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300 N /E l B HOAD, ANN AH BOR, Ml 48100 18 BEDFORD ROW, LONDON WC 1 R 4E.J, ENGLAND 7915983

| HARB, HADIA HABIB THE TEACHING DF ARABIC CULTURE TD AMERICANS.

THE OHIO STATE UNIVERSITY, P H .D ., 1978

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@ 1978

HADIA HABIB HARB

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Uni International

300 N. Z5EB RD.. ANN ARBOR. Ml 48106 '3131 761-4700 THE TEACHING OF ARABIC CULTURE TO AMERICANS

DISSERTATION

Presented in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements

For the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the

Graduate School of the

Ohio State University

By

HADIA HABIB HARB, M.A.

The Ohio State University

1978

Reading Committee: Approved by

Professor Edward D. Allen

Professor Frederic Cadora

Professor Johana Destefano viser Department of Foreign Professor Melba Woodruff Language Education ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

For whatever values are to be found in this work, credit must go to many people, only a few of whom can be mentioned here. For any shortcomings, I alone assume responsibility.

I would first like to acknowledge the great assistance I re­ ceived from my adviser, Dr, Edward Allen. If it weren't for his flexibility, understanding, and willingness to work even when he was not on duty, this work would not have been finished on time.

I would also like to acknowledge the criticism and assistance of my reading committee, Professors Johana Destefs.no, Melba Woodruff and Frederic Cadora. The debt I owe Dr. Destefano for her valuable comments concerning Chapters I and II is great. I would particularly like to thank Professor Melba Woodruff who so graciously agreed to serve at the last minute when Professor Destefano had to leave the country. Her careful reading and her editorial advice have improved the readability of this work. Professor Cadora's knowledge of the

Arabic culture was invaluable. The assistance of Professor Carter

Findley in suggesting references on the Middle East was also of great value and should be acknowledged here.

The author is indebted to the Ohio State University for support in the form of a university assistantship. Without this help this work would not have been possible. ii Finally, acknowledgment should be given to my colleague Kathleen

Cox for her support at a time when I needed it most.

iii VITA

September l8, 1938 .... Born - Ain-Enoub, Lebanon

1966 ...... B.A., Beirut University College, Beirut, Lebanon (formerly Beirut College for Women)

1966-68 ...... Research Assistant, Center for English Language, The American University of Beirut, Lebanon

1969 ...... M.A., The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio

1970-76 ...... Instructor - Beirut University College, Beirut, Lebanon

PUBLICATIONS

Hadia H. Harb and Raja T. Nasr, An Intermediate Colloquial Arabic Course, Beirut: Librairie du Liban, 1970.

FIELDS OF STUDY

Major Field: Foreign Language Education. Professor Edward D. Allen and Gilbert Jarvis

Studies in Applied Linguistics. Professors Johana Destefano and Frank Zidonis

Studies in Curriculum and Foundations. Professors Paul Klohr and John Belland TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ...... ii

VITA ...... iv

LIST OF FIGURES ...... vii

Chapter

I. INTRODUCTION ...... 1

II. VALUE THEMES ...... 19

Fami l i s m...... 23 "Clanishism" ...... 39 thaqafa ...... 1+5

III. NORMS THAT ARE POTENTIALLY DIFFICULT FOR AMERICANS TO UNDERSTAND ...... 55

Interaction Patterns ...... 56 Family Life ...... 58 Eating, Drinking, and Smoking ...... 62 Verbal and Non-Verbal Communication ...... 66 Manners ...... 72 Expressions of Sentimentality and Friendship ...... 73 Appearance ...... 7^ Time ...... 76 Transportation ...... j8

IV. TEACHING ARABIC VALUES AND NORMS

Goals ...... 8H Methods ...... 95 Evaluation ...... 123

v Page

V. SUMMARY AND RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FURTHER RESEARCH ...... 136

APPENDIXES

A. SAMPLE ACTIVITIES ...... lU8

B. ILLUSTRATIONS ...... 158

C. QUESTIONNAIRE ON LEBANESE NORMS ...... 169

BIBLIOGRAPHY ...... 175

vi LIST OF FIGURES

Page Figure 1. shawarma. ------158

Figure 2 . maaza, "appetizers". ------— 159

Figure 3. Arabic Bread. ------160

Figure U. Arabic coffee. 161

Figure 5. argilah, "huble bubble".------162

Figure 6 . sirwal, "baggy trousers". ------163

Figure 7- kaffiya, "head piece". ------±6h

Figure 8 . Blank map of the Arab countries. - - — 165

Figure 9* Resources map of the Arab countries. — 166

Figure 10. Lebanese monetary system. ------177

Figure 11. kibbeh, "Lebanese national dish". - - - 178

vii Chapter I

INTRODUCTION

People's verbal and nonverbal behavior in different situations is determined to a large extent by their cultural background. This background comprises their values, customs, traditions, and lifestyles.

What is accepted in one situation might not be accepted in a similar situation in another culture. The behavior of a people takes on meaning only within this cultural background. Their communication with one another is imbued with cultural meaning.

Communication is one of the primary purposes for learning a foreign language, and communication means conveying and receiving meaning in the target language. In order to make this two-way process meaningful, students will have to learn not only the linguistic features of the language they are learning but also the factors that contribute meaning to those grammatical features, namely, the culture of the people who speak the language. It is not enough for a student to be able to speak grammatically correct sentences; he must know when these sentences are contextually and socially appropriate.^" It would seem then, that it is the duty of the Arabic language teacher to provide his American students with a good background in the Arabic culture so that he will avoid being offensive when he does not intend to be so. Since it is very easy for the Arab, who is not familiar with the American culture, to generalize 2

from one incident. Thus one faux pas can give an inaccurate impression

of the whole nation and make the person who commits it an ambassador of

ill will.

In discussing communication, it is also important to talk about

the non-linguistic features affecting meaning. The non-linguistic

features can be divided into two kinds: contextual factors and cultural

factors. Contextual factors promote a type of universal communication;

they are general situational factors that all people will react to in

the same way regardless of their cultural background. Cultural factors

are more likely to affect people in different ways depending on their 2 cultural background.

Foreign language teachers have always defended the need for the

inclusion of foreign culture study in the language classroom by claiming

that it yields benefits to the individual in his language study and in

society. Improving language performance and competence, widening the

students' perspectives, and a growth in responsibility have often been 3 cited as reasons for including culture m the language classroom.

Over the last two decades, the interest of the foreign language

teaching profession in culture has been expressed very strongly.

Evidence of this can be seen in the inclusion of culture as a major

topic in the National Defense Education Act Institutes, and in the U MLA Proficiency Test for Teachers and Advanced Students. Unanimity

of belief in the value of culture study seems to be parallelled by

unanimity of belief in the seriousness and importance of the issue.

The language teacher who wants to include culture in the curriculum is

faced with three problems: lack of training in cross-cultural commu­ nication, lack of integrated materials for teaching it, lack of time in the language classroom. Some U.S. federal agencies often feel inadequate in their ability to provide proper training in cross-cultural communi­ cation for their personnel as well.'*

Just as the language teacher does not have to be a linguist to teach language, he does not need to be a sociologist or an anthropologist to teach culture. There is one reality, however, that cannot be ignored, and that is that the language teacher cannot avoid nor ignore teaching culture no matter how he feels about his cultural preparation.

Culture and International Understanding

Understanding other cultures does not necessarily eliminate all ethnocentric feelings nor does it guarantee world peace. It can help, however, because after all, "human history is the long recital of conflicts between people who break down the physical barriers that separate them 6 without breaking down the barriers of ideas." This is why the recent trend in culture study has been tilting toward examining the culture as an integral whole rather than as fragmented aspects. The trend is also toward a "deep culture" view in addition to a "surface culture" view.

Cross-cultural communication in the business world is as important as it is in the social and political worlds. Concerning this importance,

Fortune reports that "... the young executive who does not get some inter­ national experience today is likely to be at a disadvantage later on in his career... the proconsul must cope with foreign languages, alien psy­ chologies, strange business laws and customs, and unfamiliar social

7 practices." Feldman talks about two multinational corporations who sent

2500 specialists to Iran. The early return rate reached 50% for one corporation and 85% for the other. The cause of this premature return was attributed to the failure of the organization to provide the personnel with any kind of cross-cultural training. The cost of this mistake was g estimated to be as much as $ 55,000 per family. This money could have been spent much more profitably on a cross-cultural training program.

Closely related to the business world is the professional world where cross-cultural understanding is also a vital issue. With modern means of communication, the social scientist, like the physical scientist, is no longer confined to his world. In order for him to grow profes­ sionally, he has to participate in international conferences where com­ munication often goes beyond the technical level, and where interpersonal understanding becomes very important and in many ways vital to his pro­ fession. In situations where human communication is difficult, profes­ sional communication might be infrequent and unproductive if not impossible.

When the participants understand the cultural influences operating on their behavior, they are in a better position to work together effectively.

Culture and Language

Fries' statement concerning the relationship between language and culture is that "every language is inextricably bound up with the whole life experience of the native users of that language."^ Actually, language occurs every time we get in contact with somebody, and every contact will be different depending on the nature of the contact. Our language varies widely as an outcome of social interference. One's speech is usually an indicator of one's class, location of residence, 12 and sex. For example, educated Lebanese and those of high economic and social status, are more likely to use the city dialect rather than the village dialect because it is more prestigious. One can tell a no+herner by the use of the sound /o/ for /ae/. This is thought to be a

transfer from Aramaic, the language spoken there before Arabic. Women

tend to be more careful with their use of profanity.

The semiotic approach to language draws the attention of the

learner to the fact that language is one of the many message systems

used by a culture. An .^lustration of this view ca.n be seen in the con-

notative messages carried by structure and vocabulary. The study of

literature can be used as a case in point. It is hard to understand 13 literature without referring to the culture that produced it. Words

designating concepts specific to a given culture are likely to present

. . . lU specific translation problems. For example, m Arabic there are two

words for love: mahabba "love of humanity in the Christian sense" and

hubb "love between man and woman." When both of these words are trans­

lated into English as love, some meaning is lost. Furthermore, the great

arts such as music, literature, and theatre can be used as means to illus­

trate the values in a society."'"'’ They are the expression of our view of

the world. They reflect the cultural values that make us who we are.

Freeman sums up the strong relationship of culture to language by

saying: "We often make the mistake of regarding the cultural experience

as something extraneous to the language class, supplementary to the main purpose, on the contrary, it is the central core."^ Language and

culture are closely associated, and the adoption of a new language by a people is likely to bring them closer to the natives and is often accom- 17 panied by the gradual adoption of a new culture. When students learn

a new language, they must also learn the culture it expresses, not to

adopt it as their own, but so that they understand the people whose language they are learning.

Culture and the Classroom

If culture is a structured system of patterned behavior, then that system has discernable patterns and its own values that are shared by its members. Therefore, by comparing two cultures one can discover the characteristics of each. These characteristics are not understood, however, by the people within a culture. They are looked upon with blind subjectivity and often with very little understanding of what they are or 18 what they mean. One takes the customs and traditions of his own culture for granted and thinks that the whole world behaves this way until he comes in contact with a comparable situation in a different culture. By comparing one's culture with another, one can understand one's own better and get new insights into the ways one's life is affected by it. This leads to greater self understanding. Sa'id Takyyeddin, a Lebanese writer, could not have written his critical essays on the excessive hospitality of the Lebanese which robs them of their time and money if he had not travelled extensively in the West and seen a different way for dealing with it.

How is one to liberate one's mind from ethnocentrism? The answer is probably through the understanding of other cultures. In order to under­ stand a culture, knowledge of the language becomes important, if not neces­ sary. Since one needs help in learning a language, one may need special help in understanding the culture too. Seelye suggests the language class- 19 room as the best place to teach culture. For the student who is learning a foreign language in his own country and not abroad, it is extremely help­ ful to teach culture explicitly. It is a faster and more effective method for the student who does not have enough exposure to the target culture.

Another important reason for teaching culture in the language class­

room is to help the student make connections between the linguistic

features and the significant cultural features of the language. After

all, doesn't every one learn the various aspects of his own culture as 20 a child as he is learning his native language through his family?

This integrated approach seems to be the most natural way to learn

language and culture.

A few cultural anthropologists interested in language teaching

have suggested that since culture is the matrix in which linguistic

expressions are formed, it should be taught not only along with a

language course but also before beginning the study of language. Lewald

conducted pilot classes of French and Spanish for two consecutive years.

He devoted one of the three class hours per week to culture presentation.

Evaluation at the end of each year showed preference for these culture . . 21 orientation courses over the traditional sequence. Perhaps such ex­

tensive cultural teaching makes the language come alive for the students

by turning its speakers into real human beings.

One can find some clues to Lewald's project in the work of Keller

and Fergeson who devised a team-taught course at Murray University. The

aim of this course was to attract students who were reluctant to study

foreign languages. The specific objectives of the course were to empha­

size the nature and importance of languages and their respective cul­ tures. Evaluation of the course indicated that, without exception,

students expressed interest in the course. As a result of this interest, 22 enrollment improved. The study of language for its own sake as a linguistic system is considerably less interesting for many people than is the study of language as the mode of expression of a group of people.

We should not overlook this fact in these days of declining enrollments.

What Aspects of Culture Should Be Taught

When we talk about teaching culture, we are dealing with a vast topic that needs to be broken down into more specific components. Allen and Valette define culture in two ways, thus making a distinction between two different approaches. In one sense, "Culture is the sum total of a people's achievements and contributions to civilization." In another sense, culture includes "the bahavioral patterns or life styles of the 23 people." Discussions of culture in educational institutions have long tended to center on culture as civilization. This is a perfectly legiti­ mate goal in education. Writers like Freemam argue, however, that the teaching of civilization must be balanced by the sociologist's approach which emphasizes the study of interpersonal and contemporary aspects of the group's way of life. He writes:

For more even than the mastery of language, the chief aim of the language class is to impart, through the language, and in every possible way, the thrilling experience of real communication with other human beings.

We seek not only to teach more and better knowledge, but above all to instill a right attitude... we seek not to pro­ pagandize our pupils, not to make them French or Spanish but to open their minds to the existence of other thoughts, other ways of seeing and doing. When this is done wejLl in connection with one culture it is done well for them all.^ ^

From this we can gather that the responsibility of the teacher is to do much more than important knowledge about the outstanding achievements of a people. 9

Human actions are perceived as expressions of certain physical and psychological needs. Seelye elaborated on this notion by saying that these needs are gratified within the conventions of one's culture. These standards are the outcome of the society's history, geographical location, and economical and social organization. It is the interaction of these conventions with the historical and ecological background of a society that gives it its distinctive character as expressed by the behavior of the individual. It is this character that the foreign language teacher should be concerned with. In other words, che teacher should focus his attention and interest on how the variables of a society affect the in­ dividual's thinking and make him act the way he does, because this is the kind of behavior that is usually interpreted differently by different cultures.^

This understanding of the character of a culture cannot be achieved solely through the study of the literature of the culture.

Yousef described the experience of some American teachers teaching American literature to the Arab employees of an American company. He stated that these employees would never be able to understand the American culture by studying American literature. "instead.jthe study of American literature actually seemed to increase misunderstanding and confusion. It was ap­ parent that the students would need pertinent cultural orientation before they could attempt any meaningful literature courses.This experience has implications for the literature courses of college foreign language departments. If students have not had a sound background in the foreign culture before their literature courses, they are not in a position to understand, much less analyze, the works of literature. 10

Beaujour and Ehrman support this view by arguing that when culture is taught as footnote to literature, the result is too much literature and very little culture. They consider culture a humanistic discipline 27 m its own right. This m no way should undermine the value of using selected literary works as an aid to cross-cultural communication. As

Seelye states, "Literature cun best be seen ... as illustrating the cultural patterns of a society once the patterns have been identified by the methods of the social science; social science as a source, literature 28 as example." Most of the novels, short stories and plays written by

Lebanese writers such as Emily Nasrallah, Anis Freiha, and Maroun Abboud are a true representation of the Lebanese life styles, traditions and customs. The use of such works as an aid to illustrate cultural patterns is more effective than their use as a means to teach culture. This is true because these literary works present situations that can easily be misinterpreted by the student of Arabic who is not yet familiar with the culture.

Purpose and Scope of This Work

As can be seen from what has been discussed so far, the recent trends in foreign language education and culture are more towards cross- cultural understanding with focus on human behavior and interpersonal relations. "Culture is seen to involve patterns of everyday life that enable individuals to relate to their place under the sun. When we peek m one people relating we see them mixing• • action • and speech. t i 2 9 To understand that speech in its entirety, we must also understand the actions and motives behind them both synchronizing the right kind of speech with the appropriate behaviors also requires attention to folk ways and mores. 11

Examination of dissertation abstracts and the literature on foreign language and culture education does not reveal any attempt, to date, to provide the teacher with the main value themes of the Arabic culture. Most works on the culture and subcultures of the Arabic society seem to center on culture as civilization, following the traditional ap­ proach of history, the arts and literature.

Full understanding of the norms and values of any culture may sometimes be hard to achieve even by the natives themselves. The closer a student of a foreign culture gets to full understanding, the easier it is for him to interpret the natives' behavior that is different from his own. The purpose of this study was to postulate approaches that provide interpretive frameworks for helping American students of the Arabic culture to explain why the natives act and speak the way they do. The focus of this work was on norms and values of the Arabic culture as it is expressed in Lebanon.

Since norms and values vary with time and across social strata, and since it is impossible to enumerate all the norms and value systems in the Arabic culture, this work specifically attempted to:

1. Develop and present some of the main value themes of the Arabic culture.

2. Explore and describe the behavioral norms of the Arabic society that are of interest to Americans.

3. Explore some specific approaches and materials in order to set forth a bias-free method for teaching behavioral norms and value themes of the Arabic culture to Americans.

Plan and Methodology

The procedure followed in this work was basically the application of the four-steps approach suggested by Nostrand for describing and 12

teaching the sociocultural context of a foreign language: selecting, . . . . 30 defining, organizing, and teaching the essentials.

1. Selecting the Essentials

Faced with a vast and wide variety of a people's way of life,

Nostrand suggests two basic approaches for selecting the essentials:

a. The Schematic Approach, originally proposed by sociologist Tallcott

Parsons, which calls for schematizing the way of life under study

into categories. This approach differentiates between society

and culture, attributing to each a set of component categories.

Nostrand attributes many categories to culture, but this work was

concerned with only one: the value system which, according to

Nostrand, is the area where one expects to find important aspects

of a people's way of life. The categories of society are the

usual institutions: familial, religious, economic, educational,

political and recreational. Language is considered a category

common to both culture and society.

The second approach which was used here concomitantly with the

schematic approach was:

b. The Empirical Approach which makes use of the experience of people

who have had contact with the target culture in order to decide

what the situations are that could cause conflict for the learner

with a certain background.

One application of this approach used in this study, was a ques­ tionnaire administered to American students who had lived in the Arab

countries and to Lebanese students living in the United States. The results of this questionnaire were used to validate the norms of the Lebanese 13 culture used in Chapter III.

Another source of essentials for this study was books about the

Arab countries written by Americans and Arabs. In addition, some arti­ cles on the sociology and anthropology of the Arab World were surveyed.

Some comparison was made between Arab and Western writers.

As a further check on the information and as a source of data, the author's knowledge as a native of the Arabic culture was used.

Since subjectivity and bias are a weakness of any author's writing about his own culture, all data supplied by the author were checked with other natives through interviews and general conversation.

2. Defining the Essentials

The essentials were defined in terms of the 'situational context' in which they took place, and the 'schematic context' into which they should be placed in order to be understood. Once a norm was discussed, the following checks were made:

1. Regularity of occurence.

2. Consistency with the whole pattern of doing things.

3. Reality. Is it an actual or a professed act?

U. Consciousness. Is the act a conscious or an unconscious

behavior. ^

Throughout, description was used rather than interpretation.

Generalizations were restricted to regional and socioeconomic subcultures 32 within the culture.

3. Organizing the Essentials

For organizing the essentials of culture, thethematic approach was followed. This approach wa.s formulated largely by anthropologist Morris Opler and developed and used "by Nostrand. It involves the grouping of

specific cultural events and expressions into subthemes that are further 33 . . . . . grouped into themes. Emphasizing the need for structuring descriptive

knowledge, Nostrand says, "The efficient use of a student's cognitive

capacity, and indeed our own requires the organization of what we know

,, 3I+ about the sociocultural whole into some structure. Seelye, a pro­ ponent of this approach, writes that when approaching culture inductively where the learner is dealing with a perplexing action, it is helpful to keep in mind that behavior occurs in 'patterned modes' that can be des- 35 c n b e d by a few basic postulates. In this study, then, the behavior

of the Lebanese can be understood in terms of the norms of their society which, in turn, are expressions of the values held dear by the people.

!+. Teaching the Essentials

When the essentials of the culture were determined, this study attempted to explore different pedagogical applications and techniques that fit the concepts under study in order to set forth a bias-free method for teaching them. It was hoped that this method would enable the learner to combine 'experience of' with 'knowledge about' into an 36 understanding of the Arabic culture.

Assumptions

The following assumptions were taken into consideration:

1. Culture is a humanistic discipline that has its own tools

and can be taught.

2. The value system provides the 'ground meaning' of culture.

3. All behavior, conscious and unconscious, occurs in patterns and is conditioned by culture. i+. Social variables affect language.

Intended Audience

This work is intended mainly for the teacher of Arabic to Ameri­ cans at the college level. It should also be useful to any adult Ameri­ can studying Arabic, especially those in business, the foreign service, or tourism. In addition, it is hoped that it will be of some use to those preparing Arabic language materilas and texts.

Limitations

The vastness and diversity of the subject contribute to the limi­ tations of this study. The sensitivity of the issue and the nonavaila­ bility of any empirical study from which one can draw precise and definite cultural statements contribute to the difficulty in writing this work.

Since the Arabic culture is spread over many different countries that have different types of government, geographical locations and historical backgrounds, all discussions were limited to the Arabic cul­ ture as it is expressed in Lebanon.

Outline of Dissertation

The literature will be reviewed in Chapter II in order to present the main value themes of the Arabic culture. Chapter III will describe the behavioral norms of the Arabic culture that are of significance to

Americans. Chapter IV is an application of some techniques c.nd methods in teaching the concepts mentioned in Chapters II and III. Chapter V is a summary of the preceding four chapters and includes recommendations for further research. FOOTNOTES

^"Raja T. Nasr, The Teaching of English to Arab Students. London; Longmans, Green and Co., 1963.

2Ibid.

3 Donald K. Jarvis, "Making Crosscultural Connections." in June K. Philips, ed. The Language Connection, The ACTFL Review of Foreign Language Education, Vol. 9, Skokie, ILL: National Textbook Co., 1977-

k Nelson Brooks, "Teaching Culture in the Foreign Language Class­ room." Foreign Language Annals, 3 (March, 1968) pp. 207-208.

•^Jarvis, "Making Crosscultural Connections."

^Stephen E. Freeman, "Modern Languages for a Changing World." Curricular Change in the Foreign Languages: 1963 Colloquim on Curricular Change. Princeton, New Jersey: College Entrance Examination Board, 1963, p. 7.

7 "Managers Away from Home." Fortune, LXXX (August, 1969) PP* 56-57-

Q Milton J. Feldman, "Training for Cross-Cultural International Interaction in Federal Government." Training and Development Journal, 30 (1976) pp. 19-23, cited by Donald Jarvis, "Making Crosscultural Connections."

^William E. Welmers, Alexander Hull, and Evan Douglas, "Language as Culture." in G. Reginald Bishop Jr. ed., Culture in Language Learning. New York: MLA Materials Center, i960.

"^Virginia French Allen, "Understanding the Cultural Context." Modern Language Journal, LIII (May, 1966) pp. 32^-326.

^"4). A. Wilkins, Linguistics in Language Teaching. Cambridge: The MIT Press, 1972. 17

12 . . . . . William Latov, Sociolmguistic Patterns. Philadelphia: Univer­ sity of Pennsylvania Press, 1975-

13 Donald K. Jarvis,"The Teaching of Russian Culture to Americans: Contemporary Values and Norms." Columbus: The Ohio State University, 1970 (unpublished Ph.D. Dissertation).

lU Ronald W. Langacker, Language and Its Structure. New York: Harcourt, Brace, and World, 1968.

"^Jarvis, "Making Crosscultural Connections."

"^Stephen A. Freeman,"Let Us Build Bridges." Modern Language Journal, LII (May, 1968) p. 267.

17 Lagnacker, Language and Its Structure. -| Q Robert Lado, Linguistics Across Culture. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1957*

■^Ned H. Seelye, Teaching Culture. Skokie, ILL: National Text­ book Co., 1976.

20 Ibid.TT.„

21 Ernest Lewald, "Problems in Teaching Culture." Modern Language Journal, H8 (October, 1963) pp. 253-260.

22 Howard Keller and John Fergeson, "A Cultural Instroduction to Foreign Language". Foreign Language Annals, 1 (February, 1976) pp. 50-55-

23 Edward Allen and Rebecca Valette, Modern Language Classroom Techniques. New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovitch, Inc., 1977, p. 325.

oh Freeman, "Let Us Build Bridges." p. 267.

25 Seelye, Teaching Culture.

^Yousef Fathi, "Cross Cultural Testing: An Aspect of the Resistance Reaction." Language Learning, l8 (December, 1968) pp. 227-23U. 18

27 Michael Beaujour and Jacques Ehrman, "A Semiotic Approach to Culture." Foreign Language Annals, 1 (February, 1967) PP- 152-163.

28 Seelye, Teaching Culture, p. 16.

29Ibid., p. 23.

30 Howard Lee Nostrand, "Describing and Teaching the Sociocul­ tural Context of a Foreign Language and Literature." in Albert Valdman, ed., Trends in Language Teaching. New York: McGraw Hill Book Co., 1966.

31Ibid.

32Ibid.

33 ^Ibid.

3^ • 0 Ibid., p. 277.

35 Seelye, Teaching Culture.

36 Nostrand, "Describing and Teaching the Sociocultural Context of a Foreign Language and Literature." Chapter II

VALUE THEMES

The values of a society are determined, to a large extent, by

its historical background. This background includes the society's reli­

gious affiliations, its political, economic, and educational institutions,

its racial and geographical background, and the external influences on it.

A brief review of how the Lebanese society developed through the ages will

shed some light on the values that will be reviewed in this chapter.

BACKGROUND

"into this land of Lebanon, rich in time but poor in space, more

historical events of great significance have been compressed than perhaps

into any other land of equal size.""*" Four thousand years ago, the Cana-

anites settled in the area now known as modern Lebanon. The Greeks called

them the Phoenicians. Their alphabet formed the basis for the Aramaic,

Hebrew, and Arabic alphabets, as well as for the Greek and Roman alphabets.

They were a nation of seafaring traders, exploring most of the Mediter­

ranean world, bringing home products from all over. Around 500 B.C.,

Aramaic became the predominant language spoken in the entire fertile cres­

cent area and remained so even after the Greek, Persian, and Roman con- 2 quests. It wasn't until the Arabs entered Lebanon as settlers around

335 A.D. that Arabic became the official language and gradually replaced

Aramaic. As late as the 19th Century, Aramaic was still spoken in the

19 20

remote villages. Even now there are some people in Lebanon who use 3 Aramaic along with Arabic.

In the early l6th Century, Lebanon became part of the Ottoman

Empire. Nevertheless, its increasing Christian population maintained h ties with Europe, especially with France. It was through the inter­ vention of France that Lebanon was given autonomy under a Lebanese

governer appointed by the Ottoman Sultan in the 19th Century. When the

Ottoman Empire was defeated in 1918, Lebanon was placed under French military administration. In 1923, the League of Nations gave the man­ date of Lebanon and Syria to France. The Maronite Catholics welcomed the

French rule, but the non-Christian sects were not as pleased since they looked on Lebanon as part of a greater Arab state. This conflict created chronic political tension which can only be overcome by a constant spirit of compromise.

Although Lebanon has been a distinct entity for centuries, it emer­ ged as a completely independent state after World War II. The National pact reached between Christian and Moslem leaders in 19^+3 established

Lebanon as an independent state within its existing boundaries with a foreign policy independent from those of the other Arab states.^

Today, Lebanon is a small republic stretching 150 miles along the Phoenician coast with a total area of U.015 square miles: half the

7 . .... size of New Jersey. It is much like California m its topographic char-

g acter and variety with high mountains, hills, jilains, anq coastal lands.

The physical diversity of the country is parallelled by its cul­ tural diversity. With a population of approximately 2.8 million, the state of Lebanon is Arab in language, sympathies, and many basic cultural patterns. But Lebanon has been exposed to Western cultural influences 21

for centuries. Since the days of the Phoenicians, Lebanon has been pri- 9 m a n l y a commercial nation, and a crossroads between East and West.

Armenians constitute 6% of the population, Kurds and Assyrians

1% each. A considerable number of French remained after the French man­

date was terminated. American and European businessmen, professionals

and missionaries are among the temporary residents P*"*

Today many Lebanese serve as middlemen between Middle Eastern

and Western countries. There is also a strong influence exerted by im­

migrants who live and work abroad while keeping contact with their home­

land. As a result, English is widely spoken and understood; French is

spoken as a second language by most educated people.

As Hitti aptly states:

Lebanon is one of those lands that could be described as microscopic in size but microcosmic in influence. Its history is indeed the history of a considerable part of the history of our civilized world. The mountainous character of the land, its close proximity to the sea, its central location in the cradle of civilization and at the cross roads of the world, astride the great international high­ way that linked the three historic continents. These are determining• factors •m its career. IPc

Although language and culture define ethnicity in Lebanon, reli- 13 gion has been a major force m the structure of the society. The main

religions in Lebanon are Christianity, Islam, and Druze. The most im­ portant of the Christian churches is the Maronite church which is in com­ munion with the Roman Catholic church. The Greek Orthodox and the Greek

Catholic churches come next in numerical importance. Moslems are divided

equally between Sunnites and Shi'ites. The Sunnites live mainly in the

coastal cities, while the Shi'ites are found in the East and South. The

Druze, an offshoot of Shi'a Islam, are much fewer in number than 22

Christians and Moslems and live mainly in villages located in the mountains. ^"4

Under the Arat Caliphates and the Ottoman Empire, the non-

Christian religious groups were organized as separate communities under a religious head that excercised some civil functions. This system is still practiced^ and is quite deterent to modernization and secu­ larization. One of the main disadvantages is that the Lebanese are not treated equally under the law. While a Christian woman and her brother inherit equal shares of their father's estate, the Moslem woman inherits only half of what her brother does. A Druze woman may be completely deprived of her father's legacy.

Lebanon is a centralized parliamentary republic. Executive powers are shared by the president and the prime minister who heads a cabinet of several ministers. Legislative functions are performed by the chamber of deputies. Its members are elected by universal suffrage under a system of proportional representation for the religious com­ munities in each district, rather than by political parties as is the case in the United States. By informal agreement the president is al­ ways a Maronite; the prime minister a Sunni Moslem; and the president of the chamber of deputies a Shi'a Moslem. In this way the different sects share authority in the country.^

Value Themes

The value system of the Lebanese is derived from both religious and secular sources. The moral values such as honor, charity, kindness, and forebearance stem from the Christian and Moslem traditions. These values are emphasized in the home, the school, and the community. 23

Hospitality, generosity, endurance and courage are values that have di­ rect relationship to religious tradition. Values such as individualism, personal achievement, and freedom for women are clearly an influence of the West. Education and immigration lead to personal success and greater

. . IT emphasis on individualism and freedom. Modern secular values are gradually replacing the traditional religious values among the educated and urbanized areas of Lebanon. Yet one notices that religious values are widely maintained, at least publicly. This is so because conformity has been and still is highly valued in the Arab society.

The following discussion treats some basic value themes of the

Lebanese culture.

FAMlLlSM

According to sociologists, there are three basic types of family organizations: l) the nuclear family which consists of a man, a woman and their offspring, 2) the polygamous family, which is made up of two or more nuclear families having one father in common, and 3) the ex­ tended family, where the nuclear family of an adult joins that of his parents.18

Although polygamy is allowed to Moslems and denied to Christians, there exist some fundamental, common patterns and values in the family life of the different communities. Regardless of religious background, the Lebanese family is based on patrilineal descent. "Kinship ties are extended in a widening circle of relationships to lineages composed of a number of extended families."1^ This pattern tends to be weaker in the city where the society is wider, richer and where the individual has a wider variety of choices in his friends on different levels, professional, 2k intellectual, or business.

The Moslem family has often been identified as polygamous. How­ ever, reality does not reflect this belief. In conservative Moslem countries m the Middle East, frequency of polygamous families does not exceed 10% among the middle class. In Lebanon the estimate is around

3 - k I. A survey of families in Heiruc in i960 showed that only 3% of those interviewed indicated that there was more than one wife in the family. The attitude of Moslem leaders indicates that polygamy is de­ clining in Lebanon. This is particularly true among urbanized upper

20 ... class families. This trend can perhaps be attributed to increasing education, economic status and Western influence.

There is no statistical data concerning the extended family, but it is thought to be more prevalent in the villages than it is in the cities. Within the nuclear family household one often finds an adult relative, such as the mother-in-law or an aunt, living with the family. The latest research shows that the nuclear family is emerging 21 to take the place of the other two types. This is a sign of increasing independence, although elderly parents who cannot take care of themselves still live with their children.

The family is considered the Arabs' most important social grouping, and kinship is their most solid and enduring tie. The Lebanese society is no exception to all this. In Lebanon the family, not the in­ dividual, is the basic social unit. A person's social status and prestige are, to some extent, defined by his family name. To say that a person is

( ibn 'ayle) "a son of a family" is to attribute to him excellence of character because a good family is expected to refine the character of 25

its members. The influence of the family on the life of the individual

is much greater than it is in the modern urban society of the Western 22 . . ... world. While the Western family member is brought up toward indivi­

dualism and toward independence, and is left on his own to face the

responsibilities that these values may incur, the Middle Easterner is nurtured to direct all his devotion as well as his subordination to his

family. In exchange for this dependence the family provides him with

emotional security and protects him against the risks of life that the

independent individual has to face on his own.

The Middle Eastern culture has often been termed a "kinship

culture" because family influence and loyalty permeate it. Since

society starts with the family unit, one's loyalty to one's family transcends all other sovereignties. Although many socializing factors play a part in the individual's life in the Middle East, he remains the product of his family. The family's expectations and values play an

important role in shaping its members' behavior. When an individual's wishes happen to clash with his family's expectations, he often supresses his wishes.

Blood ties are very strong; the individual's deepest loyalty goes first to the members of his immediate family. The closer the rela­ tionship, the stronger the loyalty. This value is well illustrated by the Arabic proverb "My brother and I against my cousin, and my cousin and

I against the stranger." A study done at the American University of

Beirut showed that, after the family, the loyalty of the individual goes in order of importance, to his religion, his nationality, his ethnic group,

2k and finally, his political party. The importance of the family is 26

pointed out well in the "Kataeb Party" slogan "God, Country, Family."

The individual's education, economic and social status, and

chances of success in life are, to a large extent, determined by the

family into which he is born. Families restrain the individual's

conduct, form businesses and help the needy members. Family ties ex­

tend beyond the boundaries of the village and the country. The Lebanese

emigrant rarely cuts his ties with his family and village. The inflow

of capital from kin emigrants living abroad and retaining strong bonds

with kinsmen in their native village is an important contribution to an

individual's well being in particular and to the prosperity of the 25 village m general. Many of these emigrants return to live their

final days in their fillage among their relatives.

Sociologists and economists believe that as society advances,

the economic functions of the family become less important. In Lebanon,

however, one of the important functions of the family is the support of

its members.^ The family actually assumes many economic, social and

political functions in the society.

The economic function is one of the most important that the family

assumes. In Lebanon there are a large number of family firms. These

firms are run more efficiently than the non-family firms. This pheno­ menon could be a carry over from the days when each family had a craft 27 specialization. These firms are partnerships between brothers, cousins, or other extended kin. "Even corporations are most often nothing more than legal protection for wholly family owned or kin owned establish- 28 ments." When these businesses are inherited by extended family members, the familial control over the economic structures of the country is 27 29 . . . strengthened. In the United States the opposite is taking place.

Large-scale economic establishments have increased in number while the influence of the families that founded these firms and their descen- 30 dents has decreased. The Mom and Pop grocery is dying out, unable to compete with chain stores. In Lebanon, the chain store would be, in effect, a large-scale Mom and Pop enterprise.

Trust of the kin and suspicion of the non-kin are cultural traits that have strong consequences on the economic structure of the country. When the kin has the qualifications for a position in the 31 family establishment, he is usually preferred to an outsider. Ex­ tended kin and lineages in Lebanon are so wide and complex that rela­ tives qualified to work in the firms are easily found. In many cases relatives are advised early in life what to study or train for in view of prospective jobs. Kinsmen are normally preferred to strangers because of their supposed greater concern and involvement in the family- 32 . . . owned business. The same thing happens m the villages where kins­ men are employed in small shops and in the fields. The help of relatives is sought during the harvest season in agricultural areas. Only when extra employees are needed, is hiring extended to other members of the 33 village. And even then, village members are preferred over those from other villages. Any deviation from this pattern can cause ill feelings between relatives. When a skillful non-relative and a less skilled relative are available for a job, the relative will be given priority on the basis of his relationship rather than on his ability.

Families often use their influence to help their members. They act as an ’employment agency' and an 'intermediary system'. The 28

procedure of mediation, vasta, is needed in quite a number of activities.

One may need vasta in finding a job, in speeding governmental action, or

in resolving a conflict. In finding a job, the higher the qualifications

of the applicant the less effective the wasta is. In a study of a sample

of managers vorking in local Lebanese companies, Farsoun found out that

the majority of the managers had got their jobs through some kind of 3U extended family help. This is also true of some government employees.

Although appointments are made through the council of civil service,

applicants still seek the vasta of their relatives who are government

employees.

What can the skilled and the talented do, then, if they do not have influential families to help them? What can lessen the influence of kinship in the economic sphere? The ansver probably lies in more industrialization and secularization. Fortunately, Lebanon is the center for international and political organizations in the Middle East.

Although these organizations are sometimes pressured to make some poli- ...... 35 tical appointments, merit is usually their criteria m hiring employees.

There are vays, then, for the talented to achieve their potential with­ out family help, but prominent families do have strong influence in the business world.

One of the more important economic functions the family assumes is that of a 'banking function'. Those who have, lend to those who have not and are not able to get a loan from the bank, often with little or no interest. Churchill reports that 92.31% of the persons he surveyed 36 in Beirut owed money to persons rather than to banks. This is probably so because it would be a disgrace to the family name for one of its 29 members to have to admit publicly to needing a loan or to have gotten a loan from the bank when the family could have helped.

The middle class of professionals is considered the most modern element of society. Although this group is independent of the kinship network, it continues to be economically dependent on the extended family structure. In Beirut many young medical doctors, lawyers and dentists get the initial money they need for opening a clinic or office from their relatives rather than from a bank. For some of them, higher education wouldn't have been possible if it weren't for the help that 37 their extended family provided them. This practice is not totally altruistic because the more professionals there are in a family, the better the social status of the family.

In a study done by Melikian, students were asked about areas in their lives that they were willing to discuss with friends and outsiders.

The answers indicated that money is the only area that was not talked about with outsiders. To expose the low economic conditions of the family is to reveal its inability to assume its economic role in sup­ porting its members. As more women are working, this trend is changing and the traditional role of the male supporting the unmarried female 3 8 is on the decline. Professional women often help their brothers economically in times of need.

Social welfare is the second function which the family assumes in the Lebanese culture. Family solidarity provides security and refuge in the absence of social welfare agencies. In order for a family to help its members and protect their interests efficiently, family associations are formed. Family members pay dues, and those in need can obtain 30 interest-free loans. Around 1200 family associations have been regis­ tered with the Lebanese government over the last 50 years. This pheno­ menon was started by the Christians, but since 19^+0, more Moslems seem

39 • to have followed suit. These associations protect family members so as to maintain family honor. But during the last decade with the use of social welfare agencies, social security benefits and free government hospitals, the family associations are not as active as they used to be.

The writer's family association which was of great help to some of its members, is now almost inactive because needy individuals prefer to seek government help which is more anonymous.

Caring for the aged within the family unit is also important.

Sending the elderly to a nursing home is socially unacceptable. It is frowned upon by society and considered a sign of ingratitude and failure to assume responsibility. Nursing homes are occupied by those who do not have immediate family or close relatives.

The family unit also assumes a political function. Some families play a political role that is more important than that of the political party. They tend to vote in blocks, so political candidates often seek the support of the family rather than that of the individual. The majority

. . Uo of the members of parliament come from large families. When a candidate that a family has supported, gets elected to parliament, he is continuously asked by those who elected him to help them in many ways: in finding a job, in seeking a loan, in cutting through governmental red tape. They often make him see that he is obligated to help them in return for their votes. Theoretically, it is believed that in a class stratification system, strong kinship ties stand in the way of social mobility. If an individual wants to rise socially, he must free himself from the demands and ties of his family. In the Lebanese society, the opposite is true.

The more cohesive the family group is, the more economically successful it is. Even higher education, acculturation, adoption of Western values, and other such channels for social mobility, are strongly linked to kin-

Ul ... ship ties. There are very few areas m which the family does not exert influence and lend support. Some believe, however, that there is a trend away from this situation developing.

The German sociologist Tonnies has talked about two kinds of so­ cieties: The "communal society" in which people are brought together by kinship ties and the "associational society" in which people make ratio­ nal decisions to choose their social bonds. Even though loyalty to family is still strong, kinship seems to be losing some importance in the over­ all structure of the Lebanese society. With the rise of social agencies and groups that seem to be playing a part in changing the young indivi­ dual's life, the family seems to be losing some control over the life experience of its members. Through the mass media, the youth has dis­ covered alternative incentives and sources of contentment. As a result, the young that are living in secular and urban areas are shifting away h2 from the constant supervision of their parents. One can find young un­ married adults living alone while this was unheard of 10 years ago. This is not true of women, however. When an unmarried woman moves out of her parents home, she does so in order to live closer to her job or because she lacks means of transportation between her parent's home and her job. 32

But as girls are gaining more freedom, they might soon he moving out more frequently too. This puts the Lebanese society in a transitional state between the two kinds of societies of which Tonnies spoke.

This on-going process of change is characterized by the selective adaptation of new values rather than by a complete break with the past.

It is combining the security of the traditional and the rationality of the modern. Ideal as this combination may sound, it still leaves the individual under much stress and tension. The typical liberated Lebanese who belongs to a conservative community remains torn between two life styles offering conflicting expectations. It is the conflict of two

. . U3 forces: one seeking the new, the other preserving the familiar. While a person may adopt an outlook that puts greater emphasis on a permissive attitude toward women and their pursuit of non-traditional occupations such as medicine, the same person may steadfastly believe that the tra­ dition that governs the family's affairs should remain the same. The conflict of the youth is that they feel they would like to change the

'burface culture" while the "deep culture" is well installed in them.

They believe in women's liberation, but not when it is their own sister or wife. They move away from their parents' influence in their everyday life, but they return to them for financial help and seek their approval when they decide to get married. This creates a situation which can seem contradictory to the Western eye.

It is the persistence of loyalty to the family that is responsible for the low incidence of suicide, alcoholism, drug addiction, and psycholo­ gical disturbances in Lebanon. Similarly there is sufficient evidence to indicate that the breakdown of the family unit is an important factor in 33

the increase of social and psychological disturbances such as juvenile

Uh . ... deliquency and prostitution. As the society becomes more individual

oriented it can be expected that these social ills will continue to

increase.

In conclusion, modernization has not had a great impact on family

structure in Lebanon. The functions of the extended family are inter­

twined with the sphere of political, economic, social, and religious

stratification. "Hence the kinship dimension continues to be a major

principle of social organization in this most apparently Western-like „ 1+5 of Arab countries.

Marriage

In a society where the family plays a prominent role in the in­

dividual's life, marriage becomes an important issue. What kinds of marriage exist in Lebanon? What are the choices available to the in­

dividual? How much does the family interfere?

It is often preferred that marriage occur within lineages, either to first paternal cousins or to other kinsmen. The reasons for this are

inherent in the notion of preserving the family unit. When a woman marries within her lineage, the property that she inherits stays in the

family. When a woman marries within her own clan, she feels that she is offered more security as well. Although marriage between relatives is quite frequent in all social classes, at the higher levels, "alliances between families through marriage become more common.At those levels there is more at stake socially, economically and politically.

In the rural areas marriages are often arranged by the adult members of both families. As a general rule, the wishes of the couple are taken into consideration. Likewise the wishes and consent of the parents

(sometimes the uncles) are often sought when a couple plans to get mar­ ried. This collective approval is sought in order to maintain family so- lidarity and to establish a household with friendly family ties. It is very important that the spouse fit well within his in-laws' family because the rate of interaction of family members is more intense than it is in the West. Marriage, like other family affairs such as inheritance and divorce, is governed by the principles and customs of the religious com­ munity to which the family belongs, and not by civil law. Only religious marriage is recognized in Lebanon. There is still no acceptance of civil marriage as there is no person without religion. Religion is a social 1+8 identity rather than a personal choice or preference.

There are no statistical data on marriage between the sects, but religious endogamy is a universal dogma When intersectarian marriage h9 does take place, it is usually m the husband's church. The impression of the writer is that intersectarian marriages have been increasing during the last decade. Most of these couples seek civil marriages abroad especially when neither wishes to change his religion. A group of intel­ lectuals in Lebanon has initiated an organization to encourage inter­ sectarian civil marriages. They seem to have had some success among the educated. Among Moslems marriage between cousins is the general preference.

In some conservative villages the male cousin can invoke strong claims upon his female cousin while she does not have much choice but to marry him. This trend is changing very rapidly, however. In Catholic canon law, the marriage of persons of the same bloodline is forbidden. Although 35

a dispensation can be obtained, such marriages are not common.^

In the cities and suburbs, marriages occur outside the village

and outside the family. More and more parents prefer strangers over

relatives and cousins. In the remote rural areas, however, marriages within the village are still preferred unless to marry within the village

requires marrying into a rival group (moiety). Ayyoub recorded 63% of

all marriages in Kallarwan (a Druze village) within the village moieties, while only two out of 175 married outside the village but into the same moiety. Preference for marrying outside the village rather than into the 51 opposing moiety is reflected in a 37% rate of exogamy.

The trend toward preferring strangers over village members was

confirmed by a study by Melikian and Diab. In 1952, 65 students at the

American University of Beirut were asked to indicate place of birth of both their maternal and paternal grandparents, their parents, and them­ selves. Answers showed that 75% of their grandparents were born in the same village, 65% said that their parents came from that same village, and hOl of the students were born in the same place in which their grand­ parents were born. In i960 the same question was administered to 107 students. This time 55*7% indicated that both their grandparents came from the same village, hT.1% said that their parents came from the same place of birth, and only 22.1% of the students were born in the same place 52 that both their parents and grandparents were born. These results show two things: l) A trend toward marrying outside of one's village, and

2 ) a greater geographic mobility.

Melikian also studied the frequency of marriage between cousins and relatives. Out of the parents of 30 Moslem students, 2 were cousins, 9 were related, and 19 were unrelated. Out of 77 Christians, 2 of their 53 parents were cousins, 8 were related, and 67 were unrelated. Together

these two studies indicate that the preservation of the family line is

fading away, and exogamy is increasing.

Divorce

There are no statistical data available from most of the Middle

Eastern countries as to the frequency of divorce, but it is estimated that

divorce in Lebanon is low. Unless incompatibility is extreme, the couple

stay married. Divorce is prohibited to Christian sects that are subject to the authority of the Pope, and it is not made easy for the other 5b Christian sects. According to Moslem law, divorce is simple. The husband can divorce his wife by telling her "I've divorced you" in front

of two witnesses. The wife does not have the power or the right to

contest i t . ^ In spite of its simplicity, divorce is still uncommon.

The closely knit society often pressures the couple to stay together especially when they have children. Public opinion does not look favo­ rably on divorce and the society makes it hard for the divorced person, especially the woman, to lead a free and normal life.

Child Bearing

The process of socialization of the Arab individual goes beyong the onset of adulthood into middle age and maybe later. "Subserviance to family authority and reliance on the elders remain characteristic traits of men in their thirties and forties.The opposite is true of the American youth who is brought up to be more independent. Most young

Americans don't want to be tied down by obligations to people who "think 57 they own them." 37

Research shows that Lebanese children are rewarded for being quiet in the presence of adults. Lebanese parents, unlike Americans, tend to encourage behavior that promotes dependence on them as well as on other 5 8 adults. The ideal child is obedient, neat, docile, and polite.

The insistence on obedience and submission in child rearing is very much related to the importance placed on the hierarchical extended 59 family structure and the respect for age. Younger people are supposed to be guided by the older people because they are wiser. This value is well illustrated by the common proverb "A day older, a year wiser."

Concerning this relationship, Williams writes describing the children of Houch , a Lebanese village:

For the Houch child the lesson of kinship is the clearest and most elaborate he must learn. When he is very small he is addressed by members of his family not by his own name but by the one that describes his rela­ tionship to the speaker: the grandfather calls his small grandchild jiddi. (my grandfather) and the aunt addresses him amti (my father's sister) or khalti (my mother's sister). His own name is witheld as the relationship to the speaker is emphasized and only when he has learned his kinship lesson he is called by his given name... His world quickly becomes peopled with kin and specific designation, each with a specific set of mutual rights and obligations.

It is only when the young person becomes a parent that his prestige and his authority increase, however, he continues his subordination to his parents, aunts and uncles even when he is supporting them financially.

Respect for the aged and conformity to their ways is one of the very hal­ lowed values of the Arab society.

Morality

In traditional Moslem social environments, men and women from different societies do not mingle. Only in the family circle can closely related men and women meet. Such restrictions do not exist in the Chris­ tian environment.^ Christian men and women meet freely without causing themselves emharrasment.

There are strong sanctions against pre-marital and extra-marital sexual relations. Any violations can easily damage the woman's reputation, which is closely linked to the honor of the whole family. Extra-marital relations affect the man's honor to a certain extent as well. These relations are rare in the village but occur more frequently in the city where anonymity is greater than it is in the tightly knit society of the

6 3 village and where more marriages are based on money than on love.

Even in the city, though, they are veiled in secrecy. Open practice of such relationships is dishonorable.

As there are different moral standards assigned to men and women, there are different roles that the two sexes assume. The role of the woman is the traditional one centered around the family, while men seem

6 3 to possess greater prerogatives. The traditional notion of what is acceptable and what is not acceptable in a woman's behavior is changing.

This is reflected in the different professions and occupations that women are choosing now. In Lebanon there are women judges, lawyers, doctors, engineers, and recently some women have joined the police and the army.

Restrictions are relaxed for the educated woman and for women of the upper middle class in urban areas in general and in Beirut, the capital, in particular. Girls from this segment of society, regardless of their religious background, get university education, hold professional jobs, and wear the latest fashions from Europe. Honor

The family's honor is the sum total of the honor of its members.

It is the most important trait of both the good Moslem and the good Chris­ tian. A man of honor is a man who is trustworthy,generous and courageous;

one who fulfills his obligations, oral or written, and grants sanctuary , , • 6k to his enemy.

Since the Lebanese family enjoys a solidarity that has not

changed throughout the ages, one's honor is linked to one's family honor.

One often hears of the statement "I did so and so in order to maintain the family's honor." Smith et. al. write that in order for a man to main­ tain his honor and the honor of his kinsmen, he might resort to physical revenge against someone who had humiliated him. Loyalty to the family is one of the important areas in which one's honor is judged. If a man is loyal to his family, he is considered an honorable ma n ^ (sharif in

Arabic).

Lebanese folk stories about the rural areas tell how these people prided themselves in being trustworthy and honorable. They bought, sold, and borrowed money without any written agreement; they relied solely on their word of honor. The utmost insult is to talk of someone as

'honorless'. This concept of honor, like other cultural traits, has been changing. The last two decades show less emphasis on conscientiousness

66 . . and exactness. This is reflected m the prevalence of legal contracts when one's word of honor was enough

"CLAKISHISM"

Background - The Village

The vast majority of the Lebanese live or have lived within a village organization. So its influence on the people's life and way of thinking has been great. The village is a community of social control by which men and women are made to subordinate their interests to the in-

S ' r-r terest of a larger group of which they are members. "The community of social control is defined by the scope of effective sanctions against departure from critical norms of behavior e.g. the Middle Eastern vil­ lage context, respect for the aged, modesty, religiosity."^ It is the observation of the writer that conformity to village norms has been the rule while individualism the exception. Village members who live in the city follow different behavioral norms depending on where they are. They tend to be more conservative and more religious in the village than they are in the city. For example a girl who goes to the beach in a bathing suit does not admit it in her conservative village. She would also go to church each Sunday in the village even if she did not go in the city.

Social control in the village is exercised within a defined group.

Membership in this group is indicated by the presence or absence of social sanctions. Since gossip and social boycott are some of the effective sanctions used within the relevant group, one can assume that the larger the village the less effective these measures are. Being subjected to gossip is a reliable indication of belongingness to the community of social control and vice versa. Termination of visitation of a particular household by other households of the village is a form of psychological warfare aimed at lowering the household's status. Such a manoeuvre is effective within the boundaries of the social control group but quite 69 meaningless outside that community. Thus, one can tell he belongs if social sanctions are directed at him. hi

Antoun analyzes some Middle Eastern villages as communities in a general social and cultural sense. The majority of those who come from a village live there at least part of the year and are interested enough to conform to its norms. They discuss its affairs, attend weddings, and funerals, visit the sick and demand to he buried within its boundaries when they die.^

In a discussion of village-level decision making opportunities which exist as a result of changing patterns of relations between rural villages and the central government, Fernia classifies Middle Eastern villages into three main types:

1. Villages that are tribally organized.

2. Villages lacking tribal organization.

3. Villages containing tribal and non-tribal elements.

Each of the above is further classified according to the degree 71 to which it is independent from urban influence. In Lebanon, villages of the second type are the most prevalent. There are very few of the third type.

The importance of tribal affiliation has been discussed by Ayoub drawing on his ethnography of Kallarwan in Lebanon. He discusses the relationship between kin groups and confessionalism in the national poli­ tics of Lebanon. Although confessionalism is considered part of the formal political system, it is actually kinship affilitation, rather than religious affiliation, that relates the village to the central political process. Support from the leaders of the extended kin groups of the village is often sough by politicians belonging to the various religious 72 groups. "in effect, then, confessionalism, as it articulates religious k2

organization and the political organization of the state, reflects the

same process at the village level where often both clan and religious 73 organization are so articulated." The clan is the important factor;

secondarily, its religion plays a part.

Gulick writes expressing his amazement at how many of the nominal

tribal affiliations of village dwellers spread over large areas of rural

Lebanon constitute a basis for alliances of political leadership at the 7k village level during national elections.

Most villages in Lebanon lack tribal organization. An example

is Al-Munsif, a small village in northern Lebanon. It has a high rate of

international migration. As is the case in all Lebanese villages, each

village has a mayor (mukhtar) whose job is to mediate between his village

and the central government. With the mukhtar, the village elects a

council that serves in an administrative, a legislative, and a judicial

capacity on the local level.^

Political control on the village level is control of the public

institutions such as the church, the mosque, the school and the mayor­

ship. Although this process is theoretically separate from any form of

social control, in some villages overlap between the two occurs. Al-Munsif

is an example of this. The mukhtar of the village acts in his political

capacity when he strives to gain control over the village council for his

faction or clan, but he operates in the realm of social control when he 7 mediates to resolve a dispute between two opposing factions in the village.

Lebanese villages which combine both tribal and non-tribal

organization have not been described in the literature. U3 Attitude Toward Others - Social Community

In describing a Lebanese village with clan organization, Ayoub says that individuals have a strong commitment to supporting their kins­ men in a conflict. The order of support goes first to brothers, then to cousins, then to more distant relatives. Taking sides in a dispute is not necessarily based on whether the issue is right or wrong, but rather 77 on one's obligation to his kinsmen. When two members of a clan clash, they expect support or at least neutrality from their kinsmen. The honor of family members is defended right or wrong.

Since reconciliation is considered very important to the solida­ rity of the group, mediation usually aims at reconciliation through com­ promise. Mediators are careful not to judge or determine the guilt or innocence of one party or the other, but instead ask both parties to make concessions. In matters of dispute within the village, appeal to the court has never been a popular alternative. However, a party resorts to the courts, mediation continues, because, eventhough the court can enforce judgment, it cannot solve the problem. Actually, success of the mediation process is often hampered by an appeal to the court. More instances of choosing courts lately reflect a change in the social rela- 78 tionship of the village.

Attitude Toward Others - Religious Community

One's religious community comes next in importance to the family.

Further, there is no loyalty conflict between the two because the members of one's family are part of the same religious community. This is so because conversion is rare, and intermarriage between religious com­ munities is still infrequent. This trend has been changing, though, 79 during the last decade. Every Lebanese carries and ID card that designates his religion based on the religion he was born into regard­

less of his own conviction. Religion is seen more as a group membership

than as a personal choice.

Hospitality

Hospitality is one of the systems that has historically affected

society. It has its roots in the nomadic tribes inhabiting the Arabian

desert. Although it is very much modified, it still persists at the present time in Lebanon.®^ Actually, it is more noticeable in the rural

areas and less developed cities and towns than it is in the developed towns and big cities.

Generosity and hospitality are synonymous terms in the Middle East

and one's hospitality is a measure of one's generosity. The importance of generosity is reflected in the proverb "Generosity hides a thousand

defects." It is a prerequisite for leadership in the community. The

celebrity or leader is always a generous host. Regardless of one's

economic conditions, a guest is always treated. It is not infrequent that a poor villager is seen extending himself beyong his means to invite people to stay at his home. Village folklore is full of stories of rich men who became poor because of their spendings on their visitors and guest

It is quite frequent to hear of someone borrowing money in order to enter­ tain his guests. The proverb "The smallest of homes is spacious enough for a thousand guests," supports the idea that hospitality is the obliga­ tion of the poor as well as the rich. Smith sums up the concept of hospitality in the Middle East by saying, "Religious belief inspires an emphasis on courtesy and politeness, but hospitality is a cardinal

• . ..81 virtue. "THAQAFA"

The word thaqafa represents a strong value in the Lebanese society today. It comprises the totality of knowledge that the civilized individual, should strive to possess. To have thaqafa is to be educated, courteous, enlightened and able to speak at least one foreign language.

It is exemplified by reading books, attending concerts and art exhibits, playing musical instruments, travelling, and participating in cultural and social foundations.

Education

The Lebanese pride themselves on being considered the educational leaders of the Arab World. The literacy rate is estimated at 861, and school enrollment levels are considered the highest in the Middle East.

The two leading foreign universities, the American University and the

University Saint Joseph, as well as the Lebanese University, have made

Lebanon a center for higher education. These Universities have drawn 82 students from all Eastern Mediterranean areas and from the West as well.

Foreign missionaries have been active in education since the 19th Century.

They have founded schools modeled on their schools in the West. Later, national private schools were modeled on the missionary schools. The various foreign influences resulted in diversity in education, but since

19^+6 the government has been introducing uniformity in academic content . . . 83 and providing public schools. As a result the schools with low stan- daidswere improved while those with high standards and rich curriculums had to cut back on their offering in order to include the government requirements. h6

Education is highly valued by the Lebanese people. This is con­ firmed by an opinion poll conducted in 19 6 k. A sample of private business and government employees were asked to list, in order of pre­ ference, items that they like to spend money on. Education was ranked first by government employees while it was ranked second to a good home by private employees. Both groups indicated that education is the most 8U worthy cause that the government should finance.

In urban areas education is looked upon as a means for enhancing one's social position, and for bringing prestige to the individual and his family, but not for making a fortune. This is why liberal arts subjects are favored. In the rural areas the outlook tends to be dif­ ferent. The villagers believe that education should have a more practical

Or purpose than that of enhancing prestige. They therefore study more commercially viable subjects such as business, engineering, agriculture, law, and medicine.

Traditionally, the education of girls has not been favored as much as that of boys. Some conservative Moslem communities have even opposed it, but this trend is also changing. There have been cases where the family resources were limited, so only the gifted children were sent to the university regardless of their sex. In general, girls are receiving more educational opportunities than ever.

Education in Lebanon illustrates the most significant cooperation between church and family. Traditionally it has been a private effort mainly by religious communities. Catholic education (which started two centuries ago) stressed family values in keeping with the society. Pro­ testant missionary schools that stressed individualism as opposed to familism did not have much impact on changing the 'kinship culture'.

Moslems developed their own parochial schools which stressed Moslem values including familism. Secular and public schools conformed to the traditional values of the society.^

All types of schooling, secular and religious, lead to higher education which seems to he more conducive to secularism. Most students specialize in technical, social, and scientific rather than religious P T subjects. Higher education is of good quality. Universities attract professors from around the world. The education is international in its outlook.

Intellectual and Artistic Expression - Western Influence

Western influence is interwoven into the Lebanese way of life and thinking by way of schools, translation of Western writings, and returning immigrants. Lebanon has been open to Western influence and ideas since as early as the 11th Century. Even the Lebanese heritage, both artistic and intellectual, reveals Western as well as Arabic in­ fluence. The Lebanese are particularly proud of the invention of the alphabet by their ancestors, the Phoenicians. They also take pride in the accomplishments of the Roman Empire when Beirut was the site of a famous law school. The archeological treasures of Byblos and Baalbeck are a living realization of the civilizations that flourished in this 88 small country. Lebanon has indeed had a rich cultural history.

The strong influence of the West is reflected in the works of some Lebanese prose writers. These have adopted some literary forms such as the novel and the short story for use in a Lebanese Arabic context.

The novels and short stories of Maroun Aboud, Sa'id Akl and Mikhael Naime 1+8

are examples of Western influence on Arabic literature. Aboud's stories

are written in the manner of Aesop's Fables. He makes use of both spoken

and literary Arabic in portraying village life. Akl wrote plays about

the Phoenicians in the style of the 17th Century French playwrights.

Other writers such as George Shehade wrote in French and acquired in­ ternational recognition. The most renowned of the Lebanese writers for the Western world is Khalil Gibran. He wrote in both English and Arabic.

The best known of his works is The Prophet, written originally in English 89 and translated into Arabic.

The country has an extensive heritage of poetry and folklore that has been transmitted orally in colloquial Arabic. Many Lebanese have memo­

rized ballads and poems to be recited or chanted at weddings, funerals, or other celebrations and gatherings. Poets such as Bishara Al-Khoury, Sa’id

Akl and Amin Nakhle are famous for their lyric poetry. Many of their poems have been set to music. Quite a lot of the folk music in Lebanon

is of the Arabic tradition. Among the important names in Lebanese music are the Rahbani brothers. Their extensive research into folk music and their operettas and other musical compositions have made them the lead­ ing composers in the country. Western influence is apparent in their com­ positions. They have been noted for adapting modern musical instruments 90 into the orchestration of folk songs. Most of the their songs are sung by Feyruz whose vocal qualities have made her the country's most popular singer. She is quite well liked in all the Arabic speaking countries.

Western style Arabic music is composed and played in Beirut. It is mostly the upper middle class and the educated who enjoy this kind of music. The National Conservatory of Music has its symphony orchestra h9 91 and string quartet. Classical music is broadcast daily over the radio.

The Lebanese national dance is called the dabke. In this dance,

performers line up hand in hand. The leader, who is free to improvise,

is usually at the end of the line. The dabke is performed at horns on

happy occasions such as birthdays, weddings or other parties. It is

taught at schools and private dancing academies which also teach modern 92 Western dances and ballet.

The Lebanese maintain active cultural and educational programs

with the Arab countries as well as with the Western countries, especially 93 France, England, and the United States. The Lebanese press produces

newspapers and magazines in three languages: Arabic, English and French.

In general, the Lebanese are well-informed and discuss current events

often.

The role of Lebanon has often been compared to that of a link between East and West. The values of the Lebanese society also reflect the influence of both Eastern and Western cultures. While 'familism' and 'clanishism' are definitely part of the Eastern heritage, the

'thaqafa' that the Lebanese enjoy reflects Western influence. This

combination of Arab-Western influences create an environment in which both the Westerner and the Arab feel at ease with the culture, because each finds values that resonate with his own. FOOTNOTES

"'‘Philip Hitti, Lebanon in History. New York: McMillan, 1967* P-^

Uohn Christopher, Lebanon Yesterday and Today. New York: Holt, Rinehart, and Winston, 1966.

n Harvey Smith, et, al. , Area Handbook for Lebanon. 2nd edition, Washington B.C., Foreign Area Studies of the American University, 197^-

14 . Middle East Annual Review, The Netherlands: Middle East Review Co., 1976.

5 Kamal Salibi, The Modern History of Lebanon. New York: Praeger 1965.

Ubid.

7 . . Middle East Annual Review.

Q George Cressy, Crossroads: Land and Life in South West Asia. Chicago: J.B. Lippincott Co., i960.

9 • Middle East Annual Review.

10 . , Ibid.

‘'‘‘'‘Smith, et. aL, Area Handbook for Lebanon.

12 Hitti, Lebanon in History, pp. H-5.

13 Louise Sweet, "National Integration and Cultural Diversity in Lebanon." University of Chicago: Conference on Lebanese Democracy, May, 1963.

Smith, et. al., Area Handbook for Lebanon. 50 51 ^Hitti, Lebanon in History.

Smith, et. al., Area Handbook for Lebanon.

17 . . . . Richard Antoun and Iliya Hank, Rural Politics and Social Change in the Middle East. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1972.

"^G. P. Murdock, "The Universality of the Nuclear Family." in N.W. Bell and E.F. Vogel, eds., A Modern Introduction to the Family. Glencoe: The Free Press, i960.

19 • i Smith, et. al., Area Handbook for Lebanon, p. 4 .

^Charles Churchill, The City of Beirut. Beirut: Dar Elkitab, 195^*

21 Levon Melikian, "The Family in Lebanon." in Cultural Resources in Lebanon. The Salwa Nassar Foundation for Lebanese Studies, Beirut: Librarie du Liban, 19&9, pp. 160-172.

22 Samir Khalaf, "Basic Social Trends in Lebanon." in Cultural Resources in Lebanon.

23 . Raphael Patai, Society, Culture and Change m the Middle East. 3rd. edition, Philadelphia: The University of Pennsylvania Press, 1971.

ok Melikian, "The Family in Lebanon."

°s Victor Ayoub, "Conflict Resolution and Social Reorganization in a Lebanese Village." Human Organization, 2h (Spring, 1965) p. 13.

^Melikian, "The Family in Lebanon."

27 S. Khalaf and E. Shwairy, "Family Firms and Industrial Develop­ ment: The Lebanese Case." Economic Development and Cultural Change, 15 (October, 1966) pp. 59-69.

28 Samih Farsoun, "Family Structure and Society in Modern Lebanon." in Louise Sweet, ed., Peoples and Cultures of the Middle East. New York: The Natural History Press, 1970.

29 Yousef A. Sayigh, Enterpreneurs of Lebanon. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1962. 30 R. Williams, American Society. New York: Knopf, 1965. 52 31 • • Khalaf and Shwairy, "Family Firms and Industrial Development: The Lebanese Case."

o p Farsoun, "Family Structure and Society in Modern Lebanon."

33Ibid.

3^Ibid.

35Ibid.

3^Churchill, The City of Beirut.

37 Farsoun, "Family Structure and Society in Modern Lebanon."

38 Melikian, "The Family in Lebanon."

39 Samir Khalaf, "Family Associations in Lebanon'.' Unpublished manus­ cript .

^Melikian, "The Family in Lebanon."

^Farsoun, "Family Structure and Society in Modern Lebanon."

1ip Khalaf, "Basic Social Trends in Lebanon."

U3 ... Daniel Lerner, The Passing of Traditional Society. Glencoe: The Free Press, 1968.

kk ... . Samir Khalaf, Prostitution m a Changing Society. Beirut: Khayats, 1965.

^5Farsoun, "Family Structure and Society in Modern Lebanon." p. 30J.

h6 . Smith, et. al., Area Handbook for Lebanon, p. 61.

k-7 Patai, Society, Culture, and Change in the Middle East.

Ibid.

^Farsoun, "Family Structure and Society in Modern Lebanon." 50 Smith, et. al., Area Handbook for Lebanon. 53

Victor Ayoub, "Resolution of Conflict in a Lebanese Village." in Leonard Binder, ed., Politics in Lebanon. New York: John Wiley and Sons, 1966, pp. 107-126.

52 L. Melikian and L. Diab, "Group Affiliations of University Stu­ dents in the Arab Middle East." cited by L. Melikian in "The Family in Lebanon." 53 Melikian, "The Family in Lebanon."

5l|Ibid.

99Patai, Society, Culture, and Change in the Middle East.

^ Ibid., p. 96. 57 . . . . . James Spradley and Michael Rynkiewich, The Nacirema, Readings m American Culture. Boston: Little, Brown and Co., 1975*

£-Q Terry Prothro, Child Rearing in Lebanon. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1961. 59 • Patai, Society, Culture and Change m the Middle East.

^Judith Williams, The Youth of Houch El Harimi: A Lebanese Village, Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1968., p. 39-

8^J. Gulick, Tripoli: A Modern Arab City. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1967.

^Smith, et. al. , Area Handbook for Lebanon.

63t.Ibid. • ^ 6b . . J. G. Peristiany, Honor and Shame. The Values of Mediterranean Society. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1966.

^Smith, et. al. , Area Handbook for Lebanon.

88John Gulick, "Old Values and New Institutions in a Lebanese Arab City." Human Organization, 2k (Spring, 1965) pp. ^9-52.

r-r Richard Antoun, "Pertinent Variables in the Environment of Middle Eastern Village Politics: A Comparative Analysis." in R. Antoun and I. Harik, Rural Politics and Social Change in the Middle East.

68Ibid., p. 120.

69Ibid. T°Ibid.

71 Robert Fernia, "Gaps in Ethnographic Literature on the Middle Eastern Village: A Classificatory Exploration." in R. Antoun and I. Harik, Rural Politics and Social Change in the Middle East. 72 Ayoub, "Conflict Resolution and Social Reorganization in a Lebanese Village." 73 Ayoub, "Resolution of Conflict in a Lebanese Village." p. 122. 7^ Gulick, Tripoli: A Modern Arab City. 75 Fernia, "Gaps in Ethnographic Literature on the Middle Eastern Village: A Classificatory Exploration."

Antoun, "Pertinent Variables in the Environment of Middle Eastern Village Politics: A Comparative Analysis." 77 Ayoub, "Conflict Resolution and Social Reorganization in a Lebanese Village."

78-r^-aIbid. 79 Smith, et. al., Area Handbook for Lebanon.

80Ibid.tv.„ 81 . Ibid. 82 . Cristopher, Lebanon Yesterday and Today. 83 Hitti, Lebanon in History.

8^ . Smith, et. al., Area Handbook for Lebanon.

85Ibid.

88Farsoun, "Family Structure and Society in Modern Lebanon."

87Ibid. 88 Smith, et. al., Area Handbook for Lebanon.

89Ibid.

9°Ibid.

91Ibid. 92 * Ibid. 93 Cressy, Crossroads, Land and Life in Southwest Asia. Chapter III

NORMS THAT ARE POTENTIALLY DIFFICULT FOR AMERICANS TO UNDERSTAND

Compared with Americans, the Lebanese are considered formal and conservative people. Behavior as well as appearance are standardized and any deviation can be attributed to lack of socialization and sophis­ tication or even to bad manners.

The tiny size of Lebanon does not prevent it from embracing with­ in its boundaries a multiplicity of cultures. There is probably no other country of this size with such a variety of cultures. Although the dif­ ferent ethnic and religious groups have much in common, each maintains its individual character and together they form the mosaic which is the

Lebanese culture.

In discussing the norms of the Lebanese culture, it is important to remember that, like the norms of any other culture, they vary with time, community, area, and individual. The norms discussed here, were chosen because they are considered areas of possible, rather than certain, difficulty for Americans.

As explained in Chapter I, information for this chapter was gathered from literature, discussions with native Lebanese living in the

U.S., a questionnaire, and the personal experience of the writer who is a native Lebanese and who has lived in the United States for three years.

55 The questionnaire is included in Appendix C.

INTERACTION PATTERNS

Social relationships within the family are one area that is

still traditional. People in the village prefer to live in close con­

tact with one another. Several families often live within the same

household, and the homes of brothers or cousins are frequently built

around a common site. Relatives must visit each other frequently,

especially on occasions such as birthdays, illnesses, and weddings.

It is very common to see family members living within short distances

of each other. The results of a study done by Farsoun showed that k0%

of the sample investigated lived within a 15-minute walk of each other.

He says:

The rate of face to face contact is incredible by Western standards; it amounts to daily contact with sig­ nificant kin such as parents, grandparents as well as married siblings, to a lesser extent with nephews, uncles, etc.. In-laws residing nearby, at least among Christians, share in this intense rate. Beyond this grouping the rate of contact, as expected, steadily decreases.**-

It is important to mention here that the sample was drawn from

the upper middle class and that even these people who are considered a

universally oriented class still follow the traditional housing patterns.

According to Fuller, this close household "tends to blur the lines between individuals and inhibits the growth of individualism and the lack 2 of privacy within the village curbs individual growth and behavior."

everything that happens within one household is viewed by the next door neighbors. The village can be looked upon as a big family where everybody knows about everybody else. Those who seek solitude are not looked upon 3 with favor m the village. 57

People visit one another at any time of the day. Neighbors drop in when they wish. Their visit isn't necessarily formal; they combine visiting with helping the host in whatever they can. Visits by villagers who live farther away tend to be more formal.

Visiting the ill is a duty of most members of the village.

Duty visits are also made on happy occasions such as engagements, gra­ duations, the return of a household member from a long trip, and child birth. Such visits are expected.

An American friend of the writer, who was living at the time in

Beirut, noted that there are four things one should remember not to do in Lebanon: get married, have a child, fall ill, or die. This humorous comment came after watching herds of people visiting a friend of hers who had just come from the hospital after an operation. Her statement il­ lustrates the sharp difference between the American and the Lebanese patterns of visitation.

Duty visits fall within the category of formal visits. When company drops in, a ritual of offerings takes place: juice or lemonade with cakes or cookies, then coffee, then candy. Fresh fruit is often offered instead of lemonade. To ask the guest whether they would like to have something is a sign of frugality. Food and drinks should be brought to the table, then guests are served. Refusal is often met with insistence until the guest accepts. Only health reasons are good enough for not accepting to eat and drink. Only coffee is served when the purpose of the visit is to offer condolences. If anything else is served it might be interpreted as lack of consideration for the dead. 58

The devout Druze believe that visiting the ill and the bereaved is a religious duty for which they will be rewarded in the second life.

If they accept anything to eat or drink while visiting such a house­ hold, it means they are no longer performing this duty and they lose their reward.

The life of the villager seems to gain its meaning from the life of the group. Apart from the group, the individual's life loses its meaning and importance while it is strengthened within the group. In discussing how people in the tightly knit village society extend their help to each other, Fuller says:

It is expected of the skilled individual that he will contribute his talents to help others, and not necessarily for recompense. The woman with most skill at midwifery is expected to be present at childbirth. The man most skilled at butchery automatically goes from house to house at the time of the sheep slaughter ... These persons, furthermore, take a certain pride in their skill and expect it to be utilized by others while their personal prestige within the community is enhanced through their contributions.^

It is not uncommon for professionals to extend their services to members of their village with little or no charge. For example, a medical doctor might refuse money from his fellow villagers or a lawyer might charge only expenses without making any profit. This is done with a sense of obligation that supercedes all other interests. It is an example of the value of "clanishism".

FAMILY LIFE

The father is treated with respect by all members of the family.

When he comes home from work, all the household attends to him. His dinner is usually ready, and his place at the head of the table is kept for him. Respect for the head of the family is carried even further in 59 the village. As Fuller reports:

The choicest morsels of food and the largest share of the place are set aside for the father who comes in from the fields. Daughter and mother both hasten to wash his feet at the end of the working day, while the growing son will move aside knowing the most comfortable corner of the house is reserved for his father.5

Men do not generally help with the housework. A Lebanese man is never seen doing dishes or mopping the floor. When, for some reason, a man has to do one of these chores, he does it quite secretly. Women do not complain about doing all the work. On the contrary, they look with disfavor upon men who do what they call 'effeminate jobs'. Buying gro­ ceries, however, is the job of the men, not of the women, because village markets are, at the same time a meeting place for men.

When a Lebanese family is expecting a child, they hope to have a boy, especially as the first born. Gifts of clothing given to the ex­ pecting mother are often blue as an omen for a boy. In a study done in

Houch, a Lebanese village, Williams questioned the villagers directly about the reasons for their preference. The informants' answers were the following: It is easier to bring up a boy; We don't have to worry about a boy in life; A boy is more useful to his family; A girl leaves her own family to join that of her husband; A boy is more economically productive.^ As Khayat and Keatings put it, "The family cannot help but T hope for a boy to carry on the proud traditions of the family name."

The average number of children in the Lebanese family is 3 or but this figure goes up the poorer the family is. The philosophy of the poor regarding children is that they are the security for their parents' future. Poor parents know that their children will help them and take 6o care of them in their old age in the same way they helped their own parents.^

The girls in the family are supposed to take care of the boys at home. They iron their brothers' shirts, set the table for them, and make their beds. This care does not go without benefits. When outside the house, the brothers take care of their sisters, paying for them in restaurants or movies, and taking them places they can't go on their own.

It is not uncommon to hear of a man who has paid for his sisters' schooling when the father was not capable of doing so. The opposite is also true. When a sister is older, she often assumes some economic responsibility in tailing care of her brothers when it is needed.

The legal age in Lebanon is 18. At this age the individual can obtain a driver's license and vote, but he still is not afforded many social privileges. He continues to be under the surveillance of his parents. Dating is still not widely accepted. It takes place only among university students and in the upper middle class. Since the pri­ vileges granted to boys are more liberal than those granted to girls, boys date more freely and have later curfew hours. Much more emphasis is placed on the need for chastity for girls than for boys. An un­ willingness to accept such strict standards leads many girls into dating secretly. In general, however, the Lebanese are more restrained in public than are Americans, and couples do not hug or kiss on the street.

In conservative communities dating is only accepted when a com­ mitment for marriage has been made or during the official engagement period. Instead of dating, girls are accompanied by their brothers to restaurants, movies or on visits. They go out in a group of the 6l brother's friends. In some conservative communities, girls are limited to interactions with close neighbors and family. In general, the good­ ness and honor of a girl are measured in terms of the closeness she 9 keeps to her home and the distance she maintains toward strangers.

Some customs associated with marriage are also different from the

American ones. Both men and women wear an angagement ring on the ring finger of the right hand when the engagement is announced. This ring is always a plain gold band which is moved to the left hand during the wedding ceremony. It is the custom that members of the groom's family offer the bride jewelry such as bracelets, necklaces and earrings, but the groom gives his bride a ring with a precious stone. It is believed that each kind of stone affects the couple's life in a different way.

For example, a diamond protects from jealousy, the ruby gives wisdom, the azure stone purifies the heart, the emerald brings happiness, the pearl prevents disagreement and the turquoise strengthens love.^

Of course, these beliefs are not taken seriously, but they are talked about.

Children continue to live with their parents until they get married. Sometimes, as mentioned earlier, even after they marry, a couple may live with their parents for at least one or two years. It is more frequent that they stay with the man's family than with the woman's. There have been some cases, however, where the couple has spent their first married year with the woman's family. When this happens, it is usually because the woman's family lived closer to the man's place of business or had more room in their house. 62

EATING, DRINKING, AND SMOKING

Eating

Fast food restaurants and stands sell shawarma (see figure 1

in Appendix B) and falaafel sandwiches. The first is basically broiled

lamb meat served on Arabic bread with different relishes and tahini

sauce. The second is a heavily spiced vegetarian sandwich. Although

American hamburger and pizza restaurants are found in the country, the

Lebanese fast food is still more popular. First class restaurants are normally very clean and waiters speak English and French. Menus are written in French and Arabic. Most restaurants offer both European and Arabic food although some specialize in Lebanese food only.

Sitting with both hands on the table is considered good manners.

The fork is held in the left hand and the knife is used in the right to cut and push food onto the fork. This is obviously the result of

European influence and is seen in first class restaurants, which are usually part of the better hotels. The American custom of resting the left hand in the lap is not standard.

The typical Lebanese restaurants specialize in what is known in

Lebanon as maaza, "appetizers", (see figure 2 in Appendix B). A maaza dinner comprises approximately 30 different appetizers which are usually served with arak, the Lebanese domestic drink. The most popular kinds of maaza are: tabbouleh (parsley and cracked wheat salad), labneh

(yogurt cheese), snails, frog legs, fish, and pistachio nuts. A maaza dinner is regarded as a social gathering more than a dinner. It gene­ rally lasts for hours. Because arak is quite strong, it is sipped little by little. Food is eaten after each sip. Many of the restaurants 63 serving maaza dinners are built along the seashore or on the banks of the small rivers.

Doggie bags are unheard of. Waiters do not like it when foreigners ask for them. A customer is considered cheap if he asks to take home what he was unable to eat. Perhaps with the rising cost of living the Lebanese will change and follow the American example.

When guests happen to drop in at meal, time, even if they are not expected, they should be invited to eat according to Lebanese hospitality.

Wot to do so is to violate an important tradition and it could be inter­ preted as an inconsiderate act. Guests, in all probability, will not accept the invitation but they expect it. On the other hand Americans do not expect an on-the-spot invitation and will not feel left out if they are not asked. The Lebanese express their hospitality and love for their guests by the amount and variety of food they have at the table.

They insist that their guests eat heartily. The proverb "The amount you eat is equal to the amount of love you have for us" exemplifies this trait. Americans are warned against overeating at the insistance of their Lebanese hosts so that they don't get too full.

As the guest is eating, he often hears sahtayn (literally, double health) from his host. This expression does not have any equivalent in

English but it is used like the French expression bon appetit. The answer to this is 'a albak (literally, to your heart). A thank you is an equally good answer.

The Lebanese are bread eaters. They eat bread with all their food.

Lebanese bread comes in U shapes which are all flat and round. Some kinds consist of one very thin layer, (see figure 3 in Appendix B) others are 6U double-layered. This enables one to use a piece of bread for eating instead of a spoon or a fork. The piece of bread is always eaten with the food.

The old Lebanese way of eating with the hands is fading away.

A small piece of bread is cut, folded on two edges, held with the thumb and index finger and filled with food. In most towns and cities, espe­ cially the westernized communities, it is considered uncouth to touch the food with the hand and not to use the knife and fork, at least in public. Those who love the taste of their food in bread have come up with a modified and acceptable compromise between using the hand and the fork. The fork is held in the right hand and used to push food on­ to the piece of bread held in the left hand. The peasants are not at all inhibited about eating with their hands. Their reasoning is that "one's hand is much cleaner than the fork because nobody else uses it," and that "food doesn't taste good unless eaten with bread."

It is interesting to note that bread has some sacred value at­ tached to it by the Lebanese regardless of their religious background.

It is considered a sacrilege to step on a piece of bread. Some people go to extremes to pick up a piece of bread from the ground, kiss it, put it on their forehead then place it on an elevated place like a wall or a tree. Bread and salt are considered the traditional symbols of hospitality and friendship. One often hears expressions such as "eat at our house so that there will be bread and salt between us", meaning

"so that we will become friends." 65

Drinking

The national alcoholic drink is arak. It is made from grape juice and anis. It looks as clear as water but turns milky white when mixed with water. Foreigners are warned not to drink it without water as it is very strong. Wine and beer are also produced and drunk in the country

It Is important to mention here that in Lebanon, unlike in the

United States, there are no restrictions on serving or selling alcoholic beverages. Yet drinking is not a national problem. There are some con­ siderations that are important for Americans to know. It is better to refrain from drinking in the presence of the devout Moslems and Druzes since both religions prohibit drinking. Devout members of these religions don't feel at ease in the presence of those who are drinking. Women regardless of their religioias background drink far less than men do.

Those women who drink even a little usually avoid drinking in public.

Toasts are made to individuals with the expressions: mhabba

"love", bi sahtak "to your health" and kaasak "to you" (literally, your glass). When the toast m'affa "bottoms up" is offered, it means that the glass should be emptied in one drought. This is considered an indication of strength. Drinks are always served with food to stave off inebriation.

Tea is not widely used; instead, the Lebanese drink a lot of coffee. Lebanese coffee is actually what is known as Turkish coffee.

Arabic coffee is also served. The two kinds are basically the same except that Arabic coffee is a little stronger and is served without any sugar. Both kinds are served in demi-tasse. The Arabic coffee It has been the observation and experience of the writer that

Americans feel that the Arabic language lends itself to the manipu­ lation of situations as well as of people rather than the expression of clear ideas. Following are two examples of situations that illus­ trate this idea.

1. When an American host asks his Arab guest whether he would like to

drink or eat, the typical answer is "thank you." This leaves the

host in an ambigious situation; he was actually expecting a thank

you preceded by a yes or no qualifier. In such a situation the Arab

intends to be vague and will only say yes when his host repeats his

invitation and insists thus making it clear that he means what he

says and that the offer is not just a formality.

2. When an American asks his Arab fellow to come over or to do a certain

chore for him, the typical Arab answer is nshalla (literally, if

God is willing). This is another vague statement which does not

involve any commitment on the part of the speaker. It is quite

annoying to the American listener who is left in an ambigious situa­

tion. Nshalla can be interpreted in two ways, l) Yes, I will come.

2) Maybe I will come. One never knows which meaning the speaker

intends.

"Religion" and "God" in Common Expressions

The words religion and God are inextricable parts of everyday

Lebanese speech. They are used at anytime and on all occasions. The

Lebanese swear by their religion, bi diini, "by my religion". When they want to express their admiration for someone or something, they say yaa diini ma ahsanu, "Oh, my religion, how good he is." To praise someone 66 cup is handleless while the Turkish coffee cup has a handle. Courtesy required that the cup he offered to the guest by the hand of the hostess. She takes one cup at a time from the tray, and offers it to 12 her guests. The general rule is that women be served before men unless there are older men or clergymen present. Because Arabic coffee is quite strong, the cup is never filled. A little is served at a time. If a second serving is not desired the empty cup is wiggled, otherwise, it is handed straight to the host. Both kinds of coffee are often spiced with cardamon, (see figure ^ in Appendix B)

Smoking

Smoking is as widely spread in Lebanon as it is in any other country. There are no restrictions on smoking on public transportation vehicles. It is prohibited, however, in the movies and the theatre.

Violations result in a fine. Women often smoke less than men do and some avoid smoking in public places. Some Lebanese smoke argiila

"huble bubble" instead of cigarettes, (see figure 5 in Appendix B) The

Druze religion prohibits smoking but Moslems are allowed to smoke.

VERBAL AND NON-VERBAL COMMUNICATION

Westerners who have come into contact with the Arabic language have expressed some difficulty in pinpointing the exact meaning of thoughts conveyed in that language. They felt it was hard to under­ stand ideas expressed in Arabic with any precision or accuracy. "Words and even sentences may be translated not as units but as whole structures, from one context to an entirely different one without 13 sufficient modification (or without modification at all.)" This can cause confusion and misunderstanding. 68 they say yu'mur diinak which is the equivalent of "good for you" lite­ rally, may your religion prosper).

One of the expressions meaning "hello" is alia m a 1ak (lite­ rally, may God he with you). If someone is asked whether he has any children, the positive answer is tlaate la alia "three (or whatever number) for God"; the negative answer is alia maa amar "God did not command". Beggars on the street beg using expressions with the name of God. Examples are 'alia ya'tiik "may God give you" and 'ala baab

alia "at God's door". The negative answer from passers-by is

alia yib'atlak "God will provide for you."

Forms of Address

Forms of address are quite complex and present some problem for Americans. An older person is never addressed by his first name no matter how close and informal the relationship is. Instead, the formal address is Mr. so and so. If it is an informal relationship, then a kinship term is used such as 1ammi "my uncle" or 'amti "my aunt."

Actually, kinship terms are used a great deal, especially in the village.

First names are used only among people of the same age and social status.

While Americans address their president, secretaries and ambas­ sadors as Mr., the Lebanese use a little more complex form. The president is addressed as fakhamat, the prime minister as dawlat, ministers as m a 1ali, and ambassadors as sa'aadat. None of the four forms of address has an exact equivalent in English, the closest meaning is "excellency."

The you plural pronoun is used in Arabic in formal address.

Unlike the French vous, however, it is not used with all strangers.

Rather, its use is limited to dignitaries, high ranking clergymen, and the like. ustaaz "sir", is a formal address term originally limited to use with lawyers, judges, and professors. Now it is used interchan­ geably with Mr. and even more often because when using Mr., one has to know the name of the addressee while 'ustaaz can be used instead of the name. Americans who do not wish to get into the complexity of titles are advised to use ustaaz in addressing any stranger from government official to waiter or driver.

Americans are often amazed at the complexity of the inherited, titles that certain families have. When Lebanon was under the Ottoman

Empire, there were some feudal families who worked closely with the ruling officials. Members of these families were granted titles de­ pending on their services. Some of the titles are amir "prince",

, . . s lU beyk, pasha, and sheikh (no equivalents m English). Because these titles are inheritable, they exist to the present time. But with the increase of education, the titles are losing their significance.

Standardized Expressions for Specific Occasions

The Lebanese use a set of expressions on occasions that Americans don't consider appropriate for comments or compliments. Following are some of these:

1. mabrouk "blessed, fortunate."

This expression is used when one has bought something new, such as

a car, a house or even a pair of shoes. It is also said to the

newlywed.

2. na1iiman "comfort, ease, happiness."

This is said to someone after he gets a hair cut, a hairdo, a shave,

or even after he gets out of the shower. 70

3. haniyan "may it do you much good."

When one drinks water and sounds like his thirst has "been quenched,

or simply when he drinks water, he hears this expression.

H. smalla "the name of God."

The name of God is mentioned upon seeing a newly horn baby, or when

praising someone as being healthy, very good looking, intelligent,

etc. It is an old belief that when the name of God is mentioned

the evil eye will be dismissed.

Americans who are familiar with the language are sometimes

puzzled upon hearing such expressions and don't know what to answer.

A simple thank you will always do.

Mon-Verbal. Communication and Gestures

The Lebanese are quite expressive and demonstrative in their

greetings. Like Latins and Russians they are used to seeing people of 15 the same sex embrace and kiss. Actions such as boys holding hands

or hugging in the street are not necessarily signs of homosexuality.

They are simply signs of friendship. When carrying on a conversation,

Arabs usually like to stand a little closer than Americans or English­

men do.

As in the West, the standard ways of greeting are hand shaking

and kissing. Men readily shake other men's hands and kiss when they are

close friends or relatives. When men are greeting women, however, the

custom is a little more complex. Among the westernized and educated

communities men greet women with a hand shake; a kiss is exchanged between men and women when they are very close friends or are related.

In the more conservative traditional communities, it is not proper for 71 a man to shake a woman's hand unless she extends it. Druze clergymen never shake hands with women or visit in the same room with them.

Gestures that convey lexical meaning are more prevalent in the

Middle East than in the United States. The Lehanese tend to gesture regardless of the intensity of their emotions while Americans gesture only when they are enthusiastic about something.1^

Two kinds of gestures are of interest in this discussion:

Those that carry meaning and are accompanied or followed by speech and those that carry meaning without any speech. The following are some gestures that are likely to be misunderstood by Americans.

1. Raised eyebrows. Meaning: No, or astonishment.

2. The above gesture along with moving the head sideways repeat­ edly. 17 Meaning: I can't understand, or hear. I do not get it.

3. The tips of all five fingers of the right hand touching and pointing upward. (This gesture is often followed by speech) l8 Meaning: 1. Wait a minute.

2. A threat.

U. Rub the thumb against the index finger repeatedly. ■Meaning: There is money, someone has money, or I need money. If this gesture is followed with immediate opening of the hand it means the opposite of the above meaning.

5. Using the thumb and the index finger of the right hand to

pluck at the shirt or lapel moving the cloth away from the

body repeatedly. (This gesture is often accompanied by speech) 19 Meaning: I have nothing to do with it. 72

6 . A click of the tongue that results in the sound /ts/

Meaning: No

A repeated click: /ts, ts, ts/ means "what a shame."

There are many other gestures that are similar to American

gestures.

MANNERS

The village dwellers are by nature conservative. Using foul

language is considered had manners and is frowned upon, especially in

front of older people and women. According to Freiha, the Druze are

more careful with their speech than are the Christians. Their religion

considers profanity a sin.^

In the conservative environment it is inappropriate for a male

visitor to visit alone when the men are not at home. An inquiry is

usually made at the door before entering. If there are no men in the

house, it is better for him to go away and return at another time when 21 the men are at home. This rule is not as strictly adhered to m the

more westernized communities, but it does apply to a certain extent.

In general, it is advisable for a male to visit at a time when there are men in the house. This does not apply to relatives or neighbors.

In conservative communities it is considered more polite to

inquire about the family rather than about the wife. A stranger or

acquaintance asks the host how the family is when he really is in- .22 quirmg about the wife.

When a new visitor enters a living room, everyone stands up and

greets him. This is according to the traditional Lebanese etiquette.

In the more westernized communities, however, women tend to stay seated; 73

though this habit has not been totally adopted yet. One notices that

half of the women stand, some stay seated, and some do not know what to

do. Seats that are farthest from the door (usually right across the

room from the door) are considered the honor seat. When an important

visitor or an older person comes in, it is expected that the person sit­ ting in that seat of honor offer it to the newcomer and move to another.

In the Middle East as in the West, the place of honor is on the

23 . . right. When walking or traveling m a car, it is courteous to offer that place to a lady, an older person, a guest, or a person of higher rank or status.

EXPRESSIONS OF SENTIMENTALITY AMD FRIENDSHIP

Feelings are very important to the Lebanese. One has only to read their poetry or-listen to their music and folk songs to notice this.

One need only go to the airport to see all the family of the person traveling hugging him and craying. Lebanese men hug, kiss, and weep and feel no less masculine about it. The attachment they feel toward their country and their friends is a case in point. Emigrants work abroad but come home to retire in their birth place and among their fellow citizens. Feelings are manifested when there are deaths as well.

The families of the dead mourn them by wearing black for varying periods of time depending on the closeness of their relationships. While

Americans consider it inappropriate for the bereaved to lose control of their emotions in front of people, the Lebanese encourage it.

The Lebanese can be very generous with their friends, lavishing food and gifts on them. Gifts of items such as soap, razor blades, or pens, are not appreciated as much as gifts of flowers, books, records, or 71* perfume because the acceptance of necessity items can be interpreted as indicative of economic need. Money gifts may be given only to chil­ dren and not to adults unless they are members of the giver's family.

Compliments are usually met with an expression of thanks fol­ lowed by polite denial and deprecation of whatever was complimented.

This is an expression of modesty which is considered a virtue. An example of this is the following:

Compliment: You look beatiful today.

Reply : Thank you. It is only because you look at me

through beautiful eyes.

APPEARANCE

The majority of the Lebanese dress in Western-style clothes.

But because of the diversity of the ethnic and religious groups living in Lebanon, one sees a multiplicity of traditional garments. In des­ cribing this phenomenon, Christopher says:

While the majority of the Beirutis dress in Western style, one can also observe in the capital the traditional flowing robe and head scarf of the Arab, the baggy trousers of the male villager, the full peasant-style dress of his wife and the black robe and bowl shaped head gear of the Eastern priest.^

Sometimes Western and traditional clothes are combined. The sirwal (very baggy trousers that are tight around the calves) is often worn with a collarless shirt and a western-type jacket, (see figure 6 in Appendix B) The kafiyya (head piece) is also worn with western clothes at times, (see figure 7 in Appendix B)

Fashion in Lebanon is rather difficult for Americans to under­ stand. The Lebanese in the cities, especially in the capital, Beirut, dress in the latest Western fashions. Makeup and jewelry are used 75

25 extensively. Young people normally don't wear hats, but the Western brimmed hat has become popular with some. Women usually don't wear hats either, although some wear them to church. Formal attire is a must at some restaurants and hotels, especially at functions held by digni­ taries. It is not an uncommon occurance for the manager of a restaurant to deny admission to someone who is not wearing a suit and tie.

As one moves farther away from the city to the villages where people are less exposed to the media and the glamour of the big cities, dress becomes more traditional and conservative. Loose fitting dresses are considered more modest than tight ones. This is why older women in the villages usually wear them. Village girls wear gold jewelry, especially bracelets.

Some men peasants wear European suits on visits outside their village or to social functions. They wear their sirwals, wide belts and collarless shirts for work or in their everyday life in the village.

To abandon the traditional way of dressing altogether is considered disloyalty to their mountain origin and a sign of arrogance or an attempt to look too good for their village.^

To be loyal to one's village and origin is a virtue. Very few of those who leave their village for the outside world and become suc­ cessful forget the village. Those who do are often denounced by the villagers who often say "he who denies his origin has no origin."

Telling someone that he has no origin is the utmost insult.

Moslem and Druze women are expected to cover their hair, but practically none of the young generation does so. The older Druze women wear a white rectangular scarf which they also use to cover the mouth 76

and right eye in the presence of men. One can tell a devout Druze woman by the size and quality of her scarf. Big cotton scarves are worn by the most religious women; the others wear a small silk scarf if they wear one at all.

A few of the elderly conservative Moslem women in Lebanon wear

a black veil, but it is almost extinct. Some still wear a regular

colored scarf when they are out. It is the same kind of scarf that

some Christian women wear to church.

The basic rule in Lebanon is to dress modestly. A woman who goes out with too high a hemline or too low a neckline can be embarrassed by the looks and comments of some people on the street. Ripped shorts are rarely seen on the streets, and hair rollers are unthinkable out­ doors or in front of house guests, especially men.

The Lebanese are more strict about body display than are Wester­ ners. Bathing suits are restricted to beaches; otherwise both men and women have to be fully clothed. Very few men wear shorts on the street, and women don't at all. Men may not display bare feet or backs in public.

TIME

The Lebanese peasant in the village conceives of time in quali­ tative rather than quantitative terms. For him, time is not a lineal entity with change and progress at the end of the line. This outlook affects his attitude toward life. He will patiently wait for things to 27 happen rather than try to make them happen.

The city dweller isn't overly concerned about time either. Many foreign observers agree that the Lebanese are more casual about time than are Americans. They neither demand nor offer punctuality. In informal 77 situations they are quite casual about appointments. They see nothing wrong with an hour's tardiness on their part, and likewise they don't expect or demand greater punctuality from others. Memory lapses con­ cerning appointments are admitted with little concern or apology. The concept of time in Lebanon is humorously described by Blatty who ex­ presses his frustrations when he was promised that he could move to an apartment the next day, bu that bukra "tomorrow" was stretched for

20 days. He writes:

It has become clear to me that the Western mind apprehends time as expression of linearity, whereas the Oriental outlook bends this 180 degree concept around until it becomes 360 - i.e. a blob. Time doesn't have to take these people anywhere. It is directionless. And the result, of course, is that somewhere between the Dardanelles and Karachi, time has become hope­ lessly and inextricably muddled with eternity.2o

Formal occasions usually start promptly but last longer than do

American ones. Invitations to informal occasions such as birthdays and tea parties or farewell parties usually designate a time for the beginning of the party but never for the end. It is against the rules of hos­ pitality to tell people when to leave,especially if they are in a home rather than in a club or a hotel.

Many official matters take such enormous amounts of time, that some people have made it their business to see to these matters for those who would rather spend the money than the time. The Lebanese are always complaining about such inconveniences and comparing them with the ef­ ficiency of the West, but they have grown accustomed to all this because they can't change it. Patience becomes very important for Westerners living in the Middle East. The frustration of Americans is humorously portrayed by William

Peter Blatty, who worked as a USIA official for two years in Beirut.

He drew up what he calls an "Arab Time Equalizer". Although it is a caricature and an exaggeration, it does reveal some truth about the

Lebanese sense of punctuality: Here is the table:

Hours...... Leave the number unchanged substituting the word days for hours.

Days...... Divide by 1.7, increase the result by 5 and then double.

Months...... Multiply by 2.2 and convert to the nearest year. 29 Years...... Not within your life time.

TRANSPORTATION

There are two transportation systems in Lebanon, the bus and the service. The bus system is similar to that in the United States.

There are some differences, however, pushing and shoving toward the bus door is a common scene during the rush hours. Inside, the con­ ductor gives out tickets. Making change is often a problem on the bus and in the service so Americans are advised to carry the exact amount to avoid having to ask other passengers to participate in making change.

The service system is made up of privately owned cars, usually Mercedes that travel specific routes. Foreigners can tell a service from a private car by the red license plate; private cars carry black license plates. It is hard to tell the destination of the service; one usually has to ask the driver. There are no signs on these cars that tell the passengers anything about the route. Stops to get out or get in are made upon request because there are no designated stops for the service. 79

There are two kinds of taxis in Lebanon, the radio taxi and the free lancers, Americans are advised to use the radio taxi because it has a meter while the others do not and one has to rely on the driver's own estimate of the price. Although the radio taxis are privately owned cars, they are regulated by an office which provides them with telephone service. They all carry signs with the names and telephone number of the office to which they belong. They also carry a red license plate.

Americans who drive in Lebanon should be very cautious because both pedestrians and drivers are unpridietable and undisciplined.

Crossing the street against lights and against traffic is a common scene in the cities of Lebanon. Drivers are not a bit better than pedestrians as far as discipline is concerned. They blow their horns when they get into a traffic jam, and they often don't yield the right of way. Further­ more, Americans should be alert for traffic signs, which are seldom hung in pairs across the road. Instead, they are usually mounted on posts on the side of the road. Most streets are narrow, and there are very few two-way streets.

CONCLUSION

On the whole, one notices conformity in the Lebanese society.

Western influence is quite obvious. It has an impact on the intellectual life and is also seen in long hair and jeans. Somehow, though, it is an

Arabic version of the West. Jeans are worn, but not everywhere; and hair is worn long, but not too long.

Every society has its nonconformists and its extremists, but the norms presented in this chapter are those of the average, responsible

Lebanese citizen. Although the Lebanese people appreciate those who conform to their way of life, they are usually more tolerant of foreigners who do not than they are of their own people. Intercultural communication is brought about neither by total conformity nor by rejection. Rather, it is achieved through understanding and adaptation. FOOTNOTES

Samih Farsoun, "Family Structure and Society in Modern Lebanon." in Louise Sweet ed., Peoples and Cultures of the Middle East. New York: The Natural History Press, 1970, p. 306.

2 Anne Fuller, Buari.i, Portrait of a Lebanese Village. Massachu­ setts: Harvard University Press, 1961, p. 29-

3Ibid.

k . Ibid., pp. 30-31.

'’ibid. , p. 38.

^Judith R. Williams, The Youth of Houch El Harimi, A Lebanese Village. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1968.

7 Marie Karam Khayat and Margaret Clark Keatinge, Lebanon, Land of Cedars. Beirut: Khayat, i960, p. 50.

8 Anis Freiha, hadaara fii tariq al zawaal. Beirut: The American University of Beirut, Oriental Studies Series, No. 28, 1957 (Arabic).

^Williams, The Youth of Houch El Harimi, A Lebanese Village.

^Lah a d Khater, al ’aadaat wattaqaliid allubnaaniya. Beirut: Munir Khater, 1977 (Arabic).

"^Nasr, The Teaching of English to Arab Students.

12 Khayat and Keatinge, Lebanon, Land of Cedars.

13 E. Shouby, "The Influence of the Arabic Language on the Psychology of the Arabs." The Middle East Journal 5 (Summer, 1951) p. 291. 81 82

lU Khater, al 'aadaat wattaqaliid alluhnaaniya.

^9Jarvis, "The Teaching of Russian Culture to Americans: Contemporary Values and Norms." Ph.D. Dissertation, The Ohio State University, 1971.

^ W . D. Brewer, "Patterns of Gestures Among the Levantine Arabs." American Anthropologist, LIII (1951) pp. 232-237-

1TIbid.

l8Ibid.

19Ibid.

20 Freiha, hadaara fii tariiq al zawaal.

21 John Bagot Glubb, Syria, Lebanon, Jordan. New York: Walker and Co., 1967.

22 Ibid.

23 Ibid.

2k John Cristopher, Lebanon Yesterday and Today, p. l6.

25 Smith, Area Handbook of Lebanon.

26 Fuller, Buan.i, Portrait of a Lebanese Village.

2TIbid.

28 . William Peter Blatty, Which Way to Mecca? Jack? New York: Bernard Geis and Associates, i960, p. 95-

29Ibid., p. 98. Chapter IV

TEACHING ARABIC VALUES AND NORMS

As stated in the introduction, this work deals with the behavioral

patterns and life style of the Lebanese people. It is aimed at supple­

menting materials for the teaching of culture as civilization rather than

replacing them.

Reading about the values and norms of the Lebanese, provides the

reader with information about the culture but does not necessarily provide

him with intercultural understanding. For the facts to be assimilated by the students, they need to be structured into learning activities that

provide an atmosphere of interest in discovery. The activities and materials provided in this chapter are in no way intended to prescribe

the one best way for teaching culture. They are meant to provide the

language teacher with new insights, perspectives, and competencies from which to choose.

This chapter is intended mainly for the teacher of Arabic at the

college level, and for the teacher of Arabic culture. It should also be

useful for social studies students, teachers and textbook authors. The materials in this chapter are in part the contribution of the author and

in part compiled from the literature of foreign language education and

social studies education.

83 Qb GOALS

The ability of the students to communicate in a foreign language is the major aim of the foreign language teacher. His secondary aim, however, is to develop in his students an understanding of the foreign culture. Achieving these goals, according to Jenks, is "dependent upon the acquisition and application of the foreign language plus con­ tact - actual or simulated - with representatives of the foreign cul­ ture.""'" Language learning and cultural learning are constant compa­ nions in the foreign language classroom.

Our end goal as language teachers then, becomes two-fold: lan­ guage communication and cultural understanding. Once this broad aim is established, the teacher is faced with three decisions, l) What kind of cultural knowledge should be imparted in order to achieve this aim?

2) What is the best way to teach students how to acquire and structure this knowledge? 3) What part of this knowledge will develop in the students' desire for life long learning of any culture?

If our aim in teaching about a foreign culture is to develop tolerance and understanding of that culture, then our educational objectives should be centered around knowing, doing, and feeling.

These categories of objectives can otherwise be expressed as the cog­ nitive, skill, and affective domains. They specifically help teacher and learner discover what aspects of knowledge are most desirable, how to acquire them, organize them, and use them; and how the knowledge 2 acquired can change one's attitude. Educational objectives should be chosen by both the teacher and the student. The professional responsibility of the teacher becomes helping the learner choose 3 priorities among the options rather than deciding for him. In this way a student also learns to take some responsibility for his learning.

Allen and Valette's cultural goals for the language class actually center around the three domains mentioned above. The first goal deals with the cognitive domain, the second with the affective, the third with the skill, and the fourth with both cognitive and af­ fective domains:

1. Increasing student awareness of the target culture. 2. Stimulating student interest in foreign language study. 3. Developing the ability to function in the target culture. k. Establishing an understanding of linguistic cultural referents, cultural values, and attitudes.

There is some controversy as to which of the three domains should receive emphasis. One school of thought argues that students learn more by feeling and doing than by knowing. Very little emphasis should be placed on intellectualizing and more attention should be directed toward the affective and skill levels which usually result in developing obser­ vable competencies.^ The belief of the writer is that the area of emphasis is contingent on the nature of the subject matter. While it is very possible to learn a great deal about a people's civilization through congnitive means such as reading or listening to a lecture, one can more easily learn the aspects of daily life such as music, cooking, and behavioral expectations by experiencing them. Experience involves both the affective and skill domains. No matter which of the goals provides the learner with more benefits, the three parts of the taxonomy are highly interrelated. Cognitive Goals

Human actions are perceived as expressions of certain psycho­ logical and physical needs. These needs are gratified within the limi­ tations of the values of one's culture. These values are, in fact, the outcome of the society's history, geographical location, and economical and social organization. It is the interaction of these values with the historical and ecological background of a society that gives the society its distinctive character. And it is this distinctive character, as portrayed by the individual society member that the foreign language teacher should be concerned with. In other words, the teacher should focus his attention and interest on how the variables of a society affect the individual's thinking and make him act the way he does.^

No behavior is odd to the people who practice it. Likewise, no custom, belief, or tradition can be understood unless it is evaluated as an integral part of the sociocultural context in which it is found and T not as an isolated instance. An Arab man expressing friendship by hugging and kissing his male friend might be looked upon as odd by ethno­ centric eyes that are not familiar with the Arabic traditions. To the

Arab, a cold handshake between close male friends may look as odd as the above mentioned incident looks to the American.

Confirming this belief Hall writes:

People from different cultures not only speak different languages, but, what is possibly more important, inhabit dif­ ferent sensory worlds. Selective screening of sensory data admits something while filtering out others so that experience as it is perceived through one set of culturally patterned sensory screens is quite different from experience perceived through another. 87

Our cultural aims as foreign language teachers, then, are to

know as much as possible about the people who use the target language,

their life style, and attitudes. This knowledge, for the purpose of

this work, comprises the values and norms previously discussed.

Knowledge about culture should be transmitted as a whole.

Learning the multicultural concepts before the details provides the

learner with a framework that subsequently facilitates the learning of . . 9 specifics. Furthermore, specific data may change through time and

across social strata; therefore, the ideal situation is to present

multicultural generalities illustrated by specifics. This approach

keeps the discussion on a level above biased judgments and contemp­

tuous comments. There is a problem, however, with teaching genera­

lities and that is obtaining expert consensus on what the basic prin­

ciples are."*"^ The writings of social scientists can provide a basis

of some common principles. Differences of opinion can be partially

resolved by resorting to natives of the culture. While this method is not perfect, it is a place to start.

Although it is much easier to isolate the specific facts about a certain culture and teach them, the result is a wasted effort. Un­ less these facts are taught as they are related to the basic postulates of the culture, it will be difficult for the students to apply them in future situations, if they ever remember them?'^

Nostrand's "Emergent Model", a structured inventory intended as an aid for the teacher of French culture in identifying the main themes, is a realization of the analytic approach to cross cultural norms of 12 behavior. Such an inventory could be a help for teachers of other cultures as well.

In summarizing the whole issue, Jarvis points to two implica­ tions for the language teacher:

1. Culture should be approached in a systematic way, not as a series of unrelated contrasts with the learner's own culture.

2. Structures of values, status role, and other functions exist in every culture and communicative behavior can be understood in relation to this underlying structure.13

An important task in teaching culture on the intellectual level is to draw the attention of the students to intercultural differences.

All differences are important, but those in value systems, non-verbal behavior, and behavior expectations are the most important. Diffe­ rences in these aspects of the subjective culture can be as sharp as ] 1* language differences. It is when students are unaware of these dif­ ferences that they face culture shock.

There seems to be consensus in the foreign language education literature that the most efficient way for achieving acculturation and avoiding culture shock is through studying the value themes of a society first and the behavioral norms next. Ladu suggested value themes for the French and Spanish cultures in his book, Teaching for Cross-Cultural

Understanding; Jarvis suggested value themes for the Russian culture in his doctoral dissertation on Teaching the Russian Culture to Americans.

Other writers such as Elliot and de Wright have written articles sug­ gesting value themes for the French and Spanish cultures. The present work suggests value themes for the Lebanese culture. Following are cultural goals suggested "by Seelye which aim at

synthesizing the different cultural aspects that fall within the cogni­

tive domain. The first goal addresses itself to the norms of the society

relating them to the values by which they are governed. The second

defines these values. The third deals with an understanding of the

inextricable relationship between culture and language and the conno- tative meaning of language.

1. The student should demonstrate an understanding that people act the way they do because they are using options the society allows for satisfying basic physical and psychological needs.

2. The student should dmonstrate an understanding that such social variables as age, sex, social class, and place of residence affect the way people speak and behave.

3. The student should indicate an awareness that culturally conditioned images are associated with even the most common target words and phrases.

Skill Goals

Cross-cultural understanding should be a continuous process rather than a static one. Wo course has enough information to cover all aspects and situations of a culture. "Our students should develop process skills to continue learning on their own.""^ Teaching students the pro­ cess of thinking and discovering new facts is more important than the 17 . . facts they are taught. If they know how to learn, they are not limited to the body of knowledge they acquire in school. Times change; people need to be able to keep up.

Jenks elaborates on this central idea by posing the following questions: What can we do to offset the negative effect of unsatisfied hopes? What skills can students acquire within the foreign language class that can he carried beyond the single course? How can student interest and motivation be increased without sacrificing the subject matter cue of foreign language?-^

He continues to say that "these questions can be answered by a

redirection of our instructional format - by infusing within our cur­

riculum a 'discovery' element. By seeking out and developing 'inquiry

- discovery' exercises, and by relating these exercises to the long

established goal of cultural understanding."^

Keller confirms this idea by pointing out that all education

should be inquiry and discovery. Subject matter should be prepared in

a way that students arrive at facts, concepts and principles through the 20 inductive method. This is m keeping with the natural way people

learn through experience. It is also the approach of the scientific

community. In addition, the personal involvement that results in dis­

covery makes learning more meaningful and thus more likely to be

remembered. Because of mobility, emigration, and mass media, people

are constantly faced with new alternative. This has a great impact on

the life styles and values of people. In a world of continuous change

the emphasis of skill goals becomes more important because they equip

the student with the appropriate means to cope with the changing nature

of culture.

In addition to research skills, Jarvis and other foreign lan­

guage educators advocate cross-cultural communication skills. The pro­ blem with communication is that as people listen, they often interject their own feelings and attitudes which can alter the meaning intended by the speaker. One of the skills suggested for finding out whether 91 the message is getting across without distortion is called "reflective listening." It requires that the listener relate what the speaker has

21 • • said so that the latter can check comprehension. In addition, students should be skilled in both verbal and non-verbal responses in the foreign language. They should develop skills for detecting connotative meanings 22 of pictures, words, and gestures.

Contrasting specific aspects of the target culture with those of the native culture for the purpose of arousing curiosity and interest is recommended by Nostrand. There is one caution with regard to this approach and that is the bias that can develop from contrasting isolated instances. The foreigners' way of life is always strange when compared with our own. To avoid this bias, Nostrand recommends using a third no culture when possible to show how one custom or value fits into a theme. J

To an American, the Lebanese custom of friends greeting each other with a kiss may seem odd until he realizes that the Spanish and the French also greet people this way.

The following cultural goals suggested by Seelye ought to be given consideration when teaching cultural skills. The first deals with an understanding of the instinctive realization of the interaction of norms and values. The second emphasizes the scientific skill and the avoidance of cultural biases and prejudices. The third involves research skills as applied to learning culture.

1. The student should indicate an ability to demonstrate how people conventionally act in the most common mundane and crisis situations in the target culture.

2. The student should demonstrate the ability to evaluate the relative strength of a generality concerning the target culture in terms of the amount of evidence substantiating the statement. 92

3. The st at should show that he has developed the skill needed .o locate and organize information about the target culture from the library, the mass media, people and personal observation. ^

Affective Goals

Educators in general and those concerned with cross-cultural communication in particular give special importance to the affective dimension. Feldman believes that intellectual knowledge alone has 25 very little effect on changing behavior toward other cultures. In order to effect change one must first change attitudes. As William

James said, "The greatest discovery of my generation is that human beings can alter their lives by altering their attitudes of mind."^

Teachers have been given the privilege of helping students alter these attitudes. This can be done by beginning at the affective level where students are presented with a simulated or, when possible, a live situation to make them feel and experience the shock of contact with another culture, then discuss their agitation. The last stage of the discussion would draw similarities with the native culture in order 27 to ease the shock. In applying this approach, we are m effect, using the affective dimension to serve the cognitive goals.

For example, the simulated situation can be a breakfast table where two students, playing the parts of Lebanese, are having coffee.

Each one of them puts five spoonsfull of sugar in his coffee. The first reaction of the class will be surprise since Americans don't normally use this much sugar in their coffee. The immediate assumption of the student will be that the Lebanese use a great deal of sugar in their food. After giving them a chance to discuss their reaction, the 93 teacher can point out that Americans also use a great deal of sugar in their food, hut they use it in different places. For example, the

American way of serving ham with brown sugar will shock the Lebanese.

It would be difficult to determine which culture uses more sugar be­ cause the use of sugar is distributed differently in each culture; each one thinks the other uses more. When the students see that what shocked them exists in their own culture, they are more likely to understand its presence in the other culture.

In response to the controversy as to whether values should be instilled or intellectually examined, Seelye argues that effective com­ munication is promoted by understanding the culturally bound values of the people of the foreign culture and not necessarily by adopting or in- 28 ternalizmg these values. Other writers like Barzun question the pro­ position that values can be instilled in the classroom. He writes:

The wish of students to have universities teach values is not as laudable as it sounds, being only the wish to have one’s perplexities removed by someone else ... Values (so-called) are not taught; they are breathed in or imitated."29

This opinion does not meet with total agreement among the social studies writers. Many believe that the students' value system ought to be examined critically and that some values will be automatically and 30 unconsciously inculcated even if the teacher tries not to do so.

Whenever students are exposed to any educational experience, they are in some way changed by it. The study of values is no exception. It is difficult to teach about the value of familism, and its importance to the individual without having the student react to it in some way as it affects his own life. This does not mean that he will adopt the value 9b

in its entirety.

There are some values that foreign language educators agree

should be instilled in students. What Jarvis calls empathy, Seelye

defines as the capability of seeing things as others see them. To

Nostrand this value is the basic attitude for understanding other

cultures. Joiner and Arsenault define these values as: l) The ability to perceive differences as differences and not as strange behavior;

2) the ability to withold judgment until critically and rationally 31 tested; 3) the ability to test one's own predisposition.

Jarvis sums up the most important aspects of the affective

domain for developing cross-cultural understanding as being: empathy, . . . . 32 flexibility, and curiosity, as well as values clarification skills.

Seelye's specific goal with respect to the affective domain is that

"The student should demonstrate intellectual curiosity about the target 33 culture and empathy toward its people."

Our aim should be to help our students develop and understanding of the broader generalizations about the Arabic culture, and to help

students keep up with the changes of culture; we should involve them in the inquiry skills. Our students should learn to be flexible enough to accept the Arabic way of life as a valid expression of human existence.

This does not mean that they should accept Arabic values as their own, but rather that they respect these values as being just as worthy as their own and understand how they have evolved to meet the needs of the

Arab World.

In summary, cultural goals fall into three categories: cognitive, skill, and affective. Full achievement of these goals may sound 95 impossible and could indeed be so. Any teacher who meets these standards can be considered perfect, a trait that everyone aspires to have. To be realistic,though, we should feel that any effort that results in widening the students' perspective, lessening their ethnocentricity,and increasing their interest in other people is an important achievement.

METHODS

Even pscychologists sometimes claim that there isn't much we know about learning. Although this claim is true, there are some things that we do know about learning. We do not know whether reward promotes learning, and if it does, how it can be utilized. Another unanswered question in whether conscious planning can produce learning. However, there is one thing that we know for sure, and tha.t is that our focus

3I1 should be the student.

The individual student is becoming more and more the source of data for the planning of curricula and the selection and implementation of strategies. The individual's needs rather than the needs of the society are gradually being given preeminence in the designing of instructional strategies. This, of course, means flexibility rather than rigidity and diversity instead of uniformity. As far as culture is concerned, the individualizing of subject matter, that is, allowing students to choose materials that are of interest to them, has advan­ tages because it increases students' motivation. Individualizing student’s pace, on the other hand, has some drawbacks: Many students tend to procrastinate and leave the required work for the last minute.

This needs to be taken into consideration in planning the language course curriculum. 96

Teachers often hope to find one best way to use in the classroom.

Unfortunately, that best way does not exist. The variables in the class­ room are too many and are in a state of constant change: students, con­ ditions, time, teacher's personality, classroom climate, etc. Therefore, the best method is that which is flexible enough to accomodate all the 36 variables and meet the individual's needs.

This new perspective of freedom of methods in the classroom is also recommended by Hosenfield, who discusses the various dimensions of individual differences. She suggests that a variety of means be used for matching instruction to learner characteristics. Her methods are aimed at helping the teacher function within a flexible system in order 37 to achieve the needed diversity. As recent research indicates, fle­ xibility seems to be the answer to positive attitudes; they in turn are 38 the answer to effective learning.

Although the majority of the writers recommend total integration of cultural materials with language materials, there are some who feel that culture is a discipline in itself and should be taught separately.

Both opponents and proponents of total integration have convincing reasons for their claims. Allen and Valette recommend that culture be taught right from the very beginning of a language course and that it be incorporated into all language materials. They believe that culture 39 "can be an integral part of all instruction rather than an added frill."

Cultural materials should play an important part in achieving goals for communicative competence. Whether materials for instruction are from a textbook or prepared by the teacher, every exercise, drill, or reading selection can be made to include some cultural aspects. The 97 creative teacher can add cultural content into the lesson thus adding interest to the language class and improving the ability of the student to communicate in the target language.

Valette and Valette's textbook Contacts: Langue et Culture

Frangaise is an illustration of how language and culture can be incor­ porated. Dialogues, reading selections, role playing and illustrations are filled with cultural information. In addition, the book includes values clarification activities as part of the language components of each lesson.

Other educators have had good success by keeping language and culture separate. Lewald experimented with Spanish and French classes in which culture was taught separately. One of the three class hours a week was devoted to discussions of multicultural concepts. He found that

1+0 students were quite interested. Keller and Fergeson team-taught pre­ language culture courses at Murray University. They found the courses Ul helped boost the dwindling enrollment m language courses there.

It is the writer's view that the language teacher can profit more from the language class period if cultural materials are integrated with language materials. As pointed out in Chapter I, cultural materials serve as a medium for language practice and stimulus for conversation, and they help students understand the language better.

Inductive Strategies

The importance of inductive strategies and techniques has long been emphasized by social studies educators for their value in helping students think for themselves. Rather than forcing students to memorize facts, these techniques are designed to encourage students to 98 hypothesize, gather data, evaluate, generalize, and use results or apply 1+2 them. Professionals m the field of foreign language education also consider these techniques valuable for introducing the skills of 'critical analysis'. They can be used every time the students are given any sub- 1*3 ject to consider, and inquiry should be the main goal.

I . Inquiry

Inquiry activities range from structured to unstructured to research activities.

A. Structured Activities

Jenks suggests problem solving exercises on leisure, cuisine, and demography. He believes that by combining what students have learned in other courses with new challenges in the foreign language class, the student gains a greater appreciation for the 'already learned' and the 'yet to be 1*1* learned'.

(l) Based on Jenk's theory and the norms introduced in Chapter III, the

following activities are suggested:

"A touch of Math"

a. How much do you weigh in kilograms?

b. If you happen to be in Beirut and you have $ 500 how much

money do you have in Lebanese Pounds?

"Leisure Activities"

a. If you have lived in Lebanon would you rather go to the Casino

du Liban or Baalbeck? Why?

b. During what seasons can you swim in Lebanon? When can you ski?

"Cuisine"

a. Name some of the maaza that you get in a typical Lebanese restaurant when you order arak?

b. What is the difference between a shawarma sandwich and a

falaafel sandwich?

c. Do you like baklawa? Can you guess what it is made of?

The above activities can be used in many ways depending on what the goals of the language class are. The teacher can ask the students to discuss them orally in Arabic if the goal is oral communication.

If it is a beginners' class and students are not proficient enough in

Arabic, they can write their answers in English, then discuss them in

English as well. As the discussion is going on, the teacher can intro­ duce little by little some Arabic words and expressions relevant to the discussion. In this way, the lesson begins with culture to stimulate interest and shifts slowly to language learning activities.

As a variation of this activity the teacher could use pictures depicting some aspects of the life of the Lebanese people such as a maaza dinner at a riverside restaurant, a family gathering, or a pastry shop.

These pictures are easily obtained from magazines, books, or newspapers.

They can also be prepared specially for this purpose.

(2) The teacher can prepare a list of proverbs with cultural implications, have the students extract the cultural connotations of each one, then relate each one to a value theme in the Arabic culture.

Examples: 1. bayt ddii bisaa' alf sadii "The smallest home is

spacious enough for a thousand friends."

Theme: Hospitality: Even the poorest are not immune

from the duty of entertaining friends. 100

2. ddamm ma bisiir mayy "Blood does not turn into water."

Theme: Kinship. One must stand by his relatives no matter

what.

The above activity is, of course, geared to the level of advanced students who can already speak Arabic and who are familiar with the value themes of the Arabic culture.

(3) Students can be given a blank map of the Arab world (see figure 8 in Appendix B) and a list of the names of the Arab countries. They are asked to fill in the names in the right place. Next, they are given a list with the names of all the capitals to match with the appropriate country.

If the aim for the language period is to teach writing, then this activity can be utilized in the following way: The names of the countries and their capitals are read on tape, or given to the students in two separate lists in English, or both. The students are asked to write everything in Arabic script.

If the aim of the class is conversation, then the student can be given a second map showing the resources of each of the countries

(see figure 9 in Appendix B). As the students are locating each country and its capital on the map, they can also locate its resources and dis­ cuss them. This activity can be carried out in small groups with the teacher moving from one group to the other. All conversations should be in Arabic and the names of the resources should be written in Arabic and learned as vocabulary words.

This continuous and mutual benefit between language and culture is recommended by Ladu. He believes that culture should be an on-going 101 activity in the language classroom. It should begin the first day and go on as long as the language class continues. The teacher's knowledge and experience are very important in this respect. Whenever the class comes across a custom or habit that is different from those of the native way of life, xhe teacher can provide explanations on the spot. Likewise, as

Ladu points out, every time the teacher notices that the students have misunderstood a word because of its cultural connotation, the cultural 1-1-5 differences should be dealt with immediately.

For example, the Arabic masculine name fu'ad may at first sound ridiculous for the American student of Arabic when he finds out that it means "heart" and may question how anyone could be named fu1ad. But an explanation that the connotative meaning of this name is the heart that loves rather than the biological heart that pumps blood may clear up the cultural confusion.

(1+) Individualized Activities

a. The Culture Assimilator

The cultural assimilator is a technique developed by psycho­

logists to help the learner adjust to another culture. It is aimed

at providing the student with an episode of cultural behavior that

is likely to be misinterpreted.^ It has been considered the "one

method (of cross-cultural training) which has been evaluated and

which also seems to produce useful results. I T 1 + 7

After reading the episode, the student chooses one of four plausible

answers. Then he checks his choice against an answer key which gives

him immediate feedback as to why his choice is correct or incorrect.

If he chooses the wrong answer, he is directed to make another choice. 102

The entire process should not require more than three minutes according to Seelye.

Following is an example of a culture assimilator based on an episode of interpersonal misunderstanding between the Arabic and the American cultures.

No, Thank you

Samir and Randa decided to visit their American friends, Robert and Betty. They arrived at their friends' home at 3:00 p.m. After serving coffee, Betty asked her guests if they would like to have some ice cream. They said, "No, thank you." The visit was termi­ nated at ^:30 when both guests decided to leave.

What do you think Betty did wrong according to Lebanese tra­ dition?

1. She should have offered ice cream before coffee because,

according to Lebanese tradition, coffee is always offered

last.

2. Ice cream is offered to children and not to adults.

3. It was too close to dinner time, so if they had accepted

ice cream, it would have curbed their appetite.

U. The Arabs never say yes the first time they are offered

something. The hostess should have repeated her invitation

another time or even insisted in order to find out whether

they really meant "no."

You choose 1. There is truth in this choice. Arabs serve coffee

after they have served everything else. But it is

not an important issue. Make another choice. 103

You choose 2. This answer is incorrect, because it is a false

generalization. Make another choice.

You choose 3. This answer is also incorrect because dinner

time to the Lebanese is at 8:00 p.m. or even

later. Make another choice.

You choose h. This is the correct answer. To be polite, the

Lebanese will always turn down the first offer.

If the hostess does not ask again, they assume

her original offer was only made to be polite,

b. Instructional Packet

The instructional packet includes three things: l) objectives,

2) activities, 3) media (tapes, video tapes, pictures, etc.) Spe­

cific objectives should be provided at the beginning of the packet

instructions. Then the student is asked to choose between alternative

strategies provided for accomplishing the objectives. The activities

could include inquiry questions, worksheets with excerpts to be read,

a picture to be examined, or a recording, and questions based on the

activity. The learner works at his own pace using whatever media

suits his sensory modality. Feedback is provided in the answer key when possible, i.e. when the answers are factual. In the case of variable answers the student is referred to the instructor for feedback.

This kind of instructional packet is particularly appropriate for teaching culture because the wide variety of cultural topics lends it­ self well to a format of many different activities. c . Slide/Sound Culture Unit

The slide/sound culture unit is a technique which can be used in

many ways. It consists of a set of slides accompanied by a taped

narative on a cultural topic with background music. The narrative

can be written in Arabic for advanced students or in English. Simple

Arabic can be used for beginning students as well. The slides can be

electronically synchronized with the tape so that they change automa­

tically. The unit can be shown using a slide projector and tape

recorder on a large screen for use with the whole class or using a

Singer Caramate or other rear projection machine for individual

. . H8 viewing.

Culture units can serve as a starting point for discussions on

the topic presented. When Arabic is used in the naration, students

can be asked to assimilate the content without seeing a script for

listening practice.

The combination of naration and slides brings the culture alive.

Students are often surprised at how much language they can understand

when they have the added help of the visual image.

B. Less Structured Activities

It is quite difficult to get honest responses when a student is asked to express his personal feelings about something, especially when he is aware of adult expectations. A student's response might be what he thinks he should say rather than what he would like to say. The problem then becomes how to arouse his interest. Morain points out the overwhelming nature of the evidence that culture has high potential for arousing the interest of students.^ 105

Interest, then, becomes the basis for asking the students to do any assignments. Students are often interested in the aspects of life that touch on their own personal occupations, religions, hobbies, and friendships."^ It becomes the responsibility of the teacher to find out what the interests of the individual students are, and to assign to each an area according to those interests. In this way each student becomes a specialist and the spokesman for the class on his area of inte­ rest, whether it be the medical profession, the educational system, S2 sports, or the family."

In order for the teacher to help the students discover what their interests are, she should provide various options out of which the students can choose one specific aspect on which to work. For example, the teacher can make a broad assignment about the life style of the Lebanese people, then with some guidance, students can choose areas that will meet their own interests.

Sometimes personal anxiety or family problems may distract a student and make it impossible for him to concentrate on anything else.

In such a case, the prompting of the compassionate teacher is very impor­ tant because "it is not likely to occur to him /the student/ that he could respond to some available discussion of the evolving family in the foreign society, or perhaps a work of literature, because of his need 53 for understanding himself." But sometimes such a discussion can help him see his own problem in a new way and deal with it more effectively.

Following are some assignments involving both value themes and norms that individual students can work on. 106

(1) Bulletin Board Illustration

Each student chooses one aspect of the culture of the Lebanese people such as religious life, night life, restaurants and cafes, means of transportation, fruit, coffee, or bread, and tries to find a series of pictures in Arabic papers, tourist guides, airline brochures, magazines, and posters which depict some aspects of the theme. Students take turns in illustrating their themes on the bulletin board in the classroom.

Captions and comments should be very helpful for the rest of the class in understanding the theme.

Although this is an individual activity, it can be picked up by the class. The teacher can take ten minutes of class time to discuss what is on the bulletin board that day. The student who designed the bulletin board can act as a resource person.

(2) Children's Stories

Each student reads children's stories, then selects themes that recur in the stories. He also finds out what aspects of life these stories represent: family life, farm life, city life, school life.

Do the same with American children's books. Find out whether the same, or different themes occur.

(3 ) Arabic Movies

Watch at least two Arabic movies, and the same number of American movies. Then find out the values that are stressed in each film and com­ pare them with the ones of the American films. The same thing can be done with norms• 107 {b) Arabic Songs

Examine several Arabic songs. Find themes (sentimentality, patriotism). Compare them with themes from American songs. If you know a third language, it is helpful to compare these with songs of the third culture. See if you can make generalizations based on the differences.

(5) Books and Articles

Read articles or books written by Americans about the Arabic society in general, or about the Lebanese. Writers usually depict the aspects that are different from the American way of life. See if their observations reinforce your generalizations so far.

(6) Short story

Write a short story about a Lebanese family stressing one value theme.

(7) Research Visit

Spend a day with a Lebanese family (if possible). In the evening write down some of your observations. Compare these with observations of your own family. What are the differences? Can you make any gene­ ralizations?

This activity is ideal because it gives the American student real, live contact with the natives. It will also give him a chance to practice his Arabic and his research skills in observing people for a whole day.

It might be difficult to achieve, however, if the class is conducted in the United States and not in Lebanon.

(8) Pen Pals

Correspond with a pen pal from Lebanon. You can exchange post cards, stamps, and coins with him/her. Plan your letters ahead of time 108

and set a specific goal for every letter. Ask for specific information

such as what the educational system is like, recreational activities,

food, family life, and dating. Compare these aspects with those of your

own culture. Which ones are different? Are there more similarities or

differences? Some of the questions could he:

1. At what age do children go to school?

2. What languages, other than Arabic, are taught in high

school?

3. What days of the week do you go to school?

What recreational activities can one participate in

during the summer vacation in Lebanon?

5. What is your favorite food?

6 . What is the national Lebanese dish?

7. Do most people live in houses or apartments?

8. Do many people have maids? Do you like the idea

of having maids?

9. What kinds of fruit grow in your country? Which kind

is your favorite?

10. Is dating approved of in Lebanon? Where do young people

go on dates?

(9) Monetary System

Prepare a chart of the Lebanese monetary system with samples, if possible. Do the same thing for American money. Write down any informa­ tion you can gather about both systems. Your knowledge of economics is helpful here, (see figure 10 in Appendix B) 109

(10) Biographies

Brooks suggests an activity that is used in political science classes. It involves the preparation of biographies of people of the foreign culture. The subjects can be anyone from students and peers to important personalities. This activity is aimed at helping the student learn how the institutions and the events of a society shape the indivi­ dual's personality. In understanding this, the student will hopefully 5)4 have enough insight to avoid stereotypes.

(11) Summer Research Project

The one day observation assignment can be expanded to a vacation or summer in Lebanon. The student is assigned to live with a Lebanese family rather than on his own because tourists who live in hotels or apartments seldom get a chance to learn about the culture. It is help­ ful if this inquiry trip is preceded by some cultural training so that the student knows what to expect and what to look for.

Ore way of making a good learning experience of this trip is for the student to keep a diary, not of what he did, but of what others did.

Then out of his notes he can draw up a list of general value themes of the society.

For comparison, the student can do the same thing for his own culture. He is asked to write a diary in the United States of his obser­ vations of people. Then he draws up a list of general themes for his own culture and compares the two lists. As a result, his conclusions will be less subjective than if he had just thought out the value themes of his own culture. 110

(12) Based on the preceding assignment, the student can prepare a series

of slides or pictures or a filmstrip on episodes from the Lebanese culture.

The slides can be accompanied by recordings explaining what they represent

or by tapes recorded on his trip. The student can make himself available

for comment as he is presenting his project.

It is important to point out here that before making any assign­ ments on values or value themes of the Arabic culture, the teacher (who

should be well acquainted with both the Arabic and the American cultures)

should plan some value clarification activities so that he makes sure that students know their own values before asking them to contrast Arabic values with American ones. Both students and teachers need to clarify their own values, understand themselves, and identify with each other before they make any attempt to understand people from other cultures.

The teacher has many important roles in this respect. He must provide materials, use an effective learning activity, and facilitate inter­ action. ^

To help students clarify the values of the American culture, the teacher can use the overhead projector to present statements depicting some values. Not all these statements need to be correct. Some can be erroneous in order to stimulate reaction and discussion. Following are examples of some of such statements:

1. Americans believe that their childien should live

with them as long as they are not married.

This statement can provoke a discussion on familism as opposed to individualism. 2. One's loyalty and support should go first to which

of the following:

a. One's immediate family,

h. One's friends and colleagues,

c. One's country.

Discussion on this statement can center around values such as kinship, rationality, and patriotism.

Once students are given the opportunity to discuss their own values, they become more conscious of them and the influence they have

in their lives. Such an opportunity should also provide them with a

framework for researching other cultures.

The following are some activities that help students look for value themes in the Arabic culture.

(l) Panel

The teacher assigns a value theme in the Arabic culture. Four students are asked (or better yet volunteer) to research it. Each is assigned one aspect. The information can be compiled from Arab students on campus, books, pictures, proverbs denoting that value, or any other sources that students choose. When the students are ready, a panel is scheduled for presenting the subject. The whole class is given a chance to participate. It is better to carry out the discussion in Arabic when­ ever possible. A comparison of the similarities and differences between the American culture and the Lebanese culture with respect to the theme is made at the end of the session. 112

(2) Magazine Advertisements

Ask each student to cut out two ads, one from an Arabic magazine the other from an American magazine. Paste both on a card and write at the top at least two differences between the ads. Each student presents his work to the class. The ten most agreed upon differences are writ­ ten on the board. Then generalizations are made about advertising in both cultures.

(3) Cartoons

The above activity can be done with cartoons instead of ads.

Students can also be given blank cartoons and asked to invent their own captions. Students can be asked to point out the humor in Arabic

II. Discussion

This method is used quite often in training for cross-cultural understanding. It is considered a compromise between teacher-controlled and student-controlled activities.^ The teacher directs the discussions, but students are free to come up with whatever interpretations or genera­ lizations they feel are necessary.

All sizes of groups can be used for discussions but a small hetrogeneous group including natives from the target culture has proved to be quite effective in promoting cross-cultural understanding and in 57 changing attitudes.

Group discussions about cultural issues, can easily bring about an emotional climate that can make it more difficult for the teacher to direct the discussions. This is because discussions bring out personal biases and prejudices as well as differences of opinion. In such an atmosphere it is the teacher's responsibility to reflect a supportive attitude toward the students hy relying on activities such as those that 5 8 are recommended in Flander's interaction system. The most desirable

of these activities are: accepting feelings, praising and encouraging, 59 and using students' ideas.

When students are given a topic to discuss, it is preferable if

it is something they feel strongly about. Every discussion should be preceded by some kind of presentation which generates a reaction by the

students. Trifonovitch suggests that observation, simulation, and demonstration are good bases for discussions.^

Gordon's version of the mini drama stimulates good discussions.

The use of a brief skit in teaching culture is not a new idea, but

Gordon has developed it so that it carries cultural information as it evokes emotional response. It consists of an episode of four or

five scenes. Discussions are carried on between the scenes. The person leading the discussion should maintain a non-judgmental atmosphere so that it is left completely to the students to identify the problem as the drama unfolds. Usually the last scene clarifies the previous ones.^

Question asking is a very important aspect of directed discus­

sions and needs careful attention. As a general rule, open ended ques­ tions are recommended and those of narrow scope that can be answered with yes or no should be avoided.^

It has been estimated that teachers often dominate TO per cent of the verbal interaction in the classroom; the effect is usually diverted 8 3 attention. What should the questioning strategy be?

The simplest way to classify questions is to divide them into two major categories: fact questions and thought questions. These can lib

"be classified further into sub-categories according to the cognitive functions and according to the functions they serve in stimulating thinking and producing responses. Five function categories identified by Hayman are listed below:

1 . focusing the discussion,

2 . providing foundational material,

3. extending a response,

lifting thinking operations to a higher level, and Gb 5. promoting the flow of the discussion.

Questions dealing specifically with values can be centered around four points:

1 . the value,

2 . the effects,

3. the importance of the effects,

k. the justification ofthe criteria.^

Following this format, if an Arabic teacher wants to teach the value of "familism", he will first have to focus the students' attention on the concept and have them define it. Then students should discover how this value affects the individual's life and how it clashes with

'individualism' in the Arab's life. Students would then discuss whether the effects are desirable or not, and justify the criteria they used in making the appraisal.

Ill. Dramatization and Simulation

Dramatization and role playing have been stressed by Santonie as means of including empathy for the people of the target culture and for developing sensitivity to cultural differences.^ Successful role playing 115

depends very much on the imagination of the students and their ability to

/" ry establish a mental set. The class can be divided into two groups, each

siding with one of the actors as a 'critical incident' confrontation is

played out. Then a discussion takes place.

The mini drama (discussed earlier) is one of the effective ways

of presenting a cultural clash, then resolving it. It gives the students

an opportunity to infer what the problem is, then it reinforces or cor­

rects their inferences as the last scene unfolds the problem.

Arabic Mini Drama

Informality

Scene I

Narrator: Leila, a young Lebanese girl, came to the United States to

study. During her stay, she met Robert, a young engineering

student. After they both graduated they got engaged but

decided to go to Lebanon to get married there where Leila's

family is. They are now married, and staying at Leila's

home.

Robert: (addressing Leila's mother) Tell me, Mrs. Faris, have you

been to the United States?

Mrs. Faris: No, son, but I would like to go one day.

Robert: How about you, Mr. Faris?

Mr. Faris: I haven't either. Maybe when you both go back we'll visit

you there.

Robert: We would love to have you in the United States.

(Class discussion)

1. Compare the way Robert addressed his wife's mother

with the way she addressed him.? 116

2. How did Robert address his father-in-law?

3. What are the choices the American individual has for

addressing his in-laws?

U. Are the choices the same for the Lebanese? Can you

make a guess based on what you already know about family

values?

Narrator: Robert left for Saudi Arabia for a job interview. He will be

back in a few days.

Leila: You did not tell me, Dad. How do you like Robert?

Mr. Faris: He is very nice, but he is too formal with us. He still calls

me Mr. Faris and your mother, Mrs. Faris.

Leila: I will tell him to feel more at home.

Scene II

Narrator: Robert comes back from his trip. He enters the house, shakes

hands with Leila's father, and kisses Leila and her mother.

(Class discussion)

1. What do you think of the way Robert greeted each member

of the family?

2. Why do you think he just shook hands with his father-in-law

and did not kiss him?

3. Do you think he should have kissed him? Why? Why not?

Narrator: Leila and Robert are talking alone in the living room.

Leila: How was your trip?

Robert: It was a very good trip. I will probably take the job, but

I would like to discuss it with your parents since they worked

there before. 117

Leila: By the way, why do you still address them as Mr. and Mrs.

Faris? They would like you to be one of the family.

Robert: Thank you for telling me. I will.

Leila: When you came back from your trip you should have greeted

both my parents with a kiss, not only mother.

Robert: But you know that in the United States one does not kiss his

own father or brother.

Leila: You are in Lebanon now. Male friends and relatives kiss

each other.

(Class discussion)

1. Compare the Lebanese way of greeting with the American

way. What are the differences? Similarities?

2. Which way do you prefer to follow? Why?

3. If one is outside his country do you think he should

conform to the natives' ways that are different from

his own? Why? Why not?

******

Scene III

Narrator: Robert is discussing his prospective job with Leila's parents.

Robert: Since you have been there before, Fouad, do you advise me to

accept the offer?

Mr. Faris: (Looking at Leila with some surprise) I think it would be

a good experience.

Robert: (addressing Leila's mother) What do you think of this job,

Nada? 118

Mrs. Faris: I don't think I can give you my opinion about the job because

I don't know much about it.

(Class discussion)

1. Why was Mr. Faris surprised when Robert was talking to him?

2. Robert addressed his in-laws differently this time. He

used their first names. Is this a better way in your

opiiiion? Why? Why not?

3. Do you think the Lebanese will think it is a better way?

******

Scene IV

Narrator: Robert and Leila are talking alone.

Robert: I do not think your parents felt at ease when I was talking to

them. Do you think I should not have discussed the job with

them?

Leila: Of course you should. I am sure they appreciated it. But I

think the problem is in the way you addressed them.

Robert: Why? You told me to be less formal in the way I addressed

them.

Leila: True, but when you address someone older than you, you never

use his first name. In this case you should have addressed

them as either Mom and Dad, or Aunt and Uncle. When you address

an older person that you know well, you always use a kinship

term.

(Class discussion) 119

1. Do Americans address their in-laws as Mom and Dad too?

2. Why do you think the Arabs address their in-laws as

Aunt and Uncle? Can you relate this to some old

custom? (if no satisfactory answer is given the

teacher brings out the subject of cousin marriage.)

Other media for role playing can be short dialogues and short interviews that can be prepared in the target language thus teaching the students language and culture at the same time.

DEDUCTIVE STRATEGIES

I . Lectures

Although there is much controversy concerning the effectiveness of the lecture as a teaching technique, there are some who believe that it should have a place in the educational process. One place where expository techniques are the most appropriate is the culture class that is separated from the language class.^ By using expository techniques much more material can be presented in the limited time available. Often, a well developed lecture can serve as the basis for a whole unit of material.

Although lectures can be boring, much can be done to avoid this climate. When accompanied by activities that require student involvement, . . . 69 it becomes much easier for the student to assimilate its content.

The use of audio-visual aids in combination with expository techniques is not to be underestimated. Films, graphs, prints, pictures, and recordings, when used appropriately, can give very effective results.

It is important to stress that unless the particular audio or visual aid is 120 appropriate to the intended goal, and unless it is used to provide expla- 70 nation and interpretation, it becomes a useless, distracting a,gent.

Following are some activities that may make the lecture more interesting:

(1) The teacher can illustrate parts of his lecture by using recordings and/or slides.

(2) The use of the blackboard and the overhead projector for illustra­ tions adds interest to the lecture.

(3) The lecture can be delivered by two people, an American and an Arab, to compare the similarities and differences between the two cultures.

(U) The lecturer can use real objects to illustrate his lecture. Objects such as costumes, utensils, and food items can be shown as the lecture is delivered. When some of these objects cannot be obtained, pictures can be substituted.

(5 ) Students who are native to the target culture can be used as parti- 71 cipants m the discussion.

In addition, the lecturer can use the following guidelines to help him capture the students' attention while lecturing:

1. Make sure you know the subject well, so that you do not

have to read every word.

2. Write an outline to help you organize what you want to say.

3. Provide ample time for the students to react and discuss the

issues presented in the lecture.

In some situations lecture-type teaching may promote faster learning than other techniques do. These situations "appear to include high pupil motivation, clear goal perception, and good pupil teacher 72 relations." Under these conditions students are more likely to have

the longer attention span and the ability to learn by listening which

the lecture technique requires.

II. Culture Capsule

The culture capsule is quite effective as a mini-lecture for 73 presenting a unit on the foreign culture. It is a technique that

deals with key cultural differences which are especially difficult for 7h the outsider to understand on the basis of his own life experience.

Therefore, the objective in using the culture capsule is to pinpoint

a minimal difference between the native and the target culture.

The teacher presents the content of the culture capsule, il­

lustrating it with a visual aid. Then the students are asked a series

of questions about the content of the presentation. The leader of the

discussion helps with the answers as objectively as possible. Another

way of presenting the culture capsule is as a packet including questions 75 and an answer key given to each student.

Following is a sample of a culture capsule on the Arabic culture

The Lebanese National Dish

Kibbeh is the national dish in Lebanon (see figure 11 in Appen­

dix B) The Lebanese like it and eat it as much as the Americans like

and eat hamburger. Like hamburger it is cooked in many different ways, but it takes a much longer time to prepare. The basic ingredients for

this dish are lamb meat and cracked wheat. The meat is pounded in a

stone mortar called jorn with a wooden mallet called mudakka until it becomes a gummy paste. Then cracked wheat is added and it is pounded

again until it turns into a dough-like substance. Pepper, paprika, 122 and salt are added at the end. If the meat is fresh, the kibheh will be served raw. Otherwise, it is baked, broiled on charcoal, or fried. Arak, the national drink, is usually served with kibbeh, especially with the raw kind.

With the advent of modern technology, the electric meat grinder is replacing the mortar and mallet. Some Lebanese say, "it just doesn't taste the same." This will be left to the taste of the American visi­ ting Lebanon.

Answer the following questions:

1. In what way is kibbeh like hamburger?

2. What are the basic ingredients used in kibbeh?

3. How is it prepared?

U. How is it served?

5. Is there an American dish containing raw meat? What is it?

6. If you were asked to prepare kibbeh, do you think you would

make it the old way or the modern way? Why?

7. Do you know of any international dish that uses raw meat?

What is it? From what country does it come?

8 . Do you like to try new international food? Have you tried

any so far? If yes, what is it and how do you prepare it?

If not, why?

9. How do you feel about eating raw meat?

10. How do you suppose people got into the habit of eating

raw meat?

The disadvantage of the culture capsule is that it concentrates on one minimal difference rather than a broad theme. Excessive use of the 123 culture capsule may lead to fragmentation rather than building a framework through which details may be organized. It is widely used, however, and when used with other techniques that deal with over-arching themes, it can be very useful.

EVALUATION

The complexity of the term 'culture' and the different meanings it has for the foreign language teaching profession has rendered its eva-

t-T S ' luation rather difficult. In this work, 'culture' includes both, the roles people play in different and changing cultural situations and the values which influence the way they interact with the world around them.

It is Clark's contention that we should test about culture rather than test culturally appropriate behavior. He believes "that knowledge of appropriate behavior in general has a positive correspondence with 77 actual behavior." If a student knows what the native would do in a given situation he is likely to behave the same way.

Nostrand's objection to this kind of testing is that it is dif­ ficult to evaluate objectively any statements about culture because it is difficult to make them. They are usually probability statements rather than final truths. Like all hypothesis statements, they need to be evaluated continuously since cultures are dynamic organisms. Nostrand's solution to this problem is to suggest that the same activities used for 78 teaching culture be used for testing it.

Although many technical aspects such as validity and releability contribute to its quality, a test gains its significance by the extent to which it serves a specific educational purpose.^ The test is "the vital 8 0 ingredient in a continuous teaching-learning loop." Recent research has shown that a great deal of information can be gained from testing.

This information should result in the modification and improvement of 81 both the test and the curriculum.

A test is useful in eliciting information that can be used in making decisions. No decision can be trusted, though, if the informa­ tion is not valid and reliable. Therefore, every test should be valid 82 and reliable. For a test to be valid it should measure what we think we are measuring, that is, what we have taught. In order for it to be reliable it should give the same results if used again and again to measure the same set of objectives. In other words, it should be stable , , 8 3 and accurate.

Educators such a Seelye and Upshur agree that most of the items on a culture test should be drawn from problem areas. There should not be any items from areas that Americans know from general knowledge.

However, there is some disagreement as to whether to include items that natives of the target culture do not recognize as being accurate des­ criptions of their culture. For example, Arabs who consider themselves generous because they are hospitable and entertain their relatives and friends lavishly, do not realize that they can be considered ungenerous because they do not contribute to charitable organizations. While Seelye is for the exclusion of items based on the natives' knowledge of their own culture, Upshur believes that there is a place for such items when 8U they are confirmed by professional observers.

Clark believes that "patterns which do not have the same beha­ vioral features or meanings in the two cultures would be expected to lead to misunderstandings or mis-actions on the part of the learner; 125 it is these patterns that would he singled out for instructional and testing purposes.

Different types of items can he used for different objectives.

If our purpose is that the students recognize or recall certain factual information, then multiple choice, matching, true-false and completion items are the most appropriate for description, interpretation and syntheses.

1. Multiple Choice

The teacher can use the culture assimilator mentioned earlier in this work as a multiple choice item. The shorter episodes are pre­ ferable because they give the examiner a chance to include more items.

Multiple choice items can also test the connotation of a proverb, an idiomatic expression, a gesture or any straight forward fact.

Examples: Item 1. (gesture)

As he was telling how successful his brother is in

his career, you noticed that Samir was rubbing his thumb

against his index finger repeatedly. This gesture means

that his brother...

a. is not sure of the future of his job.

b. is making a great deal of money.

c. is having to work very hard.

d. is not very happy.

Item 2. (norms)

You are visting your Arab friends. The hostess

serves you Arabic coffee. If you want a second serving

you should... 126 a. not say a word and wait for the hostess to

serve you.

b. wiggle your cup as you hand it to your hostess.

c. hand your cup straidght to the hostess.

d. keep your cup in your hand.

(Answers for the above items are b and c respectively)

2. True-False

True false items are sometimes used for testing culture, but there are two problems with this kind of item.

1. Most statements about culture are neither true not false;

they are probability statements or hypotheses.

2. Like all true-false tests, the students have a 50%

chance of guessing the items right, while the chance of

guessing a multiple choice item right is only 25% because

there are four alternatives.

Instead of asking students to indicate whether the statements about the Arabic culture are true or false, students can be asked to indicate whether the statements are more typical of the Arabic culture, the American culture or common to both.

Examples: 1. The people of culture X are clanish.______

2. The ideal child of the people of culture X is

quiet and obedient.______

3. They value time and are punctual.______

U. They are courteous and considerate.______

The first two items are obviously more typical of the Arabic culture; the third item represents an American value; the fourth item is so general that it could be considered common to both cultures. 127 3. Completion Items

This type of item can he used to measure knowledge about culture as well as about behavior. Information tested this way could include facts about means of transportation, food, table manners, family life, and other norms. An example of a completion test item is:

What would you do if you wanted more Arabic coffee?

When we test behavior this way, however, we are testing it in­ directly. The problem with indirect measurement is that the student will say what he thinks he would do; we cannot assume that he would do it. Another problem is that grading such an item objectively is rather difficult.

Although objective tests are difficult to write, once they are composed, they can be graded easily and accurately. Simulation tests, of course, are much more difficult and time-consuming to prepare and stan­ dardize. Grading them objectively is also difficult, especially for items that test behavior and attitudes conducive to cross cultural under­ standing.

Seelye believes that the ideal solution is to test one's ability to operate in the second culture. This gives the examiner the opportunity to watch the examinee in what Seelye calls a "foreign situation." The problem with this method is obviously time. There is only a limited 86 number of students that can be tested at the same time. k. Essay Tests

Structured essay tests are very much like simulation tests where all or part of the situation is given. Some of these em-types could be: 1. Directed dialogues with cultural implications where

the part that the student has to fill in demands a

decision or knowledge about the culture.

2. A picture can he presented to the class which is to

write a paragraph based on what they see. The difficulty

with this activity comes in choosing the picture. If

the teacher can draw, it might make it a little easier

although a drawing is not always as expressive as a

photograph.

3. Students can be asked to write a paragraph about one

aspect of the culture such as clothing, eating habits, and

gestures. Writing it gives the students a chance to

demonstrate their performance as well as their competence

in both the language and the culture.

Unstructured essay questions give the students complete freedom

to write what they want to say. Examples of this type are the following:

1. What values in the Arabic culture do you wish your own

culture would adopt? Why? Write one page explaining your

opinion.

2. What Arabic tradition do you like most? or least?

Describe it in a page and explain why you like or dislike

the tradition.

This kind of question elicits much of the student's knowledge

about the target culture and his attitude toward it. As mentioned before, however, it is difficult to evaluate such essays objectively. Unless numerical grades are required, qualifying statements can be given. Some of these statements can read as follows:

a. Almost hicultural.

b. Has full cross-cultural understanding of the aspects

tested.

c. Will be able to function easily in the foreign culture.

d. Has fair command of the norms but lacks understanding

of the values.

The major aim of testing culture is to communicate to the student how far he has progressed toward achieving the course goals.

Test results should also serve as a guide to the teacher in planning the curriculum for the future. The teacher can also use test results to evaluate his own effectiveness.

In teaching culture the content, method, and evaluation should be planned as an integral whole. In order to meet the objectives, specific strategies should be chosen to teach each norm and value as a part of the whole culture rather than as isolated aspects. Eva­ luation should also be relevant to the content and techniques. In planning such a curriculum the focus"should always be the student. FOOTNOTES

Frederick L. Jenks, "Conducting Sociocultural Research in the Foreign Language Class." in Howard B. Altman and Victor Hanzeli, eds., Essays on the Teaching of Culture. Detroit: Advancement Press of American, 19Jh, pp. 95-125.

2 Donald K. Jarvis, "Making Crosscultural Connections." in June K. Philips, ed., The Language Connection. The ACTFL Foreign Language Education Series, Vol. 9, Skokie, ILL: National Textbook Co., 1977, pp. 151-177. 3 Howard Lee Nostrand, Background Data for the Teaching of French Washington, D.C.,US Office of Education, 1967.

It Edward D. Allen and Rebecca M. Valette, Modern Language Class­ room Techniques. New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, Inc., 1977, p. 320.

^Gregory Trifonovitch, "On Cross Cultural Orientation Techniques in Richard W. Brislin, ed., Topics in Culture Learning. Honolulu: East-West Center, East-West Culture Learning Institute, 1973.; pp. 38-^7

^Ned H. Seelye, Teaching Culture. Skokie, ILL: National Text­ book Co., 1976.

7 Tora Tuve Ladu, Teaching for Cross-Cultural Understanding. Raleigh, North Carolina: Department of Public Instruction, 1968. g Edward R. Hall, The Hidden Dimension. New York: Doublday and Co., Inc., 1969, pp. U-5.

^Philip R. Harris and Dorothy L. Harris, "Training for Cultural Understanding." Training and Development Journal, V (1972) pp. 8-10.

"^Jarvis, "Making Crosscultural Connections."

■^Jerome S. Bruner, The Process of Education. New York: Random House, 1963. 131

12 Nostrand, Background Data for the Teaching of French.

13 Jarvis, "Making Crosscultural Connections."

lU . . • Harry C. Tnandis, The Analysis of Subjective Culture. New York: John Wiley, 1972.

15 Seelye, Teaching Culture, pp. 39-^1-

"^Jarvis, "Making Crosscultural Connections." p. 157•

"^Frederick L. Jenks, "15 Year Old Students Can Do Cross-Cultural Research." in Frank M. Grittner, ed., Careers, Communication and Culture in Foreign Language. Skokie, ILL: National Textbook Co., 1967.

■^Ibid. , p. 66.

^Ibid. , p . 66.

20 Charles R. Keller, "A Revolution in the Social Studies Still Needed?" in Nancy W. Bauer, ed., Revolution and Reaction. Bloomfield Hills, Michigan: Cranbrook Press, 1966.

21 Jarvis, "Making Crosscultural Connections."

22 Genelle G. Morain, "Visual Literacy: Reading Signs and Designs in the Foreign Language Culture." Foreign Language Annals, 9 (1976) pp. 210-16.

23 Howard Lee Nostrand, "Describing and Teaching the Sociocultural Context of a Foreign Language and Literature." in Albert Valdman, ed., Trends in Language Teaching. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1966.

2b Seelye, Teaching Culture, pp. U2-UU.

25 Milton J. Feldman, "Training for Crosscultural International Interaction in the Federal Government." Training and Development Journal, 30, XI (1976) pp. 19-23.

William James, cited by Ladu, Teaching for Cross-Cultural Understanding, p. 127* 132

2^Trifonovitch, "On Cross Cultural Orientation Techniques."

2 8 Ned H. Seelye, "Analysis and Teaching of the Cross-Cultural Context." in Emma M. Birkmier, ed., The Britanica Review of Foreign Language Education, Vol. I, Chicago: Encyclopedia Britanica Inc., 1968.

29 Jacques Barzun, The American University and Where It Is Going. Cited by Donald K. Jarvis, "Teaching of Russian Culture to Americans." Unpublished Ph.D. Dissertation, The Ohio State University, 1970, p. 120.

30 .... John Gibson, New Frontiers m the Social Studies: Goals for Students, Means for Teachers. New York: Citation Press, 1967, PP- 27-28.

31 Elizabeth Joiner, "Evaluating the Cultural Content of Foreign Language Texts." Modern Language Journal, 58 (l97'-0 PP- 2k2-kk.

32 "Jarvis, "Making Crosscultural Connections." p. l6l.

33 Seelye, Teaching Culture. p. h5-

■^John B. Carroll, "Learning Theory for the Classroom Teacher." in Gilbert Jarvis, ed., The Challenge of Communication, The ACTFL Review of Foreign Language Education, Vol. 6, Skokie, ILL: National Textbook Co., 197b, pp. 113-150.

35 Jack Frymier, "A School for Tomorrow" (Paper presented at the ACTFL Annual Meeting) Boston: Nov. 1973.

Ned Flanders, "Teaching Influence, Pupil Attitude and Achievement." in Ronald T. Hayman, ed., Teaching Vantage Points for Study. Philadelphia: J. B. Lippincott Co., 1968, pp. 26U-65.

■^Carol Hosenfield, "The New Student Role: Individual Differences and Implications for Instruction." In Gilbert Jarvis, ed., Perspective: A New Freedom, The ACTFL Foreign Language Review, Vol. 7» Skokie, ILL: National Textbook Co., 1977-

38 Robert C. Gardner and Wallace E. Lambert, Attitudes and Moti­ vation in Second Language Learning. Rowley, Massachusetts: Newbury House, 1972

39 • ✓- Allen and Valette, Modern Language Classroom Techniques, p. 326. 133

^Ernest H. Lewald, "Theory and Practice in Culture Teaching on the Second Year Level in French and Spanish." Foreign Language Annals, T (197*0 PP. 660-67.

^Howard Keller and John Fergeson, "A Cultural Introduction to Foreign Language." Foreign Language Annals, 1 (February, 1976) pp. 50-55-

1|_2 Jarvis, "Making Crosscultural Connections."

^Jenks, "15 Year Old Students Can Do Cross-Cultural Research."

kh . Ibid., p. 67

^5 Ladu, Teaching for Cross-Cultural Understanding.

U6 Seelye, Teaching Culture.

W Fred E. Fiedler, Mitchel Terence and Harry Triandis, "The Culture Assimilator: Approach to Cross Cultural Training." Journal of Applied Psychology, 55 (1971) pp. 95-102.

^Fabian Samaniego. (University of California, Davis), Work­ shop on Individualized Instruction, Ohio State University, Spring, 1977-

U9 „ . Howard Lee Nostrand, Empathy for a Second Culture: Motivations and Techniques." in Gilbert Jarvis, ed., Responding to New Realities, The ACTFL Foreign Language Review, Vol. 5, Skokie, ILL: National Text­ book Co., 197*+.

■^Morain, "Visual Literacy: Reading Signs and Designs in the Foreign Language Culture."

51Nos^Nostrand, "Empathy for a Second Culture: Motivations and Techniques."

52 52Nostrand,Nos "Describing and Teaching the Sociocultural Context of a Foreign Language and Literature."

53 Nostrand, "Empathy for a Second Culture: Motivations and Techniques." p. 270. 13U

"^Nelson Brooks, "Teaching Culture Abroad: From Concept to Classroom." Modern Language Journal, LIII (May, 1969) PP- 320-2^4.

■^Richard Curwin, et. al., Developing Individual Values in the Classroom. Palo Ito, California: Education Today Co., 197^-

"^Jarvis, "Making Crosscultural Connections."

57 Margaret Anne Horan, "Cross/Trans/lntercultural Communications Training: What It Is - What It Is Not." Training and Development Journal, 30, XI (1976) pp. 26-31.

■^Jarvis, "Making Crosscultural Communications."

■^Flanders, "Teacher Influence, Pupil Attitude and Achievement."

^Trifonovitch, "On Cross Cultural Orientation Techniques."

^Seelye, Teaching Culture.

6 2 Ibid.-n.-s

6 3 Flanders, "Teacher Influence, Pupil Attitudes and Achievement."

6h ...... Patricia E. Blosser, Handbook of Effective Questioning Techniques. Worthington, Ohio: Education Associates Inc., 1973, p. 9-

65 . . . Maurice Hunt and Lawrence Metcalf, Teaching High School Social Studies, 2nd. edition, New York: Harper and Row, 1968.

^George V. Santonie, "An Integrated Approach Through Linguistics and Cross Cultural Exercises to Advanced Conversation." Foreign Lan­ guage Annals, 7 (197^) PP- k25-h3h.

(~\ 'Y Jarvis, "Making Crosscultural Connections."

68 . , Ibid.

69 . . . Toshio Nishi, Feasibility Study on Implementation of the Orgontz Plan for Mutual International Education in the Seattle Public School District. Seattle Foreign Language Program, Washington University, 1971- Cited by Donald Jarvis, "Making Crosscultural Connections." 135

TO James W. Brown, et. al., AV Instruction, Technology, Media, and Methods. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1977-

^Nishi, "Feasibility Study."

72 Donald Jarvis, "The Teaching of Russian Culture to Americans: Contemporary Values and Norms." Unpublished Ph.D. Dissertation, The Ohio State University, 1970, p. lUl.

73 Betsy Mead and Genelle Morain, "The Culture Capsule." Foreign Language Annals, 6 (March, 1973) pp. 331-38.

7^ Darrel H. Taylor, John L. Soresnson. "Culture Capsules." The Modern Language Journal, H8 (December, 196l) pp. 350-5^.

75 Seelye, Teaching Culture.

1 -7 s ' Dale, J. Miller, French Culture Capsules, New Wold Cultural Series, Provo, Utah: Brigham Young University, College of Education, 1972.

77 • • John L. D. Clark, Foreign Language Testing: Theory and Practice. Philadelphia: The Center for Curriculum Development, 1972, p. 139-

rv Q Nostrand, "Empathy for a Second Culture: Motivation and Techniques."

79 Clark, Foreign Language Testing: Theory and Practice.

80 Helen Jorstad, "Testing as Communication." in Gilbert Jarvis, ed., The Challenge of Communication, The ACTFL Foreign Language Review, Vol. 6 , Skokie, ILL: National Textbook Co., 197^-

Ibid.

82 Clark, Foreign Language Testing: Theory and Practice.

83Ibid.

8H • Jarvis, The Teaching of Russian Culture to Americans.

85 Seelye, Teaching Culture. pp. 158-59- 86 . , Ibid. Chapter V

SUMMARY AND RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FURTHER RESEARCH

INTRODUCTION

Why Teach a Foreign Culture?

Many reasons for the inclusion of cultural materials in the cur­ riculum have been put forward by foreign language educators and curri­ culum designers. Some of these reasons are related to increasing students' motivation and interest in the foreign language, and to im­ proving language performance and competence. Other reasons relate to promoting better international understanding and professional competence.

Since language is an inextricable part of one's life experience and one of the message systems used by a culture, then understanding culture becomes essential for understanding language and literature.

Also, in as much as one needs help to learn a language he may need special help to understand culture. The most efficient place to learn culture for those who have no access to the bearers of the target cul­ ture is the language classroom.

What Aspects of Culture Should be Taught?

For quite some time, teaching culture meant teaching the civili­ zation of a people. Modern thinkers in the field of foreign language education believe that this concentration on the historical aspects of a society is well justified in education but should be balanced by study of

136 137 the interpersonal and contemporary aspects of the culture. If our aim is

to promote cross-cultural understanding, then the present way of life of

a people is as important, if not more important, than their past life

style.

Purpose and Scope of This Work.

The purpose of this work is to develop and present to the teacher

of Arabic the main value themes of the Arabic culture that differ from

the American conception of acceptable and unacceptable behavior. There

are some norms that Americans should know so they can avoid misinter­

pretation of the Arabic culture. These norms are presented in order to

give the American student a better understanding of the Lebanese way

of life. In other words, the main aim of this work is to formulate teaching approaches that provide interpretive frameworks for American

students of the Arabic language and culture. These frameworks are

designed to help the American students understand what makes the natives behave the way they do.

The approach involves grouping specific cultural events and

expressions into subthemes that are further grouped into themes. Al­ though this work is intended mainly for the teacher of Arabic at the

college level, it should also be of help for business students and foreign service personnel who intend to work in the Arab countries.

The cultural materials outlined in this work are not intended to be used as an entire culture course, but rather to supplement materials dealing with aspects of civilization.

Since culture is constantly changing and since variation exists within both the American and the Arabic cultures, the values and norms 138

described should be looked upon as general, rather than specific areas of

difficulty for most Americans. Data for this work were obtained mainly

from scholarly books written by Americans and other Western writers who

are either specialized in Middle Eastern studies or otherwise connected with Lebanon. Some popular works of Western writers who have lived and worked in Lebanon were also consulted. This research base was supple­ mented by works of native Lebanese whose real experience was of great value, especially for comparison purposes. In addition, some data were

obtained from a questionnaire and from the writer's own experience as

a native of the Lebanese culture.

VALUE THEMES

The Lebanese share a set of values which are derived from their historical and religious background and from their interaction with the

West. There are three basic value themes: familism, "clanishism", and tliaqafa. Each theme will be examined in turn.

Familism

There are three types of families in Lebanon all of which are based on patrilineal descent: Polygamous families, extended families,

and nuclear families. Polygamous families (existing only among the Moslems)

do not exceed b%. The extended family is thought to be more prevalent in the rural areas than in the urban. However, the latest research shows that the nuclear family is emerging to take the place of both the poly­

gamous and the extended families.

The family is considered to be the basic social unit, and kin­

ship is the most enduring tie in the Lebanese society and in the Arab

society in general. Unlike the American family which emphasizes 139 individualism and independence, the Arab family, through its expectations and values, plays a major role in shaping the behavior of its members.

Since blood ties are strong, the individual's deepest loyalty goes to members of his family; however, through modernisation and secularization the family is slowly losing some of its control over the individual's life and kinship seems to be losing some of its significance in the ove - all social structure. This change, which is rather slow, puts the

Lebanese society in a transitional state between the 'communal society' and the 'associational society'. Modernization has had some effect, but not much, and the extended family continues to assume economic, social and political functions. Kinship ties remain a major force in the organization of the Lebanese society.

"Clanishism"

Next to the family, the social unit that influences the Lebanese life most is the village. It is a community of social control by which the individual is made to subordinate his interests to the interests of a larger group to which he belongs. Social boycott and gossip are some of the sanctions used by the social control group against members who deviate from the accepted norms. Being subjected to these sanctions is an indication of belongingness to the group and vice versa. Support and mediation in times of conflict is also expected of the group.

Clan, kin, and religious affiliations rather than political parties play a part in the public institutions of the village as well as in the political organization of the state. There is no loyalty conflict between the three kinds of affiliations because members of a family are in the same religious community, and related families comprise a clan. Thaqafa

The concept thaqafa represents a strong value to the Lebanese people. It comprises the totality of knowledge that the civilized individual strives to possess. Education is highly valued and looked upon as a means for enhancing one's social status in the Lebanese society.

Because education in Lebanon started as a private effort by religious communities, it still serves as a significant link between church and family. All schools whether religious, private or public, stress family values and conform to the traditional values of the society.

Intellectual and artistic expressions such as poetry, lyrics, novels, short stories, plays, operettas, and other musical compositions reveal the Western influence which has permeated the culture. This influence has entered through foreign schools, foreign teachers and administrators, immigrants, translations, and media.

NORMS THAT ARE POTENTIALLY DIFFICULT FOR AMERICANS TO PERCEIVE

Interaction Patterns

Informality and closeness is the rule for everyday life in the village. People live within short distances of each other and visit each other at any time of the day. This proximity of households deprives the people of any privacy and curbs their behavior and individual growth.

Yet this clanish attitude is not all negative; each member of the village has a sense of almost tribal obligation to extend any help he can offer to his fellow villagers. The individual's life seems to gain its meaning and importance within the group. This sense of obligation that members of the village feel toward one another supercedes all other interests. lUi

Family Life

The father is treated with great respect by all members of the

family. The average size of the family is four, but large families are more common than small ones, especially among the poor. In wishing for

a child, the Lebanese often wish for a boy. As the children grow older they stay with their parents until they get married. Family members take good care of each other. This sense of mutual love and obligation

is particularly strong between unmarried brothers and sisters.

The old and new customs of courtship contrast sharply. While dating is accepted in the capital, Beirut, and the larger town, it is not allowed in the remote villages which are unaffected by foreign in­ fluence and education. In general, the Lebanese are more restrained in public than are the Americans. There are more restrictions on girls' behavior, however, than there are on that of boys. The Lebanese have a few customs that differ from American customs concerning engagement and weddings. For example, men and women wear engagement rings. Although the trend among the young married couples is to live in separate homes from their families, they still retain loyalty, respect and a sense of obligation to their parents.

Eating, Drinking, and Smoking

Arabic and American types of fast food restaurants as well as regular restaurants are spread throughout the country. Table manners are mainly European, although in some parts of the remote villages one can observe the traditional Lebanese way of eating with the hand instead of the fork. Formal attire is expected in first class restaurants.

Typical Lebanese restaurants specialize in maaza dinners. The Lebanese 1^2

express their hospitality by insisting that their guests eat heartily.

The domestic alcoholic drink is arak. Although there are no

restrictions concerning the serving or selling of alcoholic beverages,

drinking is not a national problem. Drinks are always served with food.

Women drink far less than men do, and some of them avoid drinking in

public.

Serving a cup of Arabic or Turkish coffee is the traditional

sign of hospitality. Every visitor is offered a cup of coffee. Lebanese

etiquette demands that the cup be served by the hand of the hostess. As

a general rule, women are served before men unless older men or clergy­

men are present.

Many Lebanese smoke, but women smoke less than men do. Some women avoid smoking in public places.

Verbal and Won-verbal Communication

Expressions containing the words religion and God are freely used.

Older people are never addressed by their first names; instead, if the

relationship is formal, Mr. or Mrs. so and so is used, while if it is a

close and informal relationship, a kinship term is used. You plural is used in addressing dignitaries and high ranking clergymen. Other official

forms of address, standardized expressions, and gestures are discussed in

Chapter III.

Manners

In conservative communities it is not appropriate for a male to visit when the men are not at home. Women as well as men stand up to

greet a guest as he enters the living room. The guest of honor is often

seated in the seat farthest from the door. As in the West, the place to the right is considered the place of honor. Expressions of Sentimentality and Friendship

The Lebanese are very sentimental people, they express their feelings freely in many ways. They mourn the dead by wearing black for varying periods of time, and they cry when a member of the family travels.

Men show their love and affection for their friends (males and females) and family by hugging and kissing.

Appearance

The majority of the Lebanese dress in western-style clothes.

City women, more than village women, dress according to the latest western fashion. Only few of the older conservative women cover their heads. There are some who still wear traditional garments believing it is a sign of loyalty to their tradition. The Lebanese are more strict about body display than are Americans. Modesty is the basic rule for dress for both men and women.

Time

The Lebanese, in general, are not overly concerned with time.

They neither demand nor offer punctuality. Formal occasions usually start on time but last longer than American ones. On informal occasions the host tells the guest at what hour the party starts but it is against the rules of hospitality to tell them when they should leave.

Transportation

There are two systems of transportation in Lebanon: the bus and the service. The service is a system of privately owned cars which follow semi-set routes through the cities and to the villages. Since the service is a small car, it is easy to fill and has a more flexible route than the bus. Americans who prefer taxis are advised to use the ikh

radio taxi rather than the free lancers which do not have meters. When

getting into a bus or crossing the street, the Lebanese are undisci­

plined. Driving in Lebanon requires caution and skill.

TEACHING VALUES AMD NORMS

Goals

Goals for teaching values and norms are divided into three main

categories. Cognitive goals, skill goals, and affective goals. In

achieving cognitive goals, instructional activities should relate de­

tails to the whole so as to emphasize thinking as well as memorizing

facts. Most educators recommend inquiry strategies for achieving skill

goals. Inquiry helps students develop process skills so they can con­

tinue learning and discovering new facts on their own. With regard to

affective goals, foreign language educators express some doubts as to whether all values should be instilled in the classroom. They believe that effective cross-cultural communication can be achieved by learning

about the life style of the foreign people and by understanding their

values without imitating their behavior and internalizing their values.

There is agreement, however, that empathy toward other people, flexi­ bility and curiosity about other cultures are values that should be

instilled in students in the classroom.

Methods

The best teaching method is that which is flexible enough to

accomodate the needs of the individual student. The student should be the source of data In planning and implementing instructional strategies.

The majority of foreign language educators recommend full in­ tegration of cultural materials with language materials. Among the lU5 reasons cited are that culture serves as a medium for language practice, adds interest to the class, stimulates conversation and, most of all, enhances language learning.

The various techniques suggested in Chapter IV are divided into two major categories: Inductive and deductive. Although "both strategies have a place in the foreign language teaching process. Most educators agree that more attention should "be given to inductive methods which include inquiry techniques ("both structured and unstructured) discus­ sion techniques, dramatization, and simulation.

Deductive methods, which include expository techniques such as lectures and culture capsules, can "be made more interesting by increasing student involvement, by using audio visual aids to facilitate inter­ pretation and add explanation, and by having both natives and Americans participate in the presentation of lectures.

Evaluation is viewed as an integral part of the teaching-learning loop. A test is significant because of technical qualities such as reliability and validity and because it serves a specific educational purpose and elicits information. Information gained from a test should be used in the modification of both the test and the curriculum.

Examples of performance objectives as well as different types of test items, their appropriateness, advantages and disadvantages were discussed.

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FURTHER RESEARCH

The values discussed in this work are not the only values of the

Arabic culture. Some were chosen because of their sharp differences from American values, and some because of the interest they might stimulate in the student of the Arabic culture to continue his inquiry ihC on his own.

Americans visiting Lebanon will surely notice more norms that are different from their patterns of behavior than those presented here.

No work can include all the life styles of a people. Besides, these norms are constantly changing; some of them might not be valid within ten years. The aim in presenting these norms is to give the reader basic knowledge about the Lebanese culture and a way of looking at cultural differences as differences and not as oddities.

Further scientific research is needed in both the values and the norms of the Arabic culture. Most of the scholarly works on these subjects were written in the fifties and sixties. Because of the poli- tical unrest in the area, the seventies seem to have produced mainly political works. The values and norms need to be updated.

The field of Arabic as a foreign language is almost an unexplored field. There is a great need for quality language materials that integrate cultural materials for use on the college level. There is also a need for inductive materials for teaching culture. Most Arabic language books and materials include very few, if any activities such as dramatizations, simulations, and discussions for developing effective and process skills.

Since the lecture and other expository techniques continue to be used in Arabic language and culture classes, presentation techniques need to be developed. Audio visual programs could be very useful, as well. There is also a need for developing individualized materials such as culture capsules and culture clusters. Although the demand for Arabic courses is low compared to that for some other foreign languages, it is high enough to justify quality programs and materials. These programs and materials generally are not available at this time. The writer hopes that the material pre­ sented here will be helpful in meeting the demand. APPENDIX A

SAMPLE ACTIVITIES

The sample activities below are intended to illustrate how some of the techniques suggested in Chapter IV can be used in teaching the value themes and norms of Chapters II and III. As is always the case, all written activities use Stardard Arabic whereas listening and speaking activities use spoken Arabic. Teachers and students should develop these activities in any way they feel is appropriate.

They are presented as possibilities rather than as one particular way for teaching.

ACTIVITY 1 . Cultural Advance Organizers

Level: All levels since it is given in English.

Advance organizers and other preinstructional techniques such as overviews and pretests have been discussed by Hartly and Davis.’1'

The cultural advance organizer is an expository technique aimed at providing the student with a cenceptual framework that he can use to help him clarify the task ahead of him.

For the following activities, the teacher explains the values

"familism" and "clanishism" without giving away all the information.

Advance Organizer 1 . (based on the value theme "familism")

The most important social grouping in Lebanon is the family.

A person's social status and prestige are, to some extent, defined

1U8 by his family. The expectations of the family play and important role in shaping the individual's behavior. In return for one's loyalty and subordination, one gets emotional and economic support and security.

Episode 1 .

Nadia was 22 years old when she graduated from college. Her brother Samir was still a student at the university. She found a teaching job that paid well. At the end of her first year of teach­ ing ? her father had to quit working because of health reasons. The family had some other sources of income but they were not enough to pay for Samir's tuition at the university. So Nadia asumed respon­ sibility and paid for her brother's tuition until he graduated from law school.

Teacher directs the discussion by posing the following questions

1. Do you think Nadia did the right thing? Why? Why not?

2. Knowing that Nadia is Lebanese, do you think she had any

choice but to do what she did?

3. If Nadia were American, do you think she would have done

the same thing? Explain.

What are the positive and negative effects on Samir? Explain

5- Let us define the values "familism" and "individualism".

List advantages and disadvantages of each. Can you adopt

both values or are they mutually exclusive?

Advance Organizer 2.

The village is a community of social control that has a great deal of influence on the villager's lives and their way of thinking.

Members of a village subordinate their interests to the interests of 150 the larger group. In return for this subordination, they get the sup­ port and care of the villagers when they need it.

Episode 2 .

Rola lives with her family in a village. On Saturday evening she goes out with her boyfriend who comes from the same village, and who attends the university with her. Rola's parents approve of her dating. After their date, Rola's boyfriend drops her off at the uni­ versity dorm where she spends the night. Her boyfriend goes home to the village. Rola goes home to the village Sunday morning. The

Saturdays when Rola cannot stay at the dorm because it is full, she cancels her date and goes home early.

The teacher directs the discussion by posing the following

questions:

1. Why do you think Rola doesn't go home after her date

although she goes home every day after school?

2. Why do you think her boyfriend goes back to the village

at night and she doesn't?

3. How do you feel about different standards for men and

women?

“ar ~Since Rola's parents approve of dating why doesn't she

return home?

5 - Do you think it is better to conform to the village norms

or to defy them?

6 . Can progress and change come about if people conform all

the time? 151 ACTIVITY 2. Proverbs

Level: Advanced.

Instructions: The following proverbs are also on tape. Listen

to each one read twice. Try to relate each pro­

verb you read and/or hear to a value theme you

already know about the Arabic culture.

Arabic Proverb English Equivalent

1. zzaar ?abl iddaar Choose your neighbor before

Theme:______you choose your home.

2. zawaan baladak wa la 'amh ssaliibi The chaf of your country is

Theme:______better than the Crusader’s wheat.

3. ?idd lfaadi mizwiyyi The empty hand is filthy.

Theme:______

' al ' ilmu nuurun Education is light.

Theme:______(versus darkness )

5 - addunia umm The whole world is a mother.

Theme:______

6. zaarak l?ariib wala xajtyak lb'iid Your neighbor who is near you

Theme:______is better than your brother who is far from you.

7. man 'allamani harfan sirtu lahu I'll be a slave to he who 'abdan teaches me a word.

Theme:______

8. li nnafsi fii ?awtaaniha hurmatun The individual's dignity is lost

tadii'u fii gayri ?awtaaniha outside his own country.

Theme: 152

9. kaada lmu'allimu ?an yakuuna rasuula The teacher is almost a mes­

Theme:______senger of God.

10. utlub l'ilma min lmahd ila lahd Seek education from the crib

Theme:______to the grave.

ACTIVITY 3. Dramatization

Level: Beginners.

The following dialogue incorporates language with cultural infor­ mation. The language objective of the dialogue is to teach the dual form.

The cultural information will be stressed in the discussion that follows the dramatization. Three students will be asked to act out the fol­ lowing dialogue: two boys and a girl.

bi mat am lubnaani

"in a Lebanese Restaurant" xaliil: min fadlak badna gada la ttnayn If you please, we would like

to have dinner for two. lgarson: (the waiter) tikram, suu At your service, what would

bitriid you like to have? layla: ?ana baddi kibbeh wtabbuleh I want kibbeh, tabulleh, and

w xubz bread. xaliil: ?ana baddi lahm miswi w I want grilled meat and salad.

salata layla: ma tinsa, kibbaytayn mayy. Don't forget, two glasses of

water. lgarson: suu bitriidu tisrabu What would you like to drink? xaliil: arak, kaasayn min fadlak Arak, two small glasses if

you please. 153 lgarson: hayda lgada Here is your lunch. xaliil: min fadlak baddi 'ilbtayn Can I have two packs of swagiir cigarettes, please? lgarson: tikram (goes away then At your service. comes back.) tfaddal, hawdi 1ilbtayn Here are two packets of ciga­ wkabriittayn rettes and two match books. xaliil: sukran Thank you. lgarson: bitriidu tihlaayi Would you like to have desserts layla: ?ana baddi tiffaha min fadlak I want an apple, if you please. xaliil: ?ana baddi taffahtayn min fadlak I want two apples, if you please. lgarson: (brings the fruit) xaliil: lihsaab min fadlak The check please. lgarson: (brings the check) xaliil: (pays and leaves the restaurant with layla)

Questions for class discussion

1. Why do you think the Lebanese use a French word for waiter and not an

Arabic word?

2. Judging from the dishes ordered, at what time do you think the Leba­

nese eat their big meal?

3. When do Americans eat their big meal? How is this different from the

Lebanese way? Which is better in your opinion? What are the advan­

tages and disadvantages of each way?

1|. When do you think the Lebanese drink their domestic drink, before,

after, or with their meal? What do you think of their way? 15^

5. What kind of dessert do the Lebanese usually have? Can you compare

this with the American dessert? Which way is better?

ACTIVITY h. Culture Assimilator

TIME

Fred came to Lebanon to spend the summer with his Lebanese class­ mate Ramzi. Ramzi spends the summer with his family in their summer resort village in the mountains. Two weeks before Fred intended to leave for the United States, he went to buy some Middle Eastern gifts for his friends in the United States. Ramzi took him to a store that sells custom-made silver jewelry in the village. As the store didn't have all the items Fred wanted, the storekeeper promised to have them ready in

10 days. When Fred returned for his gifts at the appointed time, the store keeper was not there; his son was in the store but knew nothing about the gifts. Fred went out, did some chores then came back to the store in the afternoon to find out that the gifts were not ready be­ cause the silversmith had many other orders and could not have this one ready. The storekeeper told Fred that they would definitely be ready the next afternoon at 3:00 p.m. Since Fred had very little time and no other choice, he agreed to come the next day. Fred returned the next day at 3:00 p.m. When the storekeeper saw him, he sent one of the employees to the silversmith's to bring the gifts. The process of bringing the gifts to the store and wrapping them took one whole hour. While Fred was sitting annoyed at all this, the storekeeper tried to cheer him up and brought him a cup of coffee.

Which alternative best describes the reason for the store­ keeper's behavior in the above episode. 1. The storekeeper was deliberately delaying the gifts because he wasn't

sure that the American tourist was going to pay.

2. The Lebanese are inconsiderate.

3. The Lebanese have very little feel for the passage of time.

k. The storekeeper felt that the more times the tourist came into the

store, the more likely it was he would buy other things.

You chose 1. This choice is not consistent with the hospitality and

friendly attitude of the Lebanese. Reread the episode and make

another choice.

You chose 2. This may seem to be an inconsiderate act, but keeping in

mind what you have already studied about the hospitality of the

Lebanese, you know that they would not be consciously inconsiderate.

Make another choice.

You chose 3. This is the right alternative. The incident described

in the above passage does occur many times in Lebanon and more so in

the villages than in Beirut. By American standards, the Lebanese

are unreliable, but that is not how the Lebanese villager thinks of

himself. Time to him is not a commodity and he cannot understand

why it should be so to somebody else. He works when he feels like

it and does not like to be pushed. This is, by and large, a general

characteristic of Lebanese village life.

You chose H. This is more likely to be the account of an isolated in­

cident. Culture assimilators are not concerned with isolated inci­

dents, however. While this might be the attitude of one or more in­

dividuals, it does not reflect the attitude of the Lebanese in general.

Make another choice. 156 ACTIVITY 5• Matching which includes cultural information based on the

theme thaqafa

Level: Intermediate

Construct sentences expressing your likes and dislikes by com­ bining items from each column.

l—rpj.-'J I I !>s 1

A U ' j x '! ! £ La_to

q -j j J !

j s J I J ! £ l*-co I i

J j s CU 0* l_U>. I

Q cy Ll Uull5*

(jj Li>_J 1

J ...-I 3.U0

J 1Li5*

Q rtr>Jujj I (jOMOaJ I

ACTIVITY 6 . Either/or questions based on the cultural information in

Chapter III.

Level: Intermediate

Repeat the following question patterns, then write an answer to each question in the spaces provided.

- Y

— - .1 I. ? L ^ \{jO LJ L lilLaC ^jJ ! i_l& Aj‘ I V

9 ^ J ,.|UI (j* <—>^3 cuj I Jjs> T 157

| - I 1

? i^ fp j I c 3 Q.hJ I jsl I Oj^aJ I {Jmm^ £ b 0

*5 ~ *^-LicJ I jj| O—^lJ | ft-.. - 1^*1 | JLv£> 7

. —_~ ! j> I i_2>— I i_jj.;j£> 14 Y

— ? J_JMsJ! jsl la j j LiJ I J^aaj I A

"^Hartley and Davis, "Preinstructional Strategies." Review of Education Research, Ho (Spring, 1976) pp. 239-65 APPENDIX B

ILLUSTRATIONS

Figure 1.

shawarma

158 ' "4r,vjS

Figure 2 .

maaza 160

Figure 3.

Arabic Bread i6i

Arabic coffee 162

Figure 5.

argilah {■ sirwal kaffiya 165

GO

Figure. 8 . Blank map of the Arab countries Figure 9- Resources map of the Arab countries Dates uvj Cotton 167

JUANOUL L)U HUAfU:

£1 *4 a r x v - '"? ' ’.. I; K ■. *»' fl -C f 1 ■» I1 -I/* - ; | ccMruvn>

'fe-^pSMjDANQUL DU LI I.XII

W r r" . I I ' - I

V I till <\CC 1A ,W > i

Figure 10. Lebanese monetary system 168

■•cy i awv ^ ^ 1■^■y ^ * ^j^r^sggr

kibbeh APPENDIX C

QUESTIONNAIRE ON LEBANESE NORMS

The purpose of this questionnaire is to gather information about aspects of the Lebanese culture that are potentially difficult for Ame­ ricans to understand. All items are based on norms that are thought to be different from American norms.

The items in this questionnaire do not necessarily reflect the opinion of the writer; actually some items reflect the opposite opinion.

You are kindly requested to check the slot that represents your opinion best.

It is hoped that the information you provide will shed some light on areas that could cause some misunderstanding for Americans visiting Lebanon.

1. Native Country______

2. Native Language______

3. Other Languages______

H. Length of time spent in Lebanon______

Age______

Sex______

Occupation______

169 > o r a 0) >2 (U EVERY DAY LIFE r—| rH 0) b0 0) Jh bO !h a !h 0) -P bO a M o bO (D •- cd O cti in cd a CO M -P bO O • H -P -H cd Td ' m •x)

1. Related people live near each other.

2. The Lebanese visit each other at a specific time of day 3. The Lebanese expect their friends to visit them when a member of the family: a. is ill

b. is newly married

c. has come back from a long trip

d. has a new-born child

U. Visitors always call in advance.

5. Are there other occasions when visits are expected? ______

6 . What else should Americans know about everyday life? ______

RELATIONS BETWEEN THE SEXES 7. Dating is not widely accepted.

8 . Only University students date.

9. Strict expectations of chastity apply only to girls, not to boys.

10. Couples are seen hugging and kissing in the street. 11. What else should Americans know about relations between the sexes?

FAMILY LIFE

12. The father is the most respected and feared member of the family

13. The Lebanese prefer having boys rather than girls. 171

o >5 Jh > 0) rH (L) 1— 1 (!) W

15. Brothers often take their sisters out.

16 . When the Lebanese child reaches legal age,he continues to be under the surveillance of his/her parents.

17- Sisters take care of their brothers in the home.

18 . Lebanese men do a lot of housework.

19. What else should Americans know about family life in the Lebanese society?

EATING, DRINKING, SMOKING

20. Eating with both hands on the table is considered good table manners.

21. The Lebanese express their hospitality by urging their guests to overeat.

22. Asking the waiter to take home what one has not eaten in a restaurant is looked upon with disfavor.

23. The Lebanese eat more bread than the Americans do.

2k. When food is eaten with bread the Le­ banese use their hands instead of the fork.

25. What else should Americans know about the eating habits of the Lebanese. 172

> 0 CD !>} a > 0 r—] CJ H 0

29. Some women avoid drinking and smoking in public. 30. Women smoke less than men do.

31. What else should Americans know about smoking and drinking in the Lebanese society?______

VERBAL AND NON-VERBAL COMMUNICATION

32. Dignitaries are addressed using 'you plural' forms. 33. The first name is never used in addressing an older person. 3^. Kinship terms are used in informal and friendly relationships. 35- Even now some Lebanese carry titles such as "prince", "pasha", "sheikh", "beyk", etc. 36. Members of the same sex embrace and kiss. 37. Normally, men greet women with a handshake only. 38. Men greet women with a kiss only when they are related. 39- The Lebanese gesture during speech more than the Americans do. bO. Do you know any gestures that are likely not to be understood by Americans? 173

> O G > b Q b Q O •H -P • H W cd cd nd cn nd Ul. It is inappropriate for male visitors to visit when men are not at home.

k2. When visitors enter the living room, women stand up to greet them.

U3. The seat farthest from the door in the living room is considered the seat of honor.

What else do Americans need to know about manners?

i-l-5. Lebanese women wear shorts outdoors.

b6. Women wear hair rollers in public.

p . Bathing suits are restricted to beaches.

U8 . Lebanese women dress more modestly than American women do.

k9. What else should the Americans know about the Lebanese way of dressing?

TIME

50. Formal occasions last longer than they do in America. 17 U

is o >5 G a)

TRAVEL

53. The Lebanese cross the street against trafic lights.

5^. The Lebanese stand in line as they get on the bus.

55- Drivers drive much faster than drivers do in the U.S.

Comments:

Thank you for your patience and cooperation. BIBLIOGRAPHY

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