ISSN 2456-8066 International Journal of Advanced Engineering and Management Vol. 5, No. 2, pp. 9-23, 2020

A REVIEW STUDY OF TECHNICAL IN THE DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC OF Osama Mohammed Elmardi Suleiman Khayal

Nile Valley , Deptment of Mechanical Engineering, Atbara, Sudan E – Mail address:[email protected] [email protected]

Abstract Historical Background, Current Situation, The qualifying of the Technician needs Technical Education, Vocational Training several capabilities such as establishing I. INTRODUCTION laboratories and specialized workshops, A. Study on Vocational Training preparation and qualifying of instructors System Development in the Republic and trainers; and updating and review of the of Sudan curricula in accordance with the needs of This research proposes a master plan for the the labor market and development. year 2019 to improve the vocational The challenges that Face technical education in Sudan could be summarized in training system in Sudan. It also identifies the following: Improvement of the ratio of the action plans to develop the capacity of Diploma to B.Sc. graduates, technical and the Supreme Council for Vocational academic financing through government , Training and Apprenticeship (SCVTA) and foreign donations, private sector , and Vocational Training Centers (VTCs) as well trainee fees , capacity building of teachers as other relevant organizations. Socio- and trainers, job description specification economic environment will continue to for each specialization, development of curricula to suit the labor market, improving change. This research study, therefore, is the quality and quantity of technical subject to review and revision from time to education, flexibility in admission, time so as to update the targeted year [25]. diversification of programs, and A.1 Evolution of Vocational Training encouraging students to be enrolled in this System Development: The current kind of study. vocational development system is a There are considerable opportunities for developing a diverse array of marketable consequence of a trial and error process for and apprenticeable trades specific to Sudan half a century. The process can be divided which can contribute to sustainable into the following four phases. Figure 1 development and post democratic below shows the evolution of vocational transformation reconstruction. There is no Training development in Sudan (source: doubt that technical education is crucial if JICA study team). local people are to participate in nation- building and benefit from expanding market activity in Sudan [1] – [24]. Keywords

Osama Mohammed Elmardi Suleiman Khayal "A Review Study of Technical Education In The Democratic Republic of Sudan" International Journal of Advanced Engineering and Management, 5.2(2020):9-23

ISSN 2456-8066 International Journal of Advanced Engineering and Management Vol. 5, No. 2, pp. 9-23, 2020

However, it kept expand in the early 1990’s. VTCs started in Nyala and El Obeid with technical assistance from International Labor Organization (ILO). Omdurman VTC started with a loan by Chinese government. The government of Republic of Korea assisted the establishment of Sudanese- Korean VTC. It also launched an instructor

Figure 1 Evolution of Vocational Training training project. Meanwhile, 3 Development in Sudan (Source: JICA Study was established by own effort of the Team) Sudanese government. (1) Early Phase (Before 1963): A full- Without major donors, however, many fledged vocational training started upon VTCs began to suffer from the difficulty in national independence. Khartoum 1 maintaining equipment, instructors and Vocational Training Center (VTC) was curriculum. established in 1956. According to the national decentralization (2) Developing Phase (1964-1989): In policy adopted in1993, Khartoum1 VTC 1964, West Germany at the time started to was transferred from the Federal assist vocational training in Sudan. An Government to the Khartoum State emphasis was given to apprenticeship Government. Many other VTCs were training. With German assistance, similarly transferred to state governments. Khartoum 2 VTC was created. At the same However, the state governments found it time, about 200 instructors were trained in financially and technically difficult for them West Germany. VTCs started operation in to maintain VTCs. State VTCs were mostly states as well. In 1974, the transferred back to the Ministry of Higher governmentamended Vocational Training Education. They restarted as technical and Apprenticeship Act and established colleges. The late 1990s saw new trends in training standards. The standards have been the national economy. Oil export started. a base for setting training courses and Government run enterprises began to be curricula. Institute of Training of Trainers privatized. These trends stimulated the and Supervisors (ITTS) was established in demand for vocational training to expand. It 1987. In those days, about 50 trainers were is in this period that private VTCs emerged. trained in Japan. The vocational training (4) Current Phase under SCVTA (2001- system was, thus, rapidly developed with till now): In 2001, the Government revised supports by a number of donors. In 1989, the Vocational Training and Apprenticeship however, Germany interrupted all the Act, in view of the decentralization policy, ongoing assistance programs for its stated the favorable economic trend and the reason that civil wars were continuing. privatization policy. Accordingly, the (3) Transitional Phase (1990-2000): The government created Supreme Council for interrupt of the German assistance gave a Vocational Training and Apprenticeship shock on the vocational training system. (SCVTA). It was chaired by Labor Minister Osama Mohammed Elmardi Suleiman Khayal "A Review Study of Technical Education In The Democratic Republic of Sudan" International Journal of Advanced Engineering and Management, 5.2(2020):9-23

ISSN 2456-8066 International Journal of Advanced Engineering and Management Vol. 5, No. 2, pp. 9-23, 2020

and attended by representatives from the Demand for skilled workers is steadily relevant line ministries, the private sector expanding, as the national economy has and nongovernmental organizations. been expanding and being diversified. Despite that the organizational set-up was People’s life is stabilized and domestic reinforced, many VTCs continued to suffer market is expanding thanks to an end of the from the difficulty in maintaining civil wars. The national economy is equipment, instructors and curriculum. On expanded and diversified by petroleum the other hand, vocational training was export, import of various consumption faced with new groups to be given training goods and infrastructure investments. opportunities: the Internally Displaced These have stimulated the demand for People (IDP) estimated at 4 million in total maintenance and repair of goods in small as and the demobilized soldiers estimated at well as large enterprises. This trend has 90,000. Under the circumstances, Korean resulted in a growing demand for the skilled Government assisted the vocational training workers engaged in not only production but in selected field such as automobile and also the maintenance of factories. electricity. EU/UNIDO assisted Khartoum Infrastructure investments have been State Government in Competence Based accelerated with oil export revenues. Training (CBT) with a focus on rapidly Highway development has expanded the absorbing IDP in the labor market. demand for maintenance and repair of The review above suggests that present transport equipment and distribution vocational training system has been made facilities. It has also stimulated real estate possible to grow and survive largely with development and construction activities. international donors. However, one could Electric power development has expanded little longer expect a long-term the demand for electric appliances. Many andcomprehensive assistance as ever factories have been changed from man- provided by Germany. The ongoing operated to machine-operated. All these vocational training system needs to be more have contributed to the demand increase for self-reliant and sustainable. The review also skilled workers. suggests that diversification has been Information and communication tools have observed in job seekers, employers and spread dramatically and encouraged skilled training providers. The ongoing vocational labor to increase for the maintenance of training system needs to tailor itself to the such tools. diversification. It is, therefore, necessary to Reorganization of public enterprises is also reexamine the role of SCVTA in vocational creating skilled employment opportunities training, from the viewpoint of through outsourcing. sustainability and the flexibility to the B.2 Huge Gap in Supply-Demand of diversification. Labor B. Development Potentials of Vocational Unemployment rate is estimated at 17% by Training System Ministry of Labor in the Annual Statistical B.1 Steadily Expanding Demand for Report 2006 of Central Statistical Office. Skilled Workers There are a huge number of job seekers, Osama Mohammed Elmardi Suleiman Khayal "A Review Study of Technical Education In The Democratic Republic of Sudan" International Journal of Advanced Engineering and Management, 5.2(2020):9-23

ISSN 2456-8066 International Journal of Advanced Engineering and Management Vol. 5, No. 2, pp. 9-23, 2020

including the young people, IDP, women the chairmanship of the Federal Vice- and demobilized soldiers.Figure 2 below President. show the unemployment rate of Sudan and Private VTCs are rising in Khartoum. They neighboring countries (1996 – 2005) are more responsive to labor market (source: UNDP, Human Development changes, more efficient and closer to Report 2007/2008). companies, than public VTCs. At the community level, vocational training is actively carried out by NGOs, including Youth Council and Islamic network. Khartoum State attempts to apply these experiences to the government vocational training with a technical support of UNIDO. B.4 Potential Assets of the SCVTA and

Figure 2 Unemployment Rate of Sudan and VTCs Neighboring Countries (1996 – 2005) Under the trend above, the SCVTA and (Source: UNDP, Human Development VTCs have rather been lagging. They have, Report 2007/2008) however, accumulated the assets that could However, a large gap exists between intensively and selectively be mobilized. demand and supply of labor. It is partly due Their apprenticeship training offers a to a bias toward general higher education. distinct career path for the young people There is a surplus of managerial, who do not enter higher education. The administrative or clerical workers on one number of applicants exceeds enrolment by hand and a shortage of engineering, several times in many courses of the technical or skilled workers on the other. apprenticeship training. The VTCs maintain The large gap is partly due to the incoming a bunch of serious and long-experienced of foreign workers and outgoing of instructors. They are important human Sudanese workers. Another factor for the resource for private VTCs, too. SCVTA gap is the rural-to-urban migrants caused by controls trade testing and certificate civil wars and draughts. They have hardly provision, thereby possibly influencing the been absorbed in labor market. A major part whole labor market. ITTS is also strength of of them is the IDP of about 2 million living SCVTA. It has recently been used for the in the surroundings of Khartoum. VTCs other than those under SCVTA B.3 Signs of Reorganization in Technical (Figure 3 below). and and Training The SCVTA and VTCs have maintained (TVET) linkages with enterprises, NGOs, private There is a new trend in TVET policy. VTCs and international organizations, Higher technical education receives a strong through senior members of its staff. They policy support. National Council for also have long experience of cooperation Technical and Technological Education with international development partners, (NCTTE) has been created to streamline the including EU, Germany, ILO, India, Japan, ongoing technical education system under Osama Mohammed Elmardi Suleiman Khayal "A Review Study of Technical Education In The Democratic Republic of Sudan" International Journal of Advanced Engineering and Management, 5.2(2020):9-23

ISSN 2456-8066 International Journal of Advanced Engineering and Management Vol. 5, No. 2, pp. 9-23, 2020

Korea, UNDP, UNIDO, USA and the number of establishments. For example, World Bank. owners and workers of small industries require not only skills but also business knowledge such as costing and product market, while skilled workers in large industries are simply required to have good skills. It is also important to note that small industries are not easily allowed to send their workers or owners to training courses for a long period of time. The vocational training for the demobilized soldiers is a pressing need at present. Figure 3 Recent Pre-service Training Presently, it can be taken care by the Programs in ITTS (Source: ITTS) SCVTA and VTCs only to a very limited C. Issues Facing the SCVTA and VTCs extent. In spite of these potentials for vocational C.2 Training Contents in a Rut training, the SCVTA and VTCs have been Apprenticeship training has been facing with a number of issues:Figure 4 undertaken largely based on the training materials and lesson plans prepared by below shows the problem structure facing individual instructors. There has been no the SCVTA and VTCs (Source: JICA Study standard curriculum. Modification on the Team). course-mix is made difficult by the lack of data on the labor demand. C.3 Lack of Positive Thinking among Instructors The instructors have not been encouraged to think and act positively toward changing circumstances. Instructors of VTCs are not generally better paid than those in the private vocational training schools. In addition, they are promoted, rewarded and Figure 4 Problem Structure (Source: JICA qualified not always on a competitive basis. Study Team) The aging of instructors is serious. It is partly due to a continuing limit on the C.1 Mismatches between the SCVTA and recruitment of the government officials for VTCs and the Society many years. Rush of retirement of aged There are mismatches between the SCVTA staff will cause discontinuities in the and VTCs and what the society needs, training contents, which have been though it is difficult to measure the maintained largely by individual efforts of mismatches. Many private companies instructors. demand more reliable skills and knowledge There are limited opportunities for them to than those possible to teach within the exchange information and ideas on training, existing VTCs. skills and other matters of their common Meanwhile, the SCVTA and VTCs have not interest. The instructors are not sufficiently explicitly met with the skill and knowledge provided with the allowance to cover the required by small industries, despite that cost of fees and travel for their self- they represent more than 90% of a total motivating participation in training. ITTS Osama Mohammed Elmardi Suleiman Khayal "A Review Study of Technical Education In The Democratic Republic of Sudan" International Journal of Advanced Engineering and Management, 5.2(2020):9-23

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has attracted a decreasing number of the Staff capacity of SCVTA is not enough instructors from VTCs due to the lack of especially to monitor labor market and SCVTA’s fund to send them to ITTS. training providers. It has not been able to C.4 Insufficient Maintenance of Tools effectively coordinate the activities such as and Equipment training instructors, revising training Tools and equipment have not sufficiently contents, communicating with the private maintained. As a result, about a half of the sector and monitoring the labor market. ongoing training courses are undertaken In consequence, the SCVTA and VTCs without skill practice. A number of have been able to do little but to operate equipment is outdated. But this is not the themselves. They have hardly been able to most important problem. What is more afford to contribute to enhancing level of important is a deficiency in tools and the vocational training nationwide. materials for the trainees. A number of out- C.6 External Constraints on the SCVTA of-order equipment has long been left and VTCs abandoned without repair. Trainees are not The SCVTA and VTCs suffer not only sufficiently provided with inexpensive but internal but also external constraints. They basic goods such as easy-to-read are bound by the detailed ceiling of the blackboard, classroom desks and triangle Ministry of Finance and National Economy rulers. Some of the buildings are over-aged. (MFNE) on recurrent expenditures and C.5 Uncertain and Inflexible Operation recruitment. Their operation cannot be with of the SCVTA and VTCs long-term perspective due to a monthly SCVTA and VTCs have not been flexible disbursement system imposed by MFNE. nor aggressive do enough for it to more Since 2009, their own revenues from short- fully make use of its potential assets. First term courses have all been paid to MFNE in of all, management policies have not clearly return of an increase in budget allocation. been understood among the staff members. The government hardly accepts an increase There is concern that the SCVTA and VTCs in the amount of training fees, though it is might lose their unity without such about 20% as low as that of private VTCs. management policies. Consequently, VTCs enroll more trainees Secondly, the SCVTA and VTCs exchange than original quota by 2 to 3 times, resulting information and ideas with business people in the declining level of training. This is a and state government officials, but mainly vicious cycle. through limited informal channels. The The SCVTA and VTCs have not been able Council is held for authorization only a few to fully play their role under somewhat times in a year, though it comprises the inconsistent vocational training policies. members from both public and private Irregular arrangements are sometimes sectors. Consequently, the SCVTA and enforced by political considerations. This is VTCs used to prepare training materials partly due to uncertain distinctions between without mobilizing external input. training versus education and between skills Each VTC has not been in a position to versus technical training. Added to this are think about what it is going to do. It needs the limited administrative and financial permission from SCVTA even in many capabilities of state governments to routine matters. There are insufficient appropriately carry out human resource exchange of information and ideas between development. The inconsistency of VTCs and SCVTA as well as among VTCs, vocational training policies may throw some except at the directors’ level. doubts on the use of public vocational

Osama Mohammed Elmardi Suleiman Khayal "A Review Study of Technical Education In The Democratic Republic of Sudan" International Journal of Advanced Engineering and Management, 5.2(2020):9-23

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training, in the light of a rapid growth of 1. Encouraging vocational training by non- private vocational training. governmental and private providers: Public By law, SCVTA is given sole responsibility initiative should be taken in the institutional for vocational training. In reality, however, arrangements and pilot activities for training a number of government agencies carry out those people whom de-facto vocational training. Ministry of Non-governmental and private providers Public Education has extensively developed can hardly afford to take care, e.g. low secondary technical schools all over the income people, IDP and demilitarized country. However, they have not been very soldiers. successful in sending their graduates to the 2. Realizing a simpler division of works labor market. The number of secondary among TVET organizations (Table 1 below) technical schools is too large to sustain in line with the dualistic and geographical technical education. nature of labor market: the SCVTA and Ministry of Higher Education launches a VTCs should specialize themselves in massive plan to set up technical colleges in fostering the skilled workers who many states with strong political and particularly have the ability to adapt to financial support. The students in technical changing working conditions. college are secondary school graduates. Table 1 Division of Work in TVET (Source: They naturally have a larger capacity than JICA Study Team) the VTC trainees to absorb skills and techniques. Conceptually, technical college is distinct from VTC, but in reality, they overlap at least partly. Technical college is clearly more advantageous than VTC in supplying manpower to large modern factories. On the other hand, private VTCs are raising 3. Advancing the reform of the SCVTA and themselves. It is under this situation that a VTCs in the light of Strategies 1 and 2 clearer division of works needs to be made above: In long and medium terms, SCVTA among different institutions for technical shall shift its emphasis from the direct and vocational education and training. operation of apprenticeship training to the D. Framework of Planning monitoring and support of the training In view of the potentials and issues as providers by private entities, NGOs and analyzed above, a framework of planning is state governments. An issue at this juncture proposed. It comprises: Objectives and is how to deal with the existing VTCs that strategies for a better vocational training have suffered from the difficulty in system of Sudan, and A program to advance operation and maintenance. The following the reform of the SCVTA and VTCs. alternatives are assumed for this issue: D.1 Objectives Alternative 1: Strengthening the Current 1. Maximizing employment and income Set-Up opportunities for the young people. All the VTCs under SCVTA shall be 2. Supplying skilled workers in response to maintained and improved under the current national economic diversification. managerial set-up. In parallel, SCVTA shall 3. Strengthening the competitiveness of strengthen the function to make vocational small industries. training policy, monitor training providers D.2 Strategies and support them. Thus, the SCVTA and VTCs shall recover as a major basis of Osama Mohammed Elmardi Suleiman Khayal "A Review Study of Technical Education In The Democratic Republic of Sudan" International Journal of Advanced Engineering and Management, 5.2(2020):9-23

ISSN 2456-8066 International Journal of Advanced Engineering and Management Vol. 5, No. 2, pp. 9-23, 2020

comprehensive apprenticeship training. This Figure 5 Reorganizing of Relations between alternative calls for a full financial support SCVTA and VTC (Source: JICA Study of the Government to enable the SCVTA Team) and VTCs to recruit instructors, replenish D.3 Program to Advance the Reform of the tools and replace out-of-order equipment. It SCVTA and VTCs also calls for financial assistance from time In order to carry out the strategies above, to time by many donors. Strategy 3 in particular, a program is Alternative 2: Separating VTCs from necessary to advance the reform of the SCVTA SCVTA and VTCs. It comprises the All the VTCs under SCVTA shall be following components: separated from SCVTA, and possibly 1. Continuous and timely revision of restructured and recovered under the private training contents; 2. Strengthening of or state initiative. SCVTA shall be instructors; specialized in making vocational training 3. Maintenance of tools and equipment; 4. policy, monitoring training providers and Restructuring of SCVTA-VTCs; and 5. supporting them. Expansion of the funds for recurrent This alternative is based on the assumption expenditures. that training providers will grow fast in the In implementing the program, an attention private sector and under state governments, should be paid to the following two distinct so that staff members of the VTCs will aspects of the program: smoothly find jobs in growing training 1. Recovering existing VTCs on priority providers. basis; 2. Monitoring and supporting training Alternative 3: Pursuing a Best Mix providers; and Only a few VTCs shall be reinforced as a E. Action Plans. model of the vocational training of Sudan. In accordance with the program to advance Based on the practical experience of these the reform of the SCVTA and VTCs, a VTCs, SCVTA shall strengthen the function series of plans have been identified for the to make vocational training policy, monitor actions to be taken by 2013. Either of the training providers and support them. This following criteria has been applied to identify the action plans: Criteria 1: Being alternative assumes a mix of the conditions urgent to restore the managerial capacity to for the Alternative 1 and the assumption for operate VTC of SCVTA under selection the Alternative 2. Alternative 3 is and concentration principle; and Criteria 2: recommended, based on a comparative Being significant as pilot activities to enable analysis of the effectiveness and reality of SCVTA to play a new role of facilitating these alternatives. Figure 5 below shows the diversification of vocational training reorganizing of relations between SCVTA through supervision and support of training providers. Table 2 below illustrates action and VTC (Source: JICA Study Team). plan, selection criteria and aims (Source: JICA Study Team). Table 2 Action Plan, Selection Criteria and Aims (Source: JICA Study Team)

Osama Mohammed Elmardi Suleiman Khayal "A Review Study of Technical Education In The Democratic Republic of Sudan" International Journal of Advanced Engineering and Management, 5.2(2020):9-23

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Task 2 strengthening the training of trainers and supervisors. Task 3 improving the system to maintain tools, equipment and facilities. Outcome 2: Stronger functions of SCVTA to support training providers through model training courses on the basis of public- private cooperation. In view of pressing need and rising momentum, the model courses are to be undertaken through: Task 4 Training for demilitarized soldiers. Task 5 Training for small enterprises. Timing: June 2010 through June 2013. G. Important Given Conditions for a Better Vocational Training System 1. Intensive basic education as a basis of effective vocational training. F. Proposal for an Immediate Project 2. Stable recurrent budget for vocational It is strongly recommended that an training. immediate project be launched with 3. Stronger capabilities of state governments to manage vocational training international assistance, if this study does and better understanding of state governors not end up with a plan, but leads to action. on vocational training. Figure 6 below illustrates the restructuring 4. Continuous international cooperation and of SCVTA and VTC (Source: JICA Study information sharing among donors. Team). H. Pilot Activities As shown in Table 3 below, workshops have been undertaken as a pilot activity to examine significance and feasibility of the action plans.

II. HISTORICAL BACKGROUND OF TECHNICAL EDUCATION IN SUDAN Sudan pre-independence public education system was designed by the colonial power Figure 6 Restructuring SCVTA and VTC to produce civil servants and professionals. (Source: JICA Study Team) Post-independence, the system underwent As a first step, a project for developing the many changes, aimed at meeting the capacity of SCVTA is proposed in line with country dynamic economic and social the action plans. The following is expected needs. Up to the advent of national outcomes, major tasks and timing of the salvation government, the education in project: Sudan is free and compulsory for children Outcome 1: A more self-sustaining aged from six to 13. Primary education lasts management of SCVTA and VTCs six years, followed by three years of Task 1 developing the capacity to revise intermediate school and finally another curricula. three years of secondary school. Students can choose between two academic tracks Osama Mohammed Elmardi Suleiman Khayal "A Review Study of Technical Education In The Democratic Republic of Sudan" International Journal of Advanced Engineering and Management, 5.2(2020):9-23

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scientific and literary option and/or Cairo University (Khartoum Branch) was technical track (agricultural, industrial, and established in 1955 and renamed Al-Neelain commercial). University in 1993. In 1975, the The language of education at all levels is of Juba and were established. Arabic. Schools are concentrated in urban After the revolution of higher education of residential areas. During the rule of 1990, the number of government salvation government there was a major universities jumped from five to 35 in 2010. change in education system which resulted At the same time, higher education became in increasing primary education two years, a field of private investments and tens of cancelling the intermediate level and private universities and colleges were leaving secondary level as it is. Primary opened in all parts of the country, with a school enrollment in 2001 was estimated by noticeable concentration in Khartoum. The the World Bank at 46% of eligible students number of private universities and colleges and 21% of eligible secondary school is now estimated to be around 80. This students. Enrollment varies widely, falling tremendous upsurge resulted in a shocking below 20% in some provinces. drop in government expenditure on public Besides public education, Egyptian education, accounting for only 1% in 2010 educational missions and missionary and 2% in 2011. schools have contributed a great deal to The rapid expansion of higher education education in Sudan, with activities institutions was accompanied by a marked extending to a number of provinces. deterioration in the quality of the education Private education at primary and secondary provided, and some 45% of graduates are levels was introduced in the 1950s, and unemployed. spread quickly after the deterioration in Technical education is distinguished from public education. Although there are no other types of education because of its exact figures, there are known to be several direct link to the needs of the labor market, expensive and prestigious private schools in it promotes the economic and social life, Khartoum, accommodating pupils from upper class families and teaching in and it follows up the new technical English. modifications. Figure 7 below shows the Higher education emerged in 1902 with the international pyramid for the proportionality establishment of Gordon Memorial College. of labor force. The qualifying of the It changed its name to the Khartoum Technician needs several capabilities such University College and broke away from as: Establishing laboratories and specialized the University of London in 1956, workshops; Preparation and qualifying of becoming the University of Khartoum. Before independence, several educational instructors and trainers; and Review of the institutions were established to award curricula in accordance with the needs of diplomas to government employees who the labor market and development. Figures had completed secondary school. One of 7 and 8 below respectively illustrate these was the Khartoum Technical Institute, diagrammatically the ideal international the leading center of technical education in pyramid for the proportionality of labor Sudan. It became the Khartoum Polytechnic Institute in 1975 and was given university force and the technical education tracks as status in 1990, becoming the Sudan shown in Figure 8 below. University of Science and Technology.

Osama Mohammed Elmardi Suleiman Khayal "A Review Study of Technical Education In The Democratic Republic of Sudan" International Journal of Advanced Engineering and Management, 5.2(2020):9-23

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In 1983, The (ITC) started studies of Bachelor degree of Technology (B. Tech) + the diploma degree. In 1990, The (ITC) was transformed to the Sudan University of Science and Technology (SUST). III. CURRENT SITUATION OF TECHNICAL EDUCATION The following bar chart (Figure 3) shows Figure 7 International pyramid for the the distribution of diploma students for proportionality of labor force Higher Education institutions for the academic years 2001/2002 up to 2004/2005 [26].

Figure 8 Technical education tracks Figure 3 Distribution of Diploma Students In 1902, Gordon Memorial college (GMC) established a vocational and technical for Higher Education Institutions for the education for secondary school (four years Academic Years 2001/2002up to 2004/2005 of study: two academic and two vocational). A. The National Project of Establishing In 1939, Post-secondary technical education Ideal Technical Colleges was introduced. (a) College Objectives: In 1951, Khartoum Technical Institute 1. Providing scientifically and practically (KTI) was established and annexed to it all qualified technicians able to work in the the training units in the different changing modern technology. governmental departments. The period of 2. Giving due consideration to scarce study is three years after the completion of technical specializations. secondary school. 3. Giving due consideration to applied In 1962, the period of study in the scientific research required to the country's Khartoum Technical Institute (KTI) for the development plans. diploma was increased from three years to 4. The selected specialization of these four years. colleges must satisfy the local needs of the In 1971, The (KTI) was divided and community around the college premises. distributed to a number technical colleges in (b) College Tributaries: the different regions in the Sudan. 1. Technical secondary schools (industrial, In 1975, The (KTI) was transformed into agricultural, commercial and woman the Institute of Technical Colleges (ITC). studies). 2. Academic secondary schools.

Osama Mohammed Elmardi Suleiman Khayal "A Review Study of Technical Education In The Democratic Republic of Sudan" International Journal of Advanced Engineering and Management, 5.2(2020):9-23

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3. Successful students in the qualifying v. Textile Engineering course for students of vocational training Trico, Dyeing and Printing, Textile centers and apprenticeship institutes. Spinning and Weaving. (c) Characteristic Features of the College: vi. Chemical Engineering 1. Study system: credit hours system. Food processing, Pharmaceutical 2. Type of study: Diploma level. manufacturing, Leather, Plastics, Oil 3. Number of Departments: 3-5 manufacturing and Sugar technology. departments. When designing the Programme of this 4. Number of semesters: 4-6 semesters. college, the following points should be 5. Study hours in class: 15-20 credit hours. noted: 6. Total credit hours for each 1. The Programmes are unique and not a Programme: 70 –110 hours. print copy of other ones. 7. Total contact hours (Practical training 2. Special considerations to be given for included):1500 -2500 hours. rare but important specializations. (d) Preparations: 3. The Programmes must obey the local 1. Laboratories. community needs. 2. Workshops. 4. The Programmes must fulfill the country 3. Halls and theatres. development needs. 4. Offices. B. The Technical Colleges 5. Computer laboratories. The Number of Technical Colleges Now Is 6. Equipment and devices. 17: They are distributed uniformly in the 7. Library. different regions and . 8. Public utilities, gardens and passages. NyalaTechnical College – Southern Darfur (e) Fields of Technical Engineering State College: Elshiekh Elbadri Technical College – Nile i. Civil Engineering Valley State Construction, Irrigation and drilling, Elmehairiba Technical College – Gaziera Sewage system, Roads and bridges, State Buildings and quantitative methods, Kenana Technical College – Surveying, Environmental Engineering, state Hydraulic Engineering. Technical College – Kassala State ii. Electrical Engineering Elgeteina Technical College – White Nile Internal Electrical Connections, Electrical state Networks, Electronic devices, Computer Wad Medani Technical College – Gaziera maintenance, Computer Network, Medical State equipment and instruments, Elgereif Sharg Technical College – Communication, Electrical Equipment and Khartoum State Devices. Port Sudan Technical College – iii. Mechanical Engineering State Automobile, Thermal power, Jet Merowe Technical College – Northern state engineering, Agricultural Machine, Heavy Gedaref Technical College – Gedaref State Machines, Air conditioning and Elfieg Technical College – Gaziera State Refrigeration, Welding and Forgery, Rabak Technical College – White Nile State Metallurgy, and Foundry. Om Rowaba Technical College – North iv. Petroleum and Mining Engineering Kordofan State Drilling, Petroleum refining, Mining, Damazin Technical College – Petroleum transport. State Osama Mohammed Elmardi Suleiman Khayal "A Review Study of Technical Education In The Democratic Republic of Sudan" International Journal of Advanced Engineering and Management, 5.2(2020):9-23

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Fadasi Technical College – Gaziera state Atbara, who spent many hours in editing, re Faris Technical College – Gaziera State – editing of the manuscript in compliance C. Challenges Facing Technical Education with the standard format of International 1. Improving the ratio of Diploma to B.Sc. Journal of Advanced Engineering and graduates. Management (IJOAEM) Journal. Also, my 2. Finance: government, foreign donations, appreciation is extended to Professor private sector, trainee fees. Mahmoud Yassin Osman for revising and 3. Capacity building of teachers and correcting the manuscript several times. trainers. REFERENCES 4. Job description specification for each [1]. Dr. Dominic Odwa Atari, Samer specialization. Abdelnour, Kevin McKague, Robert 5. Development of curricula to suit the labor Wager, (January 2010). Technical, market. Vocational and Entrepreneurial 6. Quality of Technical Education. 7. Flexibility in admission. Capacities in Southern Sudan: 8. Diversification of programs. Assessment and Opportunities, All IV. CONCLUSIONS content following this page was In summary, the plan that was set by uploaded by Samer Abdelnour on 28 Vocational Training and Apprenticeship May 2014. (SCVTA) and Vocational Training Centers [2]. Abdelnour, S., Badri, B., Branzei, O., (VTCs) and other participants revealed McGrath, S. and Wheeler, D. (2008a). several important issues related to technical Grassroots enterprise development in education in Sudan. The participants Darfur and Southern Sudan. In O.E. acknowledged the mixed historical experiences and stigma associated with William CSC (Ed.). Peace through technical education. Yet while they were commerce: Partnerships as the new aware of the difficult challenges and paradigm (pp. 283-306). South Bend: obstacles facing Sudan, including political University of Notre Dame Press. ambiguity over the upcoming democratic [3]. Abdelnour, S., Badri, B., El Jack, A., elections and capacity challenges, many of Wheeler, D., McGrath, S., and Branzei, the participants in this study were also O. (2008b) Examining enterprise optimistic and hopeful for positive change. There are considerable opportunities for capacity: A participatory social developing a diverse array of marketable assessment in Darfur and Southern and apprenticeable trades specific to Sudan Sudan. Toronto: Centre for Refugee which can contribute to sustainable Studies, York University. development and post democratic [4]. Ali, T. M., and Matthews, R. O. transformation reconstruction. There is no (1999). Civil war and failed peace doubt that technical education is crucial if local people are to participate in nation- efforts in Sudan. In: Ali, T. M., and building and benefit from expanding market Matthews, R. O. (Ed.), Civil wars in activity in Sudan. Africa: Roots and resolution. Montreal: ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS McGill-Queen's University Press. The author would like to acknowledge with [5]. Alhaji, I. H. (2008). Revitalizing deep thanks and profound gratitude Mr. technical and vocational education Osama Mahmoud Mohammed Ali of Dania training for poverty eradication and Center for Computer and Printing Services, Osama Mohammed Elmardi Suleiman Khayal "A Review Study of Technical Education In The Democratic Republic of Sudan" International Journal of Advanced Engineering and Management, 5.2(2020):9-23

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sustainable development through [11]. Eric, R. (2009, May 14). Darfur . African humanitarian expulsions, two months Research Review, 2(1), pp. 152-161. on. Sudan Tribune. Available from: Available from: http://www.sudantribune.com/spip.php http://www.afrrevjo.org/pub/Volume 2 ?article31163. (Accessed September Number 1 art 9.pdf. 11, 2009). (Accessed May 8, 2009). [12]. Freedom House. (2009). Freedom in [6]. Baxter, J., and Eyles, J. (1997). the world 2009 – Sudan. Available Evaluating qualitative research in from: http://www.unhcr.org/ social geography: establishing rigour in refworld/docid/4a64527f23.html. interview analysis. Transactions of the (Accessed August 28, 2009). Institute of British Geographers, 22, [13]. Glaser, B. G. (1992). Basics of pp. 505 – 525. grounded theory analysis: Emergence [7]. Beugre, C. (2002). Understanding vs forcing. Mill Valley, Ca: Sociology organizational justice and its impact on Press. managing employees.International [14]. Hartl, M. (2009). Technical and Journal of Human Resource vocational education and training Management, 13(7), pp. 1091-104. (TVET) and skills development for [8]. Chambers, R. and Conway, G. R. poverty reduction – do rural women (1992). Sustainable rural livelihoods: benefit Available from: Practical concepts for the twenty first http://www.fao- century. Brighton, UK: Institute for ilo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/fao_ilo/p Development Studies, University of df/Papers/25_March/ Hartl-formatted Sussex. 01.pdf. (Accessed May 8, 2009). [9]. Dr. Reddy’s Foundation (2009). [15]. International Republican Institute. Creating sustainable livelihoods: The (2003). Women’s leadership capacity Livelihood Advancement Business in Southern Sudan. School. Available from: Available from: http://www.drreddysfoundation.org/pdf http://www.iri.org/africa/sudan/pdfs/IRI /LABS_Brochure.pdf. (Accessed SudanWomensAssessment.pdf. September 5, 2009). (Accessed August 27, 2009). [10]. El Jack, A. (2007). Gendered [16]. Jackson, T., Amaeshi, K., and Yavuz, implications: Development-induced S. (2008). Untangling African displacement in Sudan. In: indigenous management: multiple Vandergeest, P., Idahosa, P., and Bose, influences on the success of SMEs in P. S. (Eds). Development’s Kenya. Journal of World Business, 43, displacements: Ecologies, pp. 400–416. Economies, and cultures at risk. [17]. Kollmair, M., and Gamper, St. Vancouver: University of British (2002). Input paper for the Integrated Colombia Press. Training Course of NCCR North -

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South Aeschiried, Switzerland from: http://www.state.gov/r/ (September 9-20, 2002). pa/ei/bgn/5424.htm. (Accessed August [18]. Muggah, R. (2006). Reflections on 29, 2009). Disarmament, Demobilization and [25]. Supreme Council for Vocational Reintegration in Sudan. HPN Training and Apprenticeship in the Exchange. Republic of Sudan, (MARCH 2010), [19]. Nunley, K. F. (2003). A student’s THE STUDY ON VOCATIONAL brain: the parent/teacher manual. TRAINING SYSTEM Kearney, NE: Morris Publishing. DEVELOPMENT IN [20]. Patton, M. Q. (1990). Qualitative THE REPUBLIC OF SUDAN. evaluation and research methods (2nd [26]. REPUBLIC OF SUDAN, Ministry of ed.). Newbury Park, CA: Sage Higher Education and Scientific Publications. Research, TECHNICAL EDUCATION [21]. Specht, I., Attree, L., and Monger, H. CORPORATION (TEC), (2004). The (2007). Transition International: Socio- Promotion and Development of economic profiling and opportunity Technical Education in SUDAN, mapping system to support the IDDRP KHARTUOM –SUDAN. in Sudan. [22]. Sudan Tribune. (2009, April 26). AUTHOR BRIEF AUTOBIOGRAPHY Sudan census committee says population is at 39 million. Available from: http://www.sudantribune.com/spip.php ?article31005. (Accessed August 27, 2009). [23]. UNESCO – UNEVOC. (2007). Education for livelihoods and civic participation in post-conflict countries conceptualizing a holistic approach to TVET planning and programming in Sub- Osama Mohammed Elmardi Suleiman Saharan Africa: A discussion paper. Khayal was born in Atbara, Sudan in 1966. Bonn, Germany: UNESCO-UNEVOC He received his diploma degree in International Centre for mechanical engineering from Mechanical Technical and Vocational Education and Engineering College, Atbara, Sudan in Training. Available from: 1990. He also received a bachelor degree in http://unesdoc.unesco.org/ mechanical engineering from Sudan images/0015/001559/155963e.pdf. University of science and technology – (Accessed November 2, 2009). Faculty of engineering in 1998, and a [24]. US Department of State. (2006). master degree in solid mechanics from Nile Background note: Sudan. Available valley university (Atbara, Sudan) in 2003, Osama Mohammed Elmardi Suleiman Khayal "A Review Study of Technical Education In The Democratic Republic of Sudan" International Journal of Advanced Engineering and Management, 5.2(2020):9-23

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and a PhD in structural engineering in 2017. He contributed in teaching some subjects in other universities such as Red Sea University (Port Sudan, Sudan), Kordofan University (Obeyed, Sudan), Sudan University of Science and Technology (Khartoum, Sudan) and Blue Nile university (Damazin, Sudan). In addition, he supervised more than three hundred under graduate studies in diploma and B.Sc. levels and about fifteen master theses. The author wrote about fifty engineering books written in Arabic language, and twenty books written in English language and more than hundred research article papers in fluid mechanics, thermodynamics, internal combustion engines and analysis of composite structures published in national and international journals. He is currently an associate professor in department of mechanical engineering, and Dean Faculty of Engineering and Technology, Nile Valley University since October 2019. His research interest and favorite subjects include structural mechanics, applied mechanics, control engineering and instrumentation, computer aided design, design of mechanical elements, fluid mechanics and dynamics, heat and mass transfer and hydraulic machinery. Dr. Osama Mohammed Elmardi Suleiman Khayal also works as a technical manager and superintendent of Al – Kamali mechanical and production workshops group which specializes in small, medium and large automotive overhaul maintenance and which situated in Atbara town in the north part of Sudan, State.

Osama Mohammed Elmardi Suleiman Khayal "A Review Study of Technical Education In The Democratic Republic of Sudan" International Journal of Advanced Engineering and Management, 5.2(2020):9-23