FT. NIOBRARA NATIONAL WILDLIFE REFUGE

Valentine, Nebraska

Annual Narrative Report

Calendar Years 1998-2000 Fort Niobrara-Valentine NWR Complex Valentine, Nebraska

Annual Narrative Report Calendar Year 1998-2000

Refuge Manager Date Refuge Supervisor Review Date

Regional Office Approval Date 2

INTRODUCTION

Ft. Niobrara National Wildlife Refuge is located five miles east of Valentine, Nebraska, in Cherry County. The refuge consists of 19,1 30 acres of high and rolling prairie traversed by the Niobrara River. It is managed as part of a complex with Valentine National Wildlife Refuge.

The Ft. Niobrara N WR was created by Executive Order in 1912 as the "Niobrara Reservation"-a preserve and breeding ground for native birds. It was enlarged by Executive Orders of 1912, 1920, and 1936 and the name was changed to Ft. Niobrara National Wildlife Refuge by Presidential Proclamation in 1940.

The area which comprises the refuge was once a military post, but was abandoned in 1912 and portions of the post were placed under the jurisdiction of the Federal Bureau of Biological Survey. During the 1930's, additional lands were acquired.

One of the original goals of the refuge was to preserve and protect the bison which at the time were in danger of extinction. A native species, elk, was introduced in 1913, and protection was given to other prairie species; in 1936, Texas longhorns were brought here. Emphasis now is in the maintenance of bison and elk herds representative of the vast herds that once roamed the plains. The longhorn herd is maintained as one of the two government herds which serve to protect basic breeding stock of a historically important animal.

The refuge is also managed to perpetuate native birds and animals, and to provide man with a place to observe and enjoy the many varied benefits of wildlife and wildlands.

The Niobrara River divides the refuge into well defined units. The valley within the refuge is narrow with steep slopes. It varies in width from one-fifth to approximately one-half mile. The valley is bordered by nanow strips of tableland at elevations ranging from 2300 M.S.L. at river bed to 2700 M.S.L. at the highest point.

The portion of the refuge lying north of the river is high benchland capped sandy soil. This is a mid-grass area in a relatively high range condition best suited to grazing. Six deep canyons divide the tableland diagonally from northwest to southeast. Five of these canyons carry spring water to the river continually. The canyon walls, rising an average of 200 feet~ are well covered with interior ponderosa pine and mixed hardwoods. This area contains approximately 4500 acres, including a 200-acre ponderosa pine natural area.

The portion south of the river is an elevated rolling plain approximately 100 feet above the valley floor. This section is comprised of loose sandy soil not suited for dry-land farming. Deep water percolation into sands promotes an extension of tall grasses common to the true prairie into this precipitation zone. A small strip adjacent to the river is covered with mixed hardwoods, primarily bur oak. This area contains the headquarters 3

site, corrals and slaughterhouse, roads, picnic and scenic areas, exhibition pasture, and miscellaneous tracts.

The climate of the area is one of considerable variation. The winters are cold with prevailing winds from the northwest. The summers are quite warm with prevailing winds from the south. Low humidity, high temperatures, and moderate to strong summer winds cause a rapid loss of soil moisture by evaporation. Winter storms, though not frequent, can be severe when accompanied by high winds. Snowfall averages approximately 22 inches with annual precipitation of around 18 inches. The mean annual temperature is 46.9 degrees with recorded extremes of -38 degrees to 110 degrees Fahrenheit. The average frost-free period of the area is about 150 days .

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

B. CLIMATIC CONDITIONS ...... 7

D. PLANNING ...... 7

D.1. Comprehcns,ive Conservation Plan ...... 7

D.S. Research and Investigation ...... 7

D.6. Other...... I I

E. ADMINISTRATION ...... 11

E.4 Volunteers ...... 11

E.8 Other...... : ...... 11 E.8.b. Training ...... 11

F. HABIT AT MANAGEMENT ...... 12

F.l. General ...... 12

F.2. Wetlaods...... 12

F.3. Forests ...... 13

F.5. Grasslands ...... 14

F.7. Grazing ...... 15

F.8. Haying ...... 15

F.9. Fire Management ...... 16

F.10. Pest Control ...... 16

F.12. Wilderness and Special Areas ...... 16

F.13. WPA Easement Monitoring...... 17

G. WILDLIFE ...... 18

G.1. WildlifeDiversity...... 18

G.2. Endangered and/or Threatened Species ...... 18 G.2.a. Bald Eagle ...... 18 G.2.b. Peregrine Falcon ...... 19 G.2.c. Whooping Crane ···················································································: ············· ····················20 5

G.2.d. American Burying Beetle ...... 2 0

G.3. Waterfowl...... 20

G.4. Marsh and Water Birds ...... 21

G.5. Shorebirds, Gulls, Terns and Allied Species ...... 21

G.6. Raptors ...... 21

G.7. Other Migratory Birds...... 22

G.8. Game Mammals...... 23 G.8.a. Elk ...... 23 G.8.b. Deer ...... ,...... ,...... 26 G.8.c. Pronghorn Antelope ...... 27

G.10. Other Resident Wildlife ...... 27 G.10.a. Bison ...... 27 G.10.b. Texas Longhorn Cattle...... 33 G.10.c. Merriam's Turkey ...... 37 G.10.d. Sharp-Tailed Grouse and Greater Prairie Chicken ...... 38 G.10.e. Bobwhite Quail ...... 38 G.10.f. Furbearers ...... 39 G.1 O.g. Black-tailed Prairie Dog ...... 39 G.10.h. Brown Bat ...... 39 G.10.i. Reptiles, Amphibians and Others ...... 39

G.11. Fisherie.s Resources ...... ,...... ,...... 39

G.13. Surplus Animal Disposal ...... 40 G.13.a. Bison .., ...... 40 G.13.b. Texas Longhorn Cattle...... 41 G.13.c. Elk ...... 42

G.16. Marking and Branding ...... 42

G.17. Disease Prevention and Control ...... 43

H. PUBLIC USE ...... 44

H.4. Interpretive Foot Trails ...... 44

R.5. Interpretive Tour Routes ...... 44

R.9 Fishing ...... 44

H.11 Wildlife Observation ...... 44

H.12. Other Wildlife Oriented Recreation ...... 44

H.14 Picnicking ...... 45

R.17 Law Enforcement ...... 45 6

H.l 8 Cooperating Associations ...... ,.. - ...... - .. ,...... 45

Table 1. 1998-2000 Precipitation Data ...... 7 Table 2. 1998-2000 Average Temperature ...... , ...... 7 Table 3. Sununary of 1998 Water Use ...... 13 Table 4. Fire Activity for 1998-2000 ...... 16 Table 5. Number of bald and golden eagles observed on Fort Niobrara NWR and state of Nebraska during January Eagle Survey, 1988-1997 ..... ,...... 18 Table 6. Summary of Elk Introductions on Fort Niobrara NWR...... 24 Table 7. Elk Calving Rates, 1984 - 1998 ...... 25 Table 8. Bison Herd Structure on January 1. 1998 ...... 29 Table 9. Average Weights of Bison Calves and Yearlings at Fall Roundup, 1988-I 998 ...... 31 Table 10. Bison Herd Structure on December 31, 1998 ...... 32 Table 11. Longhorn Herd Structure, January I, 1998 ...... ,...... 34 Table 12. Longhorn Herd Structure, December 31, l 998 ...... 36 Table 13. Summary of Lek Count Results on Ft. Niobrara, 1987-2000 ...... 38 Table 14. Fort Niobrara Annual Bison Sale Summary for 1999 ...... 40 Table 15. Fort Niobrara Annual Bison Sale Summary for 2000 ...... 41 Table 16. Fort Niobrara Annual Texas Longbom Sale Summary for 1999 ...... 42 Table 15. Fort Niobrara Annual Bison Sale Summary for 2000 ...... 42 Table 17. Fort Niobrara Annual Texas Longhorn Sale Summary for 2000 ...... 42 Table 15. Fort Niobrara Annual Bison Sale Summary for 2000 ...... 42

Figure I. Bald Eagle at Fort Niobrara NWR ...... , ...... 19 Figure 2. Bull Elk at Fort Niobrara NWR ...... 24 Figure 3. Longhorn Cattle Drive to Fort Robinson State Park in November 2000 ...... 37 Figure 4. Buffalo Sale at Fo11 Niobrara ...... 41 7

B. CLIMATIC CONDITIONS

Table 1. 1998-2000 Precipitation Data (inches)

Year Jan Feb Mar Apr May June July Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Annual 1998 0.10 0.24 0.96 1.25 3.44 5.07 6.15 1.67 0.62 3.54 1.43 0.04 24.51 1999 0.15 0.72 0.43 3.12 2.57 4.38 3.76 0.62 3.39 0.05 0.09 0.11 19.39 2000 0.23 1.16 0.68 2.67 3.67 3.22 4.66 0.12 0.50 2.08 0.31 0.18 19.48

Table 2. 1998-2000 Average Temperature (deg. F)

Year Jan Feb Mar Apr May June July Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Annual 1998 24.3 34.6 28.7 46.6 59.3 62.7 75.3 73.8 69.3 49.3 39.3 28.0 49.3 1999 25.3 36.3 39.1 45.2 56.4 66.7 74.5 73.3 58.2 48.6 43.4 30.9 49.8 2000 25.7 33.4 40.0 46.2 59.1 64.6 74.3 75.3 64.0 50.5 26.0 18.4 48.1

D. PLANNING

D.1. Comgrehensive Conservation Plan

Considerable staff time was spent working on Comprehensive Conservation Plans (CCP) for the Fort Niobrara-Valentine NWR Complex. Management alternatives drafted by core team members (L.McDaniel, M.Lindvall, K.McPeak, J.Kelton, J.Sellers and J.Kauffeld) were reviewed and modified at a regional office meeting in Denver in January with preferred alternatives identified. Kauffeld (both refuges), McPeak (Fort Niobrara) and Lindvall (Valentine) drafted the various sections of the document, reviewed and considered various comments, and completed the numerous edits. Kauffeld transferred to the Washington office in the summer and was not replaced. Lindvall, McDaniel, McPeak and Huber met with regional office staff in Denver September 30 - October 1, 1998 and reviewed internal comments on the first drafts of the documents. Final rewrites were completed and draft documents were sent to Denver for desk top editing and fabrication in December, 1998. Numerous public inquiries have been received regarding the documents and expected time frame for public comment. Potential controversial issues that arose in developing the documents are now becoming a reality with the first legal challenge on river floating initiated.

In March 1999 mailing lists and photo captions for DRAFT Comprehensive Conservation Plans for Fort Niobrara and Valentine were provided to the RO and final review and editing of the documents by refuge staff were completed.

D.S. Research and Investigation

Management Implications of Genetic Variability among and Within Populations of American Bison 8

Julie Schneider, canclidate for Master of Science in Biology at Humboldt State University, collected blood samples from 14 public bison herds inclucling Fort Niobrara in 1995 and 1996. She is using genetic analysis to demonstrate how certain management practices (herd structure, size, history, culling, etc.) have increased or decreased genetic variability of various herds of bison. Genetic analysis has been partially completed at Texas A & M University; however, additional funding is needed to finish the work. A quick response funding request was submitted for the project in March but was declined. In December, Ms. Schneider was in the process of moving her samples to another lab for analysis.

Biosafety of Calfhood Vaccination with Bruce/La abortus Vaccine Strain RB51 in Wild Managed Herds of Bison

Per Regional Office direction, F01t Niobrara bison were included in a research project conducted by Dr. Thomas Roffe, PhD/DVM at the FWS National Wildlife Health Center (Bozeman Station) and Dr. Steven Olsen, PhD/DVM at the USDA Zoonotic Diseases Research Unit, National Animal Disease Center, Ames, IA to evaluate the shedding and transmission of RBSl by, and persistence of the vaccine in, vaccinated bison. Study objectives are:

Shedding and Transmission -Monitor vaccinated calves for persistence of RBS l infection and shedcling. -Assess non-vaccinated bison in the same herd to determine if exposure to vaccinated calves has resulted in RB51 transmission. -Assess representative biota (non-target species) at Fort Niobrara NWR and Wind Cave NP. -Use opportunistically-found dead animal postmortems from Fort Niobrara NWR and Wind Cave NP as a surveillance mechanism for RBS I transmission.

Persistence of Vaccine -Determine the time required for clearance ofRB51 from vaccinated animals and compare clearance as dete.rmined by whole body examination and draining lymph node culture. -Determine the ability of RB51 to recrudescence into a patent infection during pregnancy.

Fort Niobrara and Wind Cave National Park vaccinated their bison heifer calves for brucellosis in 1996 with RB51 vaccine on the advice of state and federal veterinarians. RB51 replaced strain 19 in 1996 due its ability to be clifferentiated in brucellosis disease tests (strain 19 caused elevated titers similar to the field strain of brucella). RB5 l vaccination is a product being considered as a methodology for reducing brucellosis disease transmission and prevalence in the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem. The vaccine has been labeled for cattle; however, it bas not yet passed required testing for proof of safety and efficacy in bison and safety in the ecosystem. Therefore, vaccinated bison calves at Fort Niobrara and Wind Cave were made available for biosafety and efficacy stuclies. 9

Most of the study objectives addressing shedding, transmission, and vaccine clearance were completed during the 1996/97 winter. Four vaccinated calves were sacrificed at 4- week intervals beginning at 14 weeks post vaccination (12/18/96) and continuing through 30 weeks post vaccination. A total of 20 calves were necropsied. Dot-blot seroassays were completed on ] 0 adult females at 26 weeks post vaccination. Results suggest that RB5 l persists longer in bison calves than in cattle, however bison apparently clear vaccine infection without shedding and have no clinically significant adverse reactions. RB51 distributes widely in bison to a variety of lymph nodes. Sampling of non-target biota was not completed due to lack of funding. Funding requests were submitted, however, approval was not received until after vaccinated heifer calves had cleared RB51.

The remaining seven vaccinated and three non-vaccinated heifers of this age cohort were retained in the population to determine the ability of RBS I to recrudescence into a patent infection during pregnancy. To address this study objective, the ten heifers were palpated for pregnancy and blood collected during the 1998 fall roundup. Palpation efforts were not very successful; however, PSPB levels in the blood of the seven vaccinated heifers suggested that they were 20 - 30 days pregnant. The three non-vaccinated heifers are 3-6 months younger and probably not reached sexually maturity. The 10 heifers were immobilized in February 1999 to palpate again for pregnancy, collect blood, and relocate to a separate habitat unit for post birth monitoring.

In preparation for February, 1999 data collection for ongoing research on Brucella abortus vaccine strain RBS 1, baiting of bison with native prairie hay at readily accessible points in the wilderness area on Fort Niobrara began at mid month. Baiting efforts have not been very successful due to mild climatic conditions. Portable livestock panels were modified (cut, welded) to a height of 79" and made to attach to a horse trailer for loading bison after immobilization.

Seven two-year-old bison heifers vaccinated with RB51 in 1996 were worked on February 9, 1999 as part of the ongoing research project. Dr. Tom Roffe, with assistance of refuge staff, immobilized the animals, palpated for pregnancy, collected blood, and moved them to habitat unit 16a where they could be monitored more closely. One heifer escaped prior to loading and will be sorted from the main herd during spring roundup. The three non-vaccinated heifers of that age group were not worked following Dr. Roffe's determination that they could no longer be used as a control (3-5 months younger in age, not pregnant when worked in September 1998). Heifers were checked twice daily for several days following relocation for any abnormalities. Female #18 exhibited difficulty getting up and bad an abnormal gate for several days. Dr. Roffe was advised, and, per his instruction, she was checked daily and encouraged to stand and walk. During a daily check on February 14, two of the heifers in habitat unit 16a were observed with afterbirth hanging out. The aborted fetus of female #3 was found, however, # 1 7 was not located. Five of the six study females in unit 16a were moved on February 15 to unit 23 · where they could be more closely monitored. Fem ale # 18 remained in unit l 6a until February 26 when she joined the other study females on her own. Females in unit 23 10 were monitored twice daily, lone female in 16a once daily, and the lone female in unit one to two times per week until conditions had stabilized and 14 days had passed since handling. Dr. Joe Coyle, USDA-APHIS veterinarian for this area, shipped the aborted fetus to the research lab in Ames, IA on February 16. In consultation with Dr. Roffe, monitoring will follow study protocol beginning March l.

RB51 study females were monitored twice daily by refuge staff during March, 1999 per project protocol. Preliminary lab work on the fetus that was aborted in February suggests it was negative for brucellosis (no abnormal bacterial growth, histopathology was negative). A serologic workup on the two females that aborted was completed later in the spring for comparison of acute and convalescent sera of some of the viruses. Currently, Dr. Roffe is "backing into" a diagnosis related to stress of capture and movement.

Twice daily checks of RB5 l heifers were completed by refuge staff for month of April 1999. Study female #20 calved on April 18 however the calf died 3 days later. Dr. Roffe necropsied the calf on April 27 and collected various samples from female #20. Necropsy results indicate the calf never sucked and died of dehydration/starvation/hypothermia. Three more study females calved April 28-30. The last study female calved on May 2, however, the calf died during birth. Dr. Roffe returned to Fort Niobrara on May 6 to complete the necropsy of calf #18 and collect the various samples from the four cows. Study females and calves were monitored once daily until late May when lab results were available verifying the completion of the project. RBS l study bison were monitored once daily throughout the month of May, 1999 to ensw-e animals were in good health and no abnormal conditions existed. The refuge was notified on June 1, 1999, by Dr. Roffe that all samples had been processed and that no RBS 1 organisms were detected. Study females were released from the project and moved to habitat unit 28al where they were joined by the main herd later in the month.

Information on chronic wasting disease (CWD) and tuberculosis (TB) in this area was provided to Dr. Roffe per his request. Dr. Roger Sahara, veterinarian for the State of Nebraska, reported that there are no TB cases and only one CWD positive bull elk in Nebraska. The CWD case was diagnosed in April 1998 in farmed elk (not free-ranging elk) approximately 58 miles southwest of Fort Niobrara. The affected herd was quarantined and has been monitored closely since. As of February 1999, there has been no evidence of transmission of CWD within the herd. Brain stem testing of 72 fanned elk, 32 free-ranging elk, and 213 free-ranging deer from target areas in the state has all tested negative for CWD. The initial CWD positive animal remains the only positive animal found in Nebraska as of February 1999.

Researchers from Kansas State University began a project titled Ecology of Escherichia coli 0157:H7 in wildlife and cattle on Fort Niobrara National Wildlife Refuge the second week of June, 1999. Project objectives include (1) determine the incidence and prevalence of E. Coli 0157:H7 in fecal material of Texas longhorn cattle, bison, elk, deer, horses, prairie dogs, turtles, bats and in the watering sites of these animals, and (2) survey 11 the incidence of various internal parasites from the species listed above. Data was collected throughout the swnmer, fall, winter, and spring of 1999 and 2000.

D.6. Other

Biologist McPeak assisted Karen Nelson, Ecological Services in Grand Island, on November 9 and 10, 1997 gathering information from files and other sources for Fort Niobrara's Contaminant Assessment Plan.

E. ADMINISTRATION

E.4 Volunteers

Jayson Stoddard, intern from Hastings College, worked on Fort Niobrara Junel-18, 1999. Projects included leafy spurge control, elk surveys, Texas longhorn breeding program, breeding bird survey, point counts within the river corridor, youth conservation corps, and wilderness brochures.

E.8 Other

Supervisory Refuge Operations Specialist Sellers attended the DOI Bison Meeting in Billings, MT March 10-12, 1999. Wildlife biologist McPeak wrote the Fort Niobrara bison briefing paper presented at the meeting.

Park Ranger Hirschboeck and Wildlife Biologist McPeak represented the FWS at NPS scoping meetings for the Niobrara National Scenic River during the first week of May, 1999.

E.8.b. Training

Wildlife biologist McPeak participated in the Central Flyway Wingbee at Flint Hills NWR, Febmary 18-21, 1998.

Wildlife biologists McPeak and McDaniel attended Non-game Bird Survey and Monitoring Methods Training at Marais Des Cygnes NWR May 17-22, 1998.

GIS/GPS training was conducted at Fort Niobrara June 15-18, 1998 by Greg Pattrick, a FWS employee at Walnut Creek NWR. Refuge biologists McPeak and McDaniel and several fire-funded personnel participated.

Maintenance Workers McPeak and Pmdy and Assistant Manager Sellers completed immobilization training conducted by Dr. Tom Roffe on September 24, 1998. Topics covered included basic pharmacology and physiology, drugs (effects , uses, records, and laws), delivery systems, animal monitoring, and emergency response. The training ended with a practical field exercise. 12

F. HABITAT MANAGEMENT

F.1. General

Fort Niobrara and the sw-rounding area are recognized by ecologists for its biogeographic significance due to the co-occurrence of six major vegetation communities. Distributional limits of vegetation types along the Niobrara River include Rocky Mountain coniferous forest (eastern limit), northern boreal forest (southern limit), Eastern deciduous forest (western limit), and tall grass prairie (western limit). The area north of the Niobrara river valley is classified as mixed prairie and to the south is Sandhi,Ils prairie. The highly variable climate of this area along with diverse refuge habitats and objectives provide for management challenges and opportunities.

Preliminary mapping of the various vegetation communities was completed in conjunction with the CCP.

F .2. Wetlands

Approximately 375 acres of the refuge are classified as wetland which includes -9 miles of the Niobrara River and adjacent riparian habitat, numerous intermittent streams and ponds. The Niobrara River flows from west to east across the refuge with the channel upstream of Cornell Dam braided and shallow with the downstream portion of the river confined to a single, narrow channel. The river is relatively clear because of the high sand content of the soils and flows swiftly at about 6-8 miles per hour. Small areas of palustrine wooded wetlands are situated shoreward of the river channel and consist of various tree species including cottonwood, white ash, bur oak, hackberry, box elder, American elm, Peachtree willow and eastern red cedar with an understory of shrubs (sandbar willow, western snowberry), grasses, grasslike plants and forbs. Palustrine emergent wetlands vegetated with cattail, bulrush, phragmites, sandbar willow, prairie cordgrass, smartweed, goldenrod, horsetail, and sedges are present on river and tributary floodplains and channels, isolated catchments and slopes, and at manmade impoundments near the mouth of some of the tributary streams. Twelve ponds, formed by damming feeder streams of the Niobrara River, are maintained at full capacity throughout most of the year and are used by waterfowl and other birds, for fenced animal watering and/or fish rearing. Ponds used for fish rearing under cooperative agreement with the Nebraska Game and Parks Commission are drawn down periodically for aquatic vegetation management and structure repair. Several additional ponds created along Niobrara feeder streams within the wilderness area and river corridor washed out and/or were allowed to return to their natural state several years ago. Beaver created several impoundments on Crooked Creek and Cabin Creek in 1998 and the beaver on Big Beaver Creek moved onto private land to the north of the refuge. Refer to table 3 for specific information on various manmade ponds and use in 1998. 13

Table 3. Summary of 1998 Water Use

Water Surface Storage Pond # Location Depth Acres Capacity Comments IT H.U. 32 4' .12 .23 Water not impounded; FA, Bird, No fish. 2T H.U .30 4' .82 2.46 Water not impounded; FA, Bird, No fish. 3T H.U.29/30 4' .15 .39 Water not impounded; FA, Bird, No fish. 5T H.U.16a 6' .74 2.98 Drained early May, full capacity rest of year; FA, Bird, Brood fish. 6T H.U.16b2 5' .31 1.26 FA, Bird, No fish. 1 H.U.27 4' .22 .66 FA, Bird, Brood fish . 2 H.U.27 5' .83 2.91 FA, Bird, Brood fish. 3 H.U.27 5' 1.07 3.76 FA, Bird, Brood fish. 4 H.U.27 5' 1.85 6.47 FA, Bird, Brood fish. 5 H.U.27 6' .42 1.47 FA, Bird, Brood fish. 6 H.U.13 8' I.IO 6.65 FA, Bird, Brood fish, Kid's Fishing Day. 7 H.U.l6b4 6' .61 2.47 FA, Bird, No fish.

F.3. Forests

Approximately 3022 acres of the refuge is classified as Rocky Mountain forest, 1296 acres as Eastern Deciduous forest intermixed with small pockets of Northern Boreal forest, and 59 acres tree plantations. Much of the Rocky Mountain forest community is savanna and occurs on rocky soils and steep eroding cliffs of the north wall of the river valley where there is no shading by deciduous trees. Pine trees also occur on the steep, sandy slopes above the spring branch canyons on the south wall and some pines are scattered in the Sandhills prairie. Ponderosa pine is the dominant species with eastern red cedar and rocky mountain juniper present. Understory comprises generally xeric, shade­ intolerant species and includes a variety of shrubs, grasses, grasslike plants and forbs. The Eastern Deciduous forest community is generally found on the river floodplain, south wall of the river valley, and canyons of larger tributaries where a permanent water source is accessible to tree roots. The middle zone/band of the valley wall consists of eastern deciduous trees intermixed with pine, juniper, and/or cedar. Northern boreal forest species are restricted and clustered around cold springs in sheltered spring branch canyons or near springfed seeps along steep canyon walls on the south side of the river. Common overstory species include bur oak, American elm, green and white ash, American linden and paper birch. Understory cover varies depending on degree of shading, soil moisture and presence of large ungulates. Tree plantations established in the 19301s by the CCC are mostly located in administrative areas with eastern red cedar, black and honey locust, American elm, green and white ash, and ponderosa pine dominant species. 14

Management of the various forest communities has been minimal and included selective thinning of live trees using a tree spade and removal of dead or down timber presenting a safety or fire hazard, or threatening fences. Fire was introduced to the refuge as a management tool in 1995, Mike Behrens, woodland management specialist at the Niobrara Valley Preserve, was consulted regarding management alternatives that ensure the rarity, richness and representation of the various woodland communities are sustained into the future.

F.5. Grasslands

Approximately 14,264 acres of the refuge is classified as mixed grass prairie or Sandhills prame. Plant distribution and abundance is affected by subsurface moisture, soils, competWon between species, topography, aspect, grazing and fire. For example, at the top of sand dunes, the soils are coarse textured, have little organic matter, low water holding capabilities, and high infiltration rates which allow for replenishment of subsurface moisture. Plants such as sand bluestem., sand lovegrass, prairie sandreed, stiff sunf1ower, sand cherry and lead plant are typical of these sites and have deep roots and ability to tolerate dry conditions. In contrast, interdunal areas/flats consist of finer te,rtured soils that hold more water near the surface. Plants typical of these areas include cool-season grasses (i.e. needle and thread, prairie June grass) and warm season grasses with shorter root systems, i.e. blue grama. Cool season grass production appeared to be less than normal due to below average precipitation during the winter and spring, however, warm season grass production was above average due to above normal precipitation in late May, June and July, 1998. Wann season plant phenology was about 7-1 0 days ahead of schedule due to above average temperatures early in the growing season.

Grassland communities are maintained in early through late successional stages through the use of large ungulate grazing, rest, prescribed fire, control of wildfire, and control of off-road vehicle travel. Grazing by herds of bison, elk and Texas longhorn cattle has occuned since the refuge's establishment. Grazing systems are designed for maintaining fenced animal herds as well as maintaining or improving the health of refuge grasslands (Section F.7). The use of prescribed fire as a tool to reduce the invasion of cedars, maintain/enhance native plant diversity and abundance, and direct grazing use by large ungulates was utilized in 1998 on less than t 50 acres.

Grassland monitoring activities were limited to visual observation due to lack of staff time and ongoing efforts to develop a quality monitoring program. It is hoped that once the Comprehensive Conservation Planning process is completed and management objectives defined, a vegetation monitoring program will be developed that can be implemented and collects useful data. 15

F.7. Grazing

Grazing programs on Fort Niobrara included short duration, traditional season-long, combination short duration / season-long, and year-round. Year-round grazing occurs only in small units located near the headquarters area and for specific purposes such as public exhibition and operations (i.e. roundup). Grazing strategies (time of year, intensity, length) within each habitat unit are determined according to available AUM's, range condition, water, climatic conditions, species management needs and behavior, and public viewing opportunities. Additional criteria used to develop the plan/schedule included (1) maintain or improve grassland condition (species composition), (2) keep AUM utilization below what is recommended by Natural Resources Conservation Service, (3) minimize staff involvement, (4) reduce or eliminate grazing within the Niobrara river corridor, (5) maximize vegetation structure to the extent possible for prairie grouse utilization, (6) reduce exotic cool season grasses~ and (7) compliment/accommodate the prescribed bum program. All units are visually inspected before, during and after the year's program to determine if goals had been met and if any additional changes were needed.

A total of 10,439 AUMs is available for grazing on 18,068 acres under the traditional grazing program set up in cooperation with the Natural Resources Conservation Service (NRCS). Per NRCS recommendation, the animal unit (AU) calculation method was revised in 1996 and is now based on 1000 lb. animal unit and actual weights of various classes of animals. This method should more accurately reflect utilization and aid in planning and evaluating the grazing program. Approximately 7,085 AUMs were grazed during 1998 with an additional 1,316 A UMs supplemented with hay during the winter feeding program. Total acreage included in 1998's grazing program was 17,656. Grazing rates in habitat units where no supplementation occurred ranged from .18 - .65 AUM/acre with an average of .41 AUM/acre.

F.8. Haying

Haying on the refuge was terminated in 1973 . Since that time, prairie hay harvested under cooperative agreement on Valentine NWR has been used as winter supplement for the Texas longhorn cattle, public exhibition llllit~ and horses. Beginning in 1993, additional hay required for the supplemental feeding program was acquired through a contractor. A total of 1650 tons of hay was harvested from 751 acres on Valentine NWR this summer and fall of which 58 ltons were delivered to Fort Niobrara for the 1998-99 winter feeding program. Approximately 494 tons of hay were fed in 1998 and an additional -20 ton of hay was fed at administrative sites or placed at disturbed sites (i.e. vehicle trails, blowouts, gate approaches, watering areas) for dispersal by bison to aid in stabilizing these areas. 16

F.9. Fire Management Table 4. Fire Activity for 1998-2000 -- - BURN IGNlllON OWNER BURNED TOTAL FIRENAME FIRENUM CALENDAR FIRESUBlYPE OWNER 1 ACRES1 ACRES Fires Suppressed on FWS Lands by FTN 36A 6717 1999 FWS FWS FWS 0.1 0.1 Fires Suppressed on Private Lands YOUNGS 6970 1999 By Agreement PVT PVT 2400 2400 Fires Suppressed 1 on FWS Lands by JERYMOWER 6412 2000 FWS FWS FWS 0.1 0.1 Fires Suppressed on FWS Lands by 28A2 6474 2000 FWS FWS FWS 4.5 4.5 Fires Suppressed on FWS Lands by SALTER 6485 2000 FWS FWS IFWS 0.2 0.2 Fires Suppressed on FWS Lands by LIGHTNING 6626 2000 FWS- FWS FWS 0.1 0.1

F.10. Pest Control

Six patches of leafy spurge, ranging in size from a few feet to 1/4 acre, were treated with Plateau in the fall of 1997. Little to zero regrowth of spurge occurred. The few isolated plants that grew were cut following the vegetative growth phase to prevent them from going to seed. Limited growth of native grasses was noted at the end of the summer.

F.12. Wilderness and Special Areas

A 76 mile segment of the Niobrara River including the nine mile portion within the Fort Niobrara NWR is included as a Scenic River under the Wild and Scenic River Act. The National Park Service completed a General Management Plan for the river which calls for a local council to manage the river and corridor. The 15 member council is made up of private landowners and commissioners from the various counties, timber and recreation industries, Middle and Lower Niobrara Natural Resource Districts, Nebraska Game & Parks Commission, National Park Service and U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. The Refuge Manager represents the Service on the council.

A 4,635 acre area on Fort Niobrara was designated as Wilderness on October 19, 1976. The south end of the wilderness area is bordered by the Niobrara River ( designated Wild and Scenic, 1991). High benchland capped by sandy soil rises abruptly from the narrow river valley an average of200 feet on both sides. Five of the six deep canyons that divide 17 the tableland to the north carry springwater to the river continually. All of the major vegetation communities present on Fort Niobrara are fow1d within the wilderness area. A relatively dense stand of ponderosa pine, approximately 200 acres in size, was established as a Research Natural Area (TypeK 237, Interior Ponderosa Pine) in 1960. Seventeen distinct fossil sites have been excavated in the wilderness area. Two fossil beds of the lower Pliocene and upper Miocene epochs provided non-articulated skeletons and bone fragments of more than 20 extinct animal species. Most of the sites have reverted back to a natural state and exhibit little or no evidence of an unnatural disturbance.

The Fort Niobrara Wilderness Management Plan, approved July 7, 1983, is used as guidance for managing the area Allowed uses of the wilderness area include fenced animal grazing, vehicle travel necessary to aid in the spring row1dup of bison or maintenance of boundary fence, hiking, horseback riding, canoeing, tubing, and wildlife observation.

F.13. WPA Easement Monitoring

Haskel Property, Brown County. This property is about 4,000 acres in size and has 94.4 acres of wetlands on it. Most of the wetlands are located in one meadow. Easements were recommended for all wetlands on the property. Isolated wetlands will be protected from drain and fill. The main wetland complex will be fenced out and managed with a haying and grazing plan that was developed by us in conjunction with the Soil Conservation Service. The plan allows limited haying and grazing and will provide good cover for wildlife. This area is about 300 acres in size and will provide an excellent area for wildlife including nesting wate1fowl.

Larsen Farm, Knox County. This property has one large artificial wetland fed by two small streams. The riparian areas are small wooded canyons that lead into the artificial wetland. The total property is about 560 acres in size and is in a mix of cropland and pasture land. An easement of about 280 acres, which did not include cropland, was recommended. Due to the difficulty in fencing and administration a type "A" easement with no restrictions on haying or grazing was recommended.

Wagner Property, Knox County. This 720 acre property is a mix of cropland, hayland, and pasture. A small creek flows through and is fed by three small tributaries that start on the property. The tributaries have small artificial wetlands on them. Part of the property was recommended for an easement with controlled grazing. This 1/4 section is already fenced. The other part of the easement will have no restrictions on haying and grazing. The SCS office in Knox County was contacted and we have started work on the grazing plan. 18

G. WILDLIFE

G.1. Wildlife Diversity

The Sand.hills prairie, Niobrara River, and mixed hardwood canyons are home for a variety of wildlife, both seasonally and year-round. In addition to bison, elk, and Texas longhorns, approximately 54 other species of mammals, 227 species of birds, and 24 species of reptiles and amphibians are found on Fort Niobrara.

G.2. Endangered and/or Threatened Species

Fort Niobrara received a report of three whooping cranes sighted - 50 miles south of Valentine on March 24, 1999 on the Ralph Eatinger Ranch (R28W, T26N, Sec.32). The report was forwarded to FWE in Grand Island.

G.2.a. Bald Eagle

The portion of the refuge traversed by the Niobrara River is a traditional wintering area for bald and golden eagles. The Midwinter Bald Eagle Survey was conducted on January 7, 1998 with one adult bald eagle observed on Fort Niobrara. The state survey total of 1430 bald eagles represents a 39% increase from the 1997 count of 1030 bald eagles, an 88% increase from the 1980-1997 statewide average of 759 bald eagles, and a 64% increase from the previous 5-year average of872 (Table 4).

Table 5. Number of bald and golden eagles observed on Fort Niobrara NWR and state of Nebraska during January Eagle Survey, 1988-2000.

Bald Eagle Golden Eagle Unknown Year FTN NE FTN NE FTN NE 2000 23 3 1999 no data recorded 1998 no data recorded 1997 1 1030 29 1996 4 719 28 1995 13 749 35 1994 8 1163 1 30 1993 698 1992 3 1292 15 1991 4 642 1 41 1990 5 849 1 39 1 8 1989 5 1109 2 32 1 7 1988 3 650 2 39

Up to five bald eagles (three adult, two immature) and one immature golden eagle was observed periodically on the refuge late January through March. The last bald eagle sighting of the spring was noted on April 2, 1998. 19

Jay Peterson, Lake Andes NWR, flew portions of the Niobrara River to check for bald eagle nesting activity in conjunction with funded flights in South Dakota. No nests were found close to the refuge; however, he located an active nest at the confluence of the Niobrara and Keya Paha rivers. According the John Dinan, Nebraska Game & Parks Commission, this particular nest has been active since 1996. Dinan also said that an adult bald eagle and three young were sighted further to the east in 1997 suggesting a possible second active nest; however, none was located during the aerial survey.

Bald eagles returned to Fort Niobrara in early November 1998 after the passage of the first arctic cold front. The number of bald eagles observed on the refuge ranged from 2-5 throughout November and December of 1998.

Eagle mortality in the area is monitored closely due to a history of problems. Cause of death has included gunshot, pesticide poisoning, electrocution, and natural. No eagle carcasses were found or turned into the refuge in 1997 and 1998. Six eagles (two bald, four golden) are known to have died in the area in 1996.

Figure 1. Bald Eagle at Fort Niobrara NWR I

Six bald eagles (5 adult, 1 immature) were counted on Fort Niobrara during the midwinter eagle survey conducted on January 8, 1999. Eagle sightings on the refuge peaked during the first 10 days of the month when typical winter weather conditions existed. As temperatures moderated and frozen wetlands opened up, eagles dispersed through out the area. Ice cover on the Niobrara River and various wetlands at the time of t.he survey was 80-100% and readily available prey included waterfowl, fish, small mammals and carrion. Four bald eagles (two adult, 2 immature) were observed throughout the months of February and March 1999 on Fort Niobrara.

G.2.b. Peregrine Falcon

No peregrine falcons were sighted in 1998. The peregrine is a rare inhabitant of Fort Niobrara during the spring and fall. 20

G.2.c. Whooping Crane

The shallow, braided river habitat above Cornell dam receives rare migration use by whooping cranes, piping plovers, and least tern. The most recent documented sighting of one of these species was of two adult whooping cranes that spent several days on the refuge in October 1993. Three adult whooping cranes were observed near the east end of Valentine NWR on October 23, 1998. These cranes, along with a large flock of Sandhill Cranes, had flushed from a large meadow adjacent to Valentine NWR. Three whooping cranes had been observed near LaCreek NWR on October 22, 1998 and these birds were flying southeast.

G.2.d. American Burying Beetle

No burying beetles have been documented on Fort Niobrara, however, they are present on Valentine NWR and have been reported at other locations in this area.

G.3. Waterfowl

Fort Niobrara receives very limited use by waterfowl. No ducks or geese were observed during the Mid-Winter Waterfowl Survey conducted on January 7, 1998 in cooperation with the Nebraska Game and Parks Commission, however, approximately 50 Canada geese, 25 mallards, five common merganser, and five common goldeneyes were observed prior to and after the survey. Spring waterfowl migrations were noted in March and early April of 1998 with - 1000 Canada geese and several hundred ducks (mallard, gadwall, blue-winged teal, green-winged teal, common merganser, redhead, canvasback, ring­ necked duck) observed.

Limited production by Canada geese, wood ducks, mallards and blue-winged teal occurs on the refuge. Five Canada goose nesting structures located in exhibition pasture ponds were hayed in late March, 1998 with the first brood observed in early May, 1998. All five structures produced young this year. Although the structures usually enhance goose "production" on the refuge, their primary purpose is environmental education. An estimated 50 ducklings are produced annually with wood duck the most abundant.

Fall duck migrations were noted in September and October, 1998. Approximately 1000 Canada geese were observed resting on the Niobrara river and flying off refuge to feed in neighboring corn fields throughout October, 1998 with fewer than 300 birds observed during November and December, 1998. Approximately 250 mallards and five common mergansers were also present on the refuge at the end of that year.

Approximately 250 Canada geese, 250 mallards, and 5 common mergansers were counted on Fort Niobrara during the midwinter waterfowl survey conducted on January 8, 1999. 21

G.4. Marsh and Water Birds

Large flocks of sandhill cranes are observed flying over the refuge each year during their spring and fall migrations. No cranes were observed during the Coordinated Spring Sandhill Crane Survey conducted on March 24, 1998; however, migrating cranes were observed/heard later in the week on March 27, 1998 which is about 7-10 days earlier than usual. Fall migrating cranes were first observed on October 12, 1998 with the main push occuITing October 19-25, 1998. In l 999 no cranes were observed on Fort Niobrara dming the Coordinated Spring Sandhill Crane Survey.

G.5. Shorebirds, Gulls, Terns and Allied Species

Approximately 26 species of this diverse category inhabit the refuge at some time during the spring, summer, and fall. Most species are rarely seen due to limited viewing opportunities of the banks and sandbars of the Niobrara River. Upland sandpiper is the exception with several pair nesting on the refuge. The population appears to be stable on the refuge with the number of upland sandpipers recorded during the breeding bird surveys holding at 19. Long-billed curlew numbers remained low again this year with none recorded on the BBS and only two sightings made during the spring and summer.

G.6. Raptors

Raptor species sighted during January and February, 1998 included rough-legged hawk, red-tailed hawk, sharp-shinned hawk and kestrel. Rough-legged hawks were sighted for the first time of the 1997/98 winter on January 11 which is about 4-6 weeks later than usual. Their arrival corresponded with the first period of "normal" winter weather.

Rough-legged hawk migrations were noted the first week of March, 1998 and red-tailed hawks the following week. Northern hanier were sighted for the first time that spring on March 1, 1998 and Swainson' s hawk on March 25, 1998. Several kestrels were observed the last two weeks of March and fust half of April, 1998. Turkey vultures arrived the first week of April as usual. In addition to those already mentioned, sightings of Cooper's hawk, prairie falcon, merlin, and osprey were also made during the spring. An adult golden eagle was observed several times in the southeast quarter of the refuge during the spring and early summer.

Raptors that nest on Fort Niobrara include red-tailed hawk, Swainson's hawk, kestrel, eastern screech owl, great horned owl, and burrowing owl. Burrowing owls, a species of management concern, arrive on the refuge in mid April. In 1998, a minimum of four pair successfully nested in the prairie dog town which is up from previous year. Young were observed above ground for the first time on June 21, 1998. Twenty-six burrowing owls were observed on September 15, 1998 prior to migrating south. Im.mature red-tailed hawks, Swainson's hawks and kestrels were observed frequently in July and early August. 22

Raptor sightings on Fort Niobrara increased in early September as usual with osprey, prairie falcon, Swainson's hawk, red-tailed hawk, kestrel~ northern harrier, sharp-shinned hawk and ferruginous hawk observed. An osprey was sighted soaring over the Niobrara River on several occasions from mid August through late October. Turkey vultures began to group the third week of September with migrations noted the first week of October. The red-tailed hawk migration occurred the first two weeks of October with 4-6 hawks observed several times during this time period in 1998. Sightings of an occasional red-tailed hawk, northern harrier, rough legged hawk, and sharp-shinned hawk were made in November and December.

G.7. Other Migratory Birds

Fewer than 30 species within this category wimer on Fon Niobrara and are usually observed in association with the woodland habitat. The grasslands are generally depauperate during the winter with horned lark the most commonly observed species.

The grasslands and woodlands come alive each spring with the arrival of various songbirds. During an "average" spring, observations of migrating songbirds begin in mid April with the "peak'' occun-ing in late April and early May. Arrival dates for most birds occurred during the expected time frame. Meadowlark and robin migrations were generally noted the third week of March, with several species of sparrows, blackbirds, and bluebirds observed the third week of April. Migrating yellow-rumped and orange­ crowned warblers were commonly sighted the last week of April with several other warbler species observed the first two weeks of May.

The Breeding Bird Survey was conducted on June 12, 1998 with 50 species and 399 individuals counted. Species recorded are similar to results obtained in 1997 (48 species, 506 individuals), however fewer individuals were counted due to increased wind speed half way through the survey. Western meadowlark and grasshopper sparrow were the most abundant as in previous BBS surveys, accounting for 44% of total individua]s recorded. Over half of the 40 stops are located in sandhill prairie, 10% woodland, and 40% woodland/grassland edge. Biologist McPeak obtained the volunteer services of birders Paul and Karla Kaufman from Seward, NE via a contact at the Nebraska Chapter of the Audubon Society. Lodging was provided and McPeak functioned as the driver.

Trial point counts were conducted in the river corridor on June 13 by the Kaufmans .to become more familiar with the procedure, determine distance limitations for identification, and ease of access. Forty-six species and 140 individuals were counted. Trial point counts in the grasslands were conducted by wildlife biologist McPeak and intern Beck to assess McPeak's ability to hear various species and determine distance limitations. Beck and McPeak floated the Niobrara Riv,er on June 24, 1998 (little to no public use) and June 27, 1998 (moderate public use) and collected data on birds and public use. Infonnation from the various counts was used to begin development of long­ term non-game bird monitoring procedures. Stephanie Jones, regional non--game bird biologist, visited the refuge to assist with development of a study design that monitors 23 non-game bird population trends. Protocol for monitoring the. grasslands south and east of the Niobrara River was drafted with other habitat blocks not completed at this time.

A 9-box bluebird trail was monitored for a second year by volunteers Ross and Gina Brackley. Nesting was initiated on April 1, 1998 with the first hatch recorded on May 5, 1998. A total of 19 eastern bluebirds, eight house wrens, and 10 tree swallows fledged. Only one box had two successful nests.

An early migration of robins was noted at Fort Niobrara on February 9, 1999 and an eastern bluebird was sighted on February 21, 1999. Large groups of starlings were also observed. In 1999 migrations seemed to be earlier than normal due to the mild climatic conditions.

Twelve birders attended a bird hike on Fort Niobrara on May 8, 1999 in celebration of International Migratory Bird Day. Sixty-three species were sighted during and after the hike. Highlight for the day was the observation of 2 western grebes on the Niobrara River. Western grebes are rarely sighted on Fort Niobrara. Several of the participants expressed interest in the refuge sponsoring additional birding activities during other seasons of the year. Donuts, coffee, and hot chocolate were provided courtesy of the Fort Niobrara Natural History Association.

G.8. Game Mammals

G.8.a. Elk

Elk were once abundant in the Northern Great Plains, including the area of Fort Niobrara. Aughey, a writer in the 1880s, referred to the "magnificent herds" of elk along the Niobrara River in the late 1860s, however, by the early 1880s, elk were extirpated from Nebraska due to hunting and loss of habitat.

Elk were reintroduced to Fort Niobrara in January 1913 with the donation of 17 elk by J.W. Gilbert of Friend, NE. Management policy/philosophy implemented over the years has been to maintain a representative herd under reasonably natural conditions in numbers sufficient to ensure their continued existence for perpetuation of their associated cultural, scientific and aesthetic values. Specific management objectives have been to (1) assure a nucleus breeding population, (2) provide appropriate viewing opportunities for public enjoyment, and (3) support that level of scientific study feasible within the management of a representative herd.

Periodic introductions of elk to the Fort Niobrara herd have occurred over the years to minimize the negative effects of inbreeding depression (Table 5). A free-ranging adult bull that has tested/damaged boundary fence the past two years was allowed to join the main herd of elk in habitat unit 16a on October 1, 1998. 24

Table 6. Summary of Elk Introductions on Fort Niobrara NWR.

Year Number Sex Origin 1913 17 unk. J.W.Gildbert, Friend, NE 1940 1 male State of Kansas 1965 2 male National Bison Range, MT 1966 2 lm,lf Outside ofrefuge 1969 1 male Unknown 1986 4 male National Bison Range, MT 1988 3 male Outside of refuge 1991 1 female Outside of refuge 1992 1 male State of Nebraska 1997 10 5m,5f National Bison Range, MT 1998 1 male Outside of refuge

The number of elk believed to be on Fort Niobrara on January 1, 1998 was -69 with 18 adult bulls, 6 yearling bulls, 15 adult cows, 1 two-year-old heifer, 6 yearling heifers, and 4 calves (sex unknown) in the main herd; 2 two-year-old bulls, 3 adult cows, and 3calves in the exhibition herd; and 7-9 adult bulls, 1 two-year-old bull, and 2 adult cows in the wilderness herd. Figure 2. Bull Elk at Fort Niobrara NWR

The various elk herds remained in their respective habitat units in 1998 with exchange or removal of animals accomplished by baiting. An adult cow was moved from the main herd to the exhibition herd. Six surplus elk (five adult, one yearling) were handled in February with four bull elk transferred to Walnut Creek NWR to assist with their efforts to reintroduce an indigenous species to the tall grass prairie and two bull elk were donated to the Henry Doorly Zoo for display in its North American Drive-thru Park. After baiting the elk into the corrals, target animals were immobilized for removal of antlers and health testing.

In 1998 Elk calving began on June 8. A minimum of seven calves was born this year for a calving rate of 41 %. This year's calving percent is up slightly from last year and similar to the 15-year average of 42% (table 6). The poor calving rate is believed to be due to condition and age of cows. The addition of "new blood" from the National Bison Range in 1997 and free-ranging bull elk in 1998 should help to improve the genetic health and 25 vigor of animals. In consulting with Dr. Sahara, veterinarian for the State of Nebraska, he suggested that in addition to addressing inbreeding concerns, we investigate the availability of mineral supplementation developed specifically for elk in this area. The elk are currently supplemented with standard cattle 12:12 mineral block. No action has been taken to date.

Table 7. Elk Calving Rates, 1984 - 2000.

Year # Breeding Age Cows Calving Rate 2000 21 52% 1999 22 27% 1998 18 39% 1997 20 35% 1996 17 47% 1995 12 17% 1994 18 44% 1993 24 67% 1992 26 37% 1991 23 48% 1990 25 44% 1989 22 50% 1988 25 16% 1987 28 46% 1986 22 68% 1985 19 42% 1984 19 37%

Reports of free-ranging elk outside of Fort Niobrara were received. A small herd of 8-10 elk was observed on land owned by Simmons Cattle Company north of Fort Niobrara on several occasions. Multiple sightings of 6 and 7 point bull elk were made in the river corridor by refuge staff. Refuge boundary fence in the wilderness area and habitat Wiit 16a was damaged by elk off-refuge on several occasions. No elk escapes from the refuge are known to have occurred, however, as mentioned previously, one of the "trouble makers" on the outside was allowed to join the refuge herd. A free-ranging bull elk east that was damaging fence at the Krueger Elk Ranch several miles east of Fort Niobrara was shot by the Nebraska Game and Parks Commission. Free-ranging verse fenced elk, disease, genetics (red deer) and private landowner concerns in this area are issues that are beginning to be addressed by various entities (Nebraska Game & Parks Commission, Nebraska Department of Agriculture, elk ranches, cattle ranches, and USFWS).

Dr. Butch Sahara, veterinarian for the State of Nebraska, was consulted regarding the diagnosis of Chronic Wasting Disease (CWD) in two captive elk herds in western and north central South Dakota late last year and a private, captive elk herd west of Fort Niobrara near Nenzel, Nebraska this spring. Dr. Sahara and USDA-APHIS veterinarians were provided the refuge with information on the disease, status in the area, and development of a voluntary testing/certification program. CWD is a transmissible 26 spongiform encephalopathy of cervids that is always fatal, appears to have a low infection rate, and slow incubation rate. Fort Niobrara's elk herd has bad no known exposure to the disease or is exhibiting signs of the disease; however, future implications to the refuge herd and free-ranging deer and elk are unclear.

Known mortality in 1998 included one bull and one cow in the wilderness area of old age, two bulls of old age in the main herd, and one bull of old age/handling stress in the main herd. Four elk (three bulls in the wilderness area, one bull in habitat unit 16a) are unaccounted for and presumed dead due to old age.

The number of elk believed to be on the refuge on December 31 , 1998 was approximately 61-63 with 11 adult bulls, 5 two-year-old bulls, 2 yearling bulls, 14 adult cows, 6 two­ year-old heifers, 2 yearling heifers, and 5 calves (sex unknown) in the main herd; 2 adult bulls, 2 yearling bulls, 4 adult cows, 1 yearling heifer, and 3 calf in the exhibition herd; and 3-5adult bulls, 1 two-year-old bull, 1 adult cow, and 1 calf (sex unknown) in the wilderness herd.

Two yearling bull elk in the exhibition herd were relocated to the main herd on January 13, 1999, and a young cow from the main herd was exchanged for a 12+ year old cow in the exhibition herd that was declining in condition on January 14, 1999. Animal moves were accomplished by immobilizing with Xylazine and using the reversal drug Tolazine. Immobilization has become a very efficient and non-injuring method of moving specific animals.

Elk population surveys were conducted during January 1999 and approximately 63 elk inhabit Fort Niobrara which includes 47 animals in the main herd, 8 in the exhibition herd, and 6-8 in the wilderness area.

Two elk in poor condition on Fort Niobrara were dispatched on March 25, 1999. Dr. Roger Sal1ara, veterinarian for the State of Nebraska, and Dr. Joe Coyle, USDA-APHIS veterinarian, conducted necropsies on the animals and collected brain stems as part of the CWD surveillance program. Maintenance workers Purdy and McPeak and Wildlife Biologist McPeak were trained in brain stem collection. The free-ranging bull elk that joined the refuge herd last fall was found dead on March 25, 1999. The non-refuge bull elk had been dead for several days and could not be necropsied, however, the brain stem was collected and submitted for analysis.

In June 1999, per the advice of Dr. Sahara, veterinarian for the State of Nebraska, elk were provided mineral supplementation. Two of the self-feeding tubs were placed in 16a for the main herd and one tub in unit 27 for the exhibition herd. Elk will be monitored closely for consumption.

G.8.b. Deer

General observations suggest that the white-tailed deer and mule deer populations are similar to 1997 levels. An estimated 60-70 white-tailed deer and 35 mule deer were 27 present on the refuge at the end of 1998. There are no management efforts to control deer numbers or movement. Coyote predation and off-refuge hunting has kept refuge deer numbers in check.

G.8.c. Pronghorn Antelope

Pronghorn were historically common on the open prairies of the Sandhllls through the late 1800's, however, by 1908 they were on the decline and observed only -in the western and northern portions of Nebraska. Efforts to reintroduce antelope to this area began in 1924 with the transfer of 10 animals from Nevada. The herd gradually increased to 17 animals in 1932, but then steadily decreased in numbers. Attempts to establish a second herd of antelope with the transfer of 34 animals in 1936 also eventually failed. Coyote predation then and now -is the primary factor influencing the survival of pronghorn on Fort Niobrara.

In 1998 no pronghorns were observed on the refuge this year, however, a small herd of pronghorns (7-10 animals) was observed feeding in an alfalfa circle adjacent to the south border of Fort Niobrara throughout the spring. During the past 10 years, isolated incidences of a pronghom migrating onto the refuge has occurred, however, the pronghorn did not stay or was killed by coyotes. Reproduction on the refuge has not been documented since the 19801s.

G.10. Other Resident Wildlife

In 1999, twenty-five wild turkeys were reported wintering on Fort Niobrara in cooperation with the Nebraska Game and Parks Commission winter turkey population survey.

A bobcat was observed at the canoe launch area on Fort Niobrara on February 2, 1999.

A juvenile mountain lion was observed by a Nebraska Game and Parks Conservation Officer on a bluff above Smith Falls State Recreation Area which is - 5 miles east of Fort Niobrara. Several reports of the mountain lion had been received prior to the confirmation by the CO in early March, 1999.

G.10.a.

Several million bison once roamed the Great Plains, however, by the late 1880's, fewer than 1,000 animals were alive due to loss of habitat and hunting. Free-ranging bison are believed to have been extirpated from Nebraska in 1878. In early 1912, J.W. Gilbert of Friend, NE offered to donate his small herd of captive bison (along with elk and deer) to the Federal Government for preservation on the Fort Niobrara Game Preserve as part of the national effort to save bison from extinction. Following an enlargement of the refuge in November 1912 his offer was formally accepted. As no appropriation of funding was available to fence the preserve, the citizens of Valentine along with contributions from the Chicago-Northwestern Railroad and National Association of Audubon Societies. In 28

January 1913 the enclosure was completed and the animals (6 bison, 17 elk, and 2 white - tailed deer) were reintroduced to Fort Niobrara beginning the 85+ year history of managing big game.

Management policy/philosophy implemented over the years has been to maintain a representative herd under reasonably natural conditions in nwnbers sufficient to ensure their continued existence for perpetuation of their associated cultural, scientific and aesthetic values. Specific management objectives have been to (1) assure a nucleus breeding population, (2) provide appropriate viewing opportunities for public enjoyment, and (3) support that level of scientific study feasible within the management of a representative herd. Management intensity has varied over time and included culling, pasture rotation, winter feeding, and brucellosis testing and control. Periodic winter feeding was done in the early years of the program but was discontinued in the 1930's when survival of the species was assured and adequate pasture was fenced. Brucellosis testing was accomplished for the first time in 1940 with a vaccination program initiated in 1941. Periodic disease testing and brucellosis control have occwTed since. Numbers of bison by age and sex that have been culled from the herd over time have been accomplished to keep the herd in balance with available forage and approximate the herd structure of a "free-ranging" herd subject to natural regulatory processes (.i.e. Yellowstone National Park herd prior to management policy/actions in 1990's). Management is in the process of changing the sex ratio from 1 male: 1.5 female (skewed in late 1980's to achieve herd increase) to a more "natural" 1 male: 1 female. Data from Yellowstone suggest females are slightly more numerous than males in the 10 months - 3.5 year age range. Male survival predominates until they reach full maturity and then the females again outnumber the males. Mortality in the Yellowstone herd is variable according to severity of winter; however, much of the mortality is in the ca1f, yearling and 2-year-old age classes which Fort Niobrara attempts to replicate in selection of culls.

Herd genetics, as it relates to maintaining the health and welfare of the Fort Niobrara herd itself and in helping to maintain the overall bison species gene pool, has been of management concern since the establislunent of the herd. In addition to the original six bison (sex unknown) from J.W. Gilbert, two males from Yellowstone National Park were brought to Fort Niobrara in 1913. Additional introductions were made in 1935 (four males, Custer State Park), 193 7 (four males, Custer State Park), and 1952 (five males, National Bison Range) to minimize inbreeding and maintain the species genetically as closely as possible to that surviving the bottleneck of near extinction. Within the last 10- 15 years, the need for monitoring of herd genetics/diversity has been recognized as a needed addition to the successful, long-term management of bison.

Bison numbers managed on Fort Niobrara have varied over time with the maximum population number (400 winter, 540 summer) occurring 1992-1996. The bison herd consisted of- 356 animals (-345 main herd, 11 exhibition herd) on Januruy 1, 1998. The number of bison by sex and age is listed in Table 8. 2-9

Table 8. Bison Herd Structure on January 1, 1998. BISON Age Male Female Calf 31 32 1 12 10 2 11 13 3 10 15 4 JO 11 5 12 14 6 11 17 7 12 15 8 7 13 9 9 13 10 9 12 11 8 12 12 7 9 13 2 3 14 3 6 15 3 1 16 1 1 17 18 _1 Total 158 198

The main herd spent the winter in the - 3938 acre wilderness area where live water and adequate forage is available. Gates out of the north unit were opened on March 26, 1998 to allow bison to move themselves prior to roundup. Approximately 90 bison came across the river on their own on March 27 and 30, 1998. The spring roundup of bison in 1998 was accomplished April 1 and 2 with 15 horseback riders (9 refuge staff, 4 volunteer, 2 National Park Service employees). Bison in the west draws were pushed to the east the afternoon of April 1 by six horseback riders and then the next day all of main herd of bison was taken out via the main access traiJ instead of the usual "two jump" method to the west. Six bison escaped roundup and came out on their own later. Taking bison out the main access trail along with the addition of six experienced, volunteer horseback riders resulted in a successful and safe roundup. Recent losses of experienced staff, increasing age of horses, reduced handling of the bison on horseback along with the behavior of bison and highly variable spring weather have made roundup a challenging experience.

In 1998 the main bison herd grazed units 36A and 36B for two weeks each in April and then were moved through units 39, 38, 34 and 35 on a 7-day rotation in May and early June. Access to the previously grazed unit was allowed for watering purposes. Bison began their smnmer grazing rotation on June 3 in unit 28b3. Five to seven day moves were planned for June and early July with five to nine day moves planned for late July, August and early September. The rotation through 28A & B subunits was in a counter clockwise direction which was second year of the rotation. The summer bison rotation is 30 reversed every two years to alleviate the impact at gates and to continue with the plan to differ the start and finish points of the rotation so that each unit is grazed at a different stage in the various plant phenologies. Planned grazing of the ''hill" units (28a3,28a4,28b3,and 28b4) was again below suggested stocking rates due to the selective use of the flat/open areas by the bison. Grazing of the "flat11 units (28al ,28a2,28b 1,and 28b2) was planned to correspond with peak rut activity (late July and August). The social behavior of the herd, habitat preference during the rut, and impact of nongrazing activities necessitates the adjusted grazing program. Each unit was grazed twice and under recommended stocking rates by the NRCS. "End" unit (28bl) was grazed three times due to staging for fall roundup but utilization was below recommended stocking rates. Round hay bales were placed at disturbance sites (i.e. gate approaches, mill/tank, trail blowout) for bison to "distribute'' and stabilize the sites. A few escapes through the electric fence occurred during the rut but overall the electric fence functioned adequately.

In 1998 the exhibition herd of bison remained in h.u. 27 year round. To minimize handling of the exhibition herd and allow for the public to view more bison of 11 representative age and sex "up close , removal of bison production from the previous year and exchange of animals (i.e. non-breeders) is accomplished at fall roundup. The dominant adult bull hooked two vehicles in a span of several days during late July and was dispatched. The other adult bull was removed at roundup and two new breeding age bulls were put into the public exhibition unit.

In 1998 the first bison calf was born the second week of April, 1998 with the last calf born in late October or early November. A minimum of 141 bison calves were born for a calving rate of 90% (females three years old and older). The 19-year-old cow continued to contribute to the gene pool this year and was in good condition. This year's calving rate is up from last year and above the long tenn average suggesting young and old are breeding consistently and animals are in excellent condition. (Note: A red bison calf observed in February in the main herd is believed to have been born in late December 1997 and not included in that year's information.)

The 1998 fall roundup of bison was completed September 21-28. Mature animals were visually inspected in the main pens for injury, age, and condition before processing through the hub where potential surplus were sorted off. Keeper bison were slowed only long enough to read age brands (age brands are difficult to read sometimes and that is why slight differences in numbers by age occur from one year to the next). All calves and yearlings were sorted off, weighed and evaluated with approximately half of each class except two-year-old heifers surplussed. No two-year-old heifers were surplussed due to the ongoing RB51 Brucellosis Vaccine Study (section D.5). Keeper yearlings were branded and returned to the keeper herd. Sixty-six heifer calves were vaccinated with Brucella abortus Strain 19 on September 23 by Dr. Scott Larsen. At least two keeper heifer calves were not vaccinated due to their age. All calves passing through the chute received a 7-way vaccination for various calfhood diseases. Keeper calves were not branded to reduce handling and were returned to the keeper herd. Surplus yearlings and calves were tagged with a numbered, yellow eartag for identification. Health testing of surplus bison was accomplished on September 25 and 28, 1998 by USDA-APHIS 31 veterinarians at no cost to the refuge. AJl bison tested negative for tuberculosis and brucellosis. Any additional health testing (i.e. anaplasmosis) required for interstate shipment of the bison were accomplished after the sale and at the expense of the purchaser.

The yearling and calf age classes are usually weighed during fall roundup to assist with selection of surplus and for monitoring the bison herd over time. In 1998 the average weight for bull calves was 326 lbs. and the heifer calf average weight was 305 lbs. which is down from last year but above the multiple-year average (bull 312 lbs., heifer 300 lbs.). Weights for yearling bulls were similar to last year with the average approximating 694 lbs.

Table 9. Average Weights of Bison Calves and Yearlings at Fall Roundup, 1988-2000. CALF YEARLING YEAR Male Female Male Female 2000 315 304 660 621 1999 314 320 679 645 1998 326 305 694 665 1997 331 316 697 1996 310 289 672 628 1995 297 298 1994 280 289 1993 315 301 657 606 "washie forage" 1992 330 312 1991 311 304 673 638 1990 305 296 1989 314 297 1988 318 296 659 631

The bison herd and its effect to various vegetation communities on the refuge have been observed since their arrival in 1913. Adjustments to the bison program (i.e. number of bison, grazing strategies, operations) have been made over time to better manage the various vegetation communities, bison, and available staff. The habitat unit that the main herd of bison inhabits from late September to late March (winter range) has been under review in recent years due to the number of bison that winter there and concentration of forage utilization in specific areas due to terrain, slope, aspect, and vegetation type. Based on results of NRCS range surveys conducted in 1995 and changes in how we estimate forage utilization (body weight instead of a herd average AUM), the decision was made to reduce the winter bison population from the previous objective level of 400 animals to - 375 in 1996 and to - 350 in 1997.

The bison herd was reduced by 133 animals during the fall 1998 program which included 92 bison sold at public auction on October 14; 33 bison donated to the InterT1ibal Bison Cooperative; three bison transferred to Walnut Creek National Wildlife Refuge; four bison donated to the Great Plains Zoo; one crippled bison salvaged for meat donation to 32 the Valentine school system; and five bison that died or were dispatched as a result of injuries suffered prior to or during roundup.

Known mortality in 1998 included three calves during the summer of unknown cause, an 8- year old bull that was dispatched after he charged two cars in the exhibition unit, and five animals during and after roundup.

The number of bison on Fort Niobrara at the end of 1998 was - 356 (- 344 main herd, 12 exhibition herd).

Table 10. Bison Herd Structure on December 31, 1998.

BISON Age Male Female Calf 31 34 1 16 16 2 9 10 3 11 9 4 10 17 5 11 10 6 13 14 7 11 15 8 10 14 9 6 13 10 IO 12 11 7 8 12 8 10 13 4 4 14 1 1 .., 15 1 ., 16 2 1 17 1 18 _____19 1 Total 161 193 In 1999 the spring movement of bison was accomplished the first week of April with approximately 190 bison coming out of the wilderness area on their own April 2-4 and most of the remaining animals rounded-up on April 7 with 12 horseback riders (8 refuge staff, 2 volunteers, 1 NE Game & Parks employee, 1 National Park Service employee). Bison went to habitat unit 36a on April 9 to begin the spring grazing rotation. Based on general counts of bison moved to unit 36a, fewer than 10 bison escaped roundup. Five bulls came out on their own later in the month and at least two adult bulls remained in unit 1.

The roundup was accomplished a few days later than usual and there was concern regarding closeness to calving. No red calves were observed, however, a bison cow with 33 afterbirth hanging out was observed the morning of April 9. No calf was found and the appearance of the afterbirth suggested she calved during the night of April 8. The first live bison calf was observed on April 13.

G.10.b. Texas Longhorn Cattle

Texas longhorn cattle have been managed at Fort Niobrara since 1936 to assure perpetuation of a historically significant animal for study and appreciation by present and future generations. The longhorn is believed by many to have made more history than any other bovine the world has known. Their origins can be traced back to Spanish cattle that were brought to the New World in about 1521 by Gregorio Villalobos, viceroy to "New Spain''. Early explorers, including Coronado, brought cattle from Mexico into what are now Arizona, New Mexico, and Texas. The herds eventually spread from Louisiana to California. Although utilized by Native Americans and settlers, they roamed more or less wild for over 300 years, going through a unique process of natural selection and gradually evolving into the "longhorn". Literature tells of the longhorn defending itself and young against wolf, bear, and lion. They were often described as fleet-footed, tough, big, rawboned, rangy, and wild. The longhorns were the first major beef supply in the United States and were the cattle that made famous the Chisolm, Dodge, and Bozeman trails. Beginning in the mid l 860's and ending by 1895, an estimated five million head of longhorns were trailed from Texas to Kansas, Nebraska, the Dakotas, Wyoming, Montana and Colorado, some walking - 2,000 miles. The attributes which helped the longhorn to survive heat, drought, flies, predators, limited forage, and travel great distances were a liability in the late 1800's, and by the early 1920's, the longhorn was threatened with extinction. Through a special Congressional appropriation, funds were made available to locate and manage representative, true-to­ type Texas longhorns at Wichita Mountains Wildlife Refuge. Over 30,000 head of cattle were inspected, and in 1927, a herd of 20 cows, 3 bulls, 3 steers, and 4 calves were shipped to Wichita Mountains. For reasons not stated in refuge files, a second gene pool of this founding herd was established at Fort Niobrara with the transfer of four cows, one bull, and one steer in May of 1936.

Management over the years has attempted to allow natural factors to influence and maintain historic herd traits such as foraging ability, milk production, calving ease, hardiness and protection of their young against predators. In addition, animals selected/perpetuated by management have exhibited representative conformation, horn structure, color variability, and genetic diversity. Management methods and intensities have varied with some methods progressing and utilizing teclmology not available in the past. For example, to protect and preserve the genetic diversity of the herd, computer generated inbreeding programs have been utilized to augment written records in the genetic management issues. Numbers and classes of animals managed at Fort Niobrara have also varied based on the opinion of e>..-perts with the current herd structw·e emphasizing the genetic management responsibilities.

The longhorn herd consisted of 240 animals at the beginning of 1998 (Table 10). Longhorns were wintered in units with live water and timbered areas for shelter (steers in 34

unit 32, exhibition steers in unit 27, adult bulls in unit 16A, bred cows and heifers in unit 30, yearling heifers in unit 25, yearling bulls in unit 19, and weaners in unit 21 /21a). All longhorns were supplemented with prairie hay when conditions warranted (i.e. extensive snow cover). Longhorn weaners and yearlings were also given a daily ration of grain to meet maintenance requirements (1 lb. grain mix of oats and corn/100 lbs. of body weight).

Table 11. Longhorn Herd Structure, January 1, 1998.

Age Bull Steer Cow Calf 19 29 1+ 8 1 19 2+ 9 2 15 Adult 11 22 105 Total 47 25 168

Bred cows and heifers were moved from unit 30 to unit 19 on March 4, 1998 in preparation for calving (24 month old bulls were moved to unit 16a prior to cows arriving). The first longhorn calf was born on March 9, 1998 and the last calf was born on May 18, 1998. A total of 109 calves were born for a calving rate of 90% which is down from previous years. Ten cows were open due to above average breeding herd sizes and one cow aborted her calf. Pairs were moved from the calving pasture to h.u. 29 every few days during March and April, 1998 to prevent overcrowding and help keep newborns healthy. Six calves died during the spring due to spring storms, no milk, or scours.

Supplemental feeding of most longhorns usually ends in early to mid April when more mild spring weather occurs necessitating the moving of animals to new units. Cows with calves are usually the exception with hay fed until late April. In 1998 yearling bulls joined the bull herd in h.u . 16a on April 13, 1998. Yearling heifers were moved to h.u. 33 on April 13 and stayed there until beginning their summer grazing rotation in h.u. 37 in middle May. Steers spent two weeks in late April/early May cleaning up hay fed during the cow winter feeding program in b.u. 30, grazing exotic cool season grasses in h.u. 19 the later part of May, and were then moved to h.u. 11 for the summer. Two-year­ old heifers joined the cow/calf herd on April 8 enabling the portion of the river corridor that they inhabit to be idled during the entire growing season.

Preparations for the 1998 longhorn breeding program were accomplished in late April and May and included semen testing of six potential herd sires and selection of breeding herds. All bulls tested good to very good with US 90057, WR 1473, US 94005, US 95074, and US 96071 selected for use. Bulls were selected based on their potential genetic contribution (increase diversity), breeding history, and true-to-type characteristics. Herd sizes of each bull ranged from 22 - 31 females with carrying capacity of the habitat unit, age of bull, and genetics determining size of herds. Criteria used to develop the schedule were: , 1. Offspring inbreeding coefficient< .09. 35

2. Bloodline different from what bred to 1997 and previous years if possible. 3. No replacement in herd of that bloodline cross/match. 4. Color, horn and other physical characteristics. 5. Distribute bull bloodline throughout herd--breed to variety of aged cows.

Longhorn bulls were moved to unit 16b4 on May 13, 1998 to begin their summer short duration grazing program. Again that year longhorn bulls grazed a 16b subunit in the spring to treat exotic cool season grasses. The start point of the rotation is varied each year so that each unit is grazed at a different time in the cool and warm season plant phenology. Bulls moved through the units on a 7-10 day cycle.

Longhorn cow/calf pairs, drys, and two-year-old replacement heifers rotated through west river grazing units (h.u. 31 and h.u.3la) during the month of May. Once again, all moves were accomplished by opening the gate and allowing the animals to "move themselves". One of the staff closed the gate later that same day or next day while performing other duties.

In 1998 the early summer roundup of longhorns was accomplished May 29, June 1 and 2. Habitat units 9 and 23 were used as staging areas as usual due to their proximity to the corrals. A total of 103 longhorn calves (50 males, 53 females) was branded and vaccinated for various calfhood diseases (blackleg, malignant edema, and hemorrhagic septicemia) on June 1. Breeding herds were sorted and put out to pasture on June 2. Summer grazing units are varied each year to allow a unit to be rested during the growing season every other year. Units that are grazed during the -60 day period are at an average rate of - .12 A UM/acre.

On August 3, 1998, breeding bulls were removed from their herds and put in unit 39 and cows, calves and bred heifers were moved to unit 34. Non-breeding bulls were moved from unit 16bl to unit 39 on August 4. Habitat units utilized during the late summer and fall grazing program are rotated so that each unit only receives a hard fall graze (-.31 AUM/acre) every 4th year.

In 1998 the fall roundup of Texas longhorns began on September 10 and 11 with the moving of animals from outer units to units close to the headquarters/corral area. Longhorns were processed through the corrals September 14 - 16 with animals exhibiting typical longhorn traits (horn, conformation, and diverse color), sound condition, and representing various bloodlines retained. Calves received their second vaccination for various calfhood diseases and female calves were vaccinated for brucellosis with RB5 l by Dr. Brad Rodgers, D.V.M. on September 14. Pregnancy testing of two-year-old heifers and potential surplus cows was also accomplished that same day by Dr. Rodgers. All calves were weighed for ongoing documentation of each cows mothering ability. Health testing (brucellosis and tuberculosis) of surplus longhorns was accomplished on September 18 and 21 by USDA-APHIS veterinarians at no cost to the refuge. Animals 36 requiring additional testing (i.e. anaplasmosis) for interstate shipment were accomplished after the sale and at the expense of the buyer.

Again that year, roundup was accomplished over a greater period of time- but in less total hours which resulted in fewer staff needed to accomplish work, less stress on staff and animals, and savings to the budget by not working beyond an 8-hour day. Revised corrals and procedures also aided in a more efficient handling of animals.

In 1998 a total of 118 longhorns were selected for surplus disposal of which all were sold at public auction. Surplus animal selections were carefully planned to minimize the negative effects to the gene pool with steer (all ages), heifer (calf and yearling), and bull (calf and yearling) classes reduced the greatest.

Following 1998 roundup, keeper bulls went back to unit 39 and keeper steers went to unit 33. Keeper steers were moved to unit 19 on October 2 for public display during the sales. Keeper females and calves grazed in unit 34 until October 5 when they were moved to unit 21 for public display. Following the sale, females and calves grazed west river units 31 and 31 a until the end of October and the steers went to unit 32 for the remainder of the year.

On November 4, 1998 bull and heifer calves were weaned and moved to unit 21 , two­ year-old replacement heifers received a numbered ear tag like the cows to facilitate identification at calving, and yearling heifers were moved to unit 25. The cow herd was moved to unit 30 a couple of days later after settling down. The bull herd was sort and relocated to wintering units on November 6 (adult bulls to 16a, yearlings to 19). Parasite treatment was accomplished late November and early December which was about 30 days later than previous years to e>..1end the lice control period later in the winter and early spring.

Longhorn fatalities for 1998 included one mature bull of a fighting injury in January, six calves already discussed, one calf of unknown cause (exhibited abnormal mental functions) in August, and one adult cow of ruptured hernia which was salvaged for meat donation to the Valentine School System.

The number of longhorns on the refuge at the end of 1998 totaled 221 which is a decrease of 19 animals frotn the prior year's winter population. Refer to Table 12 for specific infotmation.

Table 12. Longhom Herd Structure, December 31, 1998.

Age Bull Steer Cow Calf 11 23 1+ 8 17 2+ 6 1 17 Adult 14 22 102 Total 39 23 159 37

Longhorn calving for 1999 began on March 13 with 60 calves born my month' s end. Twin bull calves were born on March 28 to a first calf heifer. Twins are extremely rare and this is believed to be only the second set of twins born on Fort Niobrara since 1936.

Semen testing of longhorn bulls to be used as herd sires in 1999 was accomplished on May 4, 1999 by Dr. Larsen. All bulls tested good to very good. Breeding schedules for the selected bulls were developed at months end with genetics, conformation, and color of the cows considered in the matching process. Longhorn computer files were brought current.

In 2000 82 Texas Longhorns were sold at the annual fall sale, for a total of $58,556.00 and an average price of $714.00 per head. The remainder of the herd was transported to Wichita Mountains and Fort Robinson State Park in Crawford, NE in November of 2000.

Figure 3. Longhorn Cattle Drive to Fort Robinson State Park in November 2000

G.10.c. Merriam's Turkey

Turkey observations are recorded during the summer and winter in cooperation with Nebraska Game dud Parks Commission surveys. The primary objective of the surveys is to determine the status of the wild turkey population (numbers and distribution) along the Niobrara River and its watershed. A minimum of 15 turkeys were reported wintering on Fort Niobrara in January, 1998 which is the same previous year. The number of hens observed raising young during the summer survey period of July l through August 15, 1998 suggested production of turkeys on Fort Niobrara was similar to 1997. Age ratio data collected by the Nebraska Game and Parks during the bunting season off-refuge suggest poor production in this area in 1998. 38

G.10.d. Sharp-Tailed Grouse and Greater Prairie Chicken

In 1998 annual prairie chicken and sharp-tailed grouse breeding ground counts were conducted April 6 - 28. Refuge grasslands south and east of the Niobrara River (count area =-14,000 acres) and private land adjacent to the refuge were searched for booming/dancing grounds with at least one follow-up count conducted.

Forty-one prairie chicken males were counted on 9 leks that spring which is a 17% increase from previous year (35 males on 9 leks), however, below the 11-year average of 47.6 males counted on 7.8 leks. Ninety-nine sharp-tailed grouse males were counted on 8 grounds in I 998 which is an 87% increase from previous year (53 males on 5 grounds) and above the 11-year average of 55.3 males on 5.2 grounds. Refer to Table 12 for a summary of Iek count results 1987-2000.

Table 13. Summary of Lek Count Results on Ft. Niobrara, 1987-2000 Shar:p-tailed Grouse Prairie Chicken Year #Leks #Males #Males/Lek #Leks #Males #Males/Lek 2000 10 106 10.6 6 59 9.8 1999 7 91 13.0 6 49 8.2 1998 8 99 12.4 9 41 4.6 1997 5 53 10.6 9 35 3.9 1996 6 50 8.3 3 23 7.6 1995 6 73 12.2 6 48 8.0 1994 4 49 12.2 9 40 4.4 1993 4 39 9.8 8 45 5.6 1992 4 37 9.2 5 28 6.4 1991 4 51 12.75 6 48 8.0 1990 3 36 12.0 7 42 6.0 1989 4 36 9.0 13 88 6.7 1988 9 90 10.0 11 73 6.6 1987 5 51 10.2 7 60 8.6

Young/adult ratios from harvest data collected on Valentine NWR suggest conditions were favorable in the area for good grouse production in 1997 and 1998.

In 1999 pprairie grouse lek counts were conducted on Fort Niobrara April 12-28. A total of 49 prairie chicken males were counted on 6 leks which is a 20% increase in males from last year. Ninety-one sharp-tailed grouse were counted on 7 grounds which is an 8% decrease from last year.

G.10.e. Bobwhite Quail

In 1998 Bobwhite quail were heard and seen, but not as often as in 1997. No population information was obtained. 39

G.10.f. Furbearers

River otter-inhabit the Niobrara: River although none were sighted on the refuge in 1998. Beaver populations continue to thrive with no trapping accomplished during the year. A bobcat was sighted several times during the year in and adjacent to the river corridor.

G.10.g. Black-tailed Prairie Dog

A -20 acre prairie dog colony is located in the exhibition unit adjacent to the headquarters area. Expansion of the town to the south and west occurred during the late summer and fall 1998 with no effort made to control them.

G.10.h. Brown Bat

A sizeable maternity colony of brown bats (estimated 200 individuals) inhabits the historic "hay shed" during the spring and summer. The metal building constructed in 1897 is an ideal haven for bats, however, their feces are destroying items stored there. No specific management efforts have been accomplished to date, however, relocation of the colony is planned in the CCP.

G.10.i. Reptiles, Amphibians and Others

Species of this group that are commonly observed in refuge wetlands include northern cricket frog, northern leopard frog, snapping turtle, and painted turtle. The spiny softshell turtle is rare and found in association with the soft, sandy bottoms of the Niobrara River. Yellow mud turtle, a species of management concern, is also present but rarely observed. Several species of toads, lizards, snakes and the ornate box turtle inhabit the drier, grassland community.

G.11. Fisheries Resources

A ~ariety of native fish species inhabit the Niobrara River and its tributaries due to stable flows, consistent cool temperatures, reduced sedimentation, and low dissolved solids. Numerous species of cyprinids, ictalurids and percids are common. Species of management concern that may inhabit waters on Fort Niobrara include northern redbellied dace, pearl dace, finescale dace, and blacknose shiner.

Manmade ponds are utilized by the Nebraska Game and Parks Commission for brood rearing or brood stock maintenance. Species managed included bluegill and largemouth bass. 40

G.13. Surplus Animal Disposal

G.13.a. Bison

In 1998 the surplus bison auction was held on October 14 with 92 animals sold for a total of $171 ,325. The average price paid for bison was$ 1,862 which is an increase of$ 336 from 1997 reflecting the continued strong market for bison. Sixty-five buyers from Nebraska, Minnesota, South Dakota, Oklahoma, Kansas, and Texas attended the sale in comparison to 46 buyers from 5 states in 1997. Approximately 300 spectators also watched. Bidding was very strong on several age classes with top prices of $1550 paid for a mature bull, $3700 paid for a mature cow, $4800 for a cow/calf pair, and $3450 paid for a one-year-old heifer.

Per Memorandum of Agreement between the USFWS and InterTribal Bison Cooperative, 33 bison of various classes were donated to the InterTribal Bison Cooperative which then transferred the animals to the Santee Sioux and Ponca Tribes of Nebraska to be used for propagation of new populations or improvement of genetic diversity.

Other donations/transfers of bison in 1998 included three yearling bison bulls to Neal Smith National Wildlife Refuge (known previously as Walnut Creek) to assist in their effort to restore tall grass prairie and reintroduce an endemic species; two cow/calf pairs to the Great Plains Zoo in South Dakota for genetic management and display; and one yearling heifer (injured) was salvaged for meat donation to the Valentine Rural Fire Protection District.

The request from Carroll County Conservation Board in Iowa for donation of two bison cows was not met.

T abl e 14 . F Ort N'10 b raraAnn ual ff1son sa l e summary £or 1999 Class A2e #Sold Price Paid Too Price Av2. Price Bulls Adult 7 $8,450 $1,500 $1,207 Bulls 2 Yr. Old 4 $4,150 $1 ,100 $1,038 Bulls Yearling 11 $8,800 $875 $800 Bulls Calves 16 $7,400 $650 $463 Cows Adult 7 $9,325 $2,250 $1 ,332 Heifers 2 Yr. Old 5 $10,800 $2,400 $2,160 Heifers Yearling 12 $18,800 $1 ,850 $1 ,567 Heifer Calves 19 $26,150 $1 ,850 $1,376 81 $93,875 Avera2e> $1,159

• 41

Figure 4. Buffalo Sale at Fort Niobrara

T a bl e 15 . F Ort N.10 brara Annalffu 1son SISa e ummarv £or 2000 Class A2e #Sold Price Paid Top Price Av2. Price Bulls Adult 6 $4,475 $900 $746 Bulls 3 Yr. Old 1 $1 ,000 $1,000 $1,000 Bulls 2 Yr. Old 4 $3,150 $825 $788 Bulls Yearling 11 $5,400 $575 $491 Bulls Calves 19 $9,900 $600 $521 Cows Adult 4 $1,575 $450 $394 Heifers 2 Yr. Old 5 $2,900 $625 $580 Heifers Yearlinir 11 $5,330 $550 $485 Heifer Calves 20 $9,025 $525 $451 81 $42,755 Averae:e> $528

G.13.b. Texas Longhorn Cattle

In 1998 the surplus Texas longhorn auction was held on October 7 with 118 longhorns sold for a total of$ 49,050. Approximately 200 spectators and 72 buyers from 10 states attended the sale. The average price paid for a longhorn was $ 416 which is an increase of $58 from 1997's average. Average prices paid for the various classes of animals reflect the value of longhorns in the weak cattle market

Two longhorns that were dispatched during that year due to injury or illness were salvaged for meat donation to the Valentine School System. 42

Table 16. Fort Niobrara Annual Texas Longhorn Sale Summary for 1999

Class Ae;e #Sold Price Paid Top Price Av2. Price Bulls Adult 5 $2,150 $525 $430 Bulls 2 Yr. Old 2 $1 ,125 $625 $563 Bulls Yearling 3 $1,600 $600 $533 Bulls Calves 55 $25,875 $3,300 $470 Cows Adult 12 $6,225 $1,000 $519 Heifers 2 Yr. Old 4 $2,275 $750 $569 Heifers Yearling 6 $4,625 $875 $771 Heifer Calves 21 $11 ,050 $850 $526

108 $54,925 Avera2e> $509

Table 17. Fort Niobrara Annual Texas Longhorn Sale Summary for 2000

Class A2e #Sold Price Paid Top Price Ave;. Price Steers Adult 3 $2,900 $1 ,600 $967 Bulls Adult 4 $2,225 $725 $556 Bulls 2 Yr. Old 1 $825 $825 $825 Bulls Yearlings 3 $2,150 $800 $717 Bull Calves 45 $29,855 $3 ,305 $663 Cows Adult 4 $4,650 $2,100 $1,163 Heifers 2 Yr. Old 4 $3,650 $1,150 $913 Heifer Yearling 5 $3,650 $825 $730 Heifer Calves 13 $8,650 $2,201 $665 82 $58,556 Avera2e> $714

G.13.c.. Elk

Six bull elk (five adult, one yearling) were surplussed in February of 1998 with four animals transferred to Neal Smith (Walnut Creek) NWR to assist with their efforts to reintroduce an indigenous species to the tall grass prairie and two bull elk were donated to the Henry Doorly Zoo, Nebraska for display in its North American Drive-Thru Park.

G.16. Marking and Banding

Texas longhorn calves were branded on June 1, 1998 with a "US" on the right hip and a five digit herd number on the right ribs. The US is the brand registered with the State of Nebraska. The five digit brand (i.e. 98020) signifies year of birth and ear tag of dam.

Bison yearlings retained in the herd were branded on the top left hip with a four digit brand in September, 199 8. The first two digits of the brand signify year of birth and the last two digits signify the order in which the animal came through the chute (i.e. 9810). Calves were not branded again this year to reduce handling. Branding of keeper bison at 43 the calf age class will only be accomplished if blood is collected for genetic monitoring or if a scientific study of the herd is being conducted.

G.17. Disease Prevention and Control

Texas longhorn calves were vaccinated for malignant edema, blackleg, and hemorrhagic septicemia in JlUle and September as part of accepted standard health management practices for fenced bovines. Dr. Brad Rodgers, DVM vaccinated longhorn heifer calves for brucellosis with RBS I on September 14, I 998.

In September, bison calves were vaccinated for malignant edema, blackleg, and hemorrhagic septicemia as part of accepted standard health management practices for fenced bovines. In 1998 Sixty-six heifer calves were vaccinated for brucellosis with Strain 19 by Dr. Scott Larson, DVM on September 23.

Saddle horses are vaccinated annually in May for Encephalomyelitis Virus (eastern and western), Equine Influenza Virus (subtypes A l and A2), and Tetanus Toxoid and wonned twice a year for vaiious parasites.

All surplus bison and longhorns selected for sale or donation were tested for disease in accordance with State and Federal regulations. Current health regulations from the lower 48 states are obtained each year prior to the smplus program. Brucellosis and tuberculosis tests were done on all animals prior to sale or donation while additional tests/requirements (i.e. anaplasmosis, parasite treatment, etc.) were accomplished after the sale on specific animals at the expense of the buyer. Nebraska is classified as "Brucellosis Free" and "Tuberculosis Free".

Elk that were transferred to Henry Doorly Zoo and Neal Smith NWR tested negative for brucellosis and tuberculosis prior to leaving Fort Niobrara

Keeper longhorn bulls, exhibition steers, cows, heifers, and calves were treated with pour-on Ivomec for control of internal and external parasites. Control of lice with this product has been less than satisfactory but it is the safest. Prior to 1984, all Texas longhorn cattle were treated with Warbex · (Famphur) in October or November for lice and grub control. With rising concerns over its toxicity to non-target wildlife and the environment, the use of Warbex was discontinued. Pour-on Ivomec has been used since 1991. Ivomec contains i vennectin which is a "unique chemical entity" that interrupts the nerve impulses ofthe parasite causing paralysis and death of the parasite. Cattle lice are a common parasite in Nebraska. If left llllchecked, lice along with other parasites cause decreased reproduction and growth in cattle. Cattle also are more susceptible to disease.

Disease vaccination information for bison, elk, longhorn cattle, and saddle horses during the period 1988-1997 was provided to Region 6 Solicitor's Office in Ap1il, 1998 as part of a litigation work project. 44

H. PUBLIC USE

H.4. Interpretive Foot Trails

Fort Falls Trail is about l mile in length and leads from a parking area to the falls and then loops back along the river. A trail guide interprets natural features along the way. The Fort Niobrara Natural History Association pays for printing of the guide. The guide points out natural features along the trail which leads to the falls and down to the river.

A second trail leads from a canoe landing by the Buffalo Bridge up into the Niobrara Wilderness. It is lightly used but rewards those that take the 20 minute hike up the hill with a great view of the Sandhills and Niobrara River Valley.

H.5. Interpretive Tour Routes

The majority of visitors to the refuge come to view the big game animals and longhorns in the exhibition pasture. See section H-1 for an estimate of numbers. A network of trails and roads allows visitors to easily view the buffalo, elk, longhorns, prairie dogs deer and other wildlife found here. Visitors are estimated at around 100,000 per year and come from all over the United States and many foreign countries.

H.9 Fishing

A kids fishing day was held at Ft. Niobrara NWR in September to celebrate National Hunting and Fishing Day. On average about 50 children attended and caught some nice bass. Fish were provided by Nebraska Game and Parks and the Valentine Fisheries Assistance Office. Game and Parks also provided videos, loaner poles, and displays. Volunteers were on hand to bait hooks and untangle lines, clean and fry fish, and serve refreslunents.

H.11 Wildlife Observation

Most people come to the refuge for the self-guided auto tour route or to canoe down the river. Visitors drive through the exhibition pasture to view and photograph the wildlife. A blind was placed in the Burr Oak Picnic Area in the spring so visitors could view and observe turkeys strutting.

H.12. Other Wildlife Oriented Recreation

Canoeing and tubing the Niobrara River continues to be a large draw for the visitors at Fort Niobrara NWR. Total people canoeing or tubing the Niobrara in 1998 were 27,645; in 1999 there were 23,550 and in the year 2000 there were 17,497. 45

H.14 Picnicking

The Burr Oak Picnic Area has tables, restrooms, and trash barrels and is located along the river. It is used mainly by out of town visitors to the refuge.

H.17 Law Enforcement

Full time law enforcement officer, Chuck Melvin came to Fort Niobrara NWR in 2000.

H.18 Cooperating Associations

The Fort Niobrara Natural History Association sells books, posters, art prints, and several other items in the visitor center at Ft. Niobrara NWR. Profits from sales are used to support refuge educational and scientific programs. The board of directors of Association held quarterly meetings throughout each year. The board decides which projects to fund and what items to sell at the outlet. A quarterly newsletter (Niobrara Notes) was printed and sent out to all members (30). The newsletter has infom1ation on what the association is doing, book reviews, and refuge events. The annual members' dinner meeting was held in October.