1537 CORE brought to you by by you to brought c palmi Megalurothrips provided by ScholarsArchive@OSU by provided (Hood), (Pergande)]. 2012 Society of Chemical Industry and melon thrips, c 6 Norm Leppla b Scirtothrips dorsalis (Pergande) (Thysanoptera: ), resulted occidentalis (Priesner) on legumes While western flower thrips has been established in 7 ; fruiting vegetables; tospovirus University of Florida, Quincy, FL, USA University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA Center for Medical,Research Service, Agricultural USDA, Tallahassee, FL, and USA Veterinary Entomology,Oregon Agricultural State University, Ontario, OR, USA Correspondence to: Ozan Demirozer, Suleyman DemirelAgriculture, Department University, of Faculty Plant of Protection, 32260 Isparta,E-mail: Turkey. [email protected] Suleyman Demirel University,Protection, Faculty Isparta, Turkey of Agriculture, Department of Plant Western flower thrips is native to the southwestern United (Pergande) integrated ∗ c a e d b mucunae including chilli thrips, Karny. Whereas these aforementionedmajor concern thrips for have vegetable notpresent production, been one that of invasive poses speciesflower is a thrips [ major threat to Florida farmers:States but western has spread to otherbeginning parts in of the the 1980s, likely country owing and to theplants. global world, trade in greenhouse Joe Funderburk, b 3 Frankliniellaoccidentalis (Trybom) in Injury to leaves, Frankliniella occidentalis 1 Frankliniella fusca Frankliniella bispinosa Kara Tyler-Julian, Frankliniella schultzei ∗ a In addition to these species of thrips, d,e 5 : 1537–1545 www.soci.org 68 (Fitch)], which is the most common species in and Florida flower thrips [ 4 Numerous species also vector viral pathogens, in 2012; 2 thrips; integrated pest management; Other species of thrips found on Florida vegetable crops

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2012 Society of Chemical Industry Frankliniella tritici c northern Florida, (Morgan)], which is the most common species inFlorida. south and central Pest Manag Sci In Floridafound there in are the[ flowers two of common crops. These native are species eastern flower of thrips thrips 2 THRIPSFRUITING AND VEGETABLES TOSPOVIRUSES AS PESTS OF 1 INTRODUCTION There are over 5000 species of thripsare (order considered Thysanoptera), to and 87 be pests of commercial crops. BACKGROUND: The spread of the western flower thrips, Abstract vegetables in Florida Ozan Demirozer, and Stuart Reitz pest management programs for fruiting in the worldwide destabilization ofpest established and integrated the pest thrips-vectored management tospovirusesThe programs with for calendar result many applications has crops. of Efforts broad-spectrumpopulations been as to insecticides a a control have result been of the classic natural unsuccessful. predatorsThis ‘3-R’ and paper native reports situation: on competitor integrated thrips pest resistance being management eliminated;sound programs to replacement for and by fruiting sustainable. numerous various vegetables other that are pests. insecticides; effective, economical, resurgence ecologically of theRESULTS: western The components flower include the thrips enemies following: and competition); define integrate preventive pest and status therapeutic tacticscontrol, (economic (scouting, compatible ultraviolet-reflective thresholds); insecticides, technologies, companion increase biological plants biotic and fertility); resistancecommunicate vertically (natural latest integrate science-based the programs management with tactics other with pests; end-users. continually CONCLUSION: These programs have been widelywestern implemented flower thrips in and Florida thrips-transmitted and viruses. have significantly improved the management of Keywords: (wileyonlinelibrary.com) DOI 10.1002/ps.3389 Frankliniella occidentalis Review Received: 5 April 2012 Revised: 9 July 2012 Accepted article published: 26 July 2012 Published online in Wiley Online Library: fruitsandflowersiscausedduringthefeedingprocess,inwhichtheadults and larvae pierce thethe plant contents with of the ruptured mandible cells. Additional andand injury fruits extract may to occur leaves, during flowers the ovipositionis process inserted when into the the egg plant’s tissueof with the the subsequent larva. emergence there have been a few recent thysanopteran invaders in Florida, addition to the mechanical damage they inflict on the plants. in much lower numbers include tobacco thrips [ (Hinds)] in northern Florida and central and southern Florida. View metadata, citation and similar papers at core.ac.uk at papers similar and citation metadata, View . 32 18 This et al 20 Resistance : 1537–1545 68 Pesticides are The resistance to 18 8,26–31 28 2012; In the past, farmers 19 suggested an impasse in This adaptation continues concluded that the spread 23 The polyphagous nature of 25 22 24 . Pest Manag Sci et al including carbamate, organochlorine, 26,27 Morse and Hoddle 33–36 21 18 It is evident that there are many factors that render pesticides The population attributes of reproduction on numerous Western flower thrips has a propensity for developing resistance After developingother to uninfected adult, plants within the the thrips same field. transmit the virus to ineffective in the shortflower or thrips and long tospoviruses. term Furthermore,affect in control survivorship controlling approaches of the non-target western pest organisms. management A approach sound demands integrated is that as learnt much as about possible the biology of western flower thrips and its plant speciesgeneration in time many andextraordinary plant high ability families, dispersal ofephemeral capability high the provide crop fecundity, for western resources.rapid rapid build-up, an flower Populations in spite are thrips ofapplication attempts able to of to control conventional to exploit them insecticides. by continue repeated managing the western flowerproduction. thrips in ornamental greenhouse to many classesflower of thrips insecticides. develops pesticide The resistancesin means have a been by reviewed recent which paper western by Gao These many factorswhich have western led flower to thripsindividual has a developed large pesticides resistances number to andwestern many of flower combinations modes thrips by may thereof.of times maintain in Additionally, resistance the absence for ofdisadvantages. long pesticides, without periods any obvious fitness Therefore, repellent strategies arefrom needed to entering prevent the fieldsreduce adults and secondary spread feeding. isof The infections by in most controlling northern Florida effective larvae.infection. tomatoes The are way caused majority by to primary pyrethroids through these metabolic detoxification pathwaysoccurred has worldwide and tends to occur rapidly. organophosphate and pyrethroid insecticides. to benefit the western flower thrips,to as develop resistance it through enables these them same efficiently classes pathways to of numerous insecticides, to insecticides candevelop derive from from more than morecan one than combine pathway, one and to trait multiple pathways and contribute can to each pesticide resistance. worldwide typically have utilized calendarspectrum applications of insecticides broad- thrips. in Unfortunately, this an methodin has effort not addition been to successful, topesticides, and, control economic farmers all damage have fromepidemics species the suffered and of cost losses direct of damage of overusing from crops high to populations. disease thrips likely resultsthrough in metabolic detoxification pathways. their These pathways predisposition allow the to evolve resistance towhen traveling contend from with host an to host. array of defensive chemicals results in ato ‘3-R’ situation numerous for insecticides;thrips western populations flower resurgence as thrips: ofcompetitor a resistance the result thrips of western beingother natural pests. flower eliminated; predators and replacement native by various not effective atamount reducing of primary feeding spread time owing needed to for the transmission small to occur. of thehas western resulted flower inintegrated pest thrips the management worldwide and programsin for the destabilization species many field of crops and of established grown greenhouse. Cloyd tospoviruses 9 8 In 13 12 www.soci.org O Demirozer S. dorsalis. (Crawford), 2012 Society of Chemical Industry c Additionally, plants 16 F. occidentalis, F. schultzei, Lindeman, and 9,10 Themostcommonsymptom 14 For adults to be competent vectors, (Trybom), F. bispinosa, F. cephalica 15 Thripstabaci Western flower thrips is a phytophagous 5,11 17 Moulton and 13 Tomato spotted wilt virus is spread in two stages: primary Although the injury to the fruits by western flower thrips can be Eastern flower thrips, western flower thrips and Florida flower At least eight species of thrips are capable of transmitting infection and secondaryinfection infection. that Primarytransmiting infection occurs a refers when tospovirus to feed arrives a on in viruliferous the aSecondary plants, spread new adult occurs thereby field when capable the infecting andplants adults reproduce of begins them within on infected to with a the field, disease. and the larvae acquire the tospovirus. aesthetically damaging, and lead to cull-out and downgrading, thrips all exhibit thigmotactic behavior.be For found this aggregating reason theycan in can be flowers found as inunder adults, the flowers and calyx on and as the fruit onand larvae or stems fruits, in they or places often leaves. of contact choosing between to fruits hide tospoviruses must be firston acquired by an the infected larvaethrips while plant. can feeding Upon transmitseconds becoming tospoviruses of adults, feeding toonce these on uninfected infected they them. plants Thespotted have within adults wilt acquired persistently virusflower the transmit has a thrips: tospovirus mutual thripsdevelop as relationship more larvae with larvae. quickly the on have Tomato western infected a plants. higher survival rate and wileyonlinelibrary.com/journal/ps There are 19wilt species virus of tospovirus,transmitted is of exclusively the by whichcurrently thrips. tomato type Tomato known spotted species. spotted tocultivated wilt and All uncultivated. infect virus of more is than the 900 tospoviruses species are of plants, the more serious threat isto the capability vector of various westernthe flower tospoviruses. most thrips serious For and widespread Floridaflower pathogen thrips is vectored vegetable tomato by spotted wilt western virus, growers estimated to$US1 cost farmers billionincroplossesannually. The damage caused by western flowerdamage thrips caused is twofold: by aesthetic excessive levelsoviposition, and of plant injury disease due caused by toWorldwide tospovirus feeding western transmission. and flower thripsspotted wilt is virus the and Impatiens major necrotic spotvector vector virus, of and chrysanthemum of stem it necrosis is tomato virus, also groundnut a ringspot virus and tomato chlorotic spot virus. northern Florida sinceeconomic the problem early in 1980s, central and it southern did Florida not until become 2005. an F. fusca, Frankliniella intonsa Thripssetosus tomato spotted wilt virus: of the virus is necrotic spots, streaksThe or severity rings on of the the leaves symptoms or can fruits. rangenecrotic from lesions, flecks and on ultimately the plant fruit death. to species that feeds and reproducesand on many uncultivated species of plants. cultivated flower tissues, The and adults thedeveloping female feed fruit lays of on individual somehatches, eggs the crops, a in pollen such small the as dimple small and which may often tomato. or remains After may on the notremain be the egg on surrounded developing by the a fruit, developing halo. fruit This long dimple will after the egg hatches. addition to this initial ovipositionto injury, feed the on larvae the will‘flecking’. continue fruit, causing an additional injury referred to as infected with thepreferentially virus feed are anduninfected plants. more oviposit attractive on to the thrips, infected which plants over

1538 1539 Even 42 These economic For that reason, magnification to 41 × 20,37,38 ) 37 . et al wileyonlinelibrary.com/journal/ps species), are monitored, as they are a In spite of the challenge, identification 39 Orius Identification is a challenge, as scouts need however, western flower thrips adults of more 37,38 Recommendations for managing western flower thrips in 20,37,38 thrips and identify the adult thrips to species or about two thrips larvae perlarvae fruit is (identifying not species necessary of – all are equally damaging) they outcompete western flower thrips applications of kaolin clay repel thrips management of other pests and diseases,and including Lepidoptera whiteflies and whitefly-vectored viruses andtomato other diseases 40 Eastern flower thrips and Florida flower thrips adults are not 1 In the scouting program, distinguish2 between adult and larval Economic thresholds: about one western flower thrips per flower 3 Do not treat for Florida4 flower thrips and eastern flower thrips,5 as Avoid using insecticides that induce western flower Ultraviolet-reflective thrips mulch when forming beds6 and foliar Vertically integrate the management program for thrips with the 7 Follow best management practices for fertility Table 2. tomato (adapted from Funderburk natural defense against thripsspread. populations and secondary virus of thrips adultsimplemented. Populations in of scouting naturalminute enemies pirate programs of bugs has thrips, ( namely been successfully 3.2 Economic thresholds Understanding the pest/crop damagepest relationship and status defining isapproach in the integrated prime pest ingredient management. of any decision-making determination of adultsmanagement to programs. species Estimating isspecies important densities information of and in adults thefruits of is each recommended total for scouting numberand programs eggplant. of of tomato, pepper larvae in flowers and on training and stereoscopesdiscern with the at morphological leastcommonly characters found 40 that in crops. differentiate Thesearrangement species characters include and the size number, and of antennae. setae Training onusers must the workshops be maintained thrips and and extended pronotum,specialists. continually publications by head university In for Florida, end- cooperation of these the activities SouthernUniversity Plant are of Diagnostic facilitated Laboratory Florida. at with the the thresholds are usefula in particular determiningminimize crop the dimpling, flecking to short-term or secondaryEconomic spread need apply of thresholds tospoviruses. in also therapeutic helpthe control to producer define of pest over statusseasons, multiple thrips and scouting cropping risk to information seasons. to flower on Combined population thrips over levels relativeincidences of to western of the thegrower economic plants to threshold infected evaluate andthe by the future. on need tospoviruses the to allows employ the preventivedamaging tactics to in fruitingbeneficial vegetables, because they and outcompete western flower these thrips. native species are economic thresholds havespecies in been tomato, developed pepper and for eggplant. flower thrips than one per flower can cause damage from dimpling in tomato. densities of 20–25have adults been per shown flower not toeggplant; of result the in two damage to native tomato, species pepper or 2012 Society of Chemical Industry c ) 38 . The components 8 et al : 1537–1545 68 2012; Recommendations for managing western flower thrips in thrips and identify the adult thrips to species or about two thrips larvae perlarvae fruit is (identifying not species necessary of – all are equally damaging) they outcompete western flower thrips western flower thrips and other pestspirate that bugs conserve minute that induce western flower thrips applications of kaolin clay repel thrips pirate bugs and other pests, including pepper weevil and Lepidoptera A well-executed integrated pest management strategy is critical Table 1. pepper and eggplant (adapted from Funderburk 2 Economic thresholds: about six western flower thrips per flower 3 Do not treat for Florida4 flower thrips and eastern flower thrips, as From transplanting until early fruit set, use insecticides for 5 From transplanting until early fruit6 set, do not use insecticides Ultraviolet-reflective mulch when forming beds7 and foliar Sunflower and other refugia plants8 provide a source for minute Vertically integrate the management of9 western flower thrips Follow best management practices for fertility 1 In the scouting program, distinguish between adult and larval Western flower thrips management in vegetables www.soci.org Pest Manag Sci 3.1 Scouting Different species offruiting thrips vegetables in vary Florida, either greatlyin as their in vectors ability of to their tospoviruses cause or pest feeding and status oviposition injury. to Therefore, 3 INTEGRATEDGRAMS FOR PEST THRIPS MANAGEMENTFRUITING AND VEGETABLES IN TOSPOVIRUSES FLORIDA PRO- IN for providing the bestthrips means and of tospoviruses. dealing Integrated with pestfor fruiting damage vegetables management that have from programs been designed the to meet thementioned above- requirements for western flowerbelow. thrips The components are of described these programsof are scientific based and on technological 25 research years inwestern northern Florida, where flower thripsthe and key tomato pestin spotted problems 1985. in wilt The fruiting viruscentral programs vegetables became and and have southern other Florida, beenthrips and as crops tospoviruses modified emerged problems there for in from 2006. conditions western flower in relationships to crops, including itspest pest management status. Good recognizes integrated different that organisms western arethis flower pest’s interdependent, thrips populations and andenemies will and that non-target affect disrupting pests.pest competing The management program species, objectives are ofecologically natural that sound an and it sustainable. integrated be effective, economical, include the following: defineincrease pest status biotic (economic resistance thresholds); integrate preventive and (natural therapeutic tactics enemies (scouting, ultraviolet- reflectivetechnologies,biologicalcontrol,compatibleinsecticides, and competition); companion plants and fertility); verticallywith integrate the other programs pests; continuallyspecific recommendations communicate for with western flower end-users. thrips management in The pepper andthe eggplant specific production recommendations are forEach listed tomato of in are the listed Tablefollows. 1, in recommendations and Table 2. is described in the text that . 54 18,40 that et al Ammi 55 Queen 8 : 1537–1545 , sunflowers, 68 Because western 2012; 42 Bidens alba and plantings near crops species, likely because of 53 are suitable in a combined Ultimately,thecosts/benefitsof Orius Pest Manag Sci In Florida, 60,61 Numerous plant species have been 62,63 , and false Queen Anne’s lace, 50 51,52 365 nm) and in the yellow-green range Helianthus ∼ and and two species of clover are hosts for minute The yellow-green sensitivity is thought to play a role Ultraviolet-reflective mulches affect the underlying Daucus carota Bidens Ultraviolet-reflective mulches also deter other pests, 56 57–59 18,40 , are also good hosts for 540 nm). Ultraviolet-reflective mulches are most effective early in the ∼ 3.4 Companion plantings Various plant species offer habitatof for thrips important and natural other enemies . crop season before the plantthereby canopy reducing begins the to cover surface the area mulch, available for reflectance. especially whiteflies andviruses. aphids, which can vector other plant inlong-distanceorientationtoplants,andtheultravioletsensitivity assists withthe distinguishing reflectivity flowers. inthrips. the Consequently, The ultraviolet ultraviolet-reflective increasing mulches range availablebed of for plastic the the raised- mulch spectrum productioncolonizing repels system adults are of effectivereduces western in the flower repelling primary thrips,wilt and and virus. secondary The this use spread repellency ofinflux ultraviolet-reflective of of mulch the tomato also native reduces thrips, spotted the easternthrips, flower but thrips not and disproportionately Florida to flower reductionsthrips. in western flower soil temperatures, which may positivelygrowth and or yield. negatively Because alter of their plant reflective aluminized mulches surface, ultraviolet- are more expensivethanstandardplasticmulches. and difficult to dispose of Application of certain fungicides and other pesticidesultraviolet reflectance reduces and the hence the efficacy of the mulch. A single Additionally, these andserve other as wild hosts for plant the non-damaging species native around thrips species fields Wedelia trilobata pirate bugs and other natural enemies, Anne’s lace, majus the presence of alternative prey and pollen as food sources. are competitors of the western flower thrips. the technology must be weighed for each(Reitz particular SR, circumstance unpublished data). of fruiting vegetables increase biological control of thrips. shown to attractflower enough thrips natural populations. enemies to manage western flower thrips are outcompetedbecause by they the suffer native preferential predation thrips bycompanion species, minute pirate and plantings bugs, offor damaging these populations plant ofcurrently species western being flower are conducted thrips.the not Studies to benefits are sources gain of different arefugia species plants better for of minute understanding plants pirate bugs toenemies. of and other Further, serve important different as natural species banker ofmore or companion attractive plants to that are westernvegetables are flower being thrips evaluated. thanspecies These crops studies of have of shown fruiting push/pull that strategy, with ultraviolet-reflective mulchesclay and acting kaolin astospoviruses the in fruiting push vegetables. to manage western flower thrips and 3.5 Ultraviolet-reflective technologies Preventive tactics are availablethrips and that other hinder pests theThrips from locate host western colonizing plants primarily fruiting flower through a vegetable combinationcues, of crops. visual with anthophilousWestern thrips flower attracted thripsthe to ultraviolet colors are range of ( attracted flowers. to spectral radiation in ( 46 www.soci.org O Demirozer Therefore, 2012 Society of Chemical Industry (Champion), showed that 18 c Geocoris punc- 40 . Thrips larvae are The conservation Amblyseius swirskii et al 43 44,45 Orius pumilio Many predaceous (Say) and 19,20,40 About one minute pirate bug for every 180 thrips 44 Orius insidiosus 20 Because tomato is a non-preferred, poor reproductive host (Say) reduced western flower thrips in pepper. Likewise, 47–49 20 Other thrips predators include the big-eyed bugs (family Lygaei- Minutepiratebugsarevaluableformanagingthrips,astheyprey dae), damsel bugs (familyidae), Nabidae), predatory lacewings thrips (familyand Chrysop- (primarily predatory in mites the (familyof family Phytoseiidae). these Aeolothripidae) Natural predatory populations fruiting groups vegetables do inpopulations. not However, sufficient to typically numberstors demonstrate invade can the to exert fields impact on suppress that of thrips thrips preda- populations, Reitz preferentially on the adultsof of the western non-damaging flower native thrips thrips over species. adults for minute pirateto bugs, provide natural control populationscrop. of are western not flower sufficient thrips in that particular groups help tocoridae suppress are thrips the populations. mostWithin Species important of this predators Antho- family ofin thrips are Florida, worldwide. minute pirate bugs, with two species that are thepepper. key natural enemies of thrips in eggplant and wileyonlinelibrary.com/journal/ps The adults rapidly invadein pepper sufficient and numbers to eggplant control fieldslarvae, western in flower but Florida thrips they adults and use. must be conserved with judicious insecticide Dimpling is not a damage issueit for is pepper recommended or that adult eggplant. populations However, ofof western about flower six thrips per flower isvery an indication soon that exceed larval populations economicand will eggplant. thresholds Two on larvae per the fruitthreshold fruits of below any which of species damage pepper is from the fleckingand economic on eggplant tomato, pepper fruits doesmore not than occur. one It adultmore is western than at six flower these western thripsplant thresholds flower per flower of thrips tomato and adults flower, moreeggplant fruit per than that pepper growers two should or take larvaepeutic therapeutic egg- action. control per Thera- of tomato, the adult pepper vectorsin of or preventing tospoviruses is transmission not effective larvae of is tospoviruses, effective but in control preventing of secondary the spread. commercially grown and releasedtipes populations of repeated release of(Athias-Henriot) at the a predaceoustrols western rate mite flower as thrips, whitefliesand low and eggplant. broad as mites If in 12these pepper released mites mites early are per inmonth. sufficient plant the to plant con- provide cycle control at for this more rate, than a is sufficient for suppression ofabout populations one predator of to thrips. 40 thrips, At thripsNatural a populations are ratio populations controlled. of of minute pirate bugs are highly vagile. biological control componentment of the program integrated isin pest the pepper manage- most and effective eggplant. way to manage thrips 3.3 Natural enemies A biologically basedfundamental integrated in pest preventing managementsistance, the program resurgence development is of ofreplacement insecticide western with re- flower secondary thrips pest populations damage. and the economic threshold ofagement larvae of on tospoviruses fruit whenfield. is an important epidemic in is man- developing in a preferred prey.

1540 1541 20 Broad- Certain 8 19,40 thereby leading 5,40,71 In efforts to sustain the 43 These insecticides reduce the These evaluations, beginning gene are listed in Funderburk wileyonlinelibrary.com/journal/ps Sw-5 Synthetic broad-spectrum insecticides 19,20,38,40 72 18,19,40,71,75 43 73,74 37 . In recent years, owing to the unintended harmful side Since 1995, annual evaluations have been made of labeled and effects of broad-spectrum insecticides,use growers natural have and begunclass other to is reduced-risk the insecticides.greater most level The efficacious of spinosyn of controlcurrently these available of reduced-risk insecticides, or western broad-spectrum insecticides. providing flower a thrips than all other promising unlabeled insecticidesern against flower populations thrips, ofin other west- thrips fruiting species vegetables. and minute pirate bugs not only disrupt westerndisrupt flower management thrips of management,whiteflies and they leafminers, other by also eliminating natural pests, enemiespests. of those including spider mites, Unfortunately, some leveldocumented of resistance in to pockets spinosyns in has Florida. been 3.9 Insecticides Although the previouslytactics mentioned are environmentally ainsecticides friendly major continue partflower to thrips of play management. the Recommendationsinsecticides an to regarding use pest and when which important are management made in theterm context role program, of both and short- in long-termdevelopment management western and goals. avoiding Minimizing thepopulations resistance by flaring the elimination of of natural western enemiesthrips and flower species competing are thrips critical factorsThe in insecticide use recommendations. ofand selective other pests insecticides that against havepopulations minimal western impacts is on flower very minute important thrips piratein bug in pepper conservation biological and control eggplant. carbamate, neonicotinoid and organophosphate insecticides have some level of efficacyshould against be western flowerwhen used thrips, non-target sparingly, but these synthetic effects and are insecticides, onlyorganophosphates minimal. and in including carbamates, kill the native Most particular species pyrethroids, of thrips that broad-spectrum instances neonicotinoids, outcompete western flower thrips, risk of releasing non-target pests from natural control. spectrum insecticides can directlyin enhance western the flower rate thripshas populations. of been The increase pyrethroid shown acrinathrin toflower thrips increase females, the and survivorship, fecunditylongevity developmental of of rates progeny and resistant can be western asof great, or susceptible greater, than females. for progeny in 2008, havelevels focused on of identifying efficacychemical insecticides against IRAC with western mode varying of flowerburk action J, thrips codes unpublished). from (Srivistava IRACthat M is different promotes and an ‘prolonging Funder- insecticide the industryacaricides effectiveness association by of countering insecticides resistanceonline.org/about/irac/). and problems’ Insecticides (http://www.irac- are classified according to spotted wilt throughet al the efficacy of spinosyns, no more thanper two applications year of spinosyns onFurther, the spinosyns should same be and avoidedresistance completely sequential has in crops areas developed. where is Theseand most efforts recommended. monitored are populations provingat are successful, returning the to susceptibility unpublished). labeled field rate (Srivistava M and Funderburk J, to dramatic large-scale shifts in thrips demographics. 67 The Extra 18 64 , another Therefore, -methyl is a 2012 Society of Chemical Industry S genes appear Sw-7 c 49,66 Tsw In addition, there -methyl have been 18 S and Sw-5 gene. In pepper, all resistance and thus susceptible to being In contrast, eastern flower thrips 68,69 Sw-5 As vector populations expand with 66 Therefore, an integrated approach is 49,65 gene. Both the 70 : 1537–1545 -methyl S 68 Tsw These cultivars have resistance to the tomato 2012; 37,38 Western flower thrips management in vegetables www.soci.org shown to reduce the incidenceits of tomato use spotted wilt, has although minimal impacts on populations of thrips. increasing fertilization, there istomato spotted wilt an virus. In upsurge north Florida in tomatoes,of the incidence the tomato incidence spotted of at wilt recommended virus nitrogen was levelswith 50% supraoptimal compared lower nitrogen. with for plants plants grown grown is conferred by the spotted wilt virus, butof the not commercially to available thripssource cultivars of feeding of resistance or from tomato the oviposition. share a All single Pest Manag Sci Certain chemicals haveplant been defenses found against pathogens to wheninfection applied stimulate occurs. to these plants The before natural benzothiadiazole acibenzolar- systemic acquired resistance inducer thatacid stimulates pathway the for salicylic diseaseCommercial resistance in formulations tomato of and other acibenzolar- crops. 3.6 Fertility Growers historically have overfertilized crops by up to 70%. application of copper andreflectancebyabout49%(ReitzSR,unpublisheddata).Commercial mancozeb fungicide canformulations reduce of kaolin the clay sprayedrepel onto thrips, fruiting and vegetables foliar also applicationscolonization reduce and western the flower subsequent thrips Julian K, spread Funderburk of JE, Demirozer tospoviruses O and (Tyler- Reitz SR, unpublished). compromised by resistance-breaking strainsof of tomato the spotted virus. wilt Strains virusthe that have single-gene overcome dominant resistance trait from areas have outside appeared Florida. in geographical nitrogen fertilization above theincreases recommended densities optimal amount offlower western thrips, in flowerhigher particular, thrips. nitrogen preferentially content. Female settle western on plants with and Florida flower thripsto nitrogen do fertilization not as respond western in flower the thrips. same manner needed to reduce feeding byspotted thrips and wilt the in incidence of orderresistance-breaking tomato to strains prevent/minimize of the tospoviruses. development of is a major research effort under way to integrate 3.7 Acibenzolar- growers improve overall crop production of tomatoesby and maintaining pepper recommended fertilization levels. Many plants possesswhich are traits induced defensive for mechanisms systemic against pathogens. acquired resistance, 3.8 Host plantNumerous resistance cultivars ofor tomato tolerant andavailable. to pepper that tomato are spotted resistant wilt virus are commercially commercial product is particularly effectiveit against bacteria, is and a replacementdisease control. for foliar pesticides for bacterial and fungal to be single dominant genes, resistance gene, into tomatoresistance cultivars, to which will tomato improve spotted(Scott plant wilt J and virus Olson andof S, other tomato, unpublished). tospoviruses Currently includingroma available types, large large cultivars round indeterminate round types, large determinate roundtypes heritage and types, large plum round grape or types, that are resistant to tomato . et al Cano) and : 1537–1545 68 provide updated referred to such 2012; 38 . 78 et al Anthonomus eugenii recognized that the situation Pest Manag Sci 43 . et al and Weiss 38 20 and this includes fruiting vegetables grown in Florida. The spread of the western flower thrips and species 22 77 In northern Florida, western flower thrips is the key pest The conservation biological control program using natural To enhance further the effectiveness of the conservation 3.10 Vertical integration The misuse, overuse andin unnecessary use the of pesticides birth1976. resulted of the ‘era of integrated pest management’ in of tomato, anddisease. tomato The spottedin use wilt reducing of is populations ultraviolet-reflective the of most mulch western damaging is flower effective thrips and the Funderburk with western flowerrequired a thrips shift from inthe managing complex fruiting individual pests of vegetablesorder to to pests considering in minimize with Florida resistance, the pest which risk resurgences a and ofthe present outbreaks grower the authors are of developing has development and secondarypest implementing of to pests, integrated management insecticide deal. programs thatmanagement In encompass of multiple the pests, simultaneous their regular natural monitoring enemies of pests andtreatment and their antagonists, thresholds use when of applyinguse economic pesticides or of and multiple integrated suppressive tactics. Ehler of tospoviruses hasof resulted established integrated in pestcrops, management the programs worldwide for many destabilization integration of multiple compatibleof tactics pests to (e.g. control or onemanagement. diseases) group as ‘vertical’ integrated pest populations of minutethrips pirate has bugs been toFlorida successfully manage used western since by flower western pepper the growers flower late in thripspests north 1990s, have but and been alsowere problems fewer following whiteflies, from a and aphidsbroad-spectrum calendar not less insecticides and spray in only severe attempts program other flower to than or thrips. control when frequently For the western conserved example, using growers through ladybird the beetles conservation biologicaland (Coccinellidae) control this are program, prevents problemsJE, from aphids unpublished). (Reitz Conservation SR biologicalsuccessfully & Funderburk implemented control for is pepper nowFlorida. and being eggplant in southern biological control program, Funderburk variousspeciesofPentatomidaethatarenotadequatelycontrolled therapeutically with reduced-risk insecticides. Preventive options are available toand reduce the theinsecticides. need risk for of outbreaks therapeutic of control these with pests broad-spectrum information on insecticides labeledhave for little fruiting impact vegetablesrecommended on that that populations only insecticides ofcontrol compatible minute with be pirate biological used bugs.for when It other necessary is pests forin until order western at to flower conserve leastinsecticides thrips minute applied fruiting pirate during or in bugs. the vegetative Manyof pepper and broad-spectrum flowering and crop periods eggplant growthother natural can enemies for remain weeks orHowever, toxic months following the application. to application minute ofnecessary pirate broad-spectrum during insecticides bugs fruiting when reduced-risk and insecticides, has and thus reducing merit thedeveloping. risk This by of also resistance is reducing theand period the eggplant of crop are use growthother most pests when of such vulnerable pepper as pepper to weevil ( outbreak populations of . Various www.soci.org O Demirozer Funderburk 2012 Society of Chemical Industry c 24 ambrosioides The fact that most of the near 37,38 cautioned that simply rotating insecticides from Chenopodium ambrosioides provide for regularly updated lists of insecticides This integrated resistance management strategy is a 72 20 43,76 37,38 . Bielza Spinosyns have exhibited excellent control of adults and larvae Instead, more effective and sustainable management for wileyonlinelibrary.com/journal/ps commercially available plant extracts and potassiumacids salts have of been fatty shown toflower provide thrips some on fruiting suppression vegetables. of western in the locationshave been conducted. where The broad-spectrum acetamiprid, the currently labeled authors’ for experimental fruitingcontrol field vegetables, of adults has trials andtolfenpyrad exhibited larvae. has a The also broad-spectrum highfruiting experimental exhibited level vegetable a label of for highThe this experimental level insecticide cyantraniliprole of is hasefficacy expected control, shown in high against and 2012. to a fruiting moderate the vegetables western isthat flower have expected shown thrips, significant in suppressionof of and 2012 the western adults or a flower and larvae extract 2013. thrips label of include Insecticides for flonicamid, spirotetramat and their chemistry andhttp://www.irac-online.org/). mode of action and/or target site (see western floweroverall thrips context of and integrated pestresistance tospoviruses management, management with being insecticide is a key achieved component. in the different chemical classes is not thethe best plan development of of action to insecticide prevent thrips. resistance in He the outlined westernthat a flower general also resistance servesThe management as protocol four a recommendationswhen foundation are: required; (1) for to (2)applications; to a apply (3) make sound insecticides toused accurate IPM only diversify in program. and management a preciseresistance crop; methods monitoring insecticide (4) needs that tobasis, to conserve are so be natural conducted thatbefore enemies. on insecticides complete In an can failures ongoing addition, those be occur, materials quickly and removedthat can so from many be that use growersintegrated restored. susceptibility and resistance to Unfortunately, management theirmethod is it agents for an incorrectly is preventing effective,populations. believe the stand-alone found development that of resistance in pest for fruiting vegetableswestern with flower varyingrotating levels thrips of available adults efficacyto insecticides and against avoid in larvae.thrips. the They different development recommend chemical of classes resistance in western flower above-mentioned insecticides are not as efficacious asshould not spinosysns prevent their inclusion in integrated pestprograms. management The goal of integrated pestdamage (i.e. management keeping is populations below to the prevent economic thresholds) rather than killing the maximum number ofBy redirecting western the flower focus thrips. of management programs toits the crop optimal and production, thefor producer the develops concept anThis of appreciation is tolerance critical ofapproach, in as subeconomic opposed the to levels a widespreadeconomical control of approach, adoption and as pests. a of sustainable morethrips. effective, a way management to deal with western flower component of the comprehensive integratedprogram pest for management fruitingwhen vegetables, and multiple itwestern applications is flower thrips only of orseason. recommended other insecticides pests during are the same needed cropping for et al

1542 1543 , ) :1–6 Orius thrips Thrips JPlant 92 species . :301–310 :376–382 :271–279 5 Fla Entomol Frankliniella Frankliniella Frankliniella :1035–1044 29 34 ThripsasCrop (Heteroptera: 32 , ed. by Lewis T. Annu Rev Entomol Entomol Exp Appl Frankliniella FlaEntomol . Frankliniella EPPO Bull :216–225 (2011). :279–281 (2006). Frankliniella occidentalis Frankliniella occidentalis 413 89 :1–9 (2009). Environ Entomol 3 Agric For Entomol Insecticides – Pest Engineering Orius insidiosus :1818–1822 (1991). Environ Entomol spp. (Thysanoptera: Thripidae) in Tomato spotted wilt virus Thrips as Crop Pests :219–236 (2009). 84 :113–120 (1994). :706–711 (2004). Virology 5 :29–34 (2009). 94 141 wileyonlinelibrary.com/journal/ps Fla Entomol 92 (Pergande). Pest Technol Frankliniella occidentalis :882–890 (2004). Frankliniella Sem Virol 88 Virus Res J Econ Entomol :128–132 (2008). DOI: 10.1002/ps.3305 (2012). Fla Entomol 43 , ed. by Lewis T. 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Seasonal patterns of tomato flowers. 8 Frantz G and Mellinger HC, Shifts in western flower thrips, 9 Pappu HR, Jones RAC and Jain RK, Global status of tospovirus 4 Reitz SR, Seasonal and within plant distribution of 5 Hansen EA, Funderburk JE, Reitz SR, Ramachandran S, Eger JE and 6 Diffie S, Funderburk J, Goldarazena A and Mound L, New North 7 Kirk WDJ and Terry LI, The spread of the western flower thrips 3 Tomato spotted wilt tospovirus, Impatiens necrotic spot tospovirus 1 Mound LA, Biological diversity, in 2 Childers CC, Feeding and oviposition injuries to plants, in 20 Funderburk J, Management of21 Reitz the SR and Funderburk J, Management strategies western for western flower flower thrips 22 Morse JG and Hoddle MS, Invasion biology of thrips. 23 Cloyd RA, Western flower thrips ( 16 Stumpf CF and Kennedy GG, Effects of tomato spotted wilt17 virus Maris PC, Joosten NN, Goldbach RW and Peters D, Tomato spotted wilt 18 Momol MT, Olson SM, Funderburk JE,19 Stavisky J Funderburk J, and Stavisky J Marois and JJ, Olson S, Predation of 24 Gao Y, Lei Z and Reitz SR, Western flower thrips resistance to 10 Webster CG, Reitz SR, Perry KL and Adkins S, A natural M RNA 13 Ghidiu GM, Hitchner EM and Funderburk JE, Goldfleck14 damage Goldbach to R and Peters D,15 Possible Parrella G, causes Gognalons P, of Gebre-Selassie K, Vovlas the C and emergence Marchoux G, of 12 Salguero-Navas VE, Funderburk JE, Beshear RJ, Olson SM and Mack TP, 11 Kirk WDJ, Distribution, abundance and population dynamics, in REFERENCES As 76 2012 Society of Chemical Industry c Genn. Tomato growers Broad-spectrum insecticides 37,49 Bemisia tabaci : 1537–1545 68 2012; 43 These integrated pest management programs are knowledge- Clearly, the example of the western flower thrips in fruiting Western flower thrips management in vegetables www.soci.org basedsystemsthatarebeingimplementedsuccessfullyindifferent regions of Florida, and they are updatedfindings regularly as become new research available.and This education is investments. the Thereinvest result will in of be research a largethese continued to integrated research pest need develop management to programs additionalchallenges to tactics meet and emerging andadditional unforeseen to invasive refine problems pestsneed and (e.g. pathogens). continually establishment Thererecruit is to of still additional train a practitionersimplementation great existing for of such knowledge-based expanded users systems. future and successful continually to Pest Manag Sci Developing and implementingprogramsisacomplextask.Ithastakenyearsofresearchtodevelop integrated pestthe integrated management pestwesternflowerthripsinfruitingvegetables.Theimplementationof management programs outlinedthese programs here is complicated for by thecrops fact that are fruiting vegetable affectedto by contend other with pests,effectively. Growers western and are faced flower with growers many decisions thrips must thatcrop affect their and be management these able anddecision other productivity. Unfortunately, pests regarding the theelimination wrong of natural use biotic resistance of factorsthe and target in insecticides and outbreaks non-target of pests. can result invegetables in the Florida illustrates the failure of theand control the approach, need for effective integrated pestin management in dealing the shortOver term 90% and ofshifting long from calendar growers term applications of insecticides with in toother scouting recommended western Palm and integrated pest flower management Beach practices. thrips. County have reported 4 CONCLUSIONS incidence of tomato spotted wilt. Whiteflies and whitefly-vectored viruses are occasional pestsreflective in northern mulch Florida, andthese is ultraviolet- pests. The effective primaryand in arthropod pest central reducing of Florida tomato the in is southern damage from in southernand and other central broad-spectrumand Florida insecticides whitefly-vectored typically viruses, tocurl use particularly manage virus. neonicotinoid tomato whiteflies However,insecticides yellow for it western leaf is flowerin thrips recommended or tomato that other until pests broad-spectrum minute be fruiting, avoided pirate even bugsof though in the natural western tomato populations flower are of thrips. not sufficient for control applied against whitefliesfor or flaring populations thrips of non-target are pests,and including leafminers. spider frequently mites responsible a result, damagewith has $US been 28.8 reduced,pesticide million use. providing There in these are yield clearemploying growers marketing the gains benefits integrated to and thethey pest growers savings are management able in approachthe to in reduced produce sell that not to be(Amstoy produced large with C retail broad-spectrum and grocers insecticides communication). who Pero Many demand F, of that Perosuitable the Farms, for tactics Boca incorporationunconventional recommended Raton, production into here FL, systems. are low-input, Additional personal in benefits organic sustaining accrue the andspinosyns. efficacy other of reduced-risk insecticides, such as . , . . 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