2020, 18, 3: 47-57 ISSN 1733-1218 DOI: http://doi.org/10.21697/seb.2020.18.3.06

Moral Aspects of Some Sports

Moralne aspekty niektórych sportów walki

Jacek Meller Institute of Philosophy, Cardinal Stefan Wyszyński University in Warsaw, Poland ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0468-0168 • [email protected] Received: 25 Jul 2020; Revised: 20 Aug 2020; Accepted: 24 Aug 2020

Abstract: Nowadays, sport is very popular as a way of spending free time, taking care of one’s health and physical condition, as well as being an entertainment worth watching; sport is also judged positively, when it comes to moral aspects. However, there are disciplines that may cause doubts, because of the possible risk for the contestants (e.g. extreme sports), especially combat sports. The purpose of this article is to present an ethical analysis of full-contact combat disciplines. Their history shows a process of gradual brutalisation, in antiquity from battles during the Greek Olympics, to competitions in Roman arenas; in the modern age from regulations introduced in the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century, to formation or restoration of combat, where almost no rules exist. Rules that apply in modern combat sports, lead to aggressive behaviour towards rivals, and give an advantage to the person who, not only strikes more technically correct blows or uses grips, but also reduces the opponent’s ability to fight further. It leads to serious injuries whose consequences remain until the end of a contestant’s life and make him a disabled person as time passes. Aggression that seriously harms a contestant, makes it impossible to morally excuse those sports.

Keywords: philosophy of sport, ethics of sport, combat sports, , mixed marital arts

Streszczenie: We współczesnym świecie sport cieszy się popularnością jako forma spędzania wolnego czasu, dbania o zdrowie i kondycję oraz widowisko będące godziwą rozrywką; jest też oceniany pozytywnie pod względem moralnym. Pewne wątpliwości budzą jednak dyscypliny niosące większe ryzyko dla uczestników zawodów (sporty ekstremalne), zwłaszcza zaś sporty walki. Celem artykułu jest etyczna analiza dyscyplin walki pełnokontaktowej. Ich historia pokazuje proces stopniowej brutalizacji, w starożytności od walki podczas greckich igrzysk po zmagania na rzymskich arenach; w nowożytności od regulacji wprowadzanych w XIX i na początku XX w. po powstawanie lub przywracanie walk, w których reguł niemal nie ma. Zasady, które obowiązują we współczesnych sportach walki kierują do agresywnego zachowania wobec rywala i dają przewagę temu, który nie tylko zadaje więcej technicznie poprawnych ciosów czy stosuje chwytów, ale przez to realnie zmniejsza zdolność przeciwnika do dalszej walki. Prowadzi to do poważnych kontuzji, których skutki trwają do końca życia zawodnika czyniąc go z postępem czasu osobą niepełnosprawną. Agresja czyniąca poważną szkodę zawodnikowi sprawia, że sportów tych nie można moralnie usprawiedliwić.

Słowa kluczowe: filozofia sportu, etyka sportu, sporty walki, boks, mieszane sztuki walki Jacek Meller 48

Introduction and representativeness for all the above- Sport as a spectacle that arouses great emo- mentioned disciplines. Strictly ethical tions became an important element of mass considerations will be preceded by the culture in the last half-century. Sport events presentation of the history and principles attract millions of viewers – locally, in the of these sports, which will allow to extract stands, as well as globally, via media. The their essence. number of active participants of events that 1. History are intended for contestants in different age and on different levels is growing as well. It is difficult to find a moment in history, in Even though there are many problems of which martial art became a sport discipline. moral nature connected with the increasing Perhaps, it was connected with a necessity participation of sport in social life, especially of keeping combat readiness or efficiency with professionalization of this area of activ- in hunting – that is, systematic exercises, ity and far-reaching commercialization, fun- which in combination with the evolutionally damentally sport activity is judged positive. conditioned propensity to compete, resulted It serves the integral development of a per- in fighting training: with real effort and the son: his/her health, virtues formation, mak- possibility of indicating the winner, but not ing correct social relations or integration of leading to death or more serious injury to marginalized people and groups. participants. There is one exception from the funda- Testimonies of the existence of boxing mentally positive moral judgement of sport, fights in antiquity in the Middle East, bring especially cultivated as an amateur, and Babylonian and Egyptian finds: painted those are the so-called combat sports. Espe- plates and paintings in the derived tombs cially those combat sports, where a person from the 5th and 6th millennium B.C., depict- gains an advantage over the opponent (ref- ing first of all struggling boxers (The British eree points or a win before the passage of Museum 2020; Tour Egypt 2020). Egyptian regular time of the ) by striking blows images evidence the ludic character the na- – using only hands or all of limbs – as well ture of the presented scenes; in both cases, as by mixing blows and grips. Examples of however, the rules of the duel are unknown this are box, (Burmese box), muay nor the circumstances of this holding. Cus- thai (Thai box), -boxing, tom of fistfights in the Far East are con- and also ju-jitsu, mixed matrial arts (MMA) firmed by published in the middle of the 3rd or . Those disciplines, especially millennium BCE. in China, the rules of “art from mixed arts group, are becoming more reason.” and more popular: huge sports halls are More information about boxing and also full with fans and television transmissions pankration, that is a mix of boxing and attract many viewers who are ready to pay , archetype of modern MMA, in- extra (aside from a regular subscription) for clude written sources from Greece. In “Iliad” watching particular contests. Because of Homer described a competition that was a that, the interest of sponsors is increasing part of Patroclos’ funeral ceremonies; this which leads to contracting high salaries to competition included, first of all, cart race players, especially those who place on the and run, fistfight and wrestling, and highest positions in a particular federation. a duel with spears and swords. The fight was The aim of this article is to analyse brutal, and it could lead even to the death the moral aspect of combat sports. The of the contestant: Epejos, one of the con- focus will be on boxing (in amateur testants, threatens to “crush body and break and professional versions) and mixed bones” of the rival (Homer 1981, song XX- boxing (mixed marital arts, III). Fighting during the time of the Olym- MMA) – due to their greatest popularity pics organised at Olympia was not different. Moral Aspects of Some Combat Sports 49

Boxing was introduced to the competition happened thanks to James Figg, later called program in 688. BCE, and the rules were not “the father of boxing”, who transformed a fist complicated: it was allowed to hit the head fight from brutal violence to an equivalent and shoulders of the opponent, the duel con- of fencing requiring not only physical effort, tinued without interruption until one of the but also mind effort. From the mid of 18th rivals gave up or became unable to continue century (“London Prize Rules”) to the end the fight; the division into weight catego- of the 19th century regulations regarding ries was not known. For greater effect of the the battlefield, required gloves, time of the blows and to protect hands, players wrapped match, weight classes or counting a downed them with straps. A tie was not considered; competitor up to 10 seconds were formed. if after a long time the players weakened and As in the case of other sports, clubs and their the winner could not be selected, a proce- federations organizing regular competitions dure was carried out somewhat similar to a were created. Boxing went to the United penalty shootout: boxers struck each other States along with British migrants – and it after one blow, however, unable to defend was between the British and Americans that themselves. Forty years after boxing, pank- the first international duel was played at the ration was included to the program of the beginning of the 19th century. Boxing was Olympics – hand-to-hand combat in which not equally popular everywhere, it was even, only biting was prohibited, as well as attack like in Sweden, prohibited. It was introduced on the eyes. Just like in boxing, the duel to the set of Olympic disciplines thanks to continued without interruptions until com- Americans (1904 Games in St. Louis). plete exhaustion of the rival; deaths in the Nowadays, boxing is very popular and ring were not infrequent in both competi- is developing in two main trends: amateur tions. The Romans took over boxing from and professional (both in male and female Greek culture; introducing some changes version). As the names indicate, they differ over time: the players were less likely to from each other in administrative matters die on a ring (because the death of a box- (the method of financing players and com- er-slave meant the end of gaining income by petitions, other weight and age categories), his master), duel ended with a or but also in certain rules of fighting. surrender. On the other hand, metal pieces The change introduced in that severely injured the rival were attached in 2013 is worth mentioning here. From to the straps protecting the players’ hands. the beginning of the 1980s, players were At the National Museum in Rome, there is required to use protective helmets, now a stored, well-preserved bronze sculpture of this equipment is prohibited. This change the “Boxer of Quirinale” with thick leather is characteristic of the whole history of straps on the hands with visible metal rein- boxing. There are voices that speak about forcements (Arte e cultura 2020; Karpiński “gladiatorization” of this discipline, about 2015; Rodriguez 2009, 23-24). such changes that make the competition With the suppression of the Games in more spectacular, attract bigger and bigger 393, the history of ancient boxing ended. audience looking for strong emotions, but During the period of the Middle Ages and at the cost of exposing the competitors to the first part of the modern era fist fighting serious bodily injuries, often long-term was not an element of entertainment of the effects and even death. Competitions in upper classes. However, it was practiced as disciplines that are a speciality of small a fight of individuals or whole groups (e.g. national or regional groups are also inhabitants of different villages) during folk regionally watched: lethwei (Burmese games or periodical rituals. boxing), muay tai (Thai boxing), kick-boxing, Boxing came back as a sport discipline in taekwondo or ju-jitsu. the first half of the 18th century in England. It have gained enormous popularity in recent Jacek Meller 50 years, and fights without the use of gloves is knock-out; if it does not occur, referees are also prepared, which is more prone to score all the rounds. Rules include also the injury to the hit and striking (Lewicki 2020). remaining possibilities (International Boxing You can get the impression that a globalized Associations 2019, World Boxing Organisa- free market with the audience, media, tion 2020, 2020). promoters, and competition organizers A different order – if it has an assigned would gladly bring back fights of gladiators meaning – makes amateur boxing a techni- ready to die for fame and money. cal discipline, where the contestant’s task is 2. Fighting rules to show the skill of avoiding the rival’s blows and correct blows, but not necessar- Rules’ analysis of federation of amateur ily ones making him unable to continue the boxing (AIBA) and professional boxing fight. The kind of used gloves also indicates (WBC or WBO) allow to state that the rules that: amateur gloves make it harder to do a of the fight do not differ meaningfully. It knock-out because of their construction and can be seen, for example, in the catalogue weight, professional gloves make the knock- of prohibited behaviour on the ring of every out easier. organisation: it is prohibited to kick, bite, The rules regarding breaks between fights spit, hold, push, pull, attack lying person, hit are also important. Amateurs take part with head, , arm, open glove or wrist, in tournaments lasting several days, fight hit , in the back of the head a few during a short time; rules in and back. Scoring system was also unified, professional boxing impose a few weeks’ helmets are not used during any senior (or a longer) break between fights. In this competitions nowadays. context, professional boxing would definitely Fights of professionals and amateurs differ be seen as a strength discipline that brings in duration time (accordingly 12 and 3 three- down the contestant’s goal to eliminating the minute rounds). Important difference is a rival with even one, properly struck blow. possibility of “enumeration up till eight” of As it may seem, this difference in practice contestant, who after a strong hit did not fall, does not mean anything; amateurs also aim but for a moment lost the ability of taking at the quickest elimination of the rival and up the fight (knock-down). This procedure in sports’ records of winning duels always cannot be carried out on a professional bring to the fore those who ended before ring (International Boxing Association 2019, the regular time. Both in professional boxing World Boxing Organisation 2020, World and amateur one, contestants try to strike Boxing Council 2020). the opponent those kinds of blows that will In amateur boxing, the basic way of win- make him unable to continue the fight. ning is performing as many strikes, in ac- 3. Injuries and contusions cordance with the regulations, as possible towards the opponent. Those strikes are Paraphrasing a well-known saying, one may counted, rated and scored by referees (WP). conclude that “only the one who does not do There is a possibility of surrender of the op- sports, does not get injured”. Indeed, above- ponent, surrender him by his second (ABD), average physical activity leads to different acknowledging the contestant as unable to damages of body parts used in particular further fight by the referee (RSC, RSC-I) and discipline, but also different systems disqualification (DSQ). The last mentioned disturbances (e.g. that of the circulatory is knock-out (KO), which means striking or the nervous system). Medical problems such a strong blow to make the contest- might be connected with single events ant unable to continue the fight for 10 sec- during sports practise but also with long onds. In professional boxing the order is lasting loads of parts or body systems. Sport reversed: the basic way to choose a winner researchers point out disciplines that may Moral Aspects of Some Combat Sports 51 cause injuries to a greater or smaller extent. belt, but such injuries do not involve any It is connected with the nature of activities threat to life and do not have such unfa- (getting speed, being at height) and with a vourable long-term effects as those risked direct interaction with the opponent. The by the contestant who is being struck. It is player, either professional or amateur, must worth mentioning that the equipment used take into consideration the possibility of by contestants: gloves, bands and band- health damage, which sometimes excludes ages protects mostly the one who strikes a him or her from doing a particular discipline, blow. His opponent is exposed firstly to skin as well as other types of activities, for a abrasions, suggillations (colloquially called longer period of time. “bruises”) and also breaking the skin on the Injuries in sport may have very different brow bone or the zygomatic arch. Although causes. The possibility of injury may they are not qualified as severe injuries, pro- increase because of external factors towards fuse bleeding from a brow bone may prevent the contestant: mistakes in conducting the contestant from further fight. Character- classes, insufficient technical security, lack istic of boxers and other martial arts fighters in organisation or unfavourable conditions. is the so called “cauliflower ear” – a distor- Behaviour of a sportsman, his inadequate tion of the ear lobe caused by one major or preparation, tiredness, and effects of many smaller injuries of the cartilage that previous injuries, overstrain and functional builds this organ. Broken bones are more changes in his body may contribute to the serious injuries; boxers are exposed to the increasing number of unwanted events injury of the jawbone, other bones of the fa- during training and contests. In most cial skeleton, or, less frequently, ribs or fore- disciplines, the first place among the arms. Spine fracture may occur as a result causes of injuries befalls the behaviour of of falling out of the ring and falling from contestants and methodical mistakes in its height. Also, the boxer’s internal organs conducting classes – it is not different in are exposed – especially the ones on the ab- boxing. The cause of over 30% injuries in dominal side of the torso – the liver, spleen, general, and over 60% injuries that happened pancreas and stomach. Because punching in during the fight, was the behaviour of the the back is forbidden, kidneys are relatively contestant. Lack of technical security causes seldom injured; the contestant who attacks around 25% of boxers’ injuries, incorrect this way may be disqualified. methodology of conducting classes causes The most important for the contestant’s about 19%. Taking also into consideration safety are blows inflicted in the area of that accidents happen more often to less the heart and the head. The first one may advanced sportsmen, one may point out cause cardiac standstill (by ventricular basic directions of working on decreasing fibrillation), which is a condition that may number of injuries: constant improvement threaten life directly. The second, brings of training contestants, trainers and other immediate and short-lasting effects, like members of preparation team, as well as temporary balance disability and short- referees who control the course of the term loss of consciousness or concussion. competition. Those conditions are the cause of ending During a fist fight, the contestants from the fight before time (KO). Blows repeated both sides of boxer’s gloves are exposed to many times, not even so strong as to lead injury, however the striking one is in a much to a knock-out, bring long-term effects, better position. He is, of course, exposed to connected with cumulative microdamage hand injuries, especially that of the thumb of the nervous tissue. Over time, symptoms and metacarpal bone and wrist as well as, to of traumatic encephalopathy, sometimes a lesser extent, to injuries of muscles, ten- called “boxer dementia”, occur and increase. dons and joints around arm and shoulder Its symptoms in the physical sphere are Jacek Meller 52 stiffness and slowing down movements and pen by one knock-out, short suspension of speech; in the psychic sphere they include combat capability three times in one round lack of emotional balance with aggression (only in amateur boxing, the referee counts episodes, troubles with memory and slowing the contestant up to eight) or causing a con- down of the thought process. Disturbances tusion, which is not connected with loss of of consciousness, problems with motor consciousness, but makes further duel im- coordination which unable a person to do possible or too dangerous for the contestant. basic activities, parkinsonism, will occur It is important to emphasize that this situ- in the most advanced phase (Ptaszyńska- ation cannot be changed by regulations of Sarosiek et al. 2010, 173). amateur box, which in the first place links In the description, quantitative and com- a victory with points advantage: knock-out parative statistics were omitted on purpose: is rewarded with a victory before the end of how many and what kind of injuries, acci- the regular time, in boxer’s biography those dents happen to contestants of different victories are pointed out separately as an disciplines. The reason of that is not only important element of his life achievement complication of those comparisons where which makes them a desired aim. the popularity of particular discipline, num- 4. Aggression ber of contests, time spent of trainings, etc. must be included. The important part is not There are many motives of people’s interest the fact of getting injuries itself, not even life in sports activity and they all grasp the threat but a particular regularity. essence of it. According to the ludic It is emphasized that an injury, even conception this essence means selfless fun, if allowed, is beyond the intention of a according to the perfectionist conception – sportsman; it is something unwanted and it means fulfilling aspiration of individuals accidental. A contestant, who causes an in- and societies for perfection (not only as jury of the opponent by behaving against the regards body efficiency but also mental rules, is punished – even with disqualifica- faculties, ability to undertake regular effort, tion. Rules, actions of organisers and refer- perseverance, teamwork skills and copying ees during contests, and also the behaviour with failure), and even spiritual faculties, of contestants should protect themselves e.g. holiness. Educational interpretation and their rivals from injuries; young adepts is close to the second conception: sport are taught methods of preventing injuries, is a tool of shaping a man, especially a there are also actions taken for the equip- young one, develop in him features that are ment not to cause danger. desired in society. In the context of combat Overview of boxer fights’ rules imply that sports agonistic interpretation should be in the box, especially a professional one, and distinguished. According to it, the essence also among other combat sports, the aim is of sport is to fight: with time and space, with to eliminate the opponent, make him unable the opposed forces of nature, with one’s to continue the fight. It is not like, for exam- own weakness, and also with a particular ple, in wrestling, where the defeated contest- personal opponent, who has to be defeated ant (knocked-out or immobile) can still fight, by a stronger, faster, more efficient and but is forbidden by the contest rules; the resilient person… However, it is a special rules of the boxing duel (also MMA, , fight, different from the one taking place kyokushin, …) lead to physical during war. Its purpose is not to physically elimination of the rival, making him una- eliminate the opponent or deprive him of ble to fight even if he wanted1. It may hap- After doing a by which he knocks down the opponent, the instructor inflicts fake blows 1 A good illustration here might be an instruc- to the lying person (https://www.youtube.com/ tional video with a “throw at the head” in MMA. watch?v=wtKfbH_fa5k). Moral Aspects of Some Combat Sports 53

access to goods important for life, but only advantage, even faster run or cycling may be to prove one’s superiority in a particular called “an attack”. field (Judycki 2019; Stryczek 2011, 58-60; The word “aggression” occurs very often in Kowalczyk 2010, 24-31). Transformation of reports of sports events, and it is not only such a destructive action into sport takes in live ones which involve stronger emo- place thanks to creating and following the tions. Such expressions as “sport aggres- rules, which protect players and prevent sion” (or sport anger), “aggressive defence” them from getting hurt in ways other or speaking about aggressive ride of a driver than depriving them of victory and the or cyclist, and finally, directly about aggres- connected benefits (if it may be qualified sive contestants of different disciplines are as getting hurt). The unwritten and hard to very frequent. The word “aggression” re- specify “fair play rule” is also important; it places “risky behaviour”, “activeness”, “read- not only requires following current game iness to maximum effort”, “intransigence”. rules but also speaks to honour which for This way aggression gains a positive mean- example will not allow to use a coincident ing, it is included among those qualities of unfavourable for the opponent (Kosiewicz the sportsman and his activity which bring 2003, 326; Stryczek 2011, 123-136). him success (Kalina 2007, 158-160; Żu- It is worth mentioning that sport arenas kowski 2007, 231). Language is a living real- were and still are considered as a substitute ity, changing in a way difficult to control and for a real fight between countries or political lead, it is not known, if a presented phenom- blocks. The clearest example here is perhaps enon will be strengthened. One may wonder the rivalry of sportsmen from opposite sides about the presence of aggression (in tradi- of “the iron curtain” lead and supported tional understanding) in sport. Subject of by state authorities. On the other hand, this thought will be sport in the strict sense, sports events may be a spark that ignites especially considered here combat sports, smoldering conflicts (as it was with the so- without serious problems connected with called “football war” between Honduras and aggression around sport: societies of so- Salvador in 1969) or become a background called “pseudo-fans” or criminality growing for acts of violence towards the “different around sport. ones” – from different district, religion or Online Polish language dictionary PWN social group, whose sign is supposed to be a defines aggression as: “hostile, offensive scarf in colours of other team (Ostleroff 1976, behaviour; also: strong negative emotions 260; Lipiec 2007, 171). causing this behaviour” or “armed attack Not judging the rightness of the agonistic of one country on another” (Słownik concept in sport interpretation – all of Języka Polskiego PWN 2020). Other terms the concepts mentioned here are slightly complement this word with the meaning one sided and do not explain the whole implying the intention of harming somebody phenomenon – it should be realised that in or causing him injury, thus emphasizing media coverage aspect of fight, advantage, the essence of aggression: it is directed defeating the opponent are often in the to inflict pain, destroy, cause suffering. centre. Sportsmen who “fight” are not only However, some authors single out two types people who do or fencing, but also of aggression: intended and instrumental. representatives of non-contact disciplines The first one is understood as a destroying like volleyball or pole vault. The competitor power, directed to inflict evil to someone, is “defeated”, sometimes “with a crushing sometimes without a clear reason; it is often advantage”, bar hanging on a particular accompanied by rapid emotions, it happens height (or the height itself) should be that the aggressor loses his temper and does “attacked”; similarly all of the attempt to gain actions which he later regrets, not even denying the rightness of aggression itself in Jacek Meller 54 a particular situation. The second type of What happens on the mat, in the cage or aggression is devoid of the implied intention in the ring seems to be the embodiment of harming as mentioned above. The subject, of aggression, almost – taking into by showing behaviours that look aggressive consideration the setting of professional (malicious), wants to achieve a defined goal, fights – its feast. It should be considered, not harming other people at the same time whether we deal with aggression in its and not directing actions against them right understanding, as it was called above, (Kłodecka-Różalska 2007, 90-91; Zdebska the “intended” aggression or whether it is 2007, 99). just an appearance of it, i.e. instrumental This nature of behaviour would be seen aggression. This instrumentalism would in majority of sportsmen, who take a ball mean that contestants who , kick, pull, from each other on arenas, push each throw the opponent do this only incidentally, other in a crowd of runners and even do a not having any intentions in harming the “tactical foul”. Those acts are not intended to other contestant, do it only to show their cause suffering, not aimed at the opponent superiority over the opponent and get the himself; they are necessary means to achieve winner’s laurel. a goal which is a sports victory. Majority of The one who knows, however, how full- those acts are included in regulations, they contact combat arts work, understands that are indeed harmless acts, which can be used this thesis cannot be defended. Contestants by all competitors. A “tactical foul” looks are rewarded for striking real blows, which slightly different, it is an irregular behaviour entails natural effects, even life threat. displayed with premeditation in the face of Special quality of victory before time, inability to stop the contestant in another especially by KO, means that the stronger way. Most fouls in its nature, may lead the push is the more valuable it gets from to injuries (and that is exactly why, being the perspective of the person who struck dangerous behaviours, they are called fouls). it. So, there is no pretending here, such a So, committing a foul must at least assume sports fight is in fact an expression of brutal acceptance for potential harm done to the strength leading to depriving the rival the opponent. This way, it does not fit into the ability to continue the fight. It is difficult, term “instrumental aggression”, it becomes sometimes, to see through the intentions an act of aggression intended towards of contestants; during press conferences someone who stands on the way to achieving or interviews they repeat the cliched a victory. It is hard for the spectator or comments and opinions learned by heart. If commentator of a contest to look into words do not reflect the essence of events, sportsmen’ hearts and minds, however, it the intention of the speaker should be is known from particular comments that considered when it comes to its authenticity an authentic hostility towards the rival in a or a situation of internal hypocrisy or game may occur, a hostility that is a part of dichotomisation. motivation which anew awakens strength In combat sports there is, however, a for action. This hostility may be fuelled particular boundary concerning aggressive by coaches, activists, or fans. “I imagined behaviours – it is set by rules of a specific myself at enemies. Before we left, discipline. Rules do not regulate the inner my Great Leader Kim Il-sung told us to attitude of the contestant, his intentions or shoot as if we were fighting our enemies. hierarchy of values; rules show only what That’s exactly what I did do” said Li Ho-jun, is permitted and what is not on the mat or an Olympic champion in shooting from in the ring. One may ask about the source small calibre carbine in Munich in 1972 of this regulation, perhaps people who (Kalina 2007, 162; Żukowska 2007, 216; Witt are responsible for its establishment will 2012, 166; Cynarski and Kuśnierz 2017, 119). show concern about the health and life of Moral Aspects of Some Combat Sports 55

contestants. There is one open question, on the one hand and without humiliating, why in one discipline those goods are purely instrumental treatment of what is taken care of better (by for example by material in a human being on the other hand forbidding hitting a lying person) and in (Stryczek 2011, 78-82). others rather neglected (permitting hitting, The moral problems of sport are also but not kicking). Organizers and promoters noticeable, especially in the case of of disciplines and individual contests do professional, high-performance sports. not conceal that rules of fights are made Commercialization, striving for victory at to make a show of it, because it increases all costs through the use of excessive loads the number of spectators in sports halls or unfair doping, the high risk in extreme and in front of the television, and so the sports – there are only few aspects of income earned by stakeholders (Żukowski modern athletic, which need to be taken 2007, 231; Kosiewicz 2007, 283). This motive into consideration when making an attempt lied behind, among other things, lifting the of ethical rating of a discipline or sport event. obligation that was in force since the 80s, to The field of full-contact combat sports also use protective helmets by amateur boxers. struggles with the above-mentioned prob- Contestants’ activity, readiness to increased lems, but in this moral assessment they do effort, leading risky actions and spectacular not seem to be the most important. The na- victories – this is something that people who ture of actions relevant for practising those go for “galas” or pay for the possibility to disciplines wakes concerns. According to watch transmission want to watch. “We miss rules regulating boxing, especially profes- nature, miss wildness, world of gladiators sional, karate kyokushin, pankration or and great warriors” – writes one of mixed martial arts, the aim of contestants commentators about plans to introduce bear is to deprive the rival of the ability to fight, fists fights (Lewicki 2020). And perhaps no but not symbolic, through throwing him on one will complain that instead of contracted the ground or immobilize like in wrestling ten rounds, he watched only five, if the or touching the swordsman’s vest with the fight ended with knock-out after one of the blade with an inbuilt electrical circuit. The contestant’s reckless attack. Conclusion that elimination is real: the contestant loses con- rules limit aggression in combat sports is at sciousness or is injured in a way making him least partly untrue. unable to fight anymore. In this situation, in 5. An attempt at ethical evaluation the field of an ancient or medieval battle he would get killed or taken captive, and his Sport, especially amateur sport, that is command would have to note down “loss in not focused on breaking high records and people”. not commercialized, has a positive moral Fight leads to the infringement of bodily judgement as a means of caring for body integrity of the contestant, and to harm. It health and good mental condition, as well as is clearly showed by presentation of health a method of personality shaping. The trainee consequences of taking part in competitions. develops, not only strength, flexibility Broken bones, damage to internal organs, and endurance, but also perseverance, mental impairment, even direct life patience, moderation, the ability to fail and threat – those are aims, to which action of – especially in team disciplines – the ability the contestant who enters the ring leads to cooperate in a group. It is important (Murzyn 2018). that sport activity is based on the correct That is why, from the point of view of understanding of a human being as a free either absolute ethics or consequentialist and rational, physical and spiritual being ethics, taking part in a fight cannot be at the same time, without exaggerating justified. Harming an innocent person, even the cult of body, youth, health or strength if this person agrees to that by accepting Jacek Meller 56 sports challenge, has signs of a deed which by the fighting rules. The contestant’s activity is intrinsically wrong. It seems that the seems to be a manifestation of intended calculation of effects is also disadvantageous: aggression towards the rival. It needs to be serious health consequences strains not only highlighted that growing commercialization, losers, but also winners, who enjoy a big especially involvement of sponsors and income and fame, but at the price of serious mass-media favors brutalization of combat health damage. , who won sports. The discipline based on harming 56 of 61 fights in a professional ring (more stops being a sport, it becomes a space of than a half by KO), suffered from Parkinson violence and harm; space that should be as disease since he was 42, the disease was an limited as possible. effect of boxing profession. “Professionals let The thought that it would be possible to themselves getting hurt for money” – was introduce a ban on full-contact fighting said during the interview with seems utopian (although in liberal Norway coach (Polish Kickboxing Association 2020). and the regime in Cuba and North Korea The attempt of moral defence of combat such bans are in force), but actions on two sports may perhaps apply only to amateur levels are necessary and possible. On the boxing and with some reservation. one hand, regulations should be created to Supporters of this discipline point out that protect contestants, especially the young the aim of the contestant is to gain points ones, in the best way; on the other hand – for blows, regardless of their strength; it is communities should be formed, through not the aim of a duel to cause any injuries educational and journalistic activity, in a (O’Halloran 2020; Polish Kickboxing way where things that look like barbarianism Association 2020). According to this, hidden under the mask of sport become less however, the boxer is supposed to be and less popular. punished and not rewarded with a victory Bibliography before time, for causing the opponent’s injury, the opponent should be protected Arte e cultura. „Bokser z Kwirynału/Pugile from injuries much better. Meanwhile, KO in riposo [Boxer from Quirinal Hill/Pugile is a victory more appreciated than a victory in riposo].” Accessed May 10, 2020. https:// for points, and various protection means arteculturaitalopolacca.com/2018/03/05/ (excluding gloves) are used only by very bokser-z-kwirynalu-pugile-in-riposo/. young contestants now. Cynarski, Wojciech, and Cezary Kuśnierz. Conclusion 2017. „Wpływ sztuk walki na osobowość osób trenujących.” W Kultura fizyczna a osobowość, red. Martial arts have a long history dating back Zbigniew Dziubiński and Krzysztof Jankowski, to the beginnings of human civilization 113-121. Warszawa: Akademia Wychowania and today enjoy an unwavering popularity. Fizycznego w Warszawie. This is the cause of huge media interest and Homer. 1981. Iliada. Wrocław: Zakład Narodowy sponsors looking for ways of promoting im. Ossolińskich. themselves. International Boxing Association. 2019. AIBA Although doing a sport, especially Technical & Competition Rules. Access May an amateur sport, is morally right, the 30, 2020. https://d21c25674tgiqk.cloudfront. principles and practise of martial arts, net/2019/03/AIBA-Technical-Competition-Rules-. especially in the professional and full- pdf. contact form, raise serious moral concerns. Judycki, Stanisław. 2020. Filozofia sportu. Access They are connected with the essence of October 15, 2019. http://www.kul.edu.pl/files/57/ combat sports: they are an activity aimed at wydzial/judycki/filozofia_sportu.pdf. harming the rival. Negative consequences of Kalina, Roman. 2007. „O odpowiedzialnym używaniu practicing martial arts are partially limited pojęć «agresja» i «agresywność» w opisywaniu Moral Aspects of Some Combat Sports 57

walki sportowej – czy kwestia niekompetencji Polski Związek Kickboxingu. 2020. „Wywiad z tre- semantycznych?” W Sport a agresja, red. Zbigniew nerem Tomaszem Skrzypkiem.” Access May 15, Dziubiński, 157-165. Warszawa: Akademia 2020. http://www.pzkickboxing.pl/news/156,wy- Wychowania Fizycznego w Warszawie. wiad,trenerem,tomaszem,skrzypkiem.html. Karpiński, Dariusz. 2015. Elementarz boksu. Głogów: Rodriguez, Robert G. 2009. The Regulation of Boxing. Fundacja My Wojownicy. Jefferson: McFarland & Company. Kłodecka-Różalska, Jadwiga. 2007. „Zachowania Słownik Języka Polskiego PWN. „Agresja.” Access agresywne w sporcie: dominacja nadziei June 10, 2020. https://sjp.pwn.pl/szukaj/agresja. i optymizmu nad pesymizmem i zwątpieniem.” html. W Sport a agresja, red. Zbigniew Dziubiński, 90- Stryczek, Maria. 2011. Aksjologia sportu. Lublin: 98. Warszawa: Akademia Wychowania Fizycznego Katolicki Uniwersytet Jana Pawła II. w Warszawie. The British Museum. „Plaque.” Access May 23, Kosiewicz, Jerzy. 2003. „Zasada fair play a wartości 2020. https://www.britishmuseum.org/collection/ sportu.” W Społeczny wymiar sportu, red. Zbi- object/W_1856-0903-1522. gniew Dziubiński, 323-329. Warszawa: Akademia Tour Egypt. „Ancient Egyptian Sports.” Access Wychowania Fizycznego w Warszawie. May 23, 2020. http://www.touregypt.net/ Kosiewicz, Jerzy. 2007. „Rozważania o agresji historicalessays/ancsportsg1.htm. w sporcie.” W Sport a agresja, red. Zbigniew Witt, Richard. 2012. Lifetime of Training for Just Ten Dziubiński, 281-290. Warszawa: Akademia Seconds: Olympians in Their Own Words. London: Wychowania Fizycznego w Warszawie. A&C Black. Kowalczyk, Stanisław. 2010. Elementy filozofii World Boxing Council. 2020. “Rules For Championship i teologii sportu. Lublin: Wydawnictwo KUL. Fights.” Access May 30, 2020. https://wbcboxing Lewicki, Adam. 2020. „Historia zatacza koło, .com/en/wbc/documentos/?&cp_71=1. a ludzie chcą igrzysk. Czy walki na gołe pięści World Boxing Organization. 2020. “Regulations Of są bezpieczne?” Access June 10, 2020. https:// World Championship Contests.” Access May 30, sport.onet.pl/boks/gromda-walki-na-gole-piesci- 2020. https://www.wboboxing.com/wp-content/ czy-sa-bezpieczne-mateusz-borek-beda-emocje/ uploads/2020/02/WBO-Regulations-of-World- e3tmsdy. Championship-Contests21830.pdf. Lipiec, Józef. 2007. „Sport zamiast wojny, czy wojna Zdebska, Halina. 2007. „Sport a agresja.” W Sport zamiast sportu?” W Sport a agresja, red. Zbigniew a agresja, red. Zbigniew Dziubiński, 99-110. Dziubiński, 271-280. Warszawa: Akademia Warszawa: Akademia Wychowania Fizycznego Wychowania Fizycznego w Warszawie. w Warszawie. Murzyn, Marcin. 2018. „Czy istnieją sporty niemoralne?” Żukowska, Zofia. 2007. „Poczucie własnej wartości Access May 12, 2020. https://kierunki.info.pl/ a zachowania agresywne w sporcie.” Sport a agresja, marcin-murzyn-czy-istnieja-sporty-niemoralne/. red. Zbigniew Dziubiński, 211-218. Warszawa: O’Halloran, Nathan. „Czy ksiądz może Akademia Wychowania Fizycznego w Warszawie. uprawiać boks?” Access May 15, 2020. https:// Żukowski, Ryszard. 2007. „Trener a agresja w sporcie.” deon.pl/wiara/wiara-i-spoleczenstwo/ W Sport a agresja, red. Zbigniew Dziubiński, czy-ksiadz-moze-uprawiac-boks,510273. 227-233. Warszawa: Akademia Wychowania Ostleroff, Wiesław Konrad. 1976.Historia sportu. Fizycznego w Warszawie. Warszawa: Nasza Księgarnia. Ptaszyńska-Sarosiek, Iwona, Anna Niemcunowicz- Janica, Marcin Filimoniuk, Zofia Wardaszka, Magdalena Okłota, Michał Szeremeta, and Adam Sackiewicz. 2010. „Cerebrastenia pourazowa i encefalopatia pourazowa – trudności opiniodawcze.” Archiwum Medycyny Sądowej i Kryminologii 40(2-3): 172-176.