Balaam's Place in the Author(s): Mary Douglas Source: Man, New Series, Vol. 28, No. 3 (Sep., 1993), pp. 411-430 Published by: Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/2804233 . Accessed: 24/03/2013 17:16

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This content downloaded from 130.58.64.71 on Sun, 24 Mar 2013 17:16:50 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions 'S PLACE IN THE BOOK OF NUMBERS

MARY DOUGLAS London

Therehave been manysuggestions about how thestory ofBalaam fits into the Book ofNumbers. They rangefrom a simplemoral lesson for the enemiesof ,to a literarydevice thatgives a mirrorimage of and thebinding of , to doubt over whetherit belongsin theBook of Numbersat all. None seeksto relatethe storyto thepolitical context of thefifth century BCE when the editingof the Pentateuchwas completed. The interpretationoffered here follows two anthropologicaltraditions, one whichalways expects a textto be placed in its historicalsetting, the otherwhich requiresthat the conventionsof the literaryform in whichit is presentedbe examined.On thisapproach, the literary style of the Balaam storyshows it to be a talewithin a tale,and as is usualin suchcases, it carriesa metonymicsummary of themessage of thelarger story in whichit is found.When the historyof the post-exilicperiod is takeninto account, Balaam appearsas a lampoonof the govemorofJudah, who is ridiculedfor pretendingto be able to bestowGod's blessingsand curses.

Some problemsabout Balaam's story The storyof Balaam has excitedmuch commentthrough the ages. Here we are particularlyinterested in the questionof what it is doing in the Book of Num- bers.1A strictlyanthropological interpretationwould depend heavily on knowledgeof local historicalconditions. The anthropologistalways needs to know as much as possibleabout the situationin which a storywas issued,who producedthe text,and about the intendedreceiver. As faras I know, thiscon- straint on free interpretation has never been accepted by the many anthropologistswho have publishedcommentaries on the , and forgood reason,since Bible scholarsare not at all agreedon thedating of thevarious texts. What is attemptedbelow is a speculativeinterpretation which followsthe gen- erallyagreed dating of the final editing. Numbers was editedin theperiod during and soon afterthe exile in ;that is, in the fifthand sixthcenturies BCE. Interpretationof the Pen-tateuchusually assumes that there were no opposed factionsamong the , and thatthe priestly editors were not involvedin the majorpolitical and social problemsof theirday. Under thisassumption there is no scope foran anthropologist'sreading of Numbers,and it mustbe admitted fromthe outsetthat this article defies such a professionallyunacceptable con- straint.If the editorswere livingin the second temple communitydescribed

*Huxley MemorialLecture 1992

Man (N.S.) 28, 411-430

This content downloaded from 130.58.64.71 on Sun, 24 Mar 2013 17:16:50 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions 412 MARY DOUGLAS in and , well-knownsocial and politicalproblems beset that communityand it is not too bold froman anthropologicalpoint of view to considerwhat traces the textshows of an editorialsensitivity to the majorissues of theirtimes. The storyis aboutBalaam's encounter with the of Israel,when the King ofMoab triedto hireBalaam to cursethe people of Israel.The factthat a foreign prophetrecognizes the same God and speakswith him, is commandedby him, and is even made his mouthpiece,is one of thefascinating elements in the story. It is the onlyplace in theBible wherea foreignseer, diviner, magician, call him what you will, is the source of trueprophecy and blessing.It has some of the most exquisitepoetry in the Pentateuch.It is also the only place in the whole Bible wherean animalreceives the gift of speech. (The serpentwho spoketo in the Gardenof Eden was Satanin disguise). In manyof the rabbinicalcommentaries Balaam is treatedas a thoroughlybad character,the enemy of Israel,the personification of evil.But thestory itself does not lead to such a conclusion.The role could be playedby a foolishcharacter who getseverything wrong and is made to look ridiculous,but thereseems to be no clue in the storyitself that he is going to turnout to be a villain.Only after thestory of Balaam is endeddo we learnthat he taughtthe women ofMoab how to seduce the men of Israelaway fromtheir religion (Num. 31:8, 16) and was punishedfor this by deathon the battlefield.So his evil reputationcomes from thingshe did whichare not partof the storyas told in chapters22-24. The traditionalreason for his storybeing in the Book of Numbersis because of the blessingson Israelthat poured out of Balaam's mouth (Noth 1968): The storycelebrates the powerlessnessof Israel'senemies (Budd 1984: 271). But the storyis clearlya satire,and partof the interpretationmust be to know who or what is being satirized.In mosttheological works contemporary political con- cernstend to figureprominently. If thereis satirein the story,who is Balaam parodying?And who is theKing of ? And who is the ass? The book is based on a varietyof differentsources. It is thoughtto be a very old story,or ratherseveral very old stories.According to some, there were pre-Israelitetraditions in in whichBalaam would have been a powerful, good and honourableperson, though for the people of Israel he came to be portrayedas an enemy (de Vaulx 1972: 257). In anotherargument based on linguisticevidence the storyof his ass'svision of God would be a late interpola- tion (Budd 1984: 263-4).2 But it is doubtfulwhether the differentsources can be systematicallydisentangled to any usefulinterpretive purpose (Budd 1984: 271). However,the story is evidentlynot a priestlytradition (Budd 1984: 271), and this perhapshas been thejustification for not lookingto priestlyconcerns for inter- pretingit. I will stoutlymaintain an anthropologist'sprofessional bias thatthe priestlyeditors would not have kept it in the finalredaction if it did not serve theirpurposes, some ofwhich will have been political.The satirewill have been aimedat opponentsof a programmefavoured by thepriests.

Balaam'sstory As theBook of Numbersis not verywell known,a summaryof Balaam's story is in order.At the point at which he enters,the Book of Numbershas givenan

This content downloaded from 130.58.64.71 on Sun, 24 Mar 2013 17:16:50 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions MARY DOUGLAS 413 accountof the victoriouscampaign of thepeople of Israelagainst the Canaanites (21: 3). The people of Israelhave travelledbeyond the point at whichthey pose a threatto Moab, and the storyof Balaam findsthem camped on Moab's border (de Vaulx 1972: 254). Their militarytriumphs have made , kingof Moab, afraid(21: 35). He summonsa foreignmagician, Balaam, to uttera curseagainst the armiesof Israel. King Balak's messengersarrive in Balaam'shome; the geographyis confusing, and it is difficultto work out wherehis home is, but he is a foreigner.Carrying his fee,they deliver the message.The sage consultsthe Lord. On being told not to cursethe people of Israel,he refusesto go withthe messengers who returnand report.King Balak sendsagain to Balaam, offeringwealth and honours.Balaam refusesagain: If Balak would give me his house fullof silverand , I cannot go beyond the word of the Lord, to do less or more (21: 18). However, he invitesthe messengersto stay overnight,so that he can again consultthe Lord. This timethe Lord's answeris enigmatic:if the men ask him again,he is to go withthem, but he will utteronly the words that the Lord puts intohis mouth. Evidently they do askhim a thirdtime, for next morning Balaam saddleshis ass and goes withthe princes of Moab. God is angrywith Balaam for going,and the of the Lord barshis path with a drawnsword. No one sees the angelexcept the ass,who triesto turnaside. Balaam beatsher, but the stillbars the way which is now a narrowpath betweentwo walls; tryingto avoid the angelthe ass crushesher rider'sfoot against a wall,for which Balaambeats her again. The thirdtime the angel leaves no room forevasion, and the ass does whather kind always does when frustrated,she lies down underher rider.And he beats her again. Then the Lord opens the ass's mouth and she speaksto Balaam as a faithfulservant might reproach an unreasonablemaster: what have I done to deservethese three beatings? Balaam is furious,says she is makinga fool of him,and wisheshe had a swordfor then he would killher. An odd thingto say,for no one evertook a swordagainst an ass,and stillless against the ass he is sittingon. The patientbeast of burdendoes make Balaam into a figureof fun.To be sittingon an animalwhich lies down is bad enough,but when the animalturns round and rebukesher master,that begins to be absurd, and when the masterenters into angrydialogue with his mount,that is sheer farce. All thistime Balaam has not seen theangel of theLord, who now appearsand rebukesBalaam forbeating the ass threetimes; she has recognizedthe angel and turnedout of the paththree times, and ifshe had not done so, the angel would have killed Balaam and saved the ass (22: 31-33). Saved by an ass! What a humiliatingrescue for the great foreign sage. At thisBalaam abjectlybegs forgive- ness,saying that he did not know thatthe angel of the Lord was standingin his way; he proposesto turnround obediently and go straighthome. The angelnow instructshim to pursuehis journey, but only to speak the words thathe, the angelof the Lord,gives him to speak. Afterthis Balaam meetsKing Balak,and warnshim thathe can onlyspeak the words thatthe Lord will put in his mouth. Three timesKing Balak triesto persuadehim to curseIsrael, three times when Balaam opens his mouthglorious

This content downloaded from 130.58.64.71 on Sun, 24 Mar 2013 17:16:50 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions 414 MARY DOUGLAS praisesand blessingson Israelpour out. The lasttime Balaam repeatsthe words of his greeting,that he would not,for any amount of gold or ,be able to go beyond the word of the Lord. King Balak then dismisseshim in disgust(24: 10-11). Beforegoing home Balaam givesthree more oracles,praising and bless- ing Israeland foretellingthe downfallof Moab (21: 15-24). The storyis over, King Balak goes to hisplace and Balaam goes to his. Only later(31: 8, 16) do we learnthe sequel. Balaam taughtthe women of Moab to deceivethe men of Israeland lead theminto apostasy.For thatsin was he killed.There have been no signsso farthat Balaam was not a god-fearing, honestman. We can see no reasonto doubt the sincerityof his protestsand apologies.Foolish, yes, but not sinister:true, he failedto see the angel,but then the angel did not reveal himselfto him, so thatwas not reallyhis fault.He punctiliouslysaid thathe would utteronly what the Lord tellshim, and thathe could not cursea people who have been blessed;was thatnot praiseworthy?He repentedwhen the angel told him he was wrong. In spite of all this correct behaviour,the Jewishtradition is thatBalaam was greedyfor the wealth that KingBalak promisedhim (de Vaulx 1972: 263). Since he could not earnthe gold and silverby cursingMoab's enemy,he used his magician'sart to teach the women of Moab to seducethe men of Israel.On ' word,no less,we learn in chapter31 that the idolatrydescribed in chapter25 was the outcome of Balaam's wiles. Is theresomething that we have missedin the storythat would justifythis reputation for wickedness?

Variousinterpretations Balaam goes down in historyas a treacherous,corrupt magician.3 Though he actuallyblessed Israel, he getsno creditfor that. The onlygood word forhim is fromMicah (6: 3-5). He is otherwiseremembered as the prophetwho would have sold Israelto theKing of Moab had God not circumventedhim. Deuteron- omy impliesthat he did uttersome curse againstIsrael, to which God in his mercyrefused to listen(Deut. 23: 4-5). Joshuarepeats this Josh.24: 9-10). But as faras we are told in the story,Balaam never pronouncedany curse. The Christianinterpretation is just as hardon him. Peter counted him among false ,castigating him forhis love of gain (: 14-15). Jude put Ba- laam'steaching in thesame bracket as 'the way of Cain' Jude11). In Revelation Balaam dwellsnear 's throne (Rev. 2: 14). When did he do thesebad things?When did he meet the Moabite women? We are not told.We are toldthat when he setout on hisass God was angrywith him and barredhis way. But why was God angry?We are not told. The story temptsus to conclude thatGod has not been completelystraightforward in his instructionsto Balaam. Was God actingcapriciously? The Westernreader might well feelsorry for a good name slandered,and ask why,if it is calumny,is it so bitter?How are we to accountfor this slightly ridiculous anti-hero becoming a monsterof evil in earlybiblical interpretation? Let us assumethat the questionis worthasking. If theBook of Numbersis as confused,incoherent and inconsequentialas some commentatorshave supposed

This content downloaded from 130.58.64.71 on Sun, 24 Mar 2013 17:16:50 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions MARY DOUGLAS 415 (Eissfeldt1965; Noth 1968; and fora summary,see Wenham 1981),4 thereis no pointin interrogatingit for meaning. However, if some principleof selection was used by the priestlyeditors, the questionstands: Why was thisstory selected for inclusion?Why thesatire? Who is beingsatirized? First,is his storythere as a moralallegory? The difficultyhere is thatit is not clearthat Balaam deservesthe harshjudgement of posterity.'Saint or sinner?'is the titleof Milgrom'sessay on Balaam in his magisterialcommentary on Numbers(Milgrom 1990: 469-71). Allegoricalinterpretation of the Bible is a long establishedtradition (Pepin 1976), and moralallegory still flourished in the nineteenth-centurycomment (Cox 1884; Chandler 1891) as well as now in folklore.However, I will arguethat from the storyitself it is perfectlyclear that the characterof Balaam is unequivocallybad. His moralsare not at issue. Inter- pretationdoes not have to worryon thatscore. He could well be thereto teach a moral. Then considerthe historicalapproach. Assuming Balaam was a real , livingwhere he was saidto live,archaeologists have foundinteresting inscriptions with the name of 'Balaam the magician'.A plastertext found at Deir 'Alla in 1967 has been subjectedto scrupulousanalysis of fragments(Hackett 1984). However,the historicityof Balaam is a questionthat hardly helps with interpre- tingthe story.If the editorshad any literaryskills, we can suppose theywere capable of archaizingtheir style, or at leastwe can suppose thatthey selected archaicbits of historyor legendfor their own theologicalpurposes. The question remains:why should they want this particular folk tale from early Israel or pre-Is- rael in theirtreatise? To know whereor when the bitsof it were garnereddoes not answerthat. Not everythingthat really happened on themarch of thepeople of Israelto thepromised land could be recordedin theBible. Then thereis theliterary analysis which links the story to therest of theBible. The callingof Balaam by King Balak echoes othercallings of greatprophets by kingsin theBible. Balaam resemblesthe prophet who alwaysprophesied evil to the King of Israel(1 K.22: 9). There is the close similaritybetween the beginningof Balaam's dealingswith Balak and the beginningof 's dealings with King Ahazia, also at war with Moab (2 K.1). In both cases the bad king sendshis messengersto theprophet, who twicerefuses to go withthem. When, the thirdtime, he does go, the king who soughtto employhim comes to a disastrousend. The storyalso hasperverse echoes ofElisha's delivery of theKing of Moab into the handsof Israel(2 K.3: 16). Can Balaam be read as a structural oppositeof ? The most fascinatingof the literaryanalyses treats the Balaam narrativeas a satiricalinversion of the storyof the bindingof Isaac (Safran1988). Abraham calledby God roseup earlyand saddledhis ass,Balaam calledby King Balak rose in the morningand saddledhis ass; both took two servants;Abraham was obe- dient,for love of God, Balaamwas disobedient,for hate of Israel.In each case the angel appearedand cancelledwhat had been taken to be God's intentionas understoodby theprotagonists, for Abraham understood he had been instructed to sacrificehis beloved son, and Balaam understoodthat he could go with the messengersand offeredto go back when he learntfrom the angel thathe had done wrong.Abraham took up his knifeto killhis son (Gen. 22: 6) and Balaam

This content downloaded from 130.58.64.71 on Sun, 24 Mar 2013 17:16:50 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions 416 MARY DOUGLAS wanted to kill his ass with a .J.D. Safran,who developed thisparallel, observesthat in Abraham'sstory the ass is passiveand a minorcharacter, while the ass in Balaam'sstory is a majorcharacter, possessing will and intelligenceand able to discerndivine revelation. We could go furtherand see a parallelbetween Isaac who is carryingthe load of wood forhis own sacrifice,and Balaam's beast of burdenwho recognisesthe angelof the Lord; Isaac who is saved by the angel fromhis father'sknife and the ass whom the angel saved fromBalaam's sword, and whom the angelwould have savedfrom God's angerif the Lord had killed Balaam. Safranmentions another analysis which proposes that the ass's storyis a burl- esque of Balaam, insertedto ridiculethe foreignseer who mightotherwise be thoughtto have too sympathetica character(Rofe 1979). Thus we have two levelsof reference,one insidethe other:the ass satirizingBalaam, and Balaam's disobediencepresented as a 'reflection'or mirrorof Abraham'sobedience. The meaningof the storywould be a self-containedliterary conceit, an embellish- mentof Abraham'sstory. However, when the normaluses of thisart form are bornein mind,a furtherlevel of interpretationneeds to be explored.It is possible thatthe storyis a greatdeal morecentral for developing the themeof the Book of Numbersitself.

The rhetoricofthe story within the story A differentthesis is here proposed,arguing that the ass's storybears a strong politicalmessage. The storyof Balaam is alreadya playwithin the play,like the play withinthe play in Hamlet,or like the storyin the storyin manysimilar legends(Finnegan 1992; Babcock 1977). It also hasits own storywithin itself, the ass's story.Numbers exemplifies a high degreeof literarysophistication. So far frombeing contradictory,confused, incoherent as some commentatorshave foundit, the oppositeis nearerthe markfor the Book of Numbers.A work of consummateartistry, it comes up to the higheststandards of literaryelegance of the timeand region,a masterpiecein an archaicliterary genre. Nothing is there by accident,so a storymapped on to Isaac'sbinding is ofparamount significance. The ass's storyunderlines Balaam's story,and Balaam's storyunderlines Ab- raham'sand Isaac's story:what is all thisemphasis for? The argumentadvanced here is thatall threelevels point a politicalmoral for the time of the redaction. Some partof the argumentdepends on acceptingthat the Book of Numbersis a highlycontrived, elaborately balanced, literary composition according to the higheststandards of writingof theperiod. Numbersis an exampleof the so-calledring composition used by Hesiod in the Theogonies,as recentlydisplayed by RichardHamilton (1989). Theogoniesis a work which has sufferedcriticism similar to thatlevelled against Numbers as to itsunity and as to theauthenticity of various passages. The structureof Homer is verycomparable (Whitman 1958), and some of Pindar'sodes (Greengard1980). In thisliterary form the prologue announcesthe whole theme in brief,then followdiscrete sections developing the theme,until a clearclimax is reachedat a midwaypoint. The climaxresponds directly to theprologue and repeatssome of

This content downloaded from 130.58.64.71 on Sun, 24 Mar 2013 17:16:50 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions MARY DOUGLAS 417 the key words and deals with the problemsraised there. After the climax,the storyteller (or poet) takes the same route back to the beginning,each new sectionproducing a new contextfor responding to the sectionto whichit stands in apposition.5The movementof returnafter the climax brings each sectioninto parallelwith its opposite in thefirst section. At the end thewhole workhas been led back to itsbeginning. The compositioncloses by deliveringa responseto the opening theme,resolving any remainingproblems about what it may mean; hencethe name of 'ringcomposition', though the structure is morelike a musical melodythan a ring.In respondingto thebeginning, the last section responds also to the climax,recalling the dilemmasresolved and the conflictsreconciled.6 This rhetoricalform calls for greatartistic control. It is subject to formal conventionsand deploysself-referencing literary conceits. For the readeror lis- tenerwho triesto keep trackof the ingeniouslycontrived lateral reading it gives intensepleasure. Curiosity is incitedabout how the poet is going to solve the technicalproblems. Admiration is rousedfor the inventiveand oftenwitty solu- tions.The acrosticform compels a saluteto the skillswhich have achievedit all and yet contrivedto conceal the art.The enjoymentis of the same orderas the pleasureof a sonnetor play. Numbers revealsitself to be a compositionof this kind by its scheme of alternatingsections,7 a storysection alternating with a law section,thirteen sec- tions in all, divided in the middle at the seventh section. The internal constructionmakes each of thestory sections in thesecond half respond to issues raised in the correspondingstory section in the firsthalf. Even the storyof Balaam is a ringwith an internalstructure of parallelrungs. It is opened and closed by the Lord's command,'You shallsay only the words I put into your mouth',given at the beginningand duly repeatedby Balaam at the midpoint when he firstmeets the king,and againat the end. As to the ladderform of the internalstructure, Balaam's three refusals to obey theangel on thepath pair with the threeblessings on Israelwhich the Lord bringsout of his mouth,and these withthe threeprophecies against Israel's enemies with which he concludes. A storywithin a storyhas certaindistinguishing signs. First, the contextis completelyframed. It is a narrativeinterrupting the main text, a digression,often a recitalby one of the charactersor a framed-offscene in a picture.In the Iliad in Book 8, Achilles'sshield made forhim at his mother'srequest by the god, Hephaestes,is a metonymicimage of this kind. Six scenesare engravedon it. The firstpresents two cities,one undersiege by the other;the besiegedwarriors have rashlystrayed outside the citywalls and are about to be caughtby theirenemies, a pictureof the plightof Troy besiegedby the Greeks;the second is of cattle aboutto be attackedby a ferociouslion, against whom theherdsmen are helpless, an image of Achilleshimself, and so on; the last scenes are idyllicimages of pastorallife. In the Aeneid, the same literarydevice is presentedfor similar self-referencingpurposes: Aeneas's shield made forhim by Vulcanat hismother's request,in Book 8, has engravedon it a seriesof prophecies for the future history of Italy.In each of thesecases the synecdochaldevice refersthe readerto the centraltheme of the epic; it is no mereembellishment, but a strongreminder of the mainpurport of thepoem.

This content downloaded from 130.58.64.71 on Sun, 24 Mar 2013 17:16:50 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions 418 MARY DOUGLAS IdentifyingBalaam's story as a storywithin a storyexplains one of the curious points observedby commentators,that it is so firmlycut offfrom the main narrative.It is stagedin a charmedworld governedby the fairy-talestyle of three-times-three:the messengersinvite Balaam to go to Moab threetimes; the ass turnsaside three times; Balaam strikes her three times; the king invites Balaam to cursethree times (23: 1-10; 23: 13-24; 24: 2-9), and he blessesthree times; his finalprophecy has threeparts (24: 15-24 ). These trifoldrepetitions alert us to a double insertion;first there is the book of Moses, theninside that, the storyof Balaam,and insidethat again, the story of the talking ass, a humbleversion of the noble steedswho warnor admonishtheir riders in ancientepics. The storywithin the storycan be recognisedby being self-containedin its own virtualspace and time,with its own dramatispersonae. In the case of the pictureson theheroes' shields, there is no spatialor temporalcontinuity at all. In the case ofBalaam, the temporal sequence of thehistory of thepeople of Israelis suspendedwhile we engagewith a new setof characters.The space coversa long mysteriousjourney to King Balak; furtherstrange spatial effects are created(Mil- grom1990: 469) by the changeof scene on thejourney and the changesof view thatBalak arrangesfor Balaam from different mountain tops. Commentators who have triedto followthese geographic indications have been unsuccessfulin locat- ing theplaces on the map. The functionof synecdocheis to containthe whole in a part.It is a distanced and condensedsummary of the maintheme. To know whatthe storyof Balaam is doingin theBook of Numbers,we thereforeneed to know themain theme of the book. Or because the whole is in the part,the storyof Balaam may be allowed to pointfor us the meaningof the book, and the book will tell us who is beingsatirized. The nextstep will be to readvery carefully everything that God says,and particularlyto studythe words that he putsin Balaam's mouth.

Cursingand blessing In the beginningof Numbers(chapters 1-4), the Lord tellsMoses to count the people of Israelby tribes,but only to count those tribeswhich will bear arms. The Levitesare called to servearound the tabernacle,and much laterwe learn thatthey are not heirsto the land (Num. 18: 20-21). The second censusof the tribesis expresslyfor partitioning the land, and thistime again the Levitesare countedseparately and thesame reasongiven, that they will have no inheritance (26: 62). Though theprologue does not mentionland rights,it is made clearthat the Lord'spromise of land forthe descendantsof Abrahamis whatthe counting is about.Telling Moses how theyare to standon foursides of the tabernacle,the Lord describesa diagramthat serves as a paradigmfor the whole book. The book is about thepromise. The firstpart of the messageis thatall the sons ofJacobare the heirs,except the Levites.Supporting this is the second message,that all the Lord'spromises are fulfilled,all theprophecies made in hisname have come true. It is well in line withthe book's interestin prophecythat Balaam as the mouth- piece of theLord repeatsthe old propheciesand utterssome new ones.

This content downloaded from 130.58.64.71 on Sun, 24 Mar 2013 17:16:50 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions MARY DOUGLAS 419 Considerin thiscontext the conversationsbetween the Lord and Balaam in Balaam'shouse. They suggestan explanationfor why we, afterreading the story, giveBalaam a good character,while the contemporaryreaders of the same story gave him a bad character.We also need to explainwhy God seemsto us to have acted capriciouslywith Balaam, telling him to go withthe men and thenbeing angrythat he wentwith them. The firsttime that Balaam consultedthe Lord, he was told: Thou shaltnot go with them,thou shaltnot curse the people, forthey are blest (22: 12). This was clearenough and Balaam accordinglydismissed the messengers,saying thatthe Lord had refusedto give him leave to go with them.Next time they came,pressing the invitationwith promises of even greaterreward, but without even consultingthe Lord, Balaam answeredthem, no. But he immediatelyin- vitedthem to stayovernight so thathe could consultthe Lord again. And now the Lord gave him what seemsto be an ambiguousanswer: 'If the men ask you again,go with them,but you can say only the wordswhich I shallsay to you' (22: 20), literally:'But theword/thing that I speakto you, you will do it' ( Goodman'stranslation). Balaam goes withthem, and theLord is angry.Evidently thereis somethingthat we are missingbetween the Lord's firstrefusal and his second, perhapsgrudging, permission. This is where anthropologymay have somethinghelpful to sayabout blessings and curses. Reportingback to the messengersof Balak, Balaam nevertold themthat he had discoveredthat the people of Israelwere blessed.If he had, theymight have suspectedthat they were wastingtheir time and would not have stayedfor the resultsof the consultation.That is, theywould have known the dubiousnessof proceedingto cursea people whom the Lord had blessed.Or perhaps,as they were only messengers,they might have takenthe chance. But Balaam knew: eitherthe people of Israelwere availableto be cursed,in which case Balaam could accept the fee and tryto curse them,or theywere blessed.A delicate theologicalpoint turns on Balaam'srecognition of Israel'sGod. The unrecorded consultationwould have had to take the formof askingthe Lord whetherthey were reallyblessed, and whetherthe Lord mightbe persuadedto liftthe blessing. The Lord would have declaredagain thatthey were reallyblessed. That would explainwhy he was angrywith Balaam when in theend he did go withthe men. Balaam'sdeceitfulness and love ofgain would havebeen apparentto anyonewho knew whata blessingmeant. We maythink of a blessingas a hopefulform of words,an incantationwhich mayor may not be efficacious.But in the regionof Mesopotamiaand Canaan a blessingmeant calling on God for a protectionwhich amountedto complete transformationof the blessedperson's prospects. It was not like a coat of paint whichcould subsequentlybe scrubbedoff or painteda differentcolour by some- one else. Any blessingthat was acceptedby the Lord was fixed,unless the Lord removedit and himselfallowed a curse.A blessinghad the solidityand projecti- bilityof a covenant.Moreover, from the storyof Esau andJacob we know that it was a thingthat could be stolen,and once uttered,it could not be altered(Gen: 27). Now, reflectingon thenature of blessing, we realisewhy the story of Balaam was peggedout on the storyof the bindingof Isaac. All the readersof Numbers would know thatin Genesis the angel of the Lord blessed Abrahamfor his

This content downloaded from 130.58.64.71 on Sun, 24 Mar 2013 17:16:50 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions 420 MARY DOUGLAS obedience in the bindingof Isaac (Gen. 22: 15-18 ), and thatthe Lord blessed Isaac (Gen. 6: 2-5). These reflectionssupport the traditionalinterpretation that God could read Balaam'sheart and knew thatBalaam was secretlydetermined to get the feesfor damagingIsrael even ifhe could not curseher. If King Balak and his messengers did not know the supremacyof the one God, Balaam knew. If King Balak wantedto pit thepower ofBalaam's magic against God's blessing,Balaam knew thatit could not be done. When he met King Balak he affirmedthat he could speak only words thatthe Lord put into his mouth (22: 38). Outsidersto the traditionmight construe this disclaimer as honestyon hispart, but insiderswould know thathe said it because the Lord had put thatinto his mouth as well as everythingelse he was to say.When the Lord, on theirsecond consultation(22: 20), said 'If themen come again,rise up and go withthem, but you will onlydo the words which I shall say to you', it was not an injunction.It was less a commandwhich Balaam had to obey thaninformation: the Lord wasjust telling himwhat was goingto happen.Because Israelwas blessed,the journey would be fruitlessboth forKing Balak's wish to damage Israeland forBalaam's wish for pecuniaryreward. So his settingoff with the men was a blatantact of deception. This, I submit,settles the questionof Balaam's moralworth. We shouldnot have been surprisedto readlater that he wenton tryingto deliverIsrael into the handsof Moab. Balaam was not only a comic figurebut a wicked one as well. The mode of thepantomime villain becomes him better at everystep. The string of famousblessings and propheciesthat spouted from his mouthevery time he opened it to cursewould have evokedonly merriment from the instructed public forwhom Numberswas written.It is somewhatlike the funin the Frenchand Germanfairy tales when a personwith a spellcast on him has gold, or frogs,or a stringof nonsensecome out of his mouth.And now we know why his words came out in the formof divinepoetry, more beautifuleven thanthe restof the Book of Moses, theywere wordsof the Lord's own composing.

Jacob'sblessings on hissons The firstthing Balaam says is, 'How shallI cursewhom God hathnot cursed?Or how shallI defywhom theLord hathnot defied?'(Num.23: 7-8). He goes on to quote Genesiswhere in Jacob'sdream the Lord said: I am the Lord God of Abraham,thy father, and the God of Isaac: the land whereon thou liest, to thee I will give it, and to thyseed; and thyseed shallbe as the dust of the earth,and thou shall spreadabroad to the west, and to the east, and to the northand to the south (Gen. 28: 13-14). The versionthat comes out of Balaam'smouth repeats the referenceto dustand indicatesthe four directions named in the text: Who can count the dust of Jacob and the number of the fourthpart of Israel! (Num. 23: 8-10). When he has finishedgiving this first prophecy, King Balak complainsthat he hiredBalaam to cursehis enemies,not to blessthem (Num. 23: 11). Next timeBalaam opens his mouthhe uttersan amalgamof Moses' blessing on Josephand Jacob's deathbed blessings on Judah.He says:

This content downloaded from 130.58.64.71 on Sun, 24 Mar 2013 17:16:50 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions MARY DOUGLAS 421

The Lord theirGod is with them,and the shout of a king is among them. God bringsthem out of ; they have as it were, the horns of the wild ox. For thereis no enchantment againstJacob, no divinationagainst Israel; now it shall be said of Jacob and Israel,What has God wrought!Behold, a people! As a lionessit risesup and as a lion it liftsitself; it does not lie down till it devoursthe preyand drinksthe blood of the slain (Num. 23: 22-24). It is worthnoting that the referenceto 'hornsof the wild ox' actuallyrepeats Moses' own blessingon : ... prince among his brothers.His firstlingbull has majesty,and his horns are the hornsof a wild ox; with them he shallpush the peoples, all of them,to the ends of the earth;such are the ten thousandsof Ephraim,and such are the thousandsof Manasseh (Deut. 33: 16-17). ComparingIsrael to a lion and to a lionessechoes Jacob: Judah is a lion's whelp; fromthe prey,my son, you have gone up. He stooped down, he couched as a lion, and as a lioness;who daresrouse him? (Gen. 49: 9). The Moabite kingnow makesBalaam have a thirdtry. Balaam liftsup his eyes and sees Israelcamping, 'tribe by tribe',perhaps in the orderwhich has been decreedin thebeginning of Numbers.He says: How fairare your tents,0 Jacob,your encampments,0 Israel! Like valleysthat stretch afar, like gardensbeside a river,like aloes that the Lord has planted,like cedar trees beside the waters.Water shall flow fromhis buckets,and his seed shall be in many waters,his kingdom higherthan , and his kingdomshall be exalted.God bringshim out of Egypt;and he has, as it were, the hornsof the wild ox, he shall eat up the nationshis adversaries,and shallbreak theirbones in pieces, and pierce them throughwith arrows.He couched, he lay down like a lion, and like a lioness; who will rouse him up? Blessed be everyonewho blessesyou and cursedbe everyonewho cursesyou (Num. 24: 5-9). Since bothhave now been repeated,we are safein assumingthere was nothing haphazardin the earliermention of the lion and the wild ox. Balaam has also quoted two of the old blessingson Joseph,for the gardensand watersrecall Jacob's blessingon him.8The last blessingpicks up the opening theme with which the storybegan, King Balak's wish to have Israelcursed. But ominously forKing Balak,Balaam has repeatedthe Lord'svery first words to Abraham: And I will bless them thatbless you, and curse him thatcurses you (Gen. 12: 3). They are also the verysame words which Isaac used to blessJacob: Cursed be everyonewho cursesyou and blessedbe everyonewho blessesyou (Gen. 27: 29; and see Exodus 23:22). KingBalak at lastgives up and dismissesBalaam angrily.Balaam deliversa parting oracle in which he roundlycurses Moab, Edom, Amalekand the Kenites,and foretellsthe destructionof the Assyrianempire. He also gives a slightlyaltered versionof Jacob's messianicprophecy, saying: A starshall come forthout of Jacob,and a sceptreshall rise out of Israel(Num. 24: 17). Rememberthat it is not Balaam who is sayingthese things, he isjust the Lord'spassive mouthpiece. The authoris theLord himselfBeware of readingBalaam's prophecies without close attentionto theoriginals. The firstquick interpretationwould be thatBalaam has simplyparaphrased the messianic prophecy to Judah which was: The sceptreshall not departfrom Judah, nor the ruler'sstaff from between his feet (Gen. 49: 10). But look, Balaam has not faithfullyquoted Jacob word forword. Jacob had said thesceptre was forJudah,and he had reserveda differentblessing forJoseph. Out of Balaam's mouth the Lord has said thatthe sceptrewas in Israel,comprising

This content downloaded from 130.58.64.71 on Sun, 24 Mar 2013 17:16:50 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions 422 MARY DOUGLAS bothJoseph and Judah. Is thisan accident?Has the editorbeen caughtnodding? Did Balaam make a misquote?Dare we ask, did the Lord speakingthrough Balaam misrememberor makea muddle?Jacob gave differentblessings to Joseph andJudah,but Balaam amalgamated them and bestowedthem on Israel.It is clear thatin doingso he was not givingthe blessing to the NorthernKingdom, under the head of 'Israel',for one of his rhetoricalturns is alwaysto name bothJacob and Israel,the one wheneverhe namesthe other.When Balaam uses the word Israelit is neverin contrastwith Judah; the namesJacob and Israelare put in apposition: Come curseJacob, come denounce Israel!(Num. 23: 7); He has not beheld misfortunein Jacob,nor has he seen troublein Israel (23: 21, 23); How fairare your tents,0 Jacob,your encampments,0 Israel (24: 5). In his vocabularyJacob and Israelare one. In arguingthat the blessingthat falls fromhis mouthis a blessingfor the whole of Jacob,that is, forthe whole of Israel,we are followingWilliamson's chapter on the usage in Chroniclesof the word 'Israel' (Williamson1977). Note also thatBalaam nevermentions Judah at all, but alwaysputs Israel and Jacob together.9 Interpretingthese oracles an anthropologistis inclinedto respectthe integrity of thetext. If the Lord, speaking through Balaam, misquoted Jacob's blessing, we shouldgive him the benefitof the doubt: he did not make a slip. Nor was the editorcareless. In case thereader is bemusedabout thevalue of Balaam'ssayings, he has been giventhe greatsaying: God is not a man that he should lie; neitherthe son of man, thathe should repent.Has he said, and shallhe not do it? (Num. 23: 19). This puts the storysquarely back into the theme of Numbers. The ancient prophecieshave come trueand God's promiseshave been kept.Those promises whose timefor fulfilment has not yetcome will be fulfilled.Cursing the Canaa- nites,Balaam revivesthe curses in Genesisagainst 's progeny,and especially the curseagainst Canaan, the childof Ham (Gen. 10). Balaam'sprophecy of the doom of Moab (24: 17) is fullyin line with the enmityto Moab shown in the restof Numbers.Within the scope of the book both were true prophecies. Canaan had been routed.Moab shortlywas to lose itsallies, 'five kings and theirarmies destroyed (Num. 31: 8), in the battlein which Balaam was killed.So whydid Balaam amalgamatethe blessings on Judahand Joseph?

Problemsof the post-exilic community Anthropologiststend to assumethat the timehorizons deployed in a theological treatiseinclude the immediatepolitical scene. Eternityis the time scale that makesit theology.The cosmogonystarts with the originsof the universe,ex- plainsand weighsall humanaction on the scale of the eternallaws. In between eternityand the beginningthere is the present.A theologyis alwayspolitical. What elsewould provokethe writing of a theologicaltreatise but an overwhelm- ing senseof present wrong and possibleright? The politicalscene will giveus the contextof Numbers.

This content downloaded from 130.58.64.71 on Sun, 24 Mar 2013 17:16:50 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions MARY DOUGLAS 423 The book is aboutthe promise and theinheritance of land. Ifwe takethe early post-exilicperiod as thetime of redaction, there was an acuteproblem about land rights.The returnedexiles from Babylon wanted their land back,but the people who had been cultivatingit, and passingit down in inheritancefor over fifty years,would not wantto be evicted.That problemalone was enoughto destroy a smallcommunity. Then therewere problemsof foreignpolicy. The books of Ezra and Nehemiahprovide a confusingsource of documentationfor the early post-exilicperiod. Such is thedifficulty of co-ordinatingthe events purporting to be the same in the two books thatit has even been suggested'that Ezra never existed,his personis the ad hoccreation of the redactorsof the two books, the Chronicleror whoever,who soughtin thisway to legitimatetheir own theory of what musthave been the composition,the organisationand the faithof the new communityof the restoration'(Soggin 1985: 276, quotingC.C. Torrey's theoryof 1910). However, havingintroduced this thought, Soggin goes on to add thatthe arguments in supportof such a radicaltheory are not conclusive.But on one point the books of Ezra and Nehemiah are convincing:that a stateof mutualespionage was maintainedbetween the differentPersian provinces. As colonialadministrators Nehemiah and Ezra felt,probably with reason, that they were victimsof conspiracy.Moab, Edom and Samariawere the threedangerous neighboursfor foreign policy to beware.Moab was the powerfulPersian prov- ince on Judah'seastern border. Edom, latercalled Idumea,was a rivalprovince on thesouthern border, claiming common descent from Abraham's father. Most threateningneighbour of all was Samaria,the remnantof the old Northern Kingdom,richer, more populous, and politicallybetter placed. Samariawas now a separatePersian province, and untilvery recently, had been the Persianprov- ince withinwhich Judah was included. 'The Northernersand the Samaritansunder Sanballathad more power in Palestineduring the entirePersian period than the in ,simply because the LieutenantGovernor rules from Shechem. The remainderof the House ofJoseph,along withthe opponentsofJerusalem, and the ones excluded duringthe lifetime of Ezra, outnumberedthe Jews ofJerusalem even up tillthe timeof the Greeks'(Bowman 1975). It is not surprisingthat the Books of Ezra and Nehemiahexpress deep anxietyabout conspiracies against Israel fomented by Sanballat,the governor of Samaria. In tryingto curtailhis ambitions the governor of Judahwould have wanted to stressthe authenticityof the religionof his province,and the falseclaims of othergroups of alleged 'Jews'.In thisway the land problemand the foreignrelations problem become enmeshedwith religion when theleaders of the Samarian community inJudah claimed a rightto help the rebuildingof the temple. Let us build with you, forwe worshipyour God as you do, and we have been sacrificingto him ever since the days of Esar-Haddon,King of ,who broughtus here (Ezra 4: 2). Who but the sons ofJoseph would worshipthe God of Israel?The provincial administratorvehemently rejected their offer, insisting that 'we alone will build to the Lord,the God of Israel,as King Cyrusthe kingof Persiahas commanded us' (Ezra 4: 1-3). He had been empoweredby the Persianking to appoint magistratesand judges, withauthority for life and death,banishment, imprison- mentor confiscationof property.These powerswere to be used againstanyone

This content downloaded from 130.58.64.71 on Sun, 24 Mar 2013 17:16:50 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions 424 MARY DOUGLAS who 'will not obey the law of your God?' (Ezra 7: 25-28). But who was going to decide whatthe law of God required?It would have been in orderfor Ezra to referthese religious claims to the ChiefPriest, but he based his decisionon the authorityof the King of Persia,and thereafterhe preached,instituted religious festivalsand declaimedthe law of God on his own authority. The governorheld thathis outrightrejection of the requestof the Samarian communitywas the beginningof conspiraciesagainst the governmentby the 'people of the land' (Ezra 4: 4-5). As the storyunfolds, we are leftto inferthat the partyof the Babylonianreturners were the only adherentsto the truefaith. When Ezra and Nehemiah referredto 'all the congregationof Israel' or 'the people of Israel' the categorywere the descendantsof Jacob, not even all of Judah,but thosefrom Judah who had come back fromexile, 'the childrenof the captivity'(Ezra 7: 16, 19-21; 10:16). He furtherimplied that everyone who had not been in exile was suspectedof idolatry,and made the testof idolatrytheir obedience to his decree that any of the congregationof Israel marriedto a foreignershould rejecttheir wives and offspring.If theyrefused, they would forfeitall thatthey possessed (Ezra 9: 10-15; 10: 7-8). Foreignwives would have been fromfamilies of the politicalopposition, the people of the land, including the immigrantpeople of Samaria. The questionfor our interpretingthe politicsof the day was partlywhether thereexisted a sizableEphraimite community in Judah at thattime, and whether the communitythat offered to sharein rebuildingthe temple were Samarians.As to itssize, Coggins(1989) warnsus againstbelieving the exaggeratedaccounts of populationdisplacements caused by Assyrianand otherconquerors' resettlement policies.On the otherhand, Cogan (1988) arguesfrom Nehemiah (Neh. 13: 28) that therewould certainlyhave been in Jerusalema Jewishcommunity tllat admittedSamarians to theirsociety and allowed theirsons to marrySamarian women. And we shouldbe preparedto findthat they would disagreeabout the governmentpolicy against them. The politicaldealings of thepost-exilic community with Samaria were soured not onlyby Samaria'sstronger position in relationto the Persianauthorities, but also by thehistoric rivalry between the Northern and theSouthern Kingdoms. In the sixthto fifthcenturies, Judah consideredSamaria given over to idolatry. Samariaconsidered that she was faithfulto the old formsof worship,apparently with somejustice, according to JohnBowman, who describesSamaria as 'This much insultedand frequentlymisunderstood community' (Bowman 1975). EventuallySamaria, the territoryof the Ephraimitesand the tribeof Manasseh, repeatedlyrejected by the returnersin the second templeperiod, struck out on her own and institutedher own temple(Talmon 1986: 165-201). In all but one aspectof theology the Samarians were orthodox:monotheistic, aniconic, circum- cisingand observing(Coggins 1975: 132-6). This one aspect,which rousedso much hostility,was in itselfdue to the rivalrybetween the two cultic centres,Judah in Jerusalem, and Samariain Gerizim.To add to the religiousand politicaltension, immigrants from other parts of the regionhad been settledin Samariafollowing the colonial policy of transferringthe populationsof con- queredregions, so thepopulation was ethnicallymixed.

This content downloaded from 130.58.64.71 on Sun, 24 Mar 2013 17:16:50 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions MARY DOUGLAS 425 To solve theland problem, two policieswere mooted.One policywas simply to reappropriatethe land,without compensation. This was the solutionof Ezra. The priestlypolicy is writtenin Leviticus25, on the law of the Jubilee.This solutionwas based on the ancientrule that anyone who had boughtland when the owner was in financialdistress should allow the kin or descendantsof the sellerto redeemit. The priestlysolution required compensation to those who had been farmingthe land. Taken separately,the interpretationsoffered here of thepolicies of Ezra and Nehemiahon theone hand,and of thepriestly editors of Leviticusand Numberson the other,are probablyuncontroversial. The novelty in thisinterpretation is the idea thatthe priestlybooks writingabout land had referenceto a currentproblem about land holding.But the anthropological interpretationof a theologicalstatement always seeks its contemporarypolitical context.10 Taken at face value, Ezra and Nehemiah were good men, ardentin their defenceof religion.But takenas politicians,they appear to be primarilycon- cerned to keep a good name with theirPersian overlords and keep Samaria, and Moab at a distance.They also had to deal with the land problem, theirown supporterspressing for redistribution. Skilfully combining accusations of defilementwith an exclusionaryforeign policy, Ezra solved the land problem in favourof the returnedexiles by dispossessinghis politicalopponents, without compensation.The governmentparty had theirown priestlysupporters regis- teredas fulldescendants from the line of , but therewere otherpriests who had stayedbehind and who were not beingconsulted. The Chroniclerdisagreed withtheir isolationist policy (Stern 1976). It is unlikelythat all thepriests would have been of one mindabout welcomingthe returnersor acceptingtheir claims to be the unique exponentsof the faith,or about definingthe boundaryof the congregation.As to the properrelation between Judah and the descendantsof Joseph,'s oraclesare evidence thatthe views of the governmentwere contested.The allegedadversaries ofJudah, the people of the land,were neigh- bours,allied by marriageto the restof the congregation,old friends.There was also a matterof doctrine.Samarian traditions maintained that Ezra had changed both the scriptand the contentof the (EncyclopediaJudaica). There was plentyof cause forpriestly opposition to the government.Some priestscould have foreseenthat conflict with Samaria would be bad foreignpolicy.

Balaam as politicalsatire The path is clearedfor reading Balaam's storyas a politicalsatire. Each of the threemain protagonists of thestory may be seen as a playerin thepolitical scene in post-exilicJudah. Balaam is a brilliantpastiche of a colonialgovernor, flourish- ing hisbig stick,beating up thepeople, making threats of worse violence (if only he had a sword).The name Balaam can be read to suggest'Lord of the people', a pun on names for which Bible readersshould be prepared(Garsiel 1991). Nehemiahcould be themodel, but Ezra or anyadministrator would fitwho used thebacking of Persia to imposehis party's policy. King Balak, whose namemeans 'destruction',would be a distant,idolatrous ruler, say Nebuchadnezzar or kingof

This content downloaded from 130.58.64.71 on Sun, 24 Mar 2013 17:16:50 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions 426 MARY DOUGLAS Persia,ignorant of the Lord's power to bless.The storywithin the storyworks verywell as a politicalparody, emanating from a priestlyfaction opposed to governmentexclusionary policies. If Balaam is an anti-governmentsatire, Numbers would have had an anti- governmentpolitical programme. Although Numbers has clothedits message in the antiquegarments and literaryconventions of a pastoralidyll, seeming to be above and beyondpolitics, it has gone to greatlengths to count all the sons of Jacob,naming and numberingtribes which had ceasedto existfor centuries, ever sincethe timeof . Why would Moses' repeatedcensuses of heirsto the land be so importantat the timeof editing?The onlytribes remaining to theday of editingwere Judah, Ephraim and the remnantof , but theland issue affectedthem very closely. 'The land' hasa straightconcrete meaning: 'the land' whichthe Lord promised to the descendantsof Abraham,of which the idolatrousCanaanites were to be dispossessed.Within that meaning there is thesense of the whole land,that is to saythe territory of Israel,and thereis also the othersense of the territoryof each tribe.And then thereis the even more local sense thatcomprises house plots, vineyards,pastures, to whicheach householdwould make a claim.Finally, there is the eschatologicalmeaning, the land of the promise,a sense transcending demarcatedterritorial rights. It is hardto saywhich would be the senseused in thelast chapter of Numbers when Moses saysto themen ofManasseh: 'everyone of the people of Israelshall keep to himselfthe inheritanceof the tribeof his fathers'(Num. 36: 7), whichhe repeatsthree times more in the nexttwo verses. In theliterary conventions which applied to ringcomposition, the centraltheme of the work is foundin the firstpart, the prologue,and picked out again for repeatingat theend. On thisconvention, the important theme of Numbersis the land,the promise, or theinheritance, and forthis purpose Numbers counts all the tribesand saysthey are all the heirs.So farfrom excluding Ephraim, Moses will trainJoshua, an Ephraimiteand hero of the revoltsin the desert,to succeed himself.The lastfew lines of Numberson the rightsto the land,just quoted, were Moses' wordsto the 'sons ofJoseph'. The policyof thegovernment would have had populistsupport; declaring the immigrantsand people ofthe land idolators and takingtheir land would have had supportfrom the land-hungryreturners. But Numbersis concernedwith the theologicalissue of how to definethe boundariesof God's promise.When the governorin thesecond temple period takes it on himselfto definethe congrega- tion of Israel,he encroacheson thepriestly prerogative. It would not have been difficultfor anyone involved in thosepolitical con- troversiesto interpretBalaam and Balak as parodiesof the governorand the emperor.Sheer pantomime:the king strutsround his domain, fussily shiftingthe site of thecurse, muttering his absurd complaint: 'I hiredyou to curse and you do nothingbut bless': the wicked magician,ever so humble,says over and over thathe could speakonly what God told him to speak,as ifhe had any volitionin the matterat all. Each destroysthe other:King Balak loses his allies and treasureto theenemies he triedto have cursed;Balaam, who had wantedto use a swordon theass dies by thesword (Num. 27: 8), no deathfor a professional holyman.

This content downloaded from 130.58.64.71 on Sun, 24 Mar 2013 17:16:50 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions MARY DOUGLAS 427 We are readyto completethe inverted parallel with Abraham. Who could the patientshe-ass be? Who was of burdenwith the giftof speech, the humblecreature made into a typefor Isaac, the animalwhom the Lord wanted to save?She would be none otherthan the people of Israel,so oftenreferred to as a woman by the prophets,Israel who was exaltedby the words of Balaam's prophecies.She was forcedinto thewrong path against her will, she was beaten by hermaster, she recognisedthe angel of the Lord and triedto obey. This would be whyBalaam is presentedriding on a she-ass. The theologicaldoctrine at issue was whetherall the sons of Jacob should inheritthe land. The senseof 'land' in Numbersis the eschatological'land'. This would includethe rights of the sons ofJacob to be treatedas heirsof thepromise. Sharingthe promisethey would sharethe land. The Lord declaresin Leviticus, 'The land is mine' (Lev. 25: 23), just as the people of Israelare his, whom he broughtout of the land of Egypt(Lev. 25: 42). It would be in defenceof this doctrinethat God, speakingthrough Balaam, changed the words ofJacob's bless- ing so thatthe separatepromises to Judahand to Josephshould be combinedas one greatdestiny for all thepeople of Israel.

NOTES This articleelaborates a chapterof my forthcomingstudy of the Book of Numbers: In the wilderness,Sheffield: Academic Press,1993. It may be novel to interpreta biblical textby trying to locate its historicalcontext, but thatis common anthropologicalpractice for studying any texts at all, and I would go so faras to claim thatit is the only distinctivelyanthropological approach to the Bible. Two models have been in my mind while I made the attempt.One is Bernadette Bucher, whose methodsof studyingthe illustrationsof a seventeenth-centurytext have inspired manydistinguished exemplars, especially in South Americanregional studies. The otheris the late Yvonne Verdier.Her presentationof the familyand villagecontext of the Mother Goose stories radicallytransforms current standards of folkloricinterpretation, requiring Grimm's tales now to be read as commentaneson the generationalantagonisms and solidaritiesof the women reciting them (Verdier1979). I have also been much encouragedby the studiesof Indonesianlegends, their rhetoricalstructure and political context,carried out in Australiananthropology depart- ments,particularly by James Fox and Douglas Lewis. Since I startedstudying the Book of Numbers six years ago, so many Bible scholarshave helped me thatit is impossibleto acknowledgethem all. I also fearthat many will findthis exer- cise too speculative,since so littleis known about the second templecommunity in Jerusalem.I regretthat the essay,in spite of theirefforts, still contains errors and infelicities., the great 'Numbers man', has been unsparingin his care at all stages,and I cannot thankhim enough, and regretthat I have not alwaysbeen a faithfuldisciple. Richard Coggins actuallyin- vited me to try out this reading of Balaam's storyon his classroomin King's College, and criticizedthe text fromhis knowledge of the post-exilicliterature, for which I am extremely grateful.I also thankGraham Auld and JohnSawyer for talking to me about the post-exiliccom- munity, for earlyadvice, and Mark Geller and David Goodman for readingthe textof the originalHuxley MemorialLecture. In additionto Bible scholars, Finneganand JosepLlobera were invaluableon anthropologicalinterpretations of mythology.Arthur Hatto was characteristicallygenerous with his commentson epic structure,and Wendy Doniger on the mythologicalbackground to talkinghorses. I owe specialthanks to Robert Littman,Lin Fox Hall and Conrad Leser on synecdochein Greek and Latin classics,and to Rodney Needham and Milena Dolezolova forguidance on archaicliterary forms. I am gratefulto the Royal AnthropologicalInstitute for inviting me to presentthis essay under the auspicesof the Huxley MemorialLecture. 1 Milgrom's commentaryargues from the discontinuitiesin space that the ass episode (see below) representsa folk tale interpolatedinto the storyof Balaam. He goes on to say: the

This content downloaded from 130.58.64.71 on Sun, 24 Mar 2013 17:16:50 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions 428 MARY DOUGLAS questionis, why was it insertedhere? He followsearly rabbinic interpretation to the effectthat the ass's part is to travestyBalaam, the seer who is not so clever as an ass. The ass, 'beholding divinevisions with eyes unveiled',is to Balaam as Balaam is to Balak (Milgrom1990: 469) 2 PhilipBudd summarizesthe elementsthat might represent a Yahwist strandintertwined with an Elohiststrand; the ass partof the storyis obviouslyYahwist, an accretionto the earlierversion (Budd 1984: 263-4). 3 'La traditionjuive...depuis les Targumspalestiniens, jusqu'aux ecritsrabbiniques de la mish- nah et du torah en passantpar Philon et Josephe:Balaam accepte l'invitationde Balaq par cu- pidite et vanite:il veut maudirpar plaisir,aveugle par passion,il ne comprendpas l'interdiction divine. Ni le miraclede l'anesse,ni la vision de l'ange ne lui ouvrentl'esprit; il ne benit que par contrainteet trouverasa revanchedans les mauvaisconseils donnes aux Madianites.Personnifica- tion de la cupidite,de l'orgueil,de la haine et de la ruse,il est l'ennemijure d'Israel,le Mauvais par excellence...avec la seule exceptionde Pseudo Philon' (de Vaulx 1972: 263). Note also the harshcomments ofJewish and Christianwriters on Balaam: Then Balak the son of Zippur, king of Moab, arose and foughtagainst Israel; and he sent and invitedBalaam the son of to curse you, but I would not listento Balaam; thereforehe blessedyou; so I deliveredyou out of his hand 24: 9-10). They hired againstyou Balaam the son of Beor fromPethor of to curse you. Nevertheless,the Lord your God would not harkento Balaam; but the Lord your God turned the curseinto a blessingfor you, because the Lord your God loved you (Deut. 23: 1-5). They have followedthe way of Balaam, the son of Beor, who loved gain fromwrong doing, but was rebukedfor hls own transgression;a dumb ass spoke with human voice and restrained the prophet'smadness (2 Peter 2: 14-15). Woe to them!For theywalk in the way of Cain, and abandon themselvesfor the sake of gain to Balaam's error,and perishin 's rebellion Jude: 11). Balaam, who taughtBalak to put a stumblingblock beforethe sons of Israel,that they might eat food sacnficedto idols and practiseimmorality (Rev. 2: 11). 4 For the most sustainedcontempt of the redactors,see Noth 1968. See also Wenham's listof scholars'complaints about the book's unityand coherence(1981: 184 sqq.). 5A text analysedin detail thatshows thisform is Hesiod's Theogony,in Hamilton (1989: 24 sqq.). 6 Numbersnot only exemplifiesall these featuresbut thisreading justifies even its much dis- puted ending,which, insteadof being a digression,closes the circleby a returnto the beginning and to the key words about the fathers'houses. The beginningof Numbers,1-4, has the count- ing of the twelve tribesby their fathers'houses, the separatecount of the Levites, and the dangersof encroachingon the tabernacle.The midpointis about the dangersof encroaching (Num. 16 and 17), endingwith 'Whoever shallencroach on the tabernacleof the Lord shalldie, shall we be consumedwith dying?'(17: 13), which echoes the words of the beginning(4: 19- 20). The lastchapter returns to the themeof the inheritanceof the fathers'houses (36: 8-9). 7I am gratefulto ProfessorA. Hatto for commentingthat 'prosimetrum','the alternationof narrativeand lyncal,of recitativeand melodic,or simplyof disjunctmetres, positively for height- ened expression,or negativelyto relieve monotony,is now at the forefrontof epic studies...a phenomenonwidespread in CentralAsia and in Africa.Arthur Waley met it in the Tales from Tun-Huang, but it is assumedto be farolder' (personalcommunication.) Other examplesof the alternationof stylesare given in Hatto (1989), Biebuyck (1969) - in The Muindoepic, where epic is presentedin alternatingprose and verse- and John Smith(1989) on Rajasthaniepic traditionin which singingalternates with declamation.Alternating voices are also recognisablein otherparts of the Bible: two voices chantin The Song of Songs; the speech of the Lord alternatesdialogue with thatof his prophetin .Karl Reichl is the leading authorityon prosimetrum(Reichl 1992). 8 '[A] fruitfulbough by a spring,whose branchesrun over the wall' (Gen. 49: 22), The echo ofJacob'sblessing in Balaam is broughtout by Burrows(1938). 9 This contrastswith the usage of Zechariahwho prayedfor a joint tnumphto include both JudahandJoseph, but alwaysdistinguished them: You were a curse among the nations,0 house ofJudah, and house of Israel (Zec. 8: 133).

This content downloaded from 130.58.64.71 on Sun, 24 Mar 2013 17:16:50 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions MARY DOUGLAS 429

The brotherhoodbetween Judah and Israel (Zec. 11: 14). And I will cut offthe chanot fromEphraim and the horse fromJerusalem (Zec. 9: 10). When I have bentJudah for me, filledthe bow with Ephraim(Zec. 9: 13). And I will strengthenthe house ofJudah and I will save the house ofJoseph (Zec. 10: 6). Zechariah'spolitical philosophy was universalist:he looked forwardto the day when all the nationsthat came againstJerusalem 'would even go up fromyear to year to worshipthe King, the Lord of hosts,and to keep the feastof tabernacles'(Zec. 14: 16). 10 This, it could be argued,is closer to StanleyFish's proposalthat interpretation must always referto an interpretivecommunity. A scintillatingpaper by David Clines on Nehemiah pur- portsto disembedthe autobiographicalmemoir of Nehemiah embedded in the Book of Nehe- miah. Quoting , and quoting ChristopherHill approvinglyfor sayingthat the purpose of makinga public recordis to persuade,Clines does not considerany opinion of which the Nehe- miah authormight want to persuadehis readers(Clines 1991).

REFERENCES Babcock, B. 1977. The storyin the story:metanarration in folknarrative. In Verbalart as performance (ed.) R. Bauman. Rowley, MA. Biebuyck,D. 1969. TheMwindo epic. Berkeley: Univ. of CaliforniaPress. Budd, P. 1984. Numbers.World BiblicalCommentary. Bowman,J. 1975. The Samaritanproblem: studies in therelationship ofSamaritanism, , and early Christianity(Pittsb. Theol. Monogr. 1). Pittsburgh:Univ. Press. Burrows,E. 1938. Theoracles ofJacob and Balaam.London: BurnsOates & Washboume. Chandler,J.1891. Balaamand hismaster. Boston. Clines,D. 1991. Nehemiah:the perils of autobiography,What does Eve do tohelp?JSOT 94, 124-64. Cogan, M. 1988. 'For we likeyou, worship your God': threeBiblical portrayals of Samaritanorigins. VetusTestamentum 38, 286-92. Coggins,R.J. 1975. SamaritansandJews: the origins of Samaritanism reconsidered. Oxford: Blackwell. 1989. The originsof theJewish Diaspora. In The worldof ancient Israel (ed.) R. Clements. Cambridge:Univ. Press. Cox, S. 1884. Balaam,an expositionand story. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul. de Vaulx,J. 1972. Les nombres.Gabalda. EncyclopediaJudaica, 'Samaria', quoting the second SamaritanChronicle, pp. 729-30. Eissfeldt,0. 1965. The Old Testament:an introduction.Oxford: Blackwell. Finnegan,R. 1992. Oral traditionsand theverbal arts: a guideto research practices. London: Routledge. Garsiel,M. 1991. Puns upon namesas a literarydevice in 1 Kings: 1-2. Biblica72, 379-86. Greengard,C. 1980. Thestructure ofPindar's epinician odes. : Hakkert. Hackett,J. 1984. The Balaam textfromDeir 'Alla (Harv. Semit. Monogrs. 31). Cambndge, MA: HarvardUniv. Press. Hamilton,R. 1989. Thearchitecture ofHesiodic poetry. (AJ.P. Monogrs.Class. Philol.)Johns Hopkins Univ. Press. Hatto, A. (ed.) 1989. Traditionin heroicand epicpoetry, 2, Characteristicsand techniques.London: HumanitiesResearch Association. Milgrom,J. 1990. Numbers:the JPS commentary.Excursus 58, 469-71. Noth, M. 1968 (translation).Numbers: a commentary.London: SCM Press. Pepin,J. 1976. Mythet allegories:les origines grecques et lescontestationsJudeo-chretiennes, part2, revised edition,original 1958. Etud.Augustin. 222-3. Reichl, K. 1992. Turkicoral poetry: traditions. forms, poetic structure.In A.B. Lord: Studiesin oral tradition7. GarlandRef Libr./Hums.,1247. New York: Garland. Rofe, A. 1979. The Bookof Balaam. Jerusalem (Hebrew), citedin Safran:10-30. Safran,J.D. 1988. Balaam and Abraham.Vetus Testamentum 37, 106-10. Smith,J.D.1989. Rajasthan,how to singa tale:epic performancein thePabuji tradition.In Tradition in heroicand epicpoetry, vol. 2, (ed.) A. Hatto. London: HumanitiesResearch Association. Soggin,J.A.1985. A historyof Israel,from the beginnings tothe Bar Kochba revolt AD 135. London: SCM Press.

This content downloaded from 130.58.64.71 on Sun, 24 Mar 2013 17:16:50 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions 430 MARY DOUGLAS Stem, M. 1976. The period of the Second Temple. In A historyof theJewish people (ed.) B. Sasson. London: Weidenfeld& Nicolson. Talmon,S. 1986. The emergenceofJewish sectarianism in theearly Second Temple period.In King, cultand calendar in ancientIsrael. Jerusalem: Magnus Press. Verdier,Y. 1979. Fa(onsde dire,fafonsdefaire: la laveuse,la couturiere,la cuisiniere. Pans : Gallimard. Wenham, G. 1981. Numabers(The Tyndale Old Testamentcommentaries). London: Inter-Varsity Press. Whitman,C.H. 1958. Homerand the Homeric tradition. Cambridge, MA: HarvardUniv. Press;Oxford: Univ. Press. Williamson,H.G.M. 1977. Israelin theBooks of Chronicles. Cambridge: Univ. Press.

Proposition theorique au sujet de l'inclusion de Balaam dans le Livre des Nombres

Resume Les suggestionsvisant a expliquerla positiondu recitde Balaam dans Le Livre des Nombres ne manquentpas. Elles vontde la simplele,on de moraleadressee aux ennemisd'Israel, 'a 'hypothese d'un artificelitteraire qui, par un effetde miroir,donnerait une image inverseed'Abraham et de l'obligationd'Isaac, sans compter les doutes quant a l'appartenancede ce texteau Livredes Nombres. Et pourtant,pas une seule de ces propositionsn'offre de mettreen rapportle recitavec le contexte politique dans lequel la redactiondu Pentateuquefut achevee, au cinquieme siecle avant1'ere chretienne.L'article offre une interpretationbasee sur deux traditionsanthropologiques: celle pour qui un textedoit toujoursetre replace dans son contextehistorique, et celle qui demandeque les formeslitteraires et les conventionstextuelles solent examinees.Une telle approchepermet de demontrerque le recitde Balaam prend,au niveau du style,la formed'un textedans le texte,et que, comme on pouvaitle prevoir,il contientsous formeresumee et metonymiquele messagede 1'histoiredans laquelle il s'inscrit.Des que l'on prenden considerationla periode historiquequi suivit1'exode, on s'apervoitque Balaamest en faitun pamphletsatirique dirigee contre le gouverneur de Juda,qui ridiculiseles pretentionsde ce dernierA accorderses ben6dictionset maledictions commnes'il avaitrequ de Dieu ce pouvoirdivin.

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