampatre (Myristica patua)? (1= yes; 0= col_ram numeri 21 no) p Nominal c Do you collect Honey? (1= yes; 0= no) col_hon numeri 22 Nominal c Do you collect others (Spices, Amla, Cinnamon, Gloves, col_spic numeri 23 Medical leaves, Pepper, etc? (1= yes; 0= no) Nominal c 24 Do you collect NTFP for Food- and Household food_hh Nominal numeri

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purposes? (1= yes; 0= no) c Do you collect NTFP for Commercial purposes? (1= yes; commer numeri 25 0= no) ce Nominal c Do you collect NTFP for Medical purposes? (1= yes; 0= medical numeri 26 no) Nominal c Do you collect NTFP for Agricultural purposes? (1= yes; agric numeri 27 0= no) Nominal c Do you sell your NTFP through direct sale? (1= yes; 0= dir_sale numeri 28 no)? Nominal c Do you sell your NTFP through mediators? (1= yes; 0= med_sal numeri 29 no)? e Nominal c Do you sell your NTFP through a cooperative society cop_sale numeri 30 (VFC)? (1= yes; 0= no)? Nominal c Does a VFC exist in your village? (1= yes; 0= no; 999= no vfc_ex numeri 31 answer) Nominal c Do you collect firewood? (1= yes; 0= no) firewood numeri 32 Nominal c Do you collect firewood for cooking purposes? (1= yes; fw_cook numeri 33 0= no) Nominal c Do you collect firewood for washing purposes? (1= yes; fw_wash numeri 34 0= no) Nominal c Do you collect firewood for NTFP processing? (1= yes; fw_ntfp numeri 35 0= no) Nominal c Do you use energy saving devices? (1= yes; 0= no) en_save numeri 36 Nominal c Do you use solar-energy devices? (1= yes; 0= no) solar numeri 37 Nominal c Do you use a Water-boiler or an electric stove? (1= yes; boi_stov numeri 38 0= no) Nominal c Do you use an Astra-dryer? (1= yes; 0= no) astra numeri 39 Nominal c Do you use Biogas? (1= yes; 0= no) biogas numeri 40 Nominal c Do you have access to LPG (governmental supported lpg numeri 41 Liquid gas-supply)? (1= yes; 0= no) Nominal c Do you have to report any damages caused by wildlife wl_dm numeri 42 species from the last year? (1= yes; 0= no) Nominal c Do you have to report damages caused by Monkeys dm_mo_ numeri 43 and Wild Boars in the last year? (1= yes; 0= no) wb Nominal c Do you have to report damages caused by Gaurs, dm_oth numeri Peacocks, Parakeet and other, in the last year? (1= yes; c 44 0= no) Nominal Do you have to report damages caused by wildlife dm_perc numeri species from the last year? (0= <10 %; 1=11-30%; 2= c 45 31-50%; 3= >50 %; 999= no answer) Metrisch Do you think Hydropower plants are the most serious th_hypo numeri threats towards natural environment surrounding your c 46 village? (1= yes; 0= no) Nominal Do you think monoculture plantations are the most th_mopl numeri serious threats towards natural environment c 47 surrounding your village? (1= yes; 0= no) Nominal Do you think harvesting NTFP are the most serious th_ntfp numeri 48 threats towards natural environment surrounding your Nominal c

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village? (1= yes; 0= no) Do you think illegal actions are the most serious threats th_illeg numeri towards natural environment surrounding your village? c 49 (1= yes; 0= no) Nominal Do you think, forest fires are the most serious threats th_fofi numeri towards natural environment surrounding your village? c 50 (1= yes; 0= no) Nominal Do you think, other threats towards natural th_oth numeri environment surrounding your village (Forest c Department because unscientific planting of trees and 51 fencing? (1= yes; 0= no) Nominal Do you think there are no threats at all towards the th_no numeri natural forest, or you don't know about any? (1= yes; c 52 0= no) Nominal Part B. Personal attitude towards conservation of respective areas Do you know about the declaration as “nature know_cr numeri conservation reserve” of the surrounding region in c 53 which you are living? (1= yes; 0= no) Nominal If yes, how did you get to know about it? (0= did not hknow_c numeri know; 1= News; 2= verbal/informal information; 3= VFC r c 54 meeting/government) Nominal If yes, to which extend are you aware of which legal know_le numeri consequences (empowerments/ restrictions) the g c designation as conservation reserve has for you, as an inhabitant of the area? (999= no answer; 0&1= not at all; 2= rather low; 3= medium; 4= rather high; 5= very 55 high) Ordinal What are the most important tasks from your point of cr_mana numeri view, for the conservation area-management in this g c conservation reserve? (999= no answer; 1= awareness raising about CR, Biodiversity and selfemployment; 2= more active FD (stop illegal activities; less corruption; less aquired land; ); 3= stop all activities in forest) See also: What should be done by cr management? 56 (nicht in SPSS); cr_maopn; string. Nominal Do you know the concept of Non Governmental know_n numeri 57 organisations? (1= yes; 0= no) go Nominal c Do you know about any NGO or other Organisation ngo_uk numeri (names of persons) related to nature conservation in c Utthara Kannada? (1= yes; 0= no) [See also: 58 Do you know any names of NGO’s ? ngo_name; string] Nominal How useful do you think, NGO's can be for nature ngo_use numeri conservation of this area? (999= no answer; 0/1= not c usefull; 2= rather useless; 3=medium; 4= rather useful; 59 5= very useful) Ordinal Does it have any meaning to you, to live near a “Nature mean_cr numeri conservation reserve”? (999= no answer; 1= not at all; c 60 2= rather low; 3= medium; 4= rather high; 5= very high) Ordinal Does the declaration as “Nature conservation reserve” imp_cr numeri cause impacts on your everyday life? (999= no answer; c 61 0= no impact; 1= yes, positive; -1= yes, negatively) Ordinal From your perspective, for the development of your bas_infr numeri 62 village should be focused on development of basic Nominal c

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infrastructure (Electricity; Water)? (1= yes; 0= no) From your perspective, for the development of your road numeri village should be focused on development of better c 63 road network? (1= yes; 0= no) Nominal From your perspective, for the development of your intern numeri village should be focused on development of better c 64 internet infrastructure? (1= yes; 0= no) Nominal From your perspective, for the development of your employ numeri village should be focused on development of more c 65 employment-offers? (1= yes; 0= no) Nominal From your perspective, for the development of your educ numeri village should be focused on development of better c 66 education systems? (1= yes; 0= no) Nominal From your perspective, for the development of your health numeri village should be focused on development of better c 67 health system (mobile clinic)? (1= yes; 0= no) Nominal From your perspective, for the development of your frtiact numeri village should be focused on development of an higher c number of free-time activities (library bus, cinema)? 68 (1= yes; 0= no) Nominal From your perspective, for the development of your cult_of numeri village should be focused on development of a higher c 69 number of cultural offers? (1= yes; 0= no) Nominal From your perspective, for the development of your alt_inco numeri village should be focused on development of c 70 alternative source of income? (1= yes; 0= no) Nominal From your perspective, for the development of your sus_ruse numeri village should be focused on development of c sustainable resource use (renewable energy, etc.)? (1= 71 yes; 0= no) Nominal Are you interested in taking actively part in decision- join_cc numeri making for conservation work and conservation c management? Become member of Community- 72 committee? (1= yes; 0= no) Nominal Could you imagine participating in some of the particip numeri following tasks? (0= no answer; 1= village- c representative; 2= publicity work: 3= working group; 4= eco-tourism; 5= contact-person/field work; 6= 73 monitoring) Nominal If there would be workshops provided, would you like w_susus numeri to learn more about sustainable resource use in NTFP- e c 74 collection & agriculture)? (0= no answer; 1= yes) Nominal If there would be workshops provided, would you like w_sempl numeri to learn more about self employment (NTFP-valuation; c 75 alternative ways of income)? (0= no ; 1= yes) Nominal If there would be workshops provided, would you like w_nacon numeri to learn more about nature conservation (0= no ; 1= s c 76 yes) Nominal Part C. Socio-demographic background What is your age? age numeri 77 Metrisch c Gender (1= female; 0= male) gender numeri 78 Nominal c 79 Which Community are you belonging to? (0= other; 1= commun Nominal numeri

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Kunbi; 2=Gauli; 3= Havyaka Brahmans; 4= Khare c vokkals; 5= Siddi; 6= Naik; 7= Hasan; 8= Haslar; 9= Maharati)/new: 6,7,8,9= other] Belonging to Havyaka Brahmans? (1= yes; 0= no) com_hb Nominal Belonging to Khare vokkals? (1= yes; 0= no) com_kv Nominal Belonging to Siddi? (1= yes; 0= no) com_sid Nominal Belonging to Naik? (1= yes; 0= no) com_nai k Nominal Belonging to Hasan? (1= yes; 0= no) com_has a Nominal Belonging to Haslar? (1= yes; 0= no) com_has l Nominal Belonging to Maharati? (1= yes; 0= no) com_ma ha Nominal Do you own private land? (1= yes; 0= no) priv_l numeri 80 Nominal c If yes, how much Land do you own? Also if not private quant_l numeri 81 but leased land from government (acres) Metrisch c If yes, how much Land do you own? (0= no land; 1= <2 quant_c 81.2 acres; 2= 2-4 acres; 3=4,5-6 acres; 4=>6 acres) a Ordinal For how long are you living in this area? (In years) dur_hab numeri 82 Metrisch c What field are you working in? (0= no answer; 1= occup numeri Settled agriculture ; 2= Cattle-breeding for dairy c products; 3= Gathering of Non-Timber-Forest-Products; 83 4= Landless Labour; 5= Government Nominal Education, for how long did you go to school? In years dur_edu numeri 84 Metrisch c Education level (0= never; 1= primary educ; 2= higher edu_lev numeri 85 primary edu.; 3= higher educ.) Ordinal c What is the size of the household you are living in (how size_hh numeri 86 many members are living in the household) Metrisch c Are you an elected member of Grama Panchayat? (1= mem_gp numeri 87 yes; 0= no) Nominal c How high is your yearly income? (categorised) (999= no y_incom numeri answer; 1= below 25.000; 2= 25.000 - 50.000; 3= e c 88 50.000-1 Lakh; 4= 1 -5 Lakh; 5= above 5 Lakh) Ordinal Calculated Variables Attitude towards CR (-5 – 25, auf Basis von Perc_cr numeri “mean_cr”*”imp_cr”), 0-values und “no answers” c 89 excluded in “mean_cr” metrisch Age categorised (1=Young (18-35); 2= Medium (36-50); Age_cat numeri 90 3= Senior (51-70) Ordinal c Attitude towards CR categorized (0-2=Indifferent; 2,1- Perc_cat numeri 91 4= glad; higher= Very glad) ordinal c Dependency on NTFP categorized Dp_ntfp numeri 92 c ordinal c Community summarised to: 1=others Commun numeri (other;Kunbi;Gauli; Naik;Hasan;Haslar;Maharati); 2= _2 c 93 Havyaka Brahmans; 3= Khare vokkals; 4= Siddi nominal ‘Non-consumptive use of forest’ [ Syntax: COMPUTE non_con numeri non_cons = biogas = 1 OR astra = 1 OR fw_cook = 0 OR s c 94 fw_wash = 0 .

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EXECUTE .] 0= ‘consumptive’; 1= ‘non consumptive; Other communities: ‘commun’ recoded in this. All, but com_oth numeri 95 HB; KV; SIDDI are in ‘others’ nominal c Table 18: Code plan of variables

Annex 7: Descriptive statistics

Full table including all data of household survey, see excel file “Orig_Data”

Descriptive data

Aghanash Bedthi ini CR, n = Total CR, n = 24 36 stand standard standard ard sum M sum M sum M deviation deviation deviat ion Mean age 47,54 12,43 43,5 10,17 46,17 11,69 (metric) 66,7 52,8 60 Gender (%) Male (nominal) Female 33,3 47,2 40 Mean size of households 4,63 2,76 6 4,51 5 3,58 (no. of people) (metric) Illiterate 29,2 0 11,7 Primary Schoo (7 33,3 52,8 45

Level of years) education Higher Primary (%) 25 33,3 30 (ordinal) School (12 years) Higher Education 12,5 13,9 13,3 (15 years) Duration of education, 6,25 5,24 8,97 3,32 7,88 4,36 years (metric) Community Havyaka 33,3 16,7 23,3 (%) Brahman

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(nominal) Khare 0 19,4 11,7 Vokkal Naik 0 16,7 10

Haslar 0 8,3 5

Maharati 0 5,6 3,3

Scheduled Tribes 37,5 0 15

(Siddi) Other 29,2 33,3 31,7 Duration of living in 44 15,67 36,83 12,24 39,7 14,04 this area (metric) Elected member of Gram 12,5 8,3 0,1 Panchayat (%) (nominal) Yes No 12,5 0 5 answer < 25.000 33,3 2,8 6,7 (1) 25.001 - 16,7 38,9 36,7 50.000 (2) Yearly 50.001 - income (%), 100.000 12,5 22,2 20 (ordinal) (3) 100.001 - 500.000 12,5 27,8 21,7

(4) > 500.000 12,5 8,3 10 (5) Yearly income, Categorie 2,76 1,30 3 1,07 2,91 1,15

(ordinal) s (1 - 5) Owning private 41,7 80,6 65 land (%) (nominal) Yes Quantity of farmed land 2,52 2,20 2,29 2,63 2,38 2,45 (acres)(met ric) No 0 2,8 1,7 answer Profession Settled (%) agricultur 75 83,3 80

(nominal) e Labour 8,3 5,6 6,7 work

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Mainly Selling 0 2,8 1,7

NTFP Cattle 0 2,8 1,7 breeding Governm ental 16,7 2,8 8,3

Work Collecting NTFP 100 100 100 (nominal) Yes No 0 5,6 3,3 answer Very low 20,8 2,8 10 Economic (1) dependenc Rather 25 5,6 13,3 y on NTFP low (2) 2,63 1,25 3,7 0,96 3,31 1,23 (resp. own Medium 37,5 22,2 28,3 estim. ) in (3) % (ordinal) Rather 4,2 41,7 26,7 high (4) Very high 12,5 22,2 18,3 (5) Garcinia gummi- 50 97,2 78,3 gutta (Uppage) Acacia sinuata 66,7 33,3 46,3

(Shegekai) Sapindus emarginat 79,2 36,1 53,3 us (Soapnut) Calamus sp. 29,2 58,3 46,7 Which (Rattan/C NTFP ane) collected 25 8,3 15 Bamboo (nominal) Phoenix sylvestris 12,5 22,2 18,3

(Echalu) Artocarpu s lakoocha 87,5 80,6 83,3

(Vaatehuli ) Garcinia indica 79,2 72,2 75

(Kokum) Myristica patua 45,8 61,1 55

(Rampatr

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e) 37,5 66,7 55 Honey Others 41,7 52,8 48,3 (spices) Food- and househol 95,8 100 98,3 Purpose of d collecting Commerci 66,7 88,9 80 NTFP al (nominal) 87,5 72,2 78,3 Medical 62,5 69,4 66,7 Agricultue Direct 16,7 2,8 8,3 sale Ways of 37,5 75 60 marketing Mediators (nominal) Cooperati ve society 29,2 30,6 30 (VFC) VFC exists in village? 45 38,2 40,7

(nominal) Yes Collecting firewood 87,5 97,2 93,3 (FW)(nomin al) Yes Cooking 75 80,6 78,3 Purpose of Washing (clothes, 91,7 100 96,7 fw- collection body) (nominal) NTFP- processin 8,3 94,4 60

g None 58,3 44,4 50 Solar- 37,5 36,1 36,7 energy Electric 16,7 2,8 8,3 stove Use of Astra firewood- 16,7 25 21,7 dryer saving 25 41,7 35 devices Biogas (nominal) LPG (governm ental 58,3 63,9 61,7 supported Liquid gas) No 30,6 36,7 Economic Answer 45,8 loss due to < 10 % (0) 33,3 2,8 1,7 wilflife 1,69 0,95 1,48 0,65 1,55 0,76 11 - 30 % damage in 33,3 33,3 (1) 4,2 % (ordinal) 31 - 50 % 16,7 30,6 20

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(2) > 50 % (3) 45,8 2,8 8,3 Knowledge about Conservatio 54,2 44,4 48,3 n Reserve (CR) in % (nominal) Yes Did not know 45,8 52,8 50

about CR News (Radio, How did 15,4 5,9 10 Newspap you get to er) know Verbal about the informati CR? 46,2 23,5 33,3 on (nominal) (informal) VFC Meeting/ 38,5 70 56,7 Governm ent No Answer 16,7 19,4 18,3

(0) Nothing 65 38,9 55,1 Knowledge at all (1) about Rather legacies 20 3,4 10,2 1,57 (SD less (2) 1,72 regarding 1.72) Medium CR? In % 0 34,5 20,4 (3) (nominal) Rather 0 10,3 6,1 high (4) Very high 15 3,4 8,2 (5) Do you know the concept of 62,5 61,1 61,7 NGO's? (nominal) Yes Do you know any 62,5 47,2 53,3 NGO in UK? (nominal) Yes How useful No 50 55,6 53,3 for nature Answer conservatio Not 25 0 10,7 n are NGO's usefull (1) 3,86 (SD 1,43 in this Rather 1.43) 0 0 0 area? (Own useless (2) estimation) Medium 0 50 28,6 , In (3)

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%(ordinal) Rather 16,7 6,3 10,7 usefull (4) Very 58,3 43,8 50 usefull (5) No 33,3 8,4 21,7 Answer Very low meaning 0 0 0

(1) Rather low Meaning of 0 0 0 meaning living near (2) CR, In % Medium (ordinal) 14,3 3 6,4 (3) Rather high 21,4 6,1 10,6 meaning (4) Very high 64,3 90 83 (5) No 12,5 0 5 Answer No Impacts of 57,1 33,3 42,1 impacts CR on Yes, everyday positive 38,1 63,9 54,4 life? In % impacts (nominal) Yes, negative 4,8 2,8 1,8 impacts Appreceati 100 52,8 71,1 Nature on Touristic 4,2 2,8 3,3 surroundin attration g landscape Agricultur for, In %: al 25 25 25

(nominal) suitability Water availabilit 25 55,6 43,3

y Sacred 0 16,7 10 groves Forest 8,3 13,9 11,7 products No 0 0 0 answer 0 0 0 How high is Very low Rather your 0 0 0 interest in low nature? In 8,3 13,9 11,7 Medium % (metric) Rather 12,5 2,8 6,7 high Very high 79,2 83,3 81,7

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No 33,3 41,7 38,3 Threats Hydropow 4,2 13,9 10 erplants Monocult ure 58,3 8,3 28,3 What are Plantation the worst s Harvestin threats for 33,3 11,1 20 nature? In g of NTFP % (nominal) Illegal activities 25 13,9 18,3 (poaching etc) Forest 25 16,7 20 Fire Others 25 2,8 11,7 No 33,4 83,3 63,3 Answer Awarenes s rising (about Most 62,5 8,3 22,4 nature important conservati tasks for on) conservatio More n reserve active manageme Forest 18,8 5,6 8,6 nt? In % Departme (nominal) nt Stop all activities 18,8 2,8 6,9 in the Forest No 0 0 0 Answer Basic infrastruct ure 54,2 44,4 48,3

(Electricit What is y/Water) needed Road most for constructi 91,7 75 81,7 developme on nt of your Internet village? In infrastruct 50 27,8 36,7

% (nominal) ure Employm 37,5 2,8 16,7 ent offers Education 20,8 13,9 16,7 systems Health 25 25 25 system

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Freetime 8,3 0 3,3 activities Cultural 12,5 0 5 offers Alternativ e sources 25 27,8 26,7

of income Facilities for 37,5 13,9 23,3 renewabl e energy Interest in participatin g conservatio 91,7 88,9 90 n manageme nt (nominal) Yes No 29,2 50 41,7 Answer Sustainabl e resource- use Important 20,8 27,8 25 (agricultur topic for e & NTFP- workshops, Harvestin in % g) (nominal) Self employm 16,7 11,1 13,3

ent Nature conversati 33,3 11,1 20 on Table 19: Descriptive data

Annex 7: Analytic statistic and SPSS

Conservation Knowledge about CR Reserve no yes Total Bedthi CR Level of never 6 1 7 educatio Primary School 1 7 8 n Higher Primary School 2 4 6

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Higher Education (Ba- 2 1 3 Degree) Total 11 13 24 Aghanashini CR Level of Primary School 12 7 19 educatio Higher Primary School 5 7 12 n Higher Education (Ba- 3 2 5 Degree) Total 20 16 36 Table 20: Knowledge about CR within levels of education

Non-consumptive users of forest no yes Total communities others Count 17 13 30 summarised % within communities 56,7% 43,3% 100,0% summarised Havyaka Brahman Count 5 9 14 % within communities 35,7% 64,3% 100,0% summarised Khare Vokkal Count 0 7 7 % within communities ,0% 100,0% 100,0% summarised Siddi Count 8 1 9 % within communities 88,9% 11,1% 100,0% summarised Total Count 30 30 60 % within communities 50,0% 50,0% 100,0% summarised Table 21: Crosstabulation of communities-belonging and type of forest resource-use (consumptive/ non-consumptive)

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