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2019 Giving priority to gender mainstreaming in Development Activities: Education as a challenge for Gender Mainstreaming in the Local Government Authorities (LGAs), Tanzania, a case of Dodoma city and Mpwapwa district councils
Mujwahuzi, Leonce
The University of Dodoma
Mujwahuzi, L. & Faustin, S. (2019). Giving priority to gender mainstreaming in Development Activities: Education as a challenge for Gender Mainstreaming in the Local Government Authorities (LGAs), Tanzania, a case of Dodoma city and Mpwapwa district councils. In the proceeding of the 1st International Conference on Innovative Education and Policy Reforms for Industrial Economy in Africa (ICIEPRIEA), (pp 337-351). The University of Dodoma, Tanzania. http://hdl.handle.net/20.500.12661/2627 Downloaded from UDOM Institutional Repository at The University of Dodoma, an open access institutional repository. Conference Proceedings: The 1st International Conference on Innovative Education and Policy Reforms for Industrial Economy in Africa
Giving Priority to Gender Mainstreaming in Development Activities: Education as a challenge for Gender Mainstreaming in the Local Government Authorities (LGAs), Tanzania, A case of Dodoma City and Mpwapwa District Councils
Leonce Mujwahuzi University of Dodoma, Tanzania College of Humanities and Social Sciences [email protected]
Stella Faustin University of Dodoma, Tanzania. College of Humanities and Social Sciences
Abstract The continual need for gender equality in many development dimensions has been the global agenda since the time immemorial. Likewise, addressing this inequality has been also the global agenda so as to reduce the gap existing between both men and women girls and boys. The efforts employed to reduce the gender gap have been termed as gender mainstreaming. Among many challenges encountered in mainstreaming gender is the lack of education or low level of education. Upon considering the importance of education in many development initiatives, we would like to examine how far the lack or low level of education has been perceived as the challenge in eliminating gender inequality in the Local Government Authorities (LGAs). Our main argument rests in the fact that despite the fact of employing many initiatives, still gender inequality exists in LGAs. It is assumed that the persistence of this inequality may have underplaying challenges one of them being education. This paper, therefore, intends to assess education as a challenge in dealing with gender mainstreaming matters. A cross-sectional research design was employed using 358 respondents. The findings by this study show that majority (67.4%) of male respondents identified low level of education as a major challenge to the Gender Mainstreaming Strategies (GMSs). The phenomenon was seen in the study area such that few respondents had university education. It is, therefore, recommended that higher education should be reconsidered and used as a tool for Gender Mainstreaming (GM). It was, further, found that very little attention is given to implement gender mainstreaming strategies. Likewise, the same low level of education has been seen accelerating 337
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the lack of gender specialists at different levels of LGAs. The significant relationship between educational level and educational challenge encountered by the officials was noticed. Dodoma City Council (DCC) and Mpwapwa District Council (MDC) officials face educational challenges in the same way with slight difference due to locality and socio-economic development difference. It was recommended that gender sensitive training should be given priority by LGAs planners because it can help to combat other challenges. GM trainers should use a medium of communication which is understood by the majority of participants during training sessions. LGAs should ask the employing body of the government to employ gender specialists in different levels of LGAs. Gender specialist and community development officers should consider education of officials when mainstreaming gender. Lastly, the means of combating challenges encountered by officials should be done by policy makers and other gender stakeholders with respect to Mpwapwa District Council and Dodoma City Council basing on their differences in locality and social development.
Keywords: Levels of Gender Mainstreaming, Gender equality, Education
1.0 Introduction During the 1990s, a discourse of inequality has come to displace discourses of equal opportunity in the public and private sectors of many Western democracies, as well as in all educational sectors (Bacchi, 2000). Recent educational reform discourses argue that schools, teachers and educational leaders should be responsive to not only cultural, racial and religious aspects but also gender. This of course calls up diversity in the mentioned dimensions as well as gender. The sexual diversity within the population in the community is very instrumental in the development of any country. The process of enhancing this sexual diversity with the population is technically defined by (World Bank, 2005) as the process of incorporating a gender perspective into organizational policies, strategies, and administrative functions, as well as into the institutional culture of an organization. This is what is operationalized by this paper as Gender Mainstreaming (GM). Consequently, this paper has used LGAs as one of the government institution which can be instrumental in mainstreaming gender, the central aim being Gender Equality (GE).
The process of gender mainstreaming offers an opportunity to thoroughly examine all aspects of an organization through a gender lens, enhance the organization‘s 338
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work from the inside and out, and gauge how well that organization follows its own principles on gender (Gilles, 2015). The process of giving priority for mainstreaming gender in any country is both a technical and a political process as substantiated by (Katharina, 2000) requiring changes in the cultures, values and practices of organizations for the purpose of confronting gender inequality. Because of this technicality, the process is likely to be hindered by various challenges, low level of education being one of them.
African governments and various organizations including Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs) have also adopted the language of gender mainstreaming; hence some authors have wrote alot in GM and difficulties in operationalizing the same such as (Moser and Moser, 2003) who quoted (Oxfam, 2003) that organizational culture is a constraint to successful GM by international NGOs and their developing country partners. Razvi (1997) wrote on policy challenge in GMSs implementation and came up with the conclusion that since gender policy is generally formulated within a particular organizational context, with specific pressures, mandate and ideology, the gender policy and the organizational mandate need to fit
In the context of Tanzania, gender mainstreaming is achieved through Gender Mainstreaming Strategies (GMSs) which is actually viewed as a response to the worldly inequality such as that shown by Tanzania National Bureau of Statistics that men spend a total of 5% of their day on unpaid care work, (less than an hour and a half), compared to 14% for females (three hours and a half per day). This means, women do more than ¾ of the unpaid work and 45% of the paid work in general. This has some implication on women‘s economic power in relation to men (URT, 2008).
It is undeniable fact that, in view of the above literatures, there are many studies which have dealt with gender mainstreaming in education sectors such as Blackmore (2006). But these studies are mostly looking mainstreaming gender in education while others are looking on gender inequality in education as a challenge to development. These studies are silent on the low level of education as a challenge towards gender mainstreaming for gender equality. They are as well silent on whether or not giving priority to the same may also be a challenge.
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2.0 Methodology The study Area The study was done in Dodoma City Council (DCC) and Mpwapwa District Council (MDC), Tanzania. Dodoma City Council is the area where Tanzania‘s National assembly is housed hence much of the policies, programs as well as strategies including gender mainstreaming strategies are being discussed. Furthermore, it is in Dodoma City Council where the headquarters for Local Government Authorities (LGAs) are located. Mpwapwa district council and its villages were investigated so as to capture challenges encountered by GMs implementers at the grassroots level in the same region.
Research Design and Methods of Data Collection This study employed two research designs which are descriptive and explanatory designs with a cross sectional research design dimension whereby both primary and secondary data were collected. The research approach used was fully mixed concurrent dominant (quantitative) status approach. A fully mixed concurrent dominant status approach involves conducting a study that mixes qualitative and quantitative research within a single research study. In this chosen approach, the quantitative and qualitative approaches were mixed concurrently with the dominance of quantitative approach. The unit of analysis was given a general name as ―government officials and leaders‖ in the selected departments namely education, health, agriculture and cooperatives, community development and water as well as Village Development Committees (VDCs). Furthermore, at the village level, village leaders and officials were also involved as unit of analysis. The study sample was obtained by using sample Size formula by Yamane, 1967 cited by Israel (2013. Ward Executive officers, Village Executive Officers, Human Resource Officers and District Executive Officers were involved as key informants of the study. Three main methods were used to collect data from the districts as well as village level namely survey, interviews and documentary review. The quantitative data were collected from the main sample of 358 officials using questionnaires, Qualitative data were collected from key informants using interview guides while the data from the documents were collected using documentary review checklist as the data collection tool. The used sample size was 358. Both purposive and simple random sampling were used at Dodoma City Council and district levels where by 58 questionnaires were administered to 58 respondents (government officials under selected departments) while 300 respondents were selected from villages in Mpwapwa District Council. 340
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Data Analysis Qualitative data were analyzed by using content analysis in which data were put into small themes and summarized to complement important information in accordance with the study objectives. The quantitative data were analyzed basing on descriptive statistics including frequencies and percentages and cross- tabulations using IBM Statistical Package for Social Science (SPSS) version 23 and Microsoft excel 2010. Lastly, an independent samples t-test was conducted to compare the educational challenges encountered by LGAs official‘s scores for DCC and MDC so as to test the hypothesis that educational challenges encountered by Local Government officials in mainstreaming gender are the same in both Mpwapwa District Council and Dodoma City Council. This was complemented by some qualitative analysis from the key informants and documentary review.
3.0 Results and Discussions Demographic and Socio-economic Characteristics of the Respondents Sex of the Respondents Sex of respondents was taken as an important aspect in this paper due to various reasons. First, the paper itself is gender centered hence, it becomes relevent to have gender desaggregated data. Second, the sex of respondents becomes crutial so as to know the difference as far as attitude is concerned. The results of the study revealed that majority (61.5%) of the respondents were males and 38.5% were females. This is due to the fact that, in many areas, women are not trusred for leadership due partriarch tendencies which are still dominant in most African societies. This fact is more relevant in rural areas than it is in urban areas. Employment is most of time not gender sensitive despite the fact that many women have such traits of being leaders but fail to compete in employment because of the same male dominant system. This is in line with (Linda Wilson et al. (2010) who discovered that the number of women in all workforces has increased over the last decade because of affirmative action programs, self-fulfillment and accessibility. Although there is a significant growth of women in the educational profession, the growth is not indicated in the increase of women in senior level leadership positions. Regardless of the growth, women still must learn to function in a male dominated leadership culture, and it becomes difficult for many women to break through and succeed against the glass ceiling.
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Marital Status of the respondents In this paper the marital status was assumed as the state of a respondent being single, married, Widowed, Divorced, cohabiting and Separated. The results on marital status revealed that 67.0% of the respondents were married. The remaining percent belong to either single, cohabiting, divorced or widowed. Some key informants especially at the village level were of the opinion that marital status has been seen as a challenge in implementing GMSs. This is witnessed by one of the key informant in Matomondo Ward that:
“The local government election is done, and more specifically when composing ward and village development committees, people have bias in preferring the married leaders in comparison with unmarried ones.”
This bias is also opposed by the other committee member from Mazae village, who was blaming the married couples of not working efficiently on village administrative activities because of the family chores that:
“In our village patriarchy tendencies are still strong. So, when a woman is assigned a task to do, it is not accomplished efficiently, and some time it has to be done by men in the committee because most of time married women are overwhelmed and tied by family chores”
This fact is further substantiated by Breen & Cooke (2005) and Hook (2010) that in many cultures housework is still mostly a ―woman‘s thing,‖ and this prohibit most women from performing many administrative and leadership duties at their work place such as in LGAs where GMSs are implemented.
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Table 1. Demographic Characteristics of the Respondents (n=358) Frequency Percent Sex Male 220 61.5 Female 138 38.5 Total 358 100.0 Marital status Single 57 15.9 Married 240 67.0 Divorced 16 4.5 Widow 31 8.7 Separate 14 3.9 Total 358 100.0 Level of education Sex Primary education completed Male 157 71.3 Female 88 63.8 Primary education not Male 9 4 Completed Female 10 7.2 Secondary education Male 32 14.5 completed Female 26 18.8 College Male 15 6.8 Female 13 9.4 University education Male 5 2.3 Female 1 0.7 other specify Male 2 0.9 Female 0 0 Total 358 100.0
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4.0 Education Challenges Encountered in Mainstreaming Gender in Dodoma City Council and Mpwapwa District Council The Educational Level of the respondents Since the surveyed respondents were all leaders and officials, the paper pre- determined that at least all of them had a formal education, this was of course the case as the results revealed that the educatioan of respondents ranged from primary education to university education. Thus, the majority of male respondents (71.3%) had underwent primary education before holding the positions they had while 63.8% of female respondents (less than of males) had primary education as their highest level of education. This disaggreagated data for primary education of respondents is in line with Tanzania Human Development Report (2000) which shows that the gap of education between men and women for primary level has been corrected. Education has been taken as an important component as it provides a respondent with knowledge about the world; makes him/her understand himself/herself, enables one develop opinions and point of view. Katharina (2000) insists on the same about education that it affects the life of individuals. Their participation in economic activities, and overall economic development in various ways. Since a person without basic literacy and numeracy skills is in a difficult situation to master everyday life, the lack of basic education has always been accepted as one of the major components of any multidimensional concept of poverty. Moreover, education is strongly linked to the notion of empowerment.
Access to education In everyday life people are always surrounded by beliefs and information which in long run are responsible for constituting one‘s attitude. These beliefs, experiences and information and sometimes ideas have to be changed into knowledge by the crucial catalyst technically called education. It is education which makes a person comprehend the phenomena and influence the future. Basic education for this study was assumed to be a primary education. There was again a primary education which did not reach its completion. There was secondary education, college education as well as university education. If we have to group this education into two categories, we may have lower education and higher education. The findings in this paper show that majority of male respondents (67.4%) identified access to education as a major challenge to GMSs. This phenomenon is, further, witnessed in figure 1 whereby in the higher education such as university, there is a very small number of female respondents than male ones. This is a big challenge for women in bringing about gender mainstreaming at their working 344
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place. It is repeatedly substantiated by international communities such as the World Bank (2005), The Africa Commission (2005) and UNESCO (1998) that higher education is a central site for facilitating the skills, knowledge and expertise that are essential to economic and social development in low-income countries. Consequently, both male and female Local government officials and leaders noted that there is a general lack of qualified women available for the positions offered by the government as a result of women‘s low educational attainments. This finding supports earlier studies that point to the limited representation of women in formal employment and in senior positions within LGAs as a result of their lack of access to higher education (Parpart and Staudt, 1989)
Fig.1 Access to Education
Gender Mainstreaming Challenges and Level of education Apart from low educational level being identified as a challenge for mainstreaming gender, there were other challenges which were identified in the study area which were then compared with respondents‘ educational level. The results revealed that officials with low level of education faced more challenges than with those with high level of education. For instance, in finding whether or not giving priority to gender mainstreaming in development activities is needed, it was seen that this was a challenge among officials with primary education by 85.7% compared to those with university education which is only 25%. Consequently, mainstreaming gender is a strategy which can be implemented in the society, but it sometimes needs a
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certain level of education so as to enhance the desired outcome. For this, one of a male key informant from Chunyu Village was quoted saying:
“I am faced by low level of education as a challenge. Sometimes, if there is a workshop at the city council, facilitators use English and a little bit Kiswahili as a medium for communication, and I am chosen to go and represent the village. I always come back with nothing to educate my fellow committee members or villagers. Even when I am in the meeting, I always become passive as I have no confidence of asking questions. The case is different for my fellow who has at least attained secondary education.”
The importance of education in mainstreaming gender is further supported by Herz and Sperling (2004) that there is a critical need to create social consensus about the importance of education in mainstreaming gender. There is a deep fear of the potential for change in gender relations in favor of greater equality between the sexes, which is likely to be generated as a result of more female participation in public life, from school, community to state. Such social consensus is often developed through listing narrowly defined economic and social benefits, rather than emphasizing broader individual freedom outcomes.
It is, further, justified by the Chi-Square test that there is a significant relationship between one‘s level of education and some challenges encountered in implementing GMSs. These challenges are statistically significant at (p =0.05) or less as indicated in Table 2. For instance, culture which was earlier noted as a challenge towards mainstreaming gender was seen to have a significant relationship with education by (p=0.02). Culture is said to shape an individual since the early age of his/her existence. The early gender bias experiences that children encounter can shape their attitudes and beliefs related to their development of interpersonal and intrapersonal relationships, hence culture becomes determinant. However, access to education at different levels may act as instrumental towards gender mainstreaming positively or negatively as a challenge. It is this education which makes a person access mainstreaming education, participate in corporate work, and stifle their physical and psychological well being (Hendrix & Wei, 2009).
One of the key informants in Dodoma District Council who was also a woman, when asked why there was scarcity of female leaders and elected officials in 346
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LGAs, she contended that: “It is not the fact that women are uninterested, unwilling, or uncertain. It is the male centered political system which is unresponsive and impenetrable by women. This can only be uprooted by educating men on the importance of women leadership and gender mainstreaming” Hence, here we see the fact that patriarchy system is a challenge that can be uprooted by education.
Table 2: Pearson Chi-Square test Gender Mainstreaming Challenges VS Level of education p Whether reproductive role is a challenge in accessing decent jobs 0.000 Culture interfere GMSs 0.02 Not giving priority to gender mainstreaming in development 0.000 activities fund allocation for gender mainstreaming activities 0.051 Husbands are justified to prevent women/wives from engaging in 0.040 GM activities such as engaging in politics Women are not involved in politics and men cannot vote and 0.001 encourage them for leadership Having insufficient knowledge on GMSs 0.000 Patriarchy 0.019 Age Culture interferes GMSs 0.000 Women are not involved in politics and men cannot vote and 0.023 encourage them for leadership Having insufficient knowledge on GMSs 0.01 Patriarchy tendencencies 0.000 Sex segregation in accessing education between girls and boys. 0.047 Gender roles 0.000
The Educational Challenges encountered by LGAs official with respect to DCC and MDC Upon comparing the groups using the independent samples t-test between Dodoma City Council and Mpwapwa District Council, the Significance value (2-tailed) was found to be 0.685. Statistically, since, this value is above the required cut-off Significance value of 0.05, consequently, there was no statistical significant difference in the means of educational challenges scores for Dodoma City Council and Mpwapwa District Council. The Means difference between the two groups is 347
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also shown in Table 2 along with the 95 % Confidence interval of the difference, showing the lower value and the upper value. Despite the fact that the independent sample t-test showed the insignificant difference between educational level challenges faced by both Dodoma City Council and Mpwapwa District Council, yet some key informants and group discussants were able to show the difference. One of the key informants in Dodoma City Council affirmed the rise of community awareness on gender related matters and reduced challenges for mainstreaming gender. When interviewed, one of the key informant had this to say:
“When I was employed here three years back, people were not aware of gender issues. But, nowadays, there is certain sensitivity of gender issues, especially in terms of the representation of women, and the good thing is even men are nowadays supporting their wives in various activities such as child caring; encouraging them to participate in politics and leadership. From this point of view, I can say that even the patriarchy system which has been a challenge in mainstreaming gender for a long time. It is now slowly uprooted. This has helped much (we) leaders make the implementation of mainstreaming strategies possible than before”.
The above quotation may be due to different localities between Dodoma City Council and Mpwapwa districts. Dodoma is a more developed district in terms social services such as electric power. The access of some services such as internet services is easier that it is in Mpwapwa district which many of its parts are rural areas. That being the case, the challenges found in Mpwapwa and Dodoma City Councils are likely to be different. The situation was different in Mpwapwa District when one of the female group discussant in Ng‘ambi Village who was 65 years old asserted that:
―Yes, tradition has a tremendous impact on the situation of Dodoma women and more specifically Mpwapwa District. A woman is always regarded as inferior, in the background and once she is outspoken, then she will be labeled of all kinds of names such as “women‟s talk”. The mainstreaming process is becoming difficult because of entrenched traditional beliefs and norms. Our traditional notion here is that men are heads of household, and this notion is working through every sphere of our life including politics and leadership. Under this terrible situation, men do not vote for us to become leaders, and even if one woman succeeds to penetrate and become a leader, the chances for her to air out her voice are still minimal.” 348
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Because of the above situation then two important things are noted. One, since Mpwapwa is a remote area in comparison with Dodoma City Council, then the awareness for gender mainstreaming may also be minimal, because most campaigns for gender issues awareness are mostly available in urban than rural areas. Second, the social service development in Mpwapwa district does not favour the one to educate themselves on issues related to gender matters. Third, since Dodoma is not operating in isolation, then traditions are becoming strong as we move from the urban towards the rural areas as the results of modernization as substantiated by Ingelhart and Norris, (2003) that that modernization operates in two key phases; the first phase, industrialization, brings women into paid work and dramatically reduces fertility rates. The second phase, post-industrialization, implies a shift toward greater gender equality as women rise in management and the professions, and gain political influence within elected and appointed bodies. Hence, since Dodoma City Council and Mpwapwa District Council have different levels of modernization, consequently, mainstreaming strategies aiming at acquiring equality for both men and women become different.
Table 2: Independent Samples Test for Challenges (DCC and MDC)
Levene's Test for Equality of Variances t-test for Equality of Means 95% Sig. Confidence (2- Mean Std. Error Interval F Sig. t Df tailed) Difference Difference Lower Upper Equal variances .164 .685 -1.567 356 .118 -.38321 .24448 -.86402 .09760 assumed Challenges‘ Equal total Scores variances -1.506 86.951 .136 -.38321 .25451 -.88909 .12266 not assumed Source: Field Data
Conclusion and Recommendations Basing on the empirical findings, it was concluded that very little attention is given to implement gender mainstreaming strategies. Low level of education was found to be a challenge in implementing GMSs. This was seen when even little trainings which were offered were in Kiswahili, a language which was not understandable to 349
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many participants especially in the village development committees. Because of the same low level of education, this accelerated the lack of gender specialists at different levels of LGAs. It was generally concluded that there was significant relationship between educational level and challenges encountered by the officials. Lastly, DM and MCC officials face educational challenges in the same way with slight difference due to locality and socio-economic development difference. Therefore, it is recommended that gender sensitive training should first be considered by LGAs planners as a priority because it can help to combat other challenges. Gender mainstreaming trainers should use a medium of communication which is understood by the majority of participants during training sessions. LGAs should ask the employing body of the government to employ gender specialists in different levels of LGAs. Those gender specialists and community development officers should consider education of officials when mainstreaming gender. Lastly, it is recommended that the means of combating challenges encountered by officials should be done by policy makers and other gender stakeholders with respect to Mpwapwa District Council and Dodoma City Council basing on their differences in locality and social development.
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