Vol. 78 Thursday, No. 206 October 24, 2013

Part IV

Department of the Interior

Fish and Wildlife Service 50 CFR Part 17 Endangered and Threatened Wildlife and ; Determination of Endangered Status for Chromolaena frustrata (Cape Sable Thoroughwort), corallicola ( Semaphore ), and Harrisia aboriginum (Aboriginal Prickly-Apple); Final Rule

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DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR species may warrant protection through Previous Federal Actions listing if it is an endangered or Please refer to the proposed listing Fish and Wildlife Service threatened species throughout all or a rule for Chromolaena frustrata, significant portion of its range. Listing a Consolea corallicola, and Harrisia 50 CFR Part 17 species as an endangered or threatened aboriginum (October 11, 2012; 77 FR [Docket No. FWS–ES–R4–2012–0076; species can only be completed by 61836) for a detailed description of issuing a rule. 4500030113] previous Federal actions concerning The Service proposed to designate these species. Consolea corallicola was RIN 1018–AY08 critical habitat for Chromolaena frustrata concurrent with the proposed known as both Opuntia spinosissima Endangered and Threatened Wildlife listing rule and is preparing a final rule and Opuntia corallicola in previous and Plants; Determination of to designate critical habitat for the Federal actions. Endangered Status for Chromolaena that will be published in the near future. Summary of Comments and frustrata (Cape Sable Thoroughwort), We found critical habitat to be not Recommendations Consolea corallicola (Florida prudent in the proposed rule for We requested that the public submit Semaphore Cactus), and Harrisia Consolea corallicola and Harrisia written comments on the proposed aboriginum (Aboriginal Prickly-Apple) aboriginum because of the potential for listing rule for Chromolaena frustrata, an increase in poaching. However, we AGENCY: Fish and Wildlife Service, Consolea corallicola, and Harrisia re-evaluated the prudency Interior. aboriginum during two comment ACTION: Final rule. determination for both cacti based on public comment and the already periods. The first comment period opened with the publication of the SUMMARY: We, the U.S. Fish and available information in the public proposed rule on October 11, 2012, and Wildlife Service (Service), determine domain that indicates where these closed on December 10, 2012 (77 FR endangered status for three plants: species can be found. Consequently, we 61836). Legal notices were published in Chromolaena frustrata (Cape Sable have determined critical habitat is six newspapers for the proposed rule. thoroughwort), Consolea corallicola prudent for both species. We have also The second comment period opened (Florida semaphore cactus), and found that critical habitat is with the publication on July 8, 2013 of Harrisia aboriginum (aboriginal prickly- determinable for both species. We a notice of availability for the draft apple), under the Endangered Species intend to publish a proposed rule economic analysis and reopening of the Act of 1973, as amended. These plants designating critical habitat for both public comment period on the proposed are endemic to South Florida. This final species in the near future.. listing, critical habitat designation, and rule implements the protections The basis for our action. Under the associated draft economic analysis. We provided by the Act for these species. Act, we can determine that a species is an endangered or threatened species accepted public comments through DATES: This rule is effective on August 7, 2013 (78 FR 40669). We also November 25, 2013. based on any of five factors: (A) The present or threatened destruction, contacted appropriate Federal and State ADDRESSES: This final rule is available modification, or curtailment of its agencies, scientific experts and on the Internet at http:// habitat or range; (B) overutilization for organizations, and other interested www.regulations.gov and at http:// commercial, recreational, scientific, or parties and invited them to comment on www.fws.gov/verobeach/. Comments educational purposes; (C) disease or the proposal. We did not receive any and materials we received, as well as predation; (D) the inadequacy of requests for a public hearing. supporting documentation used in existing regulatory mechanisms; or (E) The October 11, 2012, proposed rule preparation of this rule, are available for other natural or manmade factors contained both the proposed listing of public inspection at http:// affecting its continued existence. We these three plants, as well as the www.regulations.gov. All of the have determined that Chromolaena proposed designation of critical habitat comments, materials, and frustrata, Consolea corallicola, and for Chromolaena frustrata. Therefore, documentation that we considered in Harrisia aboriginum meet the definition we received combined comments from this rulemaking are available by of an endangered species based on the public on both actions. However, in appointment, during normal business Factors A, D, and E. Consolea this final rule we will only address hours, at U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, corallicola and H. aboriginum meet the comments that apply to the proposed South Florida Ecological Services definition of endangered species based listing of the three species. Comments Office, 1339 20th Street, Vero Beach, FL on Factors B and C under the Act as on the proposed critical habitat 32960; telephone 772–562–3909; well. designation for Chromolaena frustrata facsimile 772–562–4288. Peer review and public comment. We will be addressed in the final critical FOR FURTHER INFORMATION CONTACT: sought comments from seven habitat rule. Larry Williams, Field Supervisor, U.S. independent specialists to ensure that All substantive information provided Fish and Wildlife Service, South Florida our designation is based on during comment periods has either been Ecological Services Office, 1339 20th scientifically sound data, assumptions, incorporated directly into this final Street, Vero Beach, FL 32960; telephone and analyses. We invited these peer determination or is addressed below. 772–562–3909; facsimile 772–562–4288. reviewers to comment on our listing Persons who use a telecommunications proposal. We received six peer review Peer Reviewer Comments device for the deaf (TDD), may call the responses. The peer reviewers generally In accordance with our peer review Federal Information Relay Service concurred with our methods and policy published on July 1, 1994 (59 FR (FIRS) at 800–877–8339. conclusions, and they provided 34270), we solicited expert opinions SUPPLEMENTARY INFORMATION: additional information, clarifications, from seven knowledgeable individuals and suggestions to improve this final with scientific expertise that included Executive Summary listing rule. We considered all familiarity with at least one of three the Why we need to publish a rule. Under comments and information we received species and its habitat, biological needs, the Endangered Species Act (Act), a during the comment periods. and threats; the geographical region of

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South Florida in which these species Our Response: We acknowledge that (8) Comment: One peer reviewer occur; and conservation biology this synonym has been used for the commented that a permit is not required principles. We received responses from species, and we have updated the from the Florida Division of Agriculture six of the peer reviewers we contacted. section accordingly. and Consumer Services (FDACS) We reviewed all comments for (4) Comment: One peer reviewer Division of Plant Industry for the substantive issues and new information commented that The Nature harvest of plant species listed as regarding Chromolaena frustrata, Conservancy (TNC) purchased land in threatened on the Florida Regulated Consolea corallicola, and Harrisia the to conserve Consolea Plant Index, as indicated in the aboriginum. The peer reviewers corallicola, and that this effort should be proposed listing rule. Instead, only generally concurred with our methods documented in the listing rule. written permission from the landowner and conclusions, and provided Our Response: We agree that TNC is required. A FDACS permit is required additional information, clarifications, purchased the Little Torch Hammock for species listed as endangered by the and suggestions to improve the final Preserve on Little Torch Key to conserve State of Florida. Any species listed listing rule. Peer reviewer comments are Consolea corallicola in 1988. In the under the Endangered Species Act is addressed in the following summary proposed rule, we omitted details automatically listed as endangered by and incorporated into this final rule as regarding the species’ locations because FDACS. appropriate. we had determined that publicizing the Our Response: We have incorporated (1) Comment: One peer reviewer locations may increase poaching of the the correction concerning harvesting of provided clarification of the species species. However, we have since plants and permits in this final rule description and biology of Harrisia determined that location information is under the Factor D discussion, below. aboriginum based on his 2012 already available to the public, and we (9) Comment: One peer reviewer dissertation, which included a revised have now incorporated this information provided a correction as to the number monograph of the genus Harrisia in the Current Range and Factor A of reintroduction sites where planted supported by molecular studies and sections for C. corallicola in this final Consolea corallicola remain. Our Response: We did not include the morphological characteristics. rule. (5) Comment: One peer reviewer plantings at Torchwood Hammock Clarifications included the number of commented that the rule should include Preserve on Key Largo as a spines per cluster toward the base of information regarding the efforts of local reintroduction. Instead, we consider this plants (up to 20), color of flower hairs botanical gardens to conserve a population augmentation, as the (white), length of the flower, timing of Chromolaena frustrata, Consolea planted cacti are on the same site within flower opening (at night), and duration corallicola, and Harrisia aboriginum. 1 km (0.62 mile) of the wild population. of flowers (one night). He also Our Response: We agree and have However, because an additional commented that plants seem to prefer incorporated information on efforts reintroduction was implemented on Key partial shade rather than full sun or undertaken by Fairchild Tropical Largo since the proposed listing rule deep shade. Botanic Garden, Key West Botanical was published, there are now four Our Response: We appreciate the Garden, and Marie Selby Botanical reintroduction sites that continue to information provided for Harrisia Garden. We have also incorporated new support Consolea corallicola. We aboriginum and have updated the information provided by another peer appreciate the information provided and species description and habitat reviewer regarding ex situ conservation have incorporated it into the Current information for H. aboriginum holdings at Fairchild Tropical Botanic Range section for C. corallicola. accordingly. Garden and Key West Botanical Garden (10) Comment: One peer reviewer (2) Comment: One peer reviewer under the Factor E discussion, below. emphasized the threat of hurricane- provided corrections to the past (6) Comment: One peer reviewer induced storm surge events, and taxonomy that has been applied to provided research findings on the seed provided additional information Harrisia aboriginum, adding the longevity and germination rates for regarding storm surge impacts, stating synonym Harrisia gracilis (Mill.) Britton Chromolaena frustrata and Harrisia that Hurricane Wilma in 2005 killed 18 var. aboriginum (Small ex Britton & aboriginum. of 41 Consolea corallicola plants (43.9 Rose) D. B. Ward to the list of previous Our Response: We incorporated this percent) remaining at one names, and clarifying that the synonym new information into the Reproductive reintroduction site. Harrisia donae-antoniae Hooten is an Biology and Genetics section for Our Response: We appreciate the new illegitimate name. His recent Chromolaena frustrata and Harrisia information provided and have monograph of the genus Harrisia aboriginum. incorporated it into the Demographics supports H. aboriginum as a legitimate (7) Comment: One peer reviewer and Factor E sections for Consolea taxon and genetically distinct species provided information regarding corallicola. (Franck 2012, pp. 96, 113). Another peer Cactoblastis control. The U. S. (11) Comment: One peer reviewer reviewer supported H. aboriginum as a Department of Agriculture (USDA) provided new survey data for the distinct species with the same reference Agricultural Research Service’s Center reintroduced population of Consolea noted above. for Medical, Agricultural, and corallicola at Dagny Johnson Key Largo Our Response: We agree the Veterinary Entomology in Tallahassee, Hammock Botanical State Park based on distinctiveness of Harrisia aboriginum Florida, is using containment methods the most recently conducted survey. is clearly supported by the most recent in addition to hand removal, including Our Response: We appreciate the genetic studies, and we appreciate the the use of female sex pheromone wing information provided and have information provided. We have traps and irradiation techniques, to incorporated it into the Current Range included it in the Taxonomy section for control the spread of Cactoblastis section for Consolea corallicola. H. aboriginum. cactorum. (12) Comment: One peer reviewer (3) Comment: One peer reviewer Our Response: We incorporated this clarified the habitats that support provided references that do not use the new information on Cactoblastis Chromolaena frustrata in Everglades name Consolea corallicola and instead cactorum under the Factor C discussion, National Park (ENP). In particular, use Opuntia corallicola. below. rockland hammock does not occur in

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the coastal area of ENP. Instead, the Public Comments final determination of these three plants habitat where C. frustrata occurs should During the first comment period, we as endangered species. (16) Comment: Chromolaena frustrata be classified as coastal hardwood received four comment letters directly still occupies its historical range. The hammock (sensu Rutchey et al. 2006, p. addressing the proposed listing. During Service acknowledges that it knows 21). While similar in overall vegetation the second comment period, we little about the species’ population structure and disturbance regime, received no public comment letters that trends, or even how they reproduce. coastal hardwood hammock differs from addressed the proposed listing. Absent such knowledge, it is unclear rockland hammock in that it develops Comments we received are grouped how the Service found the species to be on elevated marl ridges with a thin layer below into four general issues. of organic matter. The species in decline. composition also differs somewhat from Issue 1: Insufficient Evidence of Our Response: While little is known rockland hammock. The commenter Population Declines about the dynamics or trends of individual C. frustrata populations, also clarified the associated species (15) Comment: One commenter stated entire populations have been extirpated most frequently observed with C. that the Service relied upon insufficient and the species’ historical range is frustrata in buttonwood forest habitat at evidence of threats to Chromolaena reduced. Chromolaena frustrata has ENP. frustrata, Consolea corallicola, and Our Response: The clarification been extirpated from half of the islands Harrisia aboriginum and selectively in the Florida Keys where it once concerning this habitat in ENP has been overlooked uncertainties, data gaps, and incorporated in the Habitat and Current occurred (Bradley and Gann 2004, p. 4). evidence of increases in populations. It no longer occurs on Key Largo, Big Range sections for Chromolaena Our Response: The Act requires that frustrata and throughout this final rule. Pine Key, Fiesta Key, Knight’s Key, or we identify species of wildlife and Key West (Bradley and Gann 2004, pp. (13) Comment: One peer reviewer plants that are endangered or threatened 4–6). Based on this information and commented that he followed up with based on the best scientific and information discussed in our response several of the herbaria identified by commercial data available. Historical to Comment 15, above, we believe there Moldenke (1944, p. 530) as repositories species records, when compared to is sound scientific information from for specimens collected in support of more recent surveys, indicate that these which to conclude that the species’ that publication. Those herbaria were species were previously more abundant range has declined, and continues to unable to locate the C. frustrata and widespread. Repeated surveys over decline, to support our final specimen (Moldenke 5770) that resulted time have demonstrated declining determination that this plant is an in the report of this species from Turner numbers of plants and loss of entire endangered species. River Mound. As a result, the peer populations of all three species based on (17) Comment: In its analysis of reviewer agrees with the decision in the a number of factors. The proposed rule population trends, the Service looked at proposed rule to exclude Turner River contains a detailed evaluation of threats only four populations of Consolea Mound in ENP as part of the historical to all three species, including habitat corallicola. The largest population is distribution of this species. modification and loss to development entirely stable. One population of 9 to Our Response: This is in agreement and sea level rise, and loss of 11 plants was reported to have suffered with our findings. We have incorporated individuals to hurricanes and storm high mortality rates, but the other two this supporting information into the surge. Consolea corallicola and Harrisia populations were declared to be in Historic Range section for Chromolaena aboriginum are also affected by disease, decline without any discussion by the frustrata. predation, and poaching. These threats Service and without providing the Comments From States have caused the loss of individuals and studies that allegedly support that populations, resulting in small, isolated conclusion. The three species only occur in populations and an overall reduction in Our Response: Of the two wild Florida, and we received one comment these species’ ranges. populations of C. corallicola, the largest, from the State of Florida regarding the There is no evidence of population located in , listing proposal. That comment is increase for Chromolaena frustrata, and appears stable over the past decade. addressed below. We note, however, the only population increases known for However, population decline has that two peer reviewers were from State Consolea corallicola and Harrisia occurred in the other wild population, of Florida agencies (FDACS and Florida aboriginum are through clonal located on Little Torch Key, which now Department of Environmental Protection fragmentation. No seedlings of either consists of 9 to 11 adult plants and (FDEP)). Their comments are addressed species have been observed in the wild. hundreds of small juveniles originating above. Chromolaena frustrata and Consolea from fallen pads. While the number of (14) Comment: One commenter from corallicola are extirpated from half of small plants has fluctuated, no new FDACS expressed support for the listing the islands where they occurred in the plants have reached maturity, and the and designation of critical habitat for Florida Keys. The Consolea corallicola number of adult plants in this Chromolaena frustrata, and stated that population on Little Torch Key has population has declined more than 50 their 2010 assessment determined that declined 50 percent, and only the percent over the past 10 years, due to the species is known from five population on Swan Key appears stable. crown rot and damage caused by the populations totaling about 1,000 plants. Harrisia aboriginum is extirpated from Cactoblastis moth and hurricanes Our Response: The Service has more its northernmost range at Tierra Ceia in (Higgins 2007, pers. comm.; Gun 2012, recent data sources (i.e., Duquesnel Manatee County and on Cayo Costa pers. comm.). 2012, pers. comm.; Sadle 2012b, pers. Island in Lee County, and other Experimental plantings of Consolea comm.) that document additional populations have suffered historical corallicola were attempted at several populations and individuals than that losses due to development and sites on State and Federal conservation considered by FDACS. We appreciate poaching. Based on this information and lands in the Florida Keys from 1996 to the commenter’s support of our information provided in our above 2004. These plantings were largely determinations for Chromolaena response, we believe there is sound unsuccessful, with most plants frustrata. scientific information to support our succumbing to Cactoblastis moth

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damage or crown rot. Plants currently Chromolaena frustrata, Consolea (20) Comment: One commenter stated remain at only three of the original sites, corallicola, and Harrisia aboriginum are that the Service should use a timeframe and these have declined to just a few from Factors A, D, and E. Additionally, through at least 2100 to analyze the plants each. Reintroduced plants have the threats contributing to the listing of climate change threats to the plant not attained larger size classes seen at Consolea corallicola and H. aboriginum species. wild sites (Duquesnel 2012, pers. are from Factors B and C. Therefore, we Our Response: In our review of comm.; Stiling 2013, pers. comm.). The have not identified the effects of climate climate change forecasts, models, and lack of success with reintroduction of C. change as the sole threat contributing to analyses, we find that sea level rise corallicola has helped to elucidate the listing of these species. projections through 2100 are the threats, emphasized the importance of As is the case with all stressors that standard in current scientific literature protecting existing natural populations, we assess, even if we conclude that a (IPCC 2007, p. 45; Grinsted et al. 2010, and provided a perspective on the species is currently affected or is likely p. 468; Jevrejeva et al. 2010, p. 4; NRC challenges we will face in recovering to be negatively affected by one or more 2010, p. 2; Pfeffer et al. 2008, p. 1340; this species. Since the proposed rule climate-related impacts, it does not Rahmstorf et al. 2012, p. 3; USACE was published, one additional necessarily follow that the species meets 2011, EC 1165–2–212, p. B–11). population reintroduction was the definition of an endangered species Likewise, the downscaled models for attempted on State land on Key Largo. or a threatened species under the Act. South Florida provide projections out to It is too early to determine whether or However, if a species is listed as 2100 (see Zhang et al. 2011, p. 129; TNC not this reintroduction will be endangered or threatened, knowledge 2011, p. 1). These studies represent the successful. regarding its vulnerability to, and best available science and provide a (18) Comment: The Service has no known or anticipated impacts from, solid basis for applying the 2100 information about Harrisia aboriginum’s climate-associated changes in timeframe to the climate change population trends prior to 2004, and the environmental conditions can be used analyses for these plant species. 2004 information contains surveys of to help devise appropriate strategies for (21) Comment: One commenter stated only 2 of the 12 known populations. its recovery. that the Service should analyze the Significantly, based on the information It is a widely accepted that changes in impacts of sea level rise of up to 2 presented by the Service, it does not climate are occurring worldwide (IPCC meters on the three plants’ habitat look like these populations have been 2007, p. 30). Our analyses under the Act because this falls within the range of re-surveyed since 2004. It seems include consideration of ongoing and likely scenarios. unlikely that reasonably credible trends projected changes in climate. A range of Our Response: In our review of could be established based on a single projections suggests sea level rise is the climate change forecasts, we find that survey. The 10 remaining cited largest climate-driven challenge to low- sea level rise up to 2 m (6.6 ft) is within populations were also only surveyed lying coastal areas of southern Florida, the range of projections for global sea once (in 2007). Still, the Service, including the Florida Keys (U.S. Climate level rise. To accommodate the large without support, declares many of them Change Science Program (CCSP) 2008, uncertainty in sea level rise projections, to be in decline. pp. 5–31, 5–32). All three plants occur it is necessary to estimate effects from Our Response: Trends could be in habitats near sea level in areas of a range of scenarios and projections. In established for 10 of 12 Harrisia south Florida where considerable the proposed rule, we cited a study that aboriginum occurrences based on habitat is projected to be lost to sea level used a range of 18 cm (7 in) to 140 cm repeated surveys of these sites in 1981, rise by 2100 (Saha et al. 2011, p. 81; (4.6 ft) (TNC 2010, p. 1) based on 2004, and 2007 (see Morris and Miller Zhang et al. 2011, p. 129). Prior to projections from IPCC (2007) and 1981; Bradley et al. 2004; Woodmansee inundation, the habitats that support Rahmstorf (2007). Subsequently, the et al. 2007); of these 10 populations, 7 these species are expected to undergo a scientific community has continued to showed declines during this period. transition to salt marshes or model sea level rise. Recent scientific Table 3 in this final rule also provides (Saha et al. 2011, pp. 81–82, 105). literature indicates a movement towards these data and illustrates these declines. Habitats for these species are restricted accelerated sea level rise. Observed sea to relatively immobile geologic features level rise rates are already trending Issue 2: Climate Change separated by large expanses of flooded, along the higher end of the 2007 IPCC (19) Comment: One commenter inhospitable wetland or ocean, leading estimates, and it now widely held that remarked that listing the three proposed us to conclude that these habitats will sea level rise will exceed the levels species as endangered species based on likely not be able to migrate as sea level projected by the IPCC (Rahmstorf et al. climate change is too speculative and, rises (Saha et al. 2011, pp. 103–104). 2012, p. 1; Grinsted et al. 2010, p. 470). therefore, contrary to the Act. Based on our analysis of threats, we Taken together, these studies support Our Response: Under section 4(a)(1) have determined that all three species the use of higher end estimates now of the Act, we may list a species based are now, or will be, affected by multiple prevalent in the scientific literature. on any of the following five factors: (A) threats, including habitat loss and Recent studies have estimated global The present or threatened destruction, modification due to development and mean sea level rise of 1 to 2 m (3.3 to modification, or curtailment of its sea level rise, competition from 6.6 ft) by 2100 as follows: 0.75 to 1.90 habitat or range; (B) overutilization for nonnative species, and the apparent m (2.5 to 6.2 ft; Vermeer and Rahmstorf commercial, recreational, scientific, or inadequacy of existing regulatory 2009, p. 21527), 0.8 to 2.0 m (2.6 to 6.6 educational purposes; (C) disease or mechanisms. All three species are at ft; Pfeffer et al. 2008, p. 1342), 0.9 to 1.3 predation; (D) the inadequacy of increased risk of extinction due to these m (2.6 to 4.3 ft; Grinsted et al. 2010, p. existing regulatory mechanisms; and (E) threats because populations are few and 461), and 0.6 to 1.6 m (2.0 to 5.2 ft; other natural or manmade factors mostly small. Because of the species’ Jevrejeva et al. 2010, p. 1). Zhang et al. affecting its continued existence. Listing low numbers, shrinking habitats, and (2011, p. 136) provide the most recent actions may be warranted based on any human-created barriers to natural downscaled inundation modeling for of the above threat factors, singly or in habitat migration, it will be difficult for south Florida, and they model sea level combination. We have determined that these species to disperse to suitable rise up to 1.8 m (5.9 ft) in the Florida the threats contributing to the listing of habitats as sea levels rise. Keys. We incorporated additional

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analysis for each species in the Factor In the proposed rule, we determined Our Response: Morris and Miller A section of this final rule. that past hurricanes and storm surge (1981, p. 10) and other studies (22) Comment: One commenter stated events have already created a clear and referenced in the rule serve to that the threat of sea level rise will not present threat to these plant species. demonstrate that the effects of sea level occur within the ‘‘reasonably Additional information is included in rise on plant communities have been foreseeable future,’’ as that term has this final rule that represents the best observed in the past and are presently been defined and applied under the Act. available science with regard to the driving changes in plant communities in Our Response: The term ‘‘foreseeable’’ threat of increased hurricane and storm coastal south Florida. Similar changes is not expressly defined in the Act to surge severity. in plant communities have been allow flexibility to consider situations (24) Comment: One commenter stated observed in the Florida Keys due to on a case-by-case basis (Office of the that the Service bases its predictions on saltwater intrusion (Ross et al. 1994, p. Solicitor Opinion M–37021, p. 7). a model that projects a sea level increase 144; 2009, p. 471). Please refer to the ‘‘Foreseeable future’’ relates to the of 18 cm (7 in) in the Keys occurring 86 Factor A section of this final rule for a ability to make predictions that can years in the future. Significantly, both complete discussion of habitat loss and reasonably be relied on because they are IPCC and the Service acknowledge that modification from sea level rise. based on a careful extrapolation climate change impacts can really only (26) Comment: One commenter stated grounded in data and logic (Office of the be reliably forecasted 30 to 50 years in that the coastal communities inhabited Solicitor Opinion M–37021, p. 8). The the future. by the three plant species are threatened Service maintains that sea level rise will Our Response: The Service has by increasing saltwater intrusion. affect the three species within considered a variety of information Restoring freshwater inflow might be timeframes served by existing sea level derived from numerous climate models the only mechanism to mitigate, in the rise projection models referenced rather than relying on one single climate short term, the effects of rising sea levels throughout this rule. model. While many components of in the Everglades (Saha et al. 2011, p. The Service has determined that sea climate can only be reliably forecast 30 105). level rise and the related impacts of to 50 years into the future, current Our Response: The restoration of climate change have already created a research papers overwhelmingly use the freshwater flows into the Everglades is clear and present threat to these plant year 2100 for sea level rise projections. one of the primary goals of the species, and that this threat will To accommodate the large uncertainty Comprehensive Everglades Restoration continue into the future; the threat in sea level rise projections, it is Program (CERP), a Service initiative. posed by the most optimistic scenarios necessary to estimate inundation losses However, we lack the data on how this of greenhouse gas emissions in the 21st from a range of possible scenarios (see will restore historical conditions or century represents a foreseeable response to comment 21). In the extinction risk to these species. Because proposed rule, our analysis for create new conditions, or how long it of the extreme fragmentation of Chromolaena frustrata, Consolea will take for these changes to become remaining habitat and isolation of corallicola, and Harrisia aboriginum measurable, and what, if any, benefits remaining populations, and the relied upon a range of sea level rise will occur for the three plants. accelerating rate at which sea level rise projections modeled by TNC (2011) (27) Comment: One commenter stated is projected to occur (Grinsted et al. based on IPCC (2007) and Rahmstorf et that the three plant species face 2010, p. 470), it will be particularly al. (2007) scenarios and downscaled significant risks from coastal squeeze difficult for these species to disperse to projections to develop inundation that occurs when habitat is pressed suitable habitat as existing habitat is models for the Florida Keys. These between rising sea levels and coastal modified and lost due to sea level rise. scenarios projected a potential sea level development that prevents landward The ultimate effect of these impacts is rise range of 18 cm to 140 cm (7 in to movement. likely to result in reduced suitable 4.6 ft) by 2100 (TNC 2011, p. 1), Our Response: We agree. This is habitat, exacerbated by other threats resulting in the inundation of 38 to 92 especially true in the Florida Keys and such as development and corresponding percent of the Florida Keys land area. In along the Gulf coast of Florida. decreases in population numbers. this final rule, we include updated Development patterns in the Keys tend (23) Comment: One commenter stated projections for sea level rise and to occur on higher elevations. The U.S. that the Service must take into account modeling for habitat loss and 1 highway corridor generally follows the the added impacts from more severe modification from sea level rise. high spine (occupying much of the hurricanes and increasing storm surge The best scientific and commercial higher elevation areas) of the upper and coastal flooding on the habitat of data available indicate that several Keys, while also presenting a barrier to Chromolaena frustrata, Consolea populations are currently being the migration of species and habitats. corallicola, and Harrisia aboriginum. negatively affected by increasing On the Gulf coast, coastal squeeze will Our Response: Increased hurricane salinity, and projections indicate that affect some areas that support Harrisia severity and storm surge wave heights nearly all populations will be negatively aboriginum. Occurrences in coastal are projected as a result of climate affected by 2100. In the Factor A section berm habitat on Longboat Key and change. While some level of hurricane of this final rule, we analyze the effects Manasota Key are especially susceptible and storm surge may reduce that sea level rise will have on the three to this effect. The habitats that currently competition and help maintain the species based on the current range of support the three plants are restricted to open-canopy conditions that are projections that represent the best relatively immobile geologic features suitable for these species, hurricanes available science for the areas and separated by large expanses of flooded, and storm surge of greater magnitude habitats where the three species occur. inhospitable wetland or ocean, leading are likely to increase the losses to (25) Comment: One commenter stated us to conclude that these habitats will populations during these events. In that in spite of the remoteness of likely not be able to migrate as sea level addition, storm surge events may act as potential sea level rise, the Service rises (Saha et al. 2011, pp. 103–104). We tipping points for plant communities claims a foreseeable harm based on a discuss this issue below, in the Factor already transitioning to saline habitats study done in 1980 on palm , citing E section of this final rule under Climate due to sea level rise. Morris and Miller (1981, p. 10). Change and Sea Level Rise.

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(28) Comment: One commenter stated Cacti are affected by poaching pertinent parts of the rulemaking that if the Service lists the three plant worldwide because of the large demand docket, including relevant scientific and species as endangered and continues to from collectors. Although limited, technical findings.’’ count climate change among the threats poaching has been documented for both The Service provided its scientific to the species, then the Service should Consolea corallicola and Harrisia and technical findings in the proposed consider proposing a special rule under aboriginum. Reports and notes included rule as published in the Federal section 4(d) of the Act to exclude with surveys going back several decades Register and posted on http:// otherwise lawful activities, such as identify poaching as a threat. We based www.regulations.gov. In addition, a list greenhouse gas emissions, from those our determination that poaching may of the references we used to support our actions that others may allege to increase because the listing of these findings was provided at the time of the constitute ‘‘take’’ of the species. species would draw attention to their publication of the October 11, 2012, Our Response: Under section 4(d) of existence and rarity, possibly creating a proposed rule, and is still available, in the Act, the Secretary of the Interior has greater demand among cactus collectors. the rulemaking docket on http:// discretion to issue such regulations as The Service postulated that publication www.regulations.gov at Docket No. she deems necessary and advisable to of maps in the Federal Register could FWS–ES–R4–2012–0076. These provide for the conservation of the facilitate poaching of these species by materials are also available for viewing species. The Secretary also has the making it easier to find exact locations at the Service’s South Florida Ecological discretion to prohibit by regulation with where the species are located. After a Services Field Office by appointment respect to a threatened species any act thorough re-evaluation of the publicly (see FOR FURTHER INFORMATION CONTACT). prohibited by section 9(a)(1) of the Act. available information regarding the Although all material is available, All three plant species are being listed locations of these cacti, we have copies may be provided only for those as endangered species. Thus, a special determined that the current locations of documents not covered by copyright rule under section 4(d) of the Act is not the two cacti are currently available in restrictions. applicable. sources readily accessed by the public. The Service and the National Marine Summary of Changes From Proposed These include online conservation Rule Fisheries Service (Services) issued a databases, scientific journals, and final rule amending interagency documents found on agency Web sites. In the Background section, we made regulations governing implementation We now acknowledge that publishing the following changes: (1) We clarified of the Act on December 16, 2008 (73 FR critical habitat maps would not provide and expanded the species description 76272). These regulations became much, if any, in the way of details for Harrisia aboriginum; (2) we added effective on January 15, 2009, and helpful to locate these species, beyond more information to the Taxonomy clarify and otherwise modify regulatory what is already publicly available. In sections for Consolea corallicola and requirements related to consultation addition, because locations are largely Harrisia aboriginum; (3) we with the Services mandated by section available, the increased threat comes incorporated information about the 7(a) of the Act. It is the Service’s view more from the attention drawn by listing pollination biology of Chromolaena that there is no requirement to consult the species, rather than the publication frustrata; (4) we incorporated on greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions’ of maps depicting critical habitat. For information on seed longevity and contribution to global warming and the this reason, we have re-assessed our germination rates for Chromolaena associated impacts on listed species. prudency determination that frustrata and Harrisia aboriginum; (5) Impacts associated with global warming designating critical habitat would likely we included new survey data for the do not constitute or meet the definition increase the threat of poaching. reintroduced population of Consolea of ‘‘effects of the action’’ under the Consequently, we have determined our corallicola at Dagny Johnson Key Largo regulations (50 CFR 402.02 and 50 CFR original prudency determination was Hammock Botanical State Park; (6) we 402.03(b)(1) and (c)). Although the incorrect. We will publish a proposed included information about a Consolea changes were crafted in broad general rule to designate critical habitat for corallicola reintroduction that was terms appropriate to the purpose of the Consolea corallicola and Harrisia recently implemented on Key Largo, regulations, the Services acknowledged aboriginum. since the time the proposed rule was that they were intended to address the published; (7) we corrected the number Issue 4. Availability of Findings new challenge we face with global of reintroduction sites where out- warming and climate change. (30) Comment: One commenter stated planted Consolea corallicola remain; (8) that the Service failed to provide any we corrected the name we use to Issue 3: Poaching and Critical Habitat supporting materials for any of these describe the habitat of Chromolaena Prudency Determinations proposed actions on http:// frustrata in ENP; and (9) we added (29) Comment: Two commenters www.regulations.gov or on the Service’s extirpated populations to tables 1, 2, stated that the Service provided no Web site. The Service must make and 3. information supporting its conclusion studies available to the public per In the Summary of Factors Affecting that designating critical habitat would Executive Order (E.O.) 13563. the Species section, we made the increase poaching of Consolea Our Response: Executive Order following changes: (1) We included corallicola and Harrisia aboriginum. 13563, section 2(b), states that ‘‘To the additional information about USDA The commenters further stated that the extent feasible and permitted by law, work to develop new techniques to threat of unauthorized collection would each agency shall . . . provide, for both control the spread of Cactoblastis not increase with designation of critical proposed and final rules, timely online cactorum; (2) we incorporated new habitat because the public already has access to the rulemaking docket on information about ongoing conservation access to information about known regulations.gov, including relevant efforts by nonprofit institutions; (3) we locations of the species. scientific and technical findings, in an expanded the discussion of population Our Response: In the proposed rule, open format . . . For proposed rules, declines for Harrisia aboriginum and we determined that designating critical such access shall include, to the extent Consolea corallicola; (4) we expanded habitat was not prudent for Consolea feasible and permitted by law, an our climate change analysis for all three corallicola and Harrisia aboriginum. opportunity for public comment on all species to include more projections

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across a wider range of scenarios; and berms and coastal rock barrens, and in (corkystem passionflower), Rivina (5) we expanded our discussion of semi-open to closed canopy habitats, humilis (pigeonberry), Salicornia hurricane and storm surge impacts. including buttonwood forests, coastal perennis (perennial glasswort), hardwood hammocks, and rockland Sesuvium portulacastrum (seapurslane), Background hammocks. C. frustrata is often found in and Suaeda linearis (sea blite). Ground Please refer to the proposed listing the shade of associated canopy and cover is often limited in closed canopy rule for Chromolaena frustrata, subcanopy plant species; these canopies areas and abundant in areas where Consolea corallicola, and Harrisia buffer C. frustrata from full exposure to canopy disturbance has occurred or aboriginum (October 11, 2012; 77 FR the sun (Bradley and Gann 1999, p. 37). where this community intergrades with 61836) for the complete background Detailed descriptions of coastal berm, buttonwood forest (Sadle 2012a, pers. information. The sections below coastal rock barren, rockland hammock, comm.). represent summaries of that and buttonwood forest are presented in The sparsely vegetated edges or information, and incorporate new the proposed listing rule for interior portions of rockland and coastal additions and edits based on peer Chromolaena frustrata, Consolea hardwood hammock where the canopy review and public comments. corallicola, and Harrisia aboriginum (77 is open are the areas that have light FR 61836; October 11, 2012). Peer levels sufficient to support Summary of Biological Status reviewers provided new information Chromolaena frustrata. However, the For more information on these identifying coastal hardwood hammock dynamic nature of the habitat means species’ habitats, ecology, and life as the community type supporting that areas not currently open may history, and on the factors affecting Chromolaena frustrata in ENP and become open in the future as a result of these species, please refer to the identified associated species found in canopy disruption from hurricanes, proposed listing rule for Chromolaena buttonwood forest in ENP. We include while areas currently open may develop frustrata, Consolea corallicola, and a full description of the coastal more dense canopy over time, Harrisia aboriginum published in the hardwood hammock and a revised eventually rendering that portion of the Federal Register on October 11, 2012 description of the buttonwood forest hammock unsuitable for C. frustrata. communities below. (77 FR 61836). Buttonwood Forest We have evaluated the biological Coastal Hardwood Hammock status of these species and threats Forests dominated by buttonwood affecting their continued existence. Our Coastal hardwood hammock that often exist in upper tidal areas, assessment is based upon the best supports Chromolaena frustrata in especially where swamp available scientific and commercial data Everglades National Park is a species- transitions to rockland or coastal and the opinion of the species experts. rich, tropical hardwood forest. Though hardwood hammock. These buttonwood similar in most characteristics, coastal forests have canopy dominated by Chromolaena frustrata hardwood hammock develops on a (button mangrove) Chromolaena frustrata (Family: substrate consisting of elevated marl and often have an understory dominated Asteraceae) is a perennial herbaceous ridges with a very thin layer of organic by Borrichia frutescens, Lycium plant. Mature plants are 15 to 25 layer (Sadle pers. comm. 2012a). Marl is carolinianum (Christmasberry), and centimeters (cm) (5.9 to 9.8 inches (in)) an unconsolidated sedimentary rock or Limonium carolinianum (sea lavender) tall with erect stems. The blue to soil consisting of clay and lime. The (Florida Natural Areas Inventory (FNAI) lavender flowers are borne in heads, plant species composition of coastal 2010d, p. 4). In ENP, the species most usually in clusters of two to six. Flowers hardwood hammocks also differs frequently observed in association with are produced mostly in the fall, though somewhat from that of rockland Chromolaena frustrata are Capparis sometimes year round (Nesom 2006, pp. hammock. Typical and shrub flexuosa, Borrichia frutescens, 544–545). species include Capparis flexuosa Alternanthera flavescens, Rivina (bayleaf capertree), Coccoloba humilis, Sideroxylon celastrinum, Taxonomy diversifolia (pigeon plum), Piscidia Heliotropium angiospermum, Eugenia Chromolaena frustrata was first piscipula (Jamaican dogwood), foetida, Batis maritima, Acanthocereus reported by Chapman, from the Florida Sideroxylon foetidissimum (false tetragonus, and Sesuvium Keys in 1886, naming it Eupatorium mastic), Eugenia foetida (Spanish portulacastrum (Sadle 2012a, pers. heteroclinium (Chapman 1889, p. 626). stopper), Swietenia mahagoni (West comm.). Synonyms include Eupatorium Indies mahogany), Ficus aurea (strangler Temperature, salinity, tidal frustratum B.L. Robinson and Osmia fig), Sabal palmetto (cabbage palm), fluctuation, substrate, and wave energy frustrata (B.L. Robinson) Small. Eugenia axillaris (white stopper), influence the size and extent of Zanthoxylum fagara (wild lime), buttonwood forests (FNAI 2010e, p. 3). Climate Sideroxylon celastrinum (saffron plum), Buttonwood forests often grade into salt The climate of south Florida where and Colubrina arborescens (greenheart) marsh, coastal berm, rockland Chromolaena frustrata occurs is (Rutchey et al. 2006, p. 21). Herbaceous hammock, coastal hardwood hammock, classified as tropical savanna and is species that occur in coastal hardwood and coastal rock barren (FNAI 2010d, p. characterized by distinct wet and dry forest include Acanthocereus tetragonus 5). seasons, a monthly mean temperature (triangle cactus), Alternanthera above 18 degrees Celsius (°C) (64.4 flavescens (yellow joyweed), Batis Historical Range degrees Fahrenheit (°F)) in every month maritime (turtleweed), Borrichia Chromolaena frustrata was of the year, and annual rainfall arborescens (seaside oxeye), Borrichia historically known from Monroe averaging 75 to 150 cm (30 to 60 in) frutescens (bushy seaside oxeye), County, both on the Florida mainland (Gabler et al. 1994, p. 211). Caesalpinia bonduc (grey nicker), and the Florida Keys, and in Miami- Capsicum annuum (bird pepper), Dade County along Florida Bay (Bradley Habitat Galactia striata (Florida hammock and Gann 1999, p. 36). The species was Chromolaena frustrata grows in open milkpea), Heliotropium angiospermum observed historically on Big Pine Key, canopy habitats, including coastal (scorpion’s tail), Passiflora suberosa Boca Grande Key, Fiesta Key, Key Largo,

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Key West, Knight’s Key, Lignumvitae supporting approximately 1,600 to 2,600 Key, Lignumvitae Key, Long Key, Big Key, Long Key, Upper Matecumbe Key, plants occur in buttonwood forests and Munson Island, and Boca Grande Key and Lower Matecumbe Key (Bradley coastal hardwood hammocks from the (Bradley and Gann 2004, pp. 3–4). It no and Gann 1999, p. 36; Bradley and Gann Coastal Prairie Trail near the southern longer exists on Key Largo, Big Pine 2004, pp. 4–7). tip of Cape Sable to Madeira Bay (Sadle Key, Fiesta Key, Knight’s Key, or Key 2007 and 2012b, pers. comm.). Current Range West (Bradley and Gann 2004, pp. 4–6). In the Florida Keys, Chromolaena Populations of C. frustrata are identified In Everglades National Park, 11 frustrata is now only known from Upper in table 1. Chromolaena frustrata populations Matecumbe Key, Lower Matecumbe

TABLE 1—POPULATIONS OF CHROMOLAENA FRUSTRATA

Population Ownership Numbers of plants Habitat

Everglades National Park—Fla- Federal—National Park Service ... 1,634–2,633 (Sadle 2012b, pers. buttonwood forest, coastal hard- mingo District. comm.). wood hammock. Upper Matecumbe Key—Choate State—Florida Department of En- 18 (Bradley and Gann 2004, pp. coastal rock barren, rockland Tract. vironmental Protection. 3–6). hammock. Lower Matecumbe Key—Klopp State—Florida Department of En- 15 (Duquesnel 2012, pers. coastal rock barren, rockland Tract. vironmental Protection. comm.). hammock. Lignumvitae Key ...... State—Florida Department of En- 81 (Bradley and Gann 2004, pp. rockland hammock. vironmental Protection. 3–6). Long Key State Park ...... State—Florida Department of En- 200 (Bradley and Gann 2004, pp. coastal rock barren. vironmental Protection. 3–6). Long Key—North Layton Ham- State—Florida Department of En- 162 (Bradley and Gann 2004, pp. coastal rock barren, rockland mock. vironmental Protection—and 3–6). hammock. Private. Big Munson Island ...... Private ...... 4,500 (Bradley and Gann 2004, rockland hammock. pp. 3–6). Key West National Wildlife Ref- Federal—Fish and Wildlife Serv- 25 (Bradley and Gann 2004, pp. rockland hammock. uge—Boca Grande Key. ice. 3–6). Key Largo ...... unknown ...... 0 (Bradley and Gann 2004, pp. 3– unknown. 6). Big Pine Key ...... unknown ...... 0 (Bradley and Gann 2004, pp. 3– unknown. 6). Fiesta Key ...... unknown ...... 0 (Bradley and Gann 2004, pp. 3– unknown. 6). Knight’s Key ...... unknown ...... 0 (Bradley and Gann 2004, pp. 3– unknown. 6). Key West ...... unknown ...... 0 (Bradley and Gann 2004, pp. 3– unknown. 6).

Reproductive Biology and Genetics sudden steep declines due to the effects long (Small 1930, pp. 25–26; Anderson The reproductive biology and genetics of hurricanes and storm surges. 2001, pp. 170–171). However, the species appears to be able of Chromolaena frustrata have received Taxonomy little study. Fresh C. frustrata seeds to rebound at affected sites within a few show a germination rate of 65 percent, years (Bradley 2009, pers. comm.). The John Kunkel Small discovered and but germination rates decrease to 27 large population observed at Big described Consolea corallicola in 1930 percent after the seeds are subjected to Munson Island in 2003 likely resulted (Small 1930, pp. 25–26). While some freezing, suggesting that long-term seed from thinning of the rockland hammock authors still place this species in the storage may present difficulties canopy caused by Hurricane Georges in genus Opuntia (Wunderlin and Hansen (Kennedy et al. 2012, pp. 40, 50–51). 1998 (Bradley and Gann 2004, p. 4). 2013b, no page number; ITIS 2013b, no While there have been no studies on the Populations that are subject to wide page number), genetic studies by reproductive biology of C. frustrata, we demographic fluctuations are generally Gordon and Kubisiak (1998, p. 209) can draw some generalizations from more vulnerable to random extinction confirmed that the Florida plants are a other species of Chromolaena, which events and negative consequences genetically distinct species. Recent reproduce sexually. New plants arising from small populations, such as taxonomic treatments accept the genus originate from seeds. Pollinators are genetic bottlenecks (see discussion Consolea and apply the name C. likely to be generalists, such as below under Factor E. corallicola to the Florida species butterflies, bees, flies, and beetles. Seed Consolea corallicola (Areces-Mallea 1996, pp. 224–226; dispersal is largely by wind (Lakshmi et Anderson 2001, pp. 170–171; Parfitt and al. 2011, p. 1). Consolea corallicola (Family: Gibson 2004, pp. 92–94). The Family Cactaceae) is a tree-like cactus; mature Cactaceae (cactus) has been the subject Population Demographics plants grow 2 meters (m) (6 feet (ft)) tall of many revisions over the past century, Chromolaena frustrata is relatively a with an erect main trunk, which is and we expect this trend will continue short-lived plant; therefore it must elliptical or oval in cross section and as molecular (genetic) methods are used successfully reproduce more often than armed with spines. The flowers are to re-examine the relationships within a long-lived species to maintain bright red and 1.3 to 1.9 cm (0.50 to 0.75 the family. Synonyms include Opuntia populations. C. frustrata populations are in) wide, and the fruits are yellow, egg- corallicola (Small) Werdermann (Parfitt demographically unstable, experiencing shaped, and 2.5 to 5.1 cm (1 to 2 in) and Gibson 2004, p. 94).

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Climate Swan Key, a small island in Biscayne different sites in the lower Florida Keys The climate of south Florida where Bay in Miami-Dade County (Bradley and in 2000, but by 2013, only 10 and 11 Consolea corallicola occurs is classified Woodmansee 2002, p. 810). plants remained at the Little Torch Key, as tropical savanna, as described above Current Range and the Upper Sugarloaf Key sites, for Chromolaena frustrata. respectively. No plants survived on Big The current range of Consolea Pine Key, Cudjoe Key, No Name Key, or Habitat corallicola includes two naturally Ramrod Key. Ninety-six cacti were Consolea corallicola occurs in occurring populations, one on Swan planted at Little Torch Key in 1996, but rockland hammocks (Small 1930, pp. Key in Biscayne National Park (BNP), all died within 12 years. One-hundred Miami-Dade County, and one at the 25–26; Benson 1982, p. 531); coastal and eighty cacti were planted at Nature Conservancy’s (TNC) Torchwood berm, and buttonwood forests (Bradley Saddlebunch Key in 1998, but only four Hammock Preserve on Little Torch Key, and Gann 1999, p. 77; Gann et al. 2002, were alive by 2013. As of 2013, plants a small island in the Florida Keys, p. 480; Higgins 2007, pers. comm.). survive at four reintroduction sites on Monroe County (Bradley and Gann Consolea corallicola occurs on sandy State-owned lands—Dagny Johnson Key soils and limestone rockland soils with 1999, p. 77; Bradley and Woodmansee 2002, p. 810). These naturally occurring Largo Hammocks State Botanical Park, little organic matter (Small 1930, pp. Dove Creek Hammock, Saddlebunch 25–26) and seems to prefer areas where populations account for fewer than 1,000 plants (see table 2). Key, and Upper Sugarloaf Key (Stiling canopy cover and sun exposure are 2007, p. 2; Stiling 2009, pers. comm.; moderate (Grahl and Bradley 2005, p. 4). Experimental plantings of Consolea Stiling 2010, pp. 190, 193–194; Stiling Detailed descriptions of coastal berm, corallicola were conducted at several 2013, p. 2; Stiling 2013, pers. comm.; rockland hammock, and buttonwood sites on State and Federal conservation Duquesnel 2008, 2009, 2011a, 2011b, forest are presented in the proposed lands in the Florida Keys from 1996 to listing rule for Chromolaena frustrata, 2012. These reintroductions have been pers. comm.). These sites together Consolea corallicola, and Harrisia largely unsuccessful in establishing self- represent fewer than 50 plants that aboriginum (October 11, 2012; 77 FR sustaining populations at these sites survived the reintroduction trials. A 61836). because most plants succumbed to reintroduction consisting of 300 small damage or disease caused by the plants was installed in August 2012, at Historical Range Cactoblastis moth (Cactoblastis Dove Creek Hammock on Key Largo Consolea corallicola was known cactorum (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae)). The (Stiling 2013, p. 2). It is too early to historically from three islands of the plantings were supported by the Florida judge the success of this effort. Florida Keys in Monroe County: Key Forest Service, Conservation and Populations of Consolea corallicola are Largo, Big Pine Key, and Little Torch Management program. Two hundred provided in table 2 and are discussed Key (Small 1930, pp. 25–26), and from and forty cacti were planted at six below.

TABLE 2—POPULATIONS OF Consolea corallicola

Population Ownership Number of plants Habitat Trend

Swan Key, Biscayne Na- Federal—National Park 600 (McDonough 2010a, rockland hammock ...... Stable. tional Park. Service. pers. comm.). Little Torch Hammock Pre- Private—The Nature Con- 9 to 11 adults, 100s of ju- rockland hammock, rock- Declining. serve, Little Torch Key. servancy. veniles (Gun 2012, pers. land hammock- comm.). buttonwood forest ecotone. Key Largo ...... unknown ...... 0 (Bradley and Gann unknown ...... Extirpated. 1999, p. 77). Big Pine Key ...... unknown ...... 0 (Bradley and Gann unknown ...... Extirpated. 1999, p. 77). Dagny Johnson Key Largo State—Florida Department 20 to 40 juveniles buttonwood forest- Declining. Hammock State Botan- of Environmental Protec- (Duquesnel 2013, pers. saltmarsh ecotone, ical Park (reintroduced). tion. comm.). coastal rock barren. Upper Sugarloaf Key (re- State—Florida Fish and 11 juveniles (Stiling pers. unknown ...... Declining. introduced). Wildlife Conservation comm. 2013, p. 1). Commission. Dove Creek Hammock— State—Florida Fish and 238 juveniles (Stiling pers. buttonwood forest, rock- Recent reintroduction. Key Largo (reintroduced). Wildlife Conservation comm. 2013, p. 1). land hammock. Commission. Saddlebunch Key (reintro- State—Florida Fish and 4 juveniles (Stiling pers. unknown ...... Declining. duced). Wildlife Conservation comm. 2013, p. 1). Commission.

All of the attempted reintroductions years. Meanwhile, plants cultivated at Harrisia aboriginum of Consolea corallicola have Key West Botanical Garden have grown experienced high mortality (50 to 100 to 3 m (9.8 ft) tall in just 6 years; leading Harrisia aboriginum (Family: percent) due to Cactoblastis moth Stiling (2010, pp. 2, 193–194; pers. Cactaceae) is a sprawling cactus, usually predation and crown rot (Stiling 2010, comm. 2012) to conclude that with multiple stems arising from a pp. 2, 194–195). Significantly, no conditions at wild sites are no longer single base. The stems are erect, slender, individuals have reached the size of conducive to producing large adult and cylindrical. They possess 9 to 11 longitudinal ribs, and may reach 6 m (20 wild adult plants over the course of 13 plants. ft) in height. Spines are 1.0 cm (0.4 in)

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long and originate in clusters of 7 to 9 and an illegitimate name: Harrisia Miller 1981, p. 2; Bradley et al. 2004, spines, with up to 20 spines in a cluster donae-antoniae Hooten (Parfitt and pp. 3, 8–9). Besides a few anecdotal at the base of the stem. Flowers are Gibson 2004, p. 153). accounts, population trends were funnel-shaped, white, up to 18 cm (7.1 Climate unknown prior to 2004. A 1981 status in) long; have a slight scent; and are survey reported population sizes for five nocturnal, lasting only one night. The The climate of south Florida where occurrences (Morris and Miller 1981, p. bracts on the outside of the flower has Harrisia aboriginum occurs is classified 1–11). All of these populations declined sparse white hairs. Fruits are yellow, as tropical savanna, as described above from 1981 to 2004, when a status survey for Chromolaena frustrata. round in shape, and 6.1 to 7.6 cm (2.4 confirmed 10 extant populations along a to 3.0 in) in diameter (Britton and Rose Habitat 100-km (62-mile) stretch of coast, and 1920, p. 154; Anderson 2001, p. 370; Harrisia aboriginum occurs in coastal reported one population extirpated at Parfitt and Gibson 2004, p. 153; Franck berm, coastal strand, coastal grassland, Terra Ceia (Bradley et al. 2004, p. 8). In 2012, pp. 121–124; Franck 2012, pers. and maritime hammock. It also occurs 2007, eight of these sites were surveyed comm.). on shell mounds with a calcareous shell again, at which time three populations We are not aware of any studies on substrate (Bradley et al. 2004, pp. 4, 14). had declined from 2004 levels the pollination biology of Harrisia Detailed descriptions of these habitats (Woodmansee et al. 2007, p. 87). A aboriginum. Insect visitors recorded on are presented in the proposed listing population on Cayo Costa has been other species of Harrisia include hawk rule for Chromolaena frustrata, extirpated since 2007 (Nielsen 2009, (Nitidulidae), stingless bees Consolea corallicola, and Harrisia pers. comm.). Two of the ten surveyed (Meliponidae), and several types of aboriginum (October 11, 2012; 77 FR in 2004 are now considered two beetles. Harrisia fruits are sweet and 61836). populations by the Service because they fleshy, suggesting that seed dispersal by birds may be important (Franck 2012, p. Historical Range are spatially separate and have different 107). landowners. A new population was Harrisia aboriginum was known recorded at Lemon Bay in 2012 (Bender Taxonomy historically from coastal areas of 2011, pp. 9–12). Currently 12 out of 14 southwest Florida along the Gulf coast sites support extant populations where Harrisia aboriginum was described by in Manatee, Charlotte, Sarasota, and Lee the species was recorded historically. John Kunkel Small, after he discovered Counties. The species was documented Plants occur in seven public and private it in Manatee County in 1919 (Small in on six keys along approximately 125 km conservation areas, as well as four Britton and Rose 1920, p. 154). The (78 mi) of Gulf of Mexico coastline. most recent revision of the genus Populations reported for Delnor-Wiggins County parcels not managed for Harrisia supports H. aboriginum as a Pass State Park, San Marco Island, Fort conservation and at least three morphologically and genetically distinct Pierce, and ENP are considered unprotected private parcels. In total, the species endemic to the west coast of unsubstantiated (Bradley et al. 2004, pp. species was represented by an estimated Florida (Franck 2012, pp. 96, 113). 5–6). 300 to 500 individuals in 2007, when Synonyms include Cereus aboriginum population sizes were last estimated (Small ex Britton and Rose) Little, C. Current Range (Woodmansee et al. 2007, p. 87). gracilis var. aboriginum (Small ex Harrisia aboriginum was extirpated Population declines are discussed Britton and Rose) L. D. Benson, Harrisia sometime in the past in the northern further under Factor A. Populations of gracilis (Mill.) Britton var. aboriginum extent of its historical range at Terra Harrisia aboriginum are provided in (Small ex Britton and Rose) D.B. Ward, Ceia in Manatee County (Morris and table 3.

TABLE 3—POPULATIONS OF Harrisia aboriginum

Population Ownership Number of plants Habitat Trend

Terra Ceia Island, Madera State—Florida Department of 0 (Morris and Miller 1981, p. unknown ...... Extirpated. Bickel Mound State Park. Environmental Protection. 2; Bradley et al. 2004, p. 4). Longboat Key—Water Club Private conservation ...... 226 (Morris and Miller, 1981, maritime hammock ...... Declining. Preserve. p. 5; Bradley et al. 2004, p. 10); 5 (Woodmansee et al. 2007, p. 87). Historic Spanish Point ...... Private conservation ...... 7 (Morris and Miller 1981, p. shell mound ...... Declining. 3); 2 (Bradley et al. 2004, p. 13); 5 (Woodmansee et al. 2007, p. 87) (new rooted frag- ments broken in hurricane). Manasota Beach Park ...... Sarasota County ...... 116 (Morris and Miller, 1981, coastal strand, coastal berm .. Declining. p. 9); 50 to 75 (Woodmansee et al. 2007, p. 87). Lemon Bay Preserve ...... Sarasota County ...... 3 (Bender 2011, pp. 9–12) ..... spoil mound ...... Unknown. Manasota Key ...... Private ...... 24 (Morris and Miller 1981, coastal strand, coastal berm, Declining. pp. 7, 8); maritime hammock. 13 (Woodmansee et al. 2007, p. 87). Charlotte Harbor State Park ... State—Florida Department of 39 (Bradley et al. 2004, pp. coastal berm, shell mound ..... Declining. Environmental Protection. 20–21);

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TABLE 3—POPULATIONS OF Harrisia Aboriginum—Continued

Population Ownership Number of plants Habitat Trend

27 (Woodmansee et al. 2007, p. 87). Kitchen Key ...... Private and Charlotte County 21 (Morris and Miller 1981, p. coastal berm ...... Declining. 11); 2 to 10 (Bradley et al. 2004, pp. 10–37). Gasparilla Island Conservation Private Conservation ...... 1 (Bradley et al. 2004, pp. coastal berm ...... Unknown. and Improvement Associa- 10–37). tion, Tract A. Gasparilla Island Mosquito Lee County ...... 1 (Woodmansee et al. 2007, spoil mound ...... Stable. Control Baseyard. p. 87). Cayo Costa State Park ...... Lee County ...... 0 (Nielsen 2009, pers. comm.) coastal berm ...... Extirpated. Cayo Pelau Preserve ...... Lee County ...... 7 (Bradley et al. 2004, p. 28); coastal berm, shell mound ..... Declining. (Woodmansee et al. 2007, p. 87). Bocilla Preserve ...... Lee County ...... 300 to 400 (Woodmansee et coastal berm ...... Stable. al. 2007, p. 87). Buck Key—J. ‘Ding’ Darling Federal—Fish and Wildlife 100 to 200 (Bradley et al. coastal berm ...... Stable. National Wildlife Refuge. Service. 2004, pp. 10–37).

Reproductive Biology and Genetics Factor A. The Present or Threatened Chromolaena frustrata throughout the Destruction, Modification, or species’ range (Gann et al. 2002, p. 387). There has been little research into the Curtailment of Their Habitat or Range The populations on Fiesta Key, Knights reproductive biology of Harrisia Key, Key Largo, and Key West were lost Human Population Growth and aboriginum. Flowers are produced May due to development. Fiesta Key is Development through September. Ripe fruits have completely developed as a been observed from June through Destruction and modification of Kampgrounds of America (KOA) October. Genetic diversity within and habitat are a threat to Chromolaena campground and is devoid of native between populations of H. aboriginum frustrata, Consolea corallicola, and plant communities. Knights Key is has not been assessed. Harrisia Harrisia aboriginum. Terrestrial almost completely developed and has aboriginum seeds stored for 2.5 years ecosystems of south Florida have been no remaining suitable habitat (Bradley germinated at a rate of 84 percent and heavily impacted by humans, through and Gann 2004, p. 5). Key Largo has 92 percent in two separate trials, widespread clearing for agricultural, undergone extensive disturbance and suggesting that the species can maintain residential, commercial, and development. Although suitable coastal a soil seed bank (Maschinski 2012, pers. infrastructure development. Extensive berm and rockland hammock habitat are comm). Seeds capable of establishing areas of rockland hammock, pine still located in State and Federal persistent seed banks are reported for H. rockland, and other ecosystems have conservation sites on Key Largo fragrans, a closely related endangered been lost (Solecki 2001, p. 350; Hodges (Bradley and Gann 2004, p. 8), despite species from the east coast of Florida and Bradley 2006, p. 6). Because of their extensive surveys of the island C. (Goodman et al. 2012a, p. 1). proximity to the beach and relatively frustrata has not been located (Bradley Summary of Factors Affecting the higher elevations, coastal hammocks, and Gann 2004, p. 5). Species strands, and berms have been heavily Two Chromolaena frustrata impacted by residential and tourism populations, including the largest Section 4 of the Act and its development. As a result, only isolated population (Big Munson Island), are implementing regulations (50 CFR 424) fragments of these habitats remain located on private lands (the population set forth the procedures for adding (Bradley et al. 2004, pp. 3–4). Loss and at Long Key Layton Hammock only species to the Federal Lists of modification of coastal habitat due to partially so), which are vulnerable to Endangered and Threatened Wildlife development is expected to continue further development (Bradley and Gann and Plants. A species may be and increase in the coming decades in 2004, p. 7; Table 1). The Statewide determined to be an endangered or Florida (Zwick and Carr 2006, p. 13). population of C. frustrata was estimated threatened species due to one or more Species populations are more secure on at fewer than 5,000 plants in 2004, with of the five factors described in section public lands than on private lands, but 4,500 plants (90 percent) located at a 4(a)(1) of the Act: (A) The present or still face the threats of habitat loss and single, privately owned, unprotected threatened destruction, modification, or modification through development of site (Bradley and Gann 2004, p. 7). The curtailment of its habitat or range; (B) public facilities such as new buildings, Service has no recent survey data for Big overutilization for commercial, parking lots, and other associated Munson Island, and the status of this recreational, scientific, or educational facilities and through recreational population is unknown. If the purposes; (C) disease or predation; (D) opportunities to support visitor services. uncharacteristically large population the inadequacy of existing regulatory Impacts to each of the species are size in 2003 resulted from hurricane mechanisms; or (E) other natural or discussed below. disruption of the tree canopy as manmade factors affecting its continued suggested by Bradley and Gann (2004, p. Chromolaena frustrata existence. Listing actions may be 7), subsequent regrowth of the canopy warranted based on any of the above Habitat destruction and modification in the intervening 10 years has likely threat factors, singly or in combination. resulting from development are reduced the size of the C. frustrata Each of these factors is discussed below. considered a major threat to population. Big Munson Island, is

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owned by the Boy Scouts of America State-owned site where a reintroduction occurs (Bender 2011, p. 11). Not all land (BSA) and is utilized as a Boy Scout was attempted, all of the plants were managers are aware of the presence of Camp. Scout campsites have been accidentally destroyed by the expansion H. aboriginum at sites under their established along the coastal berm of a trail. jurisdiction; for example, managers at (Hodges and Bradley 2006, p. 10), and Harrisia aboriginum one site in Charlotte County were recreation development (campsites) and unaware of H. aboriginum on county Destruction and modification of possibly recreational activities lands (Bender 2011, p. 13). habitat from development throughout (trampling) potentially remain a threat Nevertheless, the population has to C. frustrata at this site. At this time, the species’ range continue to be a threat to Harrisia aboriginum. The coastal persisted, probably due to its anonymity we do not believe that this site faces and difficulty of access. The lack of threats from residential or commercial habitats of this species have been management, however, has allowed a development. However, if development heavily impacted by development over pressure and BSA recreational usage the past 50 years (Morris and Miller heavy infestation of nonnative plants, increase, this largest population may 1981, pp. 1–11; Bradley et al. 2004, p. which have modified the habitat and are face threats from habitat loss and 3). Shell mounds created by Native shading out H. aboriginum (Bender modification. Americans were among the first areas 2011, p. 13). Portions of at least two A portion of the population on Long colonized by early Western Europeans populations located on public land also Key at Layton Hammock is vulnerable to because of their higher elevation and extend onto adjacent unprotected, commercial or residential development were later extensively utilized for private lands (Bradley et al. 2004, pp. (Bradley and Gann 2004, pp. 3–20). In construction material, in some cases 16, 36). addition, development remains a threat resulting in the complete destruction of Populations on privately owned the habitat. Coastal hammocks, strands, to any suitable rock barren or rockland conservation sites may have inadequate and berms, because of their proximity to hammock habitat on private lands protection from habitat loss or within the species’ historic range. the beach and higher elevations, were modification as well. One such site that Overall, the human population in also used for coastal residential was declared a ‘‘Preserve’’ in 1992 as Monroe County is expected to increase construction. Only isolated fragments of from 79,589 to more than 92,287 people suitable habitat for H. aboriginum part of a residential community has no by 2060 (Zwick and Carr 2006, p. 21). remain (Bradley et al. 2004, p. 3). formal protection; it was partially All vacant land in the Florida Keys is The species was extirpated from the bulldozed and landscaped with native projected to be developed by then, northern extent of its range in Manatee species within the past 10 years including lands not currently accessible County by the 1970s, due to (Bradley et al. 2004, p. 10). The number by automobile (Zwick and Carr 2006, p. urbanization (Morris and Miller 1981, p. of plants observed at this ‘‘Preserve’’ site 14). 2; Austin 1984, p. 2). Despite the recent decreased from 226 plants in 1981 Chromolaena frustrata populations in downturn in residential construction, (Morris and Miller 1981, p. 5), to 5 conservation areas have been impacted coastal development is ongoing in the plants in 2006 (Woodmansee et al. 2007, and may continue to be impacted by habitat of H. aboriginum. Populations p. 87). Another site is owned by a development with increased public use. on private land or non-conservation nonprofit organization and managed for Mechanical disturbances such as trail public land are most vulnerable to historical preservation. The site is construction in coastal berms may have habitat loss. Threats include residential severely disturbed from a long history of exacerbated nonnative plant invasions development, road widening, and human activity and is currently open to (see Factor E discussion, below) landscape maintenance (Morris and public visitation (Woodmansee et al. (Bradley and Gann 2004, p. 4). C. Miller 1981, pp. 2–11; Bradley et al. 2007, p. 103). This population has 2004, pp. 36–37). Suitable habitat frustrata has been impacted by park declined over the past 30 years from 21 within the species’ range was recently development on State lands, and habitat stems comprising 7 plants in 1981 modifications such as mowing and trail destroyed by encroachment from a (Morris and Miller 1981, p. 4), to only maintenance remain a threat (Gann et al. private development onto State land 3 plants in 2003 (Bradley et al. 2004, p. 2002, p. 391; Bradley and Gann 2004, p. (FNAI 2011, pp. 207–208). The threats 13). Development of the site for public 6; Hodges and Bradley 2006, p. 30). of habitat loss, modification, and degradation are expected to increase visitation likely played a role in the Consolea corallicola with increased human population, decline (Morris and Miller 1981, p. 4). Destruction and modification of development pressure, and Conservation Efforts to Reduce habitat from development throughout infrastructure needs. Sarasota, Charlotte, Destruction, Modification, or the species’ range continue to be a threat and Lee Counties, where this plant Curtailment of Habitat or Range to Consolea corallicola. Unoccupied currently occurs, are expected to build suitable habitat throughout the species’ out before 2060 (Zwick and Carr 2006, Land Acquisition former range is under intense p. 13), placing further pressure on development pressure. Development remaining natural areas. The Service; National Park Service and road building were the causes of Populations located on public lands (NPS); State of Florida; Manatee, this species’ original extirpation on Big are better protected than those on Sarasota, Charlotte, Lee, Miami-Dade, Pine Key (Bradley and Gann 1999, p. 77; private land, but still may face the threat and Monroe Counties; and several local Bradley and Woodmansee 2002, p. 810). of habitat loss through development of governments own and manage Residential and commercial park facilities such as new buildings, conservation lands within the range of development and roadway construction parking lots, and trails (Morris and Chromolaena frustrata, Consolea continue to occur throughout Miami- Miller 1981, p. 4). Construction of new corallicola, and Harrisia aboriginum. Dade County and the Florida Keys. Both bathrooms in 2011 at a site owned by The Nature Conservancy purchased remaining wild populations are secure Sarasota County eliminated a portion of Torchwood Hammock Preserve on Little from habitat destruction because they the coastal berm habitat, and parking lot Torch Key in 1988, to protect what was are located within private and Federal renovations are planned at a second at the time the only known remaining conservation areas. However, at one County site where Harrisia aboriginum population of Consolea corallicola.

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Management Plans some populations of these cacti are any nonregulatory actions that are being The comprehensive conservation plan limited to just a few individual plants. conducted to ameliorate overutilization (CCP) for the Lower Florida Keys These smaller populations could easily for commercial, recreational, scientific, National Wildlife Refuges (National Key be extirpated by a single poaching or educational purposes. episode. Deer Refuge, Key West National Wildlife Chromolaena frustrata Refuge, and Great White Heron National Consolea corallicola We have no evidence suggesting that Wildlife Refuge) and Crocodile Lake Collecting by cactus hobbyists is overutilization for commercial, National Wildlife Refuge promote the suspected to have played a part in the recreational, scientific, or educational enhancement of wildlife populations by extirpation of Consolea corallicola from purposes is a threat to Chromolaena maintaining and enhancing a diversity Big Pine Key and Key Largo in the late frustrata. Except for its rarity, the and abundance of habitats for native 1970s, and poaching remains a major species does not possess any attributes plants and animals, especially imperiled threat to this species (Gann et al. 2002, that would make it desirable to species that are only found in the p. 481). Other species of Consolea are collectors, such as showy foliage or Florida Keys. This CCP provides currently offered for sale by online plant flowers, and there are no known specifically for maintaining and distributors. Probable evidence of medicinal, culinary, or religious uses for expanding populations of candidate poaching activity was observed at a site this species. plant species including Chromolaena in Monroe County on multiple frustrata and Consolea corallicola. occasions, and caused the death of one Factor C. Disease or Predation Special use permits (SUPs) are also C. corallicola plant (Slapcinsky et al. Chromolaena frustrata issued by the refuges as authorized by 2006, p. 3). Although the remaining the National Wildlife Refuge System populations are somewhat protected On Big Munson Island, much of the Administration Act (16 U.S.C. 668dd– due to their location on conservation Chromolaena frustrata population was 668ee) as amended, and the Refuge lands, these plants remain vulnerable to observed to suffer from severe herbivory Recreation Act (16 U.S.C. 460k–460k–4). illegal collection because the sites are in 2004. No insects were observed on The SUPs cover commercial activities remote and not patrolled regularly by any plants, and the endangered Key (commercial activities such as guiding enforcement personnel. deer (Odocoileus virginianus clavium) hunters, anglers, or other outdoor users; Collection for scientific and recovery was the suspected culprit (Bradley and commercial filming; agriculture; and purposes have so far relied on the Gann 2004, p. 4). The significance of trapping); research and monitoring by harvesting of cuttings from plants herbivory on C. frustrata population students, universities, or other non- growing in botanical garden and private dynamics is unknown. No diseases have Service organizations; and general use collections. We expect that collection been reported for C. frustrata. (woodcutting, miscellaneous events for the purposes of recovery will Consolea corallicola (fishing tournaments, one-time events, continue and ultimately be beneficial in other special events), education augmenting and reintroducing C. A fungal pathogen, Fusarium activity). The Service has no corallicola at suitable sites. We have no oxysporum, can infect Consolea information concerning the issuance of evidence that collection for scientific or corallicola, causing crown rot, a disease SUPs that have implications for any of recovery purposes is a threat to the in which plants rot near their base the three species. species at this time. (Slapcinsky et al. 2006, p. 2; Stiling 2010, p. 191). Cacti in the Florida Keys Factor B. Overutilization for Harrisia aboriginum populations that are affected by this Commercial, Recreational, Scientific, or Poaching of Harrisia aboriginum is a disease have also tested positive for a Educational Purposes major threat (Morris and Miller 1981, fungus, Phomopsis sp. (Slapcinsky et al. Overutilization (collection by pp. 1–11; Gann et al. 2002, p. 440; 2006, p. 3). This disease was largely hobbyists, also known as poaching) is a Bradley et al. 2004, p. 6). Damage and responsible for the high mortality rates major threat to Consolea corallicola evidence of H. aboriginum poaching in some reintroduced populations in the (Gann et al. 2002, p. 440) and Harrisia was reported by Morris and Miller Florida Keys (Stiling 2010, p. 193). At aboriginum (Austin et al. 1980, p. 2; (1981, pp. 1–11) at several sites. present, crown rot does not appear to be Morris and Miller 1981, pp. 1–11; Gann Evidence of poaching was recently affecting the population at BNP. et al. 2002, p. 481; Bradley et al. 2004, observed at a site in Sarasota County Predation by the moth Cactoblastis p. 6; Bender 2011, p. 5). Cactus that has high public visitation. At that cactorum (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae) is poaching is an international site, there was evidence that cuttings considered a significant threat to phenomenon. Cacti are frequently had been removed from multiple H. Consolea corallicola (Stiling et al. 2000, impacted at sites that are known and aboriginum plants at numerous different pp. 2, 6; Gann et al. 2002, p. 481; Wright easily accessed by poachers (Anderson times (Bender 2011, pp. 5–6). and Maschinski 2004, p. 4; Grahl and 2001, pp. 73–78). The rarity of C. Collection for scientific and recovery Bradley 2005, pp. 2, 7; Slapcinsky et al. corallicola and H. aboriginum, coupled purposes have so far relied on the 2006, pp. 2–4). Native to South with their showy flowers, make these harvesting of cuttings from plants America, was cacti particularly desirable to collectors. growing in botanical gardens and introduced to Australia in 1925, as a Seeds of H. aboriginum and H. fragrans private collections. On the other hand, biological control agent for nonnative (the fragrant prickly-apple, a federally we expect that collection for the species of Opuntia. Adult moths deposit listed endangered cactus (listed as purposes of recovery will continue and eggs on the branches of host species. Cereus eriophorus var. fragrans) from ultimately be beneficial in augmenting When these eggs hatch, larvae then Florida’s east coast) are currently and reintroducing C. corallicola at burrow into the cacti and feed on the offered for sale by online plant suitable sites. We have no evidence that inner tissue of the plant’s stems. The distributors, demonstrating that a collection for scientific or recovery larvae then pupate, and the cycle demand exists for these cacti from purposes is a threat to Harrisia repeats. Cactoblastis cactorum was collectors. The severity of the threat of aboriginum or Consolea corallicola at extremely effective as a biological poaching is exacerbated by the fact that this time. Finally, we are not aware of control agent, and credited with

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reclaiming 6,474,970 ha (16,000,000 ac) Harrisia aboriginum direction that stems from those laws and of land infested with Opuntia species in An as yet unidentified pathogen can regulations. An example would be State Australia alone. The moth also has been attack Harrisia aboriginum and cause governmental actions enforced under a an effective control agent for Opuntia stems to rot and die within about a week State statute or constitution, or Federal species in Hawaii, India, and South (Austin 1984, p. 2; Bradley 2005, pers. action under statute. Africa. It was introduced to a few comm.). However, no signs of this State Caribbean islands in the 1960s and disease were observed at several sites 1970s, and rapidly spread throughout Chromolaena frustrata, Consolea visited in 2011 (Bender 2011, p. 19). corallicola, and Harrisia aboriginum are the Caribbean. The effectiveness of C. Herbivory of flowers by iguanas cactorum at controlling Opuntia listed on the Regulated Plant Index as (Iguana sp.) (Bradley et al. 2004, p. 30) endangered under chapter 5B–40, populations is described as ‘‘rapid and and stems by gopher tortoises (Gopherus Florida Administrative Code. The spectacular’’ (Habeck and Bennett 1990, polyphemus) (Woodmansee et al. 2007, Regulated Plant Index also includes all p. 1). The moth had spread to Florida p. 108) has been noted. Scale insects federally listed endangered and by 1989, prompting FDACS to issue an have been observed in some H. threatened plant species. Florida alert that C. cactorum, along with aboriginum populations, occasionally Statutes 581.185 sections (3)(a) and (b) another unidentified species of moth, causing severe damage to plants prohibit any person from willfully had the potential to adversely impact (Bradley 2005, pers. comm.). destroying or harvesting any species Opuntia populations due to the high Overall, evidence indicates disease listed as endangered or threatened on rate of Opuntia infestation and and predation are relatively minor the Regulated Plant Index, or growing mortality, as demonstrated in other stressors to H. aboriginum at present, such a plant on the private land of localities in the Caribbean and but could become threats in the future another, or on any public land, without elsewhere (Habeck and Bennett 1990. p. if they become more prevalent in the first obtaining the written permission of 1). Among local cactus species in the cacti populations. the landowner and a permit from the Florida Keys, C. corallicola is a Conservation Efforts to Reduce Disease Florida Department of Plant Industry preferred host (Stiling 2010, p. 190). or Predation (DPI). The statute also requires that Between 1990 and 2009, the moth collection permits issued for species infested and damaged multiple C. Cactoblastis moth (Cactoblastic listed under the Federal Act must be corallicola plants in the Florida Keys’ cactorum) monitoring and hand removal consistent with Federal standards (i.e., wild populations, killing one plant and efforts are underway at BNP and only the Service can issue permits to damaging others (TNC 2011, p. 1). Torchwood Hammock Preserve in an collect plants on Federal lands). The Fortunately, these infestations were effort to protect Consolea corallicola. No statute further provides that any person detected very early and controlled satisfactory method of large-scale willfully destroying or harvesting; before C. cactorum could kill multiple control for the Cactoblastis moth is transporting, carrying, or conveying on plants and fully spread throughout the known at this time. The USDA any public road or highway; or selling population. Planted C. corallicola Agricultural Research Service’s Center or offering for sale any plant listed in populations in the Florida Keys fared for Medical, Agricultural, and the Regulated Plant Index must have a much worse; at one planting site, 90 Veterinary Entomology in Tallahassee, permit from the State at all times when individuals (50 percent of those Florida, is developing containment engaged in any such activities. planted) were killed by C. cactorum methods including the use of female sex However, despite these regulations, over a 4-year period (Stiling 2010, p. pheromone wing traps and irradiation recent poaching is evident, and threats 193). To date, C. cactorum has not been techniques to control the spread of the to the three species (particularly the two observed in BNP (McDonough 2010a, Cactoblastis moth. These techniques cacti) remain. Lack of implementation pers. comm.). Even if the moth has not have not yet been approved for or compliance with existing regulations yet reached the BNP, it likely will, widespread use (USDA 2006, p. 9). may be a result of funding, work based on its rapid spread in the Factor D. The Inadequacy of Existing priorities, or staffing. In addition, subsections (8)(a) and (b) Caribbean and Florida. This threat has Regulatory Mechanisms the potential to cause steep declines in of the statute waive State regulation for Under this factor, we examine populations of Consolea corallicola if certain classes of activities for all whether existing regulatory mechanisms they become infested. No satisfactory species on the Regulated Plant Index, are inadequate to address the threats to including the clearing or removal of method of large-scale control is known the species discussed under the other regulated plants for agricultural, at this time (Habeck et al. 2009, p. 2). factors. Section 4(b)(1)(A) of the Act forestry, mining, construction Potential impacts to C. corallicola at the requires the Service to take into account (residential, commercial, or population level as a result of predation ‘‘those efforts, if any, being made by any infrastructure), and fire-control by C. cactorum are severe. As stated State or foreign nation, or any political activities by a private landowner or his above, experts are certain of the subdivision of a State or foreign nation, or her agent. However, section (10) of potential for the moth to cause massive to protect such species. . . .’’ In the statute provides for consultation mortality in populations of C. relation to Factor D, we interpret this similar to section 7 of the Federal Act corallicola if they become infested and language to require the Service to for listed species by requiring the the infestation is not caught early and consider relevant Federal, State, and Florida Department of Transportation to aggressively controlled. tribal laws, plans, regulations, and other notify the FDACS and the Endangered Predation by the Cuban garden snail such mechanisms that may minimize Plant Advisory Council of planned (Zachrysia provisoria) has been any of the threats we describe in threat highway construction at the time bids observed at one Consolea corallicola analyses under the other four factors, or are first advertised, to facilitate reintroduction site (Duquesnel 2008, otherwise enhance conservation of the evaluation of the project for listed plants pers. comm.). The population-level species. We give strongest weight to populations, and to ‘‘provide for the impact of the Cuban garden snail is not statutes and their implementing appropriate disposal of such plants’’ known. regulations and to management (i.e., transplanting). The Service has no

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information concerning the State of biological integrity and diversity, Factor E. Other Natural or Manmade Florida’s implementation of the planning comprehensive conservation Factors Affecting Their Continued enforcement of these regulations. for each refuge, and setting standards to Existence However, it is clear that illegal ensure that all uses of refuges are Wildfire collection and vandalism of cacti are compatible with their purposes and the both occurring, despite these and other Refuge System’s wildlife conservation Wildfire, whether naturally ignited or regulations that specifically prohibit mission. The comprehensive caused by unauthorized burning, such these activities. Implementation or conservation plans (CCPs) address as bonfires, is a threat to Consolea enforcement of these regulations has not conservation of fish, wildlife, and plant corallicola and Harrisia aboriginum. In reduced the threats to both Consolea resources and their related habitats, general, these plants do not survive corallicola and Harrisia aboriginum, as while providing opportunities for fires, making this a severe threat to they continue to decline in numbers. compatible wildlife-dependent remaining populations and occupied Shell mounds on State land, some of recreation uses. An overriding sites. At a site in Sarasota County, a which support populations of Harrisia consideration reflected in these plans is large illegal bonfire pit is located within the habitat that supports one of the aboriginum, are protected as historical that fish and wildlife conservation has larger populations of H. aboriginum. resources under Florida Statute 267.13, first priority in refuge management, and The bonfires occur just a few yards from sections (1)(a) and (b). Despite these that public use be allowed and the plants (Bender 2011, pp. 5–6). At regulations, there is a long history of encouraged as long as it is compatible least one plant was killed by an escaped utilization and excavation of shell with, or does not detract from, the fire that affected part of this site in 2006 mounds by artifact hunters in Florida, Refuge System mission and refuge causing erosion and opening areas for (Woodmansee et al. 2007, p. 108), and purpose(s). invasion by invasive plants (FNAI should another fire escape into 2010i, p. 3). The CCP for the Lower Florida Keys occupied habitat in the future, it is The Florida Division of Forestry National Wildlife Refuges (National Key reasonable to conclude this could result (FDOF) administers Florida’s outdoor Deer Refuge, Key West National Wildlife in the loss of individuals or extirpation burning and forest fire laws. Florida Refuge, and Great White Heron National of populations. Wildlife Refuge) and Crocodile Lake Statute 590.08 prohibits any person to Nonnative Plant Species willfully or carelessly burn or cause to National Wildlife Refuge provides a be burned, or to set fire to or cause fire description of the environment and Nonnative, invasive plant species are to be set to, any forest, grass, woods, priority resource issues that were a threat to all three species (Morris and wildland, or marshes not owned or considered in developing the objectives Miller 1981, pp. 1–11; Bradley et al. controlled by such person. Despite this and strategies that guide management 2004, pp. 6, 25; Woodmansee et al. regulation, unauthorized bonfires have over the next 15 years. The CCP 2007, p. 91; Bradley and Gann 2004, p. been documented at sites supporting promotes the enhancement of wildlife 8; Bradley 2007, pers. comm.; Sadle Harrisia aboriginum (Woodmansee et al. populations by maintaining and 2010, pers. comm.; McDonough 2010b, 2007, p. 108; Bender 2011, pp. 5–6). enhancing a diversity and abundance of pers. comm.). They compete with native habitats for native plants and animals, plants for space, light, water, and Federal especially imperiled species that are nutrients, and they have caused NPS regulations at 36 CFR 2.1 only found in the Florida Keys. The CCP population declines in all three species. Schinus terebinthifolius (Brazilian prohibit visitors from harming or also provides for obtaining baseline data pepper), a nonnative, invasive tree, removing plants, listed or otherwise, and monitoring indicator species to occurs in all of the habitats of the three from ENP or BNP. However, the detect changes in ecosystem diversity species. Schinus terebinthifolius forms regulation does not address actions and integrity related to climate change. dense thickets of tangled, woody stems taken by NPS that cause habitat loss or The Lower Key Refuges CCP that completely shade out and displace modification. management objective number 16 The Archaeological Resources native vegetation (Loflin 1991, p. 19; provides specifically for maintaining Langeland and Craddock-Burks 1998, p. Protection Act of 1979 (ARPA) (16 and expanding populations of candidate U.S.C. 470aa–470mm) protects 54). Schinus terebinthifolius can plant species including Chromolaena dramatically change the structure of archaeological sites, including shell frustrata and Consolea corallicola. mounds, on Federal lands. Shell rockland hammocks, coastal berms, and mounds are known from the area of ENP Special use permits (SUPs) are also shell mounds, making habitat where Chromolaena frustrata occurs; issued by the refuges as authorized by conditions unsuitable for Chromolaena however, the Service has no specific the National Wildlife Refuge System frustrata, Consolea corallicola, and information regarding illegally Administration Act (16 U.S. C. 668dd– Harrisia aboriginum, which prefer excavated or vandalized shell mounds 668ee) as amended, and the Refuge moderate to full sun exposure. For at ENP. Recreation Act (16 U.S. C. 460k–460k– example, at more than one site, The Service has no information 4). The SUPs cover commercial numerous H. aboriginum plants concerning ENP’s or BNP’s activities (commercial activities such as occurring in the shade of S. implementation of the enforcement of guiding hunters, anglers, or other terebinthifolius were observed to have these Federal authorities protecting the outdoor users; commercial filming; died (Bradley et al. 2004, p. 10; Bender plants and their habitats from harm. agriculture; and trapping); research and 2011, pp. 5, 13). By the mid-1990s, S. Implementation or enforcement may not monitoring by students, universities, or terebinthifolius had spread dramatically be adequate to reduce the threat to the other non-Service organizations; and and had become a dominant woody two species in the future if the species general use (woodcutting, miscellaneous species at sites known to support H. continue to decline in numbers. events (fishing tournaments, one-time aboriginum (Morris and Miller 1981, pp. The National Wildlife Refuge System events, other special events), education 5, 10; Loflin 1991, p. 19; Herwitz et al. Improvement Act of 1997 and the Fish activity). The Service has no 1996, pp. 705–715; Bradley et al. 2004, and Wildlife Service Manual (601 FW 3, information concerning the issuance of p. 7). Schinus terebinthifolius is a threat 602 FW 3) require maintaining SUPs for any of the three species. to populations of Chromolaena frustrata

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along the Coastal Prairie Trail in ENP numerous H. aboriginum plants that disturbances historically, but had the (Sadle 2010, pers. comm.) and is have been uprooted, trampled, and benefit of more abundant and invading the habitat of Consolea hacked with sharp implements. This contiguous habitat to buffer them from corallicola (McDonough 2010b, pers. population is impacted by people who extirpations. With most of the historical comm.). use the coastal berm and hammock habitat having been destroyed or Colubrina asiatica (lather leaf), a interface to engage in a variety of modified, the few remaining nonnative shrub, has invaded large recreational (including unauthorized) populations of these species could face areas of coastal berm and coastal berm activities as evidenced by a very large local extirpations due to stochastic edges (Bradley and Gann 2004, p. 4). bonfire site and vast quantities of events. Colubrina asiatica also forms dense garbage, bottles, and discarded clothing The Florida Keys were impacted by thickets and mats, and is of particular (Bender 2011, p. 5). three hurricanes in 2005: Katrina on concern in coastal hammocks Due to their historic significance and August 26th, Rita on September 20th, (Langeland and Craddock-Burks 1998, possible presence of artifacts, shell and Wilma on October 24th. Hurricane p. 122). Colubrina asiatica is invading mounds are susceptible to vandalism by Wilma had the largest impact, with large areas of hammocks within ENP artifact hunters. Despite regulations that storm surges flooding much of the along the edge of Florida Bay (Bradley protect these sites on State lands landmass of the Keys. The vegetation in and Gann 1999, p. 37). Populations of (Florida Statute 267.13), there is a long many areas was top-killed due to salt Chromolaena frustrata along the Coastal history of artifact hunters conducting water inundation (Hodges and Bradley Prairie Trail and habitat within ENP unauthorized excavation of shell 2006, p. 9). face threats from Colubrina asiatica mounds in Florida, including some Chromolaena frustrata (Sadle, pers. comm. 2010). Colubrina mounds where Harrisia aboriginum has asiatica is also present in BNP in areas been found, causing erosion and The ecology of coastal rock barrens is supporting Consolea corallicola opening areas for invasion by nonnative poorly understood. Periodic storm (McDonough 2010b, pers. comm.). plants (FNAI 2010i, p. 3). events may be responsible for Casuarina equisetifolia (Australian maintaining the community (Bradley pine) invades coastal berm and is a Recreation and Gann 1999, p. 37). There is some threat to suitable habitat at most sites Recreational activities may evidence that, over the long term, that could support all three species inadvertently impact some populations hurricanes can be beneficial to the (FNAI 2010a, p. 2). Casuarina of Chromolaena frustrata. These species by opening up tree canopies equisetifolia forms dense stands that activities may affect some individual allowing more light to penetrate, exclude all other species through dense plants in some populations but have not thereby creating the necessary shade and a thick layer of needles that likely caused significant population conditions for growth (Woodmansee et contain substances that leach out and declines in the species. Foot traffic and al. 2007, p. 115). The large population suppress the growth of other plants. campsites at Big Munson Island may be of Chromolaena frustrata observed at Coastal strand habitat that once a threat to Chromolaena frustrata. Big Munson Island in 2004 suggests that supported Harrisia aboriginum has Recreation is a threat to some this species may respond positively to experienced dramatic increases in C. populations of Harrisia aboriginum. occasional hurricanes or tropical storms equisetifolia over the past 30 years Coastal berms and dunes are impacted that thin hammock canopies, providing (Loflin 1991, p. 19; Herwitz et al. 1996, by recreational activities that cause more light (Bradley and Gann 2004, p. pp. 705–715). trampling of plants, exacerbate erosion, 8). Populations of C. frustrata in ENP Other invasive plant species that are and facilitate invasion by nonnative initially appeared to have been a threat to Chromolaena frustrata, plants. As noted above, in 2011, eliminated by storm surge during Consolea corallicola, and Harrisia numerous plants at a Sarasota County Hurricane Wilma in 2005 (Bradley 2007, aboriginum include Scaevola taccada site were observed to be intentionally pers. comm.; Duquesnel 2005, pers. (beach naupaka), Neyraudia uprooted, hacked, and trampled, and comm.), and habitat was significantly reynaudiana (Burma reed), Cupaniopsis there was a large amount of trash altered (Maschinski 2007, pers. comm.). anacardioides (carrotwood), Thespesia deposited nearby. At the same site, there All communities where C. frustrata was populnea (Portia tree), Manilkara is an ongoing problem with recreational found showed impacts from the 2005 zapota (sapodilla), Hibiscus tiliaceus bonfires in the coastal berm habitat just hurricane season, primarily thinning of (hau), and Hylocereus undatus (night a few yards from H. aboriginum plants the canopy and numerous blow downs blooming cactus) (FNAI 2010f, p. 4; (Bradley 2004, p. 16; Woodmansee et al. (Sadle 2007, pers. comm.). However, it Bradley et al. 2004, p. 13; McDonough 2007, p. 108; Bender 2011, pp. 5–6). appears that the species has returned to 2010b, pers. comm.). One escaped bonfire has the potential to some locations (Bradley 2009, pers. destroy this entire population. comm.). The population of C. frustrata Vandalism in ENP may have benefited from Vandalism is a threat to Consolea Hurricanes, Storm Surge, and Extreme hurricanes; surveys at some sites in ENP corallicola and Harrisia aboriginum, High Tide Events in 2007 detected more plants than ever and has caused population declines in Hurricanes, storm surge, and extreme previously reported (Sadle 2007, pers. both species. For Consolea corallicola, high tide events are natural events that comm.). However, if nonnative, invasive vandalism has been documented twice. can pose a threat to all three species. plants are present at sites when a storm In 1990, branches were cut off plants at Hurricanes and tropical storms can hits, they may respond similarly, one site, but instead of being taken (as modify habitat (e.g., through storm becoming dominant and not allowing would be the case for poaching), the cut surge) and have the potential to destroy for a pulse in the population of native stems were left at the base of plants. In entire populations. Climate change may species. This may radically alter the 2003, vegetative recruits and pads were lead to increased frequency and long-term population dynamics of C. damaged by unauthorized removal of duration of severe storms (Golladay et frustrata, keeping population sizes protective cages from plants (Slapcinsky al. 2004, p. 504; McLaughlin et al. 2002, small or declining, until they eventually et al. 2006, p. 3). At a Sarasota County p. 6074; Cook et al. 2004, p. 1015). All disappear (Bradley and Gann 2004, p. site, the Service has documented three species experienced these 8).

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Consolea corallicola characteristics face an increased Harrisia aboriginum Suitable habitat such as coastal rock likelihood of stochastic extinction due The current range of Harrisia barrens on Key Largo have been to changes in demography, the aboriginum spans such a small inundated with saltwater during spring environment, genetics, or other factors geographic area (100-km (62-mi) stretch and fall high tides over the past 5 to 10 (Gilpin and Soule 1986, pp. 24–34). of coastline north to south) that all years; these extreme events killed Small, isolated populations often populations could be affected by a planted Consolea corallicola at one exhibit reduced levels of genetic single event (e.g., hurricane). Six of the location (Duquesnel 2011a, pers. variability, which diminishes the 12 remaining populations have 10 or comm.). In the future, sea level rise species’ capacity to adapt and respond fewer individual plants (see table 3). could cause increases in flooding to environmental changes, thereby Threats exacerbated by small population frequency or duration, prolonged or decreasing the probability of long-term size include hurricanes, storm surges, complete inundation of plants, and loss persistence (e.g., Barrett and Kohn 1991, freezing temperatures, recreation of suitable habitat (see Climate Change p. 4; Newman and Pilson 1997, p. 361). impacts, wildfires, and poaching. and Sea Level Rise, below, for more Very small plant populations may Chromolaena frustrata, Consolea information). experience reduced reproductive vigor corallicola, and Harrisia aboriginum Harrisia aboriginum due to ineffective pollination or have restricted geographic distributions, and few populations, some or all of In 2004, Hurricane Charley, a inbreeding depression. Isolated individuals have difficulty achieving which are relatively small in number Category 4 hurricane, passed within 8 and extent. Therefore, it is essential to natural pollen exchange, which limits km (5 miles) of seven populations of maintain the habitats upon which they the production of viable seed. The Harrisia aboriginum and within 29 km depend, which require protection from problems associated with small (18 miles) of all populations (Bradley disturbance caused by development, population size and vulnerability to and Woodmansee 2004, p. 1). Several recreational activities and facilities random demographic fluctuations or populations suffered damage and loss of maintenance, nonnative species, or a plants (Nielsen 2007, pers. comm.; natural catastrophes are further combination of these. Due to ongoing Woodmansee et al. 2007, p. 85) due to magnified by synergistic interactions and pervasive threats, the number and fallen limbs and shock caused by the with other threats, such as those size of existing populations of these sudden increase in sun exposure when discussed above (Factors A, B, and C). species are probably not sufficient to the canopy was opened. However, some sustain them into the future. plants damaged by Hurricane Charley in Chromolaena frustrata 2004 have since recovered and seem to The current range of Chromolaena Climate Change and Sea Level Rise be thriving (Nielsen 2009, pers. comm.). frustrata includes eight populations Our analyses under the Act include Freezing Temperatures spread across 209 km (130 mi) between consideration of ongoing and projected changes in climate. The terms ‘‘climate’’ Occasional freezing temperatures that ENP and Boca Grande Key; four of eight occur in south Florida are a threat to C. frustrata populations consist of fewer and ‘‘climate change’’ are defined by the Chromolaena frustrata (Bradley 2009, than 100 individuals (see table 1). These Intergovernmental Panel on Climate pers. comm.; Sadle 2011b, pers. comm.) populations may not be viable in the Change (IPCC). The term ‘‘climate’’ and Harrisia aboriginum (Woodmansee long term due to their small number of refers to the mean and variability of et al. 2007, p. 91). Under normal individuals. Threats exacerbated by different types of weather conditions circumstances, occasional freezing small population size include over time, with 30 years being a typical temperatures would not result in a hurricanes, storm surges, climate period for such measurements, although significant impact to these species; change, freezing temperatures, and shorter or longer periods also may be however, the small size of some recreation impacts. used (IPCC 2007a, p. 78). The term populations makes impacts from ‘‘climate change’’ thus refers to a change Consolea corallicola freezing more significant. in the mean or variability of one or more measures of climate (e.g., temperature or Effects of Small Population Size and The two natural populations of precipitation) that persists for an Isolation Consolea corallicola are spread across extended period, typically decades or 193 km (120 mi) between Biscayne Bay Endemic species whose populations longer, whether the change is due to and Big Pine Key. One of the two exhibit a high degree of isolation are natural variability, human activity, or remaining natural populations of C. extremely susceptible to extinction from both (IPCC 2007a, p. 78). both random and nonrandom corallicola consists of fewer than 20 Scientific measurements spanning catastrophic natural or human-caused adult plants (see table 2). Threats several decades demonstrate that events. Species that are restricted to exacerbated by small population size changes in climate are occurring, and geographically limited areas are include hurricanes, storm surges, and that the rate of change has been faster inherently more vulnerable to extinction poaching. Populations can also be since the 1950s. Examples include than widespread species because of the impacted by demographic stochasticity, warming of the global climate system, increased risk of genetic bottlenecks, where populations are skewed toward and substantial increases in random demographic fluctuations, either male or female individuals by precipitation in some regions of the climate change, and localized chance. This may be the case with C. world and decreases in other regions. catastrophes such as hurricanes and corallicola, in which the two remaining (For these and other examples, see IPCC disease outbreaks (Mangel and Tier populations do not contain any female 2007a, p. 30; and Solomon et al. 2007, 1994, p. 607; Pimm et al. 1998, p. 757). plants. While the species may continue pp. 35–54, 82–85). Results of scientific These problems are further magnified to reproduce indefinitely by clonal analyses presented by the IPCC show when populations are few and restricted means, populations may not be viable that most of the observed increase in to a very small geographic area, and over the long term due to a lack of global average temperature since the when the number of individuals is very genetic mixing and thus the potential to mid-20th century cannot be explained small. Populations with these adapt to environmental changes. by natural variability in climate, and is

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‘‘very likely’’ (defined by the IPCC as 90 analysis. Vulnerability refers to the sea level, and the effects of sea level rise percent or higher probability) due to the degree to which a species (or system) is are expected to be a continual problem observed increase in greenhouse gas susceptible to, and unable to cope with, for these species and their habitats (GHG) concentrations in the atmosphere adverse effects of climate change, (Gann et al. 2002, pp. 391, 481; Bradley as a result of human activities, including climate variability and et al. 2004, p. 7; Sadle 2007, pers. particularly carbon dioxide emissions extremes. Vulnerability is a function of comm.; Higgins 2007, pers. comm.; from use of fossil fuels (IPCC 2007a, pp. the type, magnitude, and rate of climate Duquesnel 2008, pers. comm.; Saha et 5–6 and figures SPM.3 and SPM.4; change and variation to which a species al. 2011, p. 81). We acknowledge that Solomon et al. 2007, pp. 21–35). Further is exposed, its sensitivity, and its the drivers of sea level rise (especially confirmation of the role of GHGs comes adaptive capacity (IPCC 2007a, p. 89; contributions of melting glaciers) are not from analyses by Huber and Knutti see also Glick et al. 2011, pp. 19–22). completely understood, and there is (2011, p. 4), who concluded it is There is no single method for uncertainty with regard to the rate and extremely likely that approximately 75 conducting such analyses that applies to amount of sea level rise. This percent of global warming since 1950 all situations (Glick et al. 2011, p. 3). We uncertainty increases as projections are has been caused by human activities. use our expert judgment and made further into the future. For this Scientists use a variety of climate appropriate analytical approaches to reason, we examine threats to the models, which include consideration of weigh relevant information, including species within the range of projections natural processes and variability, as uncertainty, in our consideration of found in recent climate change well as various scenarios of potential various aspects of climate change. literature. levels and timing of GHG emissions, to As is the case with all stressors that The long-term record at Key West evaluate the causes of changes already we assess, even if we conclude that a shows that sea level rose on average observed and to project future changes species is currently affected or is likely 0.224 cm (0.088 in) annually between in temperature and other climate to be affected in a negative way by one 1913 and 2006 (National Oceanographic conditions (e.g., Meehl et al. 2007, or more climate-related impacts, it does and Atmospheric Administration entire; Ganguly et al. 2009, pp. 11555, not necessarily follow that the species (NOAA) 2008, p. 1). This equates to 15558; Prinn et al. 2011, pp. 527, 529). meets the definition of an ‘‘endangered approximately 22.3 cm (8.76 in) over the All combinations of models and species’’ or a ‘‘threatened species’’ last 100 years (NOAA 2008, p. 1). IPCC emissions scenarios yield very similar under the Act. If a species is listed as (2008, p. 28) emphasized it is very likely projections of increases in the most endangered or threatened, knowledge that the average rate of sea level rise common measure of climate change, regarding the vulnerability of the during the 21st century will exceed the average global surface temperature species to, and known or anticipated historical rate. The IPCC Special Report (commonly known as global warming), impacts from, climate-associated on Emission Scenarios (2000) presented until about 2030. Although projections changes in environmental conditions a range of scenarios based on the of the magnitude and rate of warming can be used to help devise appropriate computed amount of change in the differ after about 2030, the overall strategies for its recovery. climate system due to various potential trajectory of all the projections is one of Global climate projections are amounts of anthropogenic greenhouse increased global warming through the informative, and, in some cases, the gases and aerosols in 2100. Each end of this century, even for the only or the best scientific information scenario describes a future world with projections based on scenarios that available for us to use. However, varying levels of atmospheric pollution assume that GHG emissions will projected changes in climate and related leading to corresponding levels of global stabilize or decline. Thus, there is strong impacts can vary substantially across warming and corresponding levels of scientific support for projections that and within different regions of the sea level rise. warming will continue through the 21st world (e.g., IPCC 2007a, pp. 8–12). Subsequent to the 2007 IPCC Report, century, and that the magnitude and Therefore, we use ‘‘downscaled’’ the scientific community has continued rate of change will be influenced projections when they are available and to model sea level rise. Recent peer substantially by the extent of GHG have been developed through reviewed publications indicate a emissions (IPCC 2007a, pp. 44–45; appropriate scientific procedures, movement towards increased Meehl et al. 2007, pp. 760–764 and 797– because such projections provide higher acceleration of sea level rise. Observed 811; Ganguly et al. 2009, pp. 15555– resolution information that is more sea level rise rates are already trending 15558; Prinn et al. 2011, pp. 527, 529). relevant to spatial scales used for along the higher end of the 2007 IPCC (See IPCC 2007b, p. 8, for a summary of analyses of a given species (see Glick et estimates, and it now widely held that other global projections of climate- al. 2011, pp. 58–61, for a discussion of sea level rise will exceed the levels related changes, such as frequency of downscaling). projected by the IPCC (Rahmstorf et al. heat waves and changes in With regard to our analysis for 2012, p. 1; Grinsted et al. 2010, p. 470). precipitation. Also see IPCC Chromolaena frustrata, Consolea Taken together, these studies support 2011(entire) for a summary of corallicola, and Harrisia aboriginum, the use of higher end estimates now observations and projections of extreme downscaled projections suggest that sea- prevalent in the scientific literature. climate events.). level rise is the largest climate-driven Recent studies have estimated global Various changes in climate may have challenge to low-lying coastal areas and mean sea level rise of 1 to 2 m (3.3 to direct or indirect effects on species. refuges in the subtropical ecoregion of 6.6 ft) by 2100 as follows: 0.75 m to 1.90 These effects may be positive, neutral, southern Florida (U.S. Climate Change m (2.5 to 6.2 ft; Vermeer and Rahmstorf or negative, and they may change over Science Program (CCSP) 2008, pp. 5–31, 2009, p. 21527), 0.8 m to 2.0 m (2.6 to time, depending on the species and 5–32). The three species occur in 6.6 ft; Pfeffer et al. 2008, p. 1342), 0.8 other relevant considerations, such as habitats near sea level in areas of south m to 1.3 m (2.6 to 4.3 ft; Grinsted et al. interactions of climate with other Florida where considerable habitat is 2010, p. 470), 0.6 m to 1.6 m (2.0 to 5.2 variables (e.g., habitat fragmentation) projected to be lost to sea level rise by ft; Jevrejeva et al. 2010, p. 4), and 0.5 m (IPCC 2007, pp. 8–14, 18–19). 2100 (Saha et al 2011, p. 81; Zhang et to 1.40 m (1.6 to 4.6 ft; NRC 2012, p. 2). Identifying likely effects often involves al. 2011, p. 129). Most populations are Sea level rise projections from various aspects of climate change vulnerability located less than 2 m (6.6 ft) above mean scenarios have been downscaled by

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TNC (2011; entire) and Zhang et al. Chromolaena frustrata would be lost to inundation, but not the (2011; entire) for the Florida Keys. A 1.8-m (5.9-ft) rise would inundate relatively higher coastal berm and Using the IPCC best-case, low pollution all existing mainland Chromolaena hardwood hammock habitats that scenario, a rise of 18 cm (7 in) (a rate frustrata occurrences in ENP. The support H. aboriginum. The occurrence close to the historical average reported closest area with uplands would be at at Charlotte Harbor Preserve on an elevated coastal berm would also above) would result in the inundation of least 20 miles north near Homestead, on 23,796 ha (58,800 acres) or 38.2 percent remain above sea level. However, while the slightly raised elevations provided of the Florida Keys upland area by the they would not be inundated, these by the Miami rock ridge. In the Florida year 2100 (TNC 2011, p. 25). Under the areas would be rendered much more Keys, Key Largo would be transformed IPCC worst case, high pollution susceptible to habitat loss or into a series of smaller islands aligned scenario, a rise of 59 cm (23.2 in) would modification due storm surges and with the high spine of the Key, which result in the inundation of 46,539 ha salinization as the elevation of these is mostly occupied by the U.S. 1 (115,000 acres) or 74.7 percent of the becomes nearer to sea level. Existing highway corridor. Upper Matecumbe Florida Keys upland area by the year occurrences on Cayo Pelau, Gasparilla Key would follow a similar pattern, and 2100 (TNC 2011, p. 25). Using Island, Bokeelia Island, and Buck Key the existing occurrence location Rahmstorf et al. (2007; p. 368) sea level would be totally inundated. No upland rise projections of 100 to 140 cm, 80.5 supporting C. frustrata would be habitat would remain on Cayo Pelau or to 92.2 percent of the Florida Keys land inundated. The locations of existing Bokeelia Island, and very little would area would be inundated by 2100. The occurrences on Lignumvitae Key would remain on Gasparilla Island or Buck Zhang et al. (2011, p. 136) study models be inundated. On all of these Keys, Key. On the mainland, the existing sea level rise up to 1.8 m (5.9 ft) for the existing buttonwood and coastal berm occurrence at Lemon Bay Preserve Florida Keys, which would inundate habitat would be lost. Effects to would be completely inundated, while 93.6 percent of the current land area of buttonwood forests are already observed occurrences on elevated shell mounds at the Keys. from salinity intrusion as these forests Historic Spanish Point and Charlotte Prior to inundation, the habitats that are converting to mangroves. However, Harbor Preserve would be relatively support these species will undergo a some areas that are currently rockland secure given a 1.8-m (5.9-ft) sea level transition to salt marshes or mangroves hammock would remain above sea level, rise. (Saha et al. 2011, pp. 81–82, 105) and although they may transition to other In summary, the current occurrences be increasingly vulnerable to storm habitat types which may or may not be of Harrisia aboriginum at Live Oak Key surge. Habitats for these species are suitable for C. frustrata. Lower (1), Gasparilla Island (2), Bokeelia Island restricted to relatively immobile Matecumbe Key would lose all upland (1), Cayo Pelau (1), Lemon Bay Preserve geologic features separated by large habitat. Long Key would be reduced to (1), and Buck Key (1) would be expanses of flooded, inhospitable just two areas with elevation raised by inundated by a 1.8-m (5.9-ft) sea level wetland or ocean, leading us to fill. The remainder of the species’ range, rise, leading to the loss of these conclude that these habitats will likely including Big Pine Key, Big Munson populations. Occurrences at Longboat not be able to migrate as sea level rises Island, and Boca Grande Key and all Key (1), North Manasota Key (2–3), and (Saha et al. 2011, pp. 103–104). Because upland habitat and areas supporting C. on a coastal berm in Charlotte Harbor of the extreme fragmentation of frustrata, would be inundated by 2100. Preserve (1) would not be completely remaining habitat and isolation of Lignumvitae Key is the only existing inundated, but would experience remaining populations, and the occupied location that could continue to significant loss and modification of accelerating rate at which sea level rise support a population given a 1.8-m (5.9- habitat, and what remains would be is projected to occur (Grinsted et al. ft) sea level rise. highly susceptible to further losses to 2010, p. 470), it will be particularly Consolea corallicola storm surge and salinization. Two difficult for these species to disperse to occurrences, Charlotte Harbor Preserve suitable habitat once existing sites that A 1.8-m (5.9-ft) sea level rise would (1) and Historic Spanish Point (1), support them are lost to sea level rise. completely inundate Little Torch Key would be relatively secure from sea Patterns of development will also likely and severely reduce the area of habitat level rise through 2100, due to the be significant factors influencing remaining on Swan Key, including all higher elevation of their shell mound whether natural communities can move areas currently supporting C. habitat. and persist (IPCC 2008, p. 57; CCSP corallicola. In 2100, the nearest upland Habitat Change Due to Increased Soil 2008, p. 7–6). The plant species face habitats from Little Torch Key may be and Groundwater Salinity significant risks from coastal squeeze as far as 100 miles north in peninsular that occurs when habitat is pressed Florida, or 100 miles south in Cuba. On Plant communities in coastal areas between rising sea levels and coastal Swan Key, the species may be able to serve as early indicators of the effects of development that prevents landward disperse to the remaining higher sea level rise (IPCC 2008, p. 57). These migration of species. The ultimate effect ground, and the location could continue effects have been observed in the past of these impacts is likely to result in to support a population given a 1.8-m and are presently driving changes in reductions in reproduction and survival, (5.9-ft) sea level rise. plant communities in coastal South Florida. Sea level rise is a threat to and corresponding decreases in Harrisia aboriginum population numbers. south Florida’s low-lying coasts where When analyzed using the National A 1.8-m (5.9-ft) rise would greatly plant communities are organized along Oceanic and Atmospheric reduce the area of all barrier islands on a mild gradient in elevation, from Administration (NOAA) Sea Level Rise the Gulf Coast of Florida that support mangroves at sea level to salinity- and Coastal Impacts viewer, we can Harrisia aboriginum, including intolerant coastal hardwood hammocks generalize as to the impact of a 1.8-m Longboat Key, North Manasota Key, on localized elevations generally less (5.9-ft) sea level rise (the maximum Gasparilla Island, Cayo Costa, and Buck than 2 m (6.6 ft) above sea level (Saha available using this tool) on the current Key. The majority of the upland area, et al. 2011, p. 82). Field data collected distribution of these species. Analysis including all lower elevation habitats on over 11 years in hardwood hammocks for each species at each location follow. Longboat Key and North Manasota Key and coastal buttonwood forests in ENP

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show that salt-tolerant plant species are timing, and distribution), and storms that will be less vulnerable to storm replacing salt-intolerant species. It is (frequency and intensity). Temperatures surge events and sea level rise. predicted that buttonwood forests will are projected to rise by 2 °C to 5 °C (35.6 Ex situ Conservation exhibit fragmentation and decline in °F to 41.5 °F) for North America by the cover because of saltwater intrusion. A end of this century (IPCC 2007, pp. 7– Fairchild Tropical Botanic Garden decline in the extent of coastal 9, 13). (FTBG) has 44 seed collections of hardwood hammocks and buttonwood In the case of these plants, a key Chromolaena frustrata from ENP, which forests is predicted with the initial rise threat is loss and modification of the were provided to the National Center for in sea level before the onset of sustained species’ primary habitat to sea level rise. Genetic Resources Preservation erosional inundation. Though this study Habitat loss is ongoing and expected to (NCGRP) for testing and storage, and focuses on ENP, it has implications for continue through 2100, with one collection from Lignumvitae Key. coastal forests threatened by saltwater acceleration in the rate of rise in the They have no living specimens of C. intrusion throughout coastal South second half of the century. Both the frustrata at FTBG. FTBG has 11 Florida (Saha et al. 2011, pp. 81–82, amount and the quality of that habitat collections of Consolea corallicola, 105). Similar changes in plant will be significantly reduced from representing both wild populations, communities have been observed in the historic levels over the next 50 to 100 each of which is represented by at least Florida Keys due to saltwater intrusion years. one living specimen of at FTBG, for a (Ross et al. 1994, p. 144; 2009, p. 471). The IPCC Special Report on total of 17 living specimens. FTBG has From the 1930s to 1950s, increased Emissions Scenarios projections are five collections of Harrisia aboriginum salinity of coastal waters contributed to widely used in the assessments of future from the Buck Key population, four of the decline of cabbage palm forests in climate change and their underlying which are represented by at least one southwest Florida (Williams et al. 1999, assumptions with respect to socio- living specimen at FTBG, for a total of pp. 2056–2059), expansion of economic, demographic, and five living specimens (Maschinski mangroves into adjacent marshes in the technological change serve as inputs to 2013a, pers. comm.). Everglades (Ross et al. 2000, pp. 9, 12– many recent climate change Key West Botanical Garden (KWBG) 13), and loss of pine rockland in the vulnerability and impact assessments has one collection of Chromolaena Keys (Ross et al. 1994, pp. 144, 151– (IPCC 2077, p. 44). There is a tight, frustrata from Big Munson Island. 155). The possible effects of sea level observed relationship between global Numerous C. frustrata are planted on rise were noted in the 1980s, at a site average temperature rise and sea level the KWBG grounds. KWBG has one supporting Harrisia aboriginum (Morris rise over the recent observational record collection of Consolea corallicola and Miller 1981, p. 10), and recent (∼120 years) (Rahmstorf 2007, p. 368). represented by several living specimens deaths of cabbage palms at this location Sea level rise projections through 2100 (Maschinski 2013b, pers. comm.). suggest that this is a continuing threat are the standard in the assessment and Nonnative Species Control (Bradley et al. 2004, p. 7). Furthermore, planning literature (IPCC 2007, p. 45; Ross et al. (2009, pp. 471–478) Grinsted et al. 2010, p. 468; Jevrejeva et The Service; NPS; State of Florida; suggested that interactions between sea al. 2010, p. 4; NRC 2010, p. 2; Pfeffer et Sarasota, Charlotte, Lee, Miami-Dade, level rise and pulse disturbances such al. 2008, p. 1340; Rahmstorf et al. 2012, and Monroe Counties; and several local as storm surges can cause vegetation to p. 3; USACE 2011, EC 1165–2–212, p. governments conduct nonnative species change sooner than projected based on B–11) and represent the best available control efforts on sites that support sea level alone. science for assessing climate change Chromolaena frustrata, Consolea Research on Consolea corallicola threats. Therefore, we have determined corallicola, and Harrisia aboriginum. (Stiling 2010, p. 2) and other Florida the foreseeable future for Chromolaena Cumulative Impacts cacti suggests that increased soil salinity frustrata, Consolea corallicola, and Cumulative Effects From Factors A levels can cause mortality of these Harrisia aboriginum for climate change Through E plants (Goodman et al. 2012b, pp. 9–11). effects to be to the year 2100. Natural populations of Harrisia Cumulative Effects of Threats aboriginum and Consolea corallicola do Conservation Efforts To Reduce Other not occur on saturated soils (fresh or Natural or Manmade Factors Affecting Some of the threats discussed in this saline) and would likely be extirpated at Their Continued Existence finding could work in concert with one another to cumulatively create sites affected by sea level rise. Reintroductions Populations of Consolea corallicola situations that impact Chromolaena occur near sea level in a transitional Reintroductions of Consolea frustrata, Consolea corallicola, and zone between mangrove and hardwood corallicola have been implemented at Harrisia aboriginum beyond the scope hammock habitats. Populations at two several locations on State lands in the of the combined threats that we have sites have been declining for years, and Florida Keys, but these have been already analyzed. The limited this may be partially attributed to rising largely unsuccessful due to Cactoblastis distributions and small population sizes sea level, as most of the cacti are on the moth predation, crown rot, and burial of of Chromolaena frustrata, Consolea edge of the hammock and buttonwood small plants by leaf litter. corallicola, and Harrisia aboriginum transition zone or directly in the Reintroduction of C. corallicola serves make them extremely susceptible to transition zone (Higgins 2007, pers. multiple objectives towards the plant’s further habitat loss and competition comm.; Duquesnel 2008, 2009, pers. conservation, including increasing the from nonnative species. Poaching, comm.). At some C. corallicola sites, number of populations to address the vandalism, and wildfires are additional current salinity conditions appear threat of few, small populations; threats to Consolea corallicola and unsuitable for plant maturation and establishing populations across a wider Harrisia aboriginum. Mechanisms population expansion (Duquesnel 2012, geographic area to reduce the chance leading to the decline of these species, pers. comm.; Stiling 2012, pers. comm.). that all populations will be affected by as discussed above, range from local Other processes expected to be natural disturbances, such as hurricanes (e.g., poaching, vandalism, wildfire), to affected by climate change include and storm surge events; and establishing regional (e.g., development, nonnative temperatures, rainfall (amount, seasonal populations at higher elevation sites species), to global (e.g., climate change,

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sea level rise). The synergistic of the above threat factors, singly or in temperatures (Factor E), and herbivory (interaction of two or more components) combination. (Factor C). Stochastic events such as effects of threats (such as hurricane hurricanes, and resulting storm surge Determination for Chromolaena effects on a species with a limited frustrata and extreme high tide events, can distribution consisting of just a few modify habitat and destroy entire small populations) make it difficult to We have carefully assessed the best populations (Factor E). Finally, existing predict population viability. While scientific and commercial data available regulatory mechanisms are inadequate these stressors may act in isolation, it is regarding the past, present, and future to address current threats, and current more probable that many stressors are threats to Chromolaena frustrata. conservation measures have not acting simultaneously (or in Chromolaena frustrata is, and will reversed population declines or habitat combination) on populations of continue to be, affected by threats that loss (Factor D). These threats have acted Chromolaena frustrata, Consolea we discussed under Factors A, C, D, and on populations of C. frustrata in the corallicola, and Harrisia aboriginum. E, above. Except for ENP and Big past, are acting on them currently, and Munson Island, all populations are Summary of Threats are expected to continue to act on them small and widely separated from one in the foreseeable future. The threats The decline of Chromolaena frustrata, another by unsuitable habitat. Small described are imminent and severe, and Consolea corallicola, and Harrisia populations are more vulnerable to some threats, including hurricanes, aboriginum is primarily the result of genetic bottlenecks, catastrophic events, storm surge, nonnative species, and sea habitat loss (Factor A), competition from and random demographic fluctuations level rise, affect all populations. nonnative plants, predation by (Factor E). C. frustrata is a relatively The Act defines an endangered nonnative herbivores (Factor C), climate short-lived plant and often exhibits species as any species that is ‘‘in danger change, storms, wildfire, and other wide demographic fluctuations in of extinction throughout all or a anthropogenic threats (Factor E). In response to changing habitat conditions significant portion of its range’’ and a addition, Consolea corallicola and such as canopy closure and canopy threatened species as any species ‘‘that Harrisia aboriginum are impacted by opening. The size of the Big Munson is likely to become endangered over collection for unauthorized trade of Island population is currently unknown. throughout all or a significant portion of these cacti (Factor B). Various nonnative However, we believe it may be much its range within the foreseeable future.’’ species of plants and herbivores are reduced since the 2004 estimate due to We find that Chromolaena frustrata is firmly established in the range of post-hurricane canopy regrowth, presently in danger of extinction Chromolaena frustrata, Consolea herbivory, or other threats. corallicola, and Harrisia aboriginum Of 12 historically known populations, throughout its entire range based on the and continue to impact the species in 4 have been lost to development. severity and immediacy of threats localized areas (Factor C). Currently, one of the remaining eight currently impacting the species. Its Current State and Federal regulatory populations occur on private lands and overall range has been significantly mechanisms (Factor D) appear to be are vulnerable to development (Factor reduced; the remaining habitat and inadequate to protect Chromolaena A). Visitor use of public lands is populations are threatened by a variety frustrata, Consolea corallicola, and increasing, as is the pressure to provide of factors acting in combination to Harrisia aboriginum from collection. additional visitor facilities, amenities, reduce the overall viability of Other causes of decline of Chromolaena and recreational opportunities. While Chromolaena frustrata. The risk of frustrata, Consolea corallicola, and relatively secure, those populations are extinction for Chromolaena frustrata is Harrisia aboriginum include climate vulnerable to recreation impacts, high because the remaining populations change (including sea level rise), facilities development, and park are isolated, with some being small, and inadvertent vandalism, wildfire, and maintenance (Factor A). have limited potential for isolated small populations, and these Each of the eight remaining recolonization. Therefore, on the basis continue to be the threats to these populations is vulnerable to habitat loss of the best scientific and commercial species (Factor E). Although there are and modification from sea level rise data available, we have determined that ongoing attempts to alleviate some of (Factor E). Increased salinity of water Chromolaena frustrata meets the these threats at some locations, there tables underlying C. frustrata habitat, definition of an endangered species in appear to be no populations without due to sea level rise, is presently driving accordance with sections 3(6) and significant threats. changes in buttonwood forests in coastal 4(a)(1) of the Act. south Florida. These forests are We find that a threatened species Determinations transforming into more saline plant status is not appropriate for Section 4 of the Act (16 U.S.C. 1533), communities with conditions unsuitable Chromolaena frustrata because of the and its implementing regulations at 50 for C. frustrata. The effects of sea level severity of the current threats acting on CFR part 424, set forth the procedures rise are expected to be a continual threat the small, isolated populations where for adding species to the Federal Lists to the species and its habitats into the the species still persists. These threats of Endangered and Threatened Wildlife foreseeable future. Seven of eight are occurring rangewide and are not and Plants. Under section 4(a)(1) of the locations currently supporting C. concentrated in any particular portion Act, we may list a species based on (A) frustrata will be completely inundated of the range. Due to the severity of the The present or threatened destruction, by the projected 1.8-m (5.8-ft) sea level threats, natural recolonization of the modification, or curtailment of its rise by 2100. As habitat is fragmented by plant’s historical range is not possible; habitat or range; (B) overutilization for the effects of sea level rise and because the threats are ongoing and commercial, recreational, scientific, or development, it will be difficult for the expected to continue into the educational purposes; (C) disease or species or its habitats to overcome foreseeable future, this places predation; (D) the inadequacy of manmade and natural barriers to Chromolaena frustrata in danger of existing regulatory mechanisms; or (E) dispersal. extinction now. Therefore, we have other natural or manmade factors Additional threats to C. frustrata determined that this species meets the affecting its continued existence. Listing include competition from nonnative definition of an endangered species actions may be warranted based on any plant species, (Factor E), freezing rather than a threatened species.

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Under the Act and our implementing loss (Factor D). These threats have acted listing if it is endangered or threatened regulations, a species may warrant on populations of C. corallicola in the throughout all or a significant portion of listing if it is endangered or threatened past, are acting on them currently, and its range. The threats to the survival of throughout all or a significant portion of will continue to act them into the Consolea corallicola occur throughout its range. The threats to the survival of foreseeable future. The threats described the species’ range and are not restricted Chromolaena frustrata occur throughout are imminent and severe, and some to any particular significant portion of the species’ range and are not restricted threats, including poaching, herbivory, the range. Accordingly, our assessment to any particular significant portion of hurricanes, storm surge, nonnative and determination applies to the species the range. Accordingly, our assessment species, and sea level rise, affect all throughout its entire range. and determination applies to the species populations. Harrisia The Act defines an endangered Determination for throughout its entire range. aboriginum species as any species that is ‘‘in danger Consolea Determination for of extinction throughout all or a We have carefully assessed the best corallicola significant portion of its range’’ and a scientific and commercial data available We have carefully assessed the best threatened species as any species ‘‘that regarding the past, present, and future scientific and commercial data available is likely to become endangered threats to Harrisia aboriginum. Harrisia regarding the past, present, and future throughout all or a significant portion of aboriginum is and will continue to be threats to Consolea corallicola. Consolea its range within the foreseeable future.’’ affected by threats discussed under corallicola is, and will continue to be, We find that Consolea corallicola is Factors A, B, C, D, and E, above. affected by threats discussed under presently in danger of extinction Of 14 known populations, 2 have Factors A, B, C, D, and E, above. throughout its entire range based on the been extirpated, and most others have Of four historically known severity and immediacy of threats experienced steep declines historically populations, two were lost to currently impacting the species. Its due to habitat loss (Factor A) and development and poaching. The overall range has been significantly poaching (Factor B). Three of the remaining populations that occur on reduced; the remaining habitat and populations that are on private land are public land, while relatively secure, are populations are threatened by a variety presently vulnerable to development. vulnerable to recreation impacts, of factors acting in combination to Populations on public land, while facilities development, and park reduce the overall viability of Consolea relatively secure, are vulnerable to maintenance (Factor A). All populations corallicola. The risk of extinction for recreation impacts, facilities are vulnerable to poaching (Factor B), Consolea corallicola is high because the development, and park maintenance predation by the Cactoblastis moth remaining populations are isolated and (Factor A). All populations are (Factor C), habitat modification and small, and all populations are vulnerable to poaching, nonnative plant competition from nonnative plant vulnerable to poaching (Factor B), species, vandalism, wildfire, and habitat species (Factor E), and habitat loss or predation by the Cactoblastis moth loss or modification from sea level rise. modification from sea level rise (Factor (Factor C), habitat modification and Increased salinity of water tables E). competition form nonnative plant underlying habitat for the species from Increased salinity of water tables species (Factor E), and habitat loss or sea level rise is presently driving underlying habitat for the species from modification from sea level rise (Factor changes in coastal ecosystems in coastal sea level rise is presently driving E). Threats are acting synergistically, south Florida toward more saline plant changes in buttonwood forests in coastal and all contribute to this species being communities and conditions unsuitable south Florida toward more saline plant in danger of extinction at the present for H. aboriginum. The effects of sea communities and conditions unsuitable time. Therefore, on the basis of the best level rise are expected to be a continual for C. corallicola. The effects of sea level scientific and commercial data threat to the species and its habitats into rise are expected to be a continual threat available, we have determined that the foreseeable future. Six of the 12 to the species and its habitats into the Consolea corallicola meets the locations currently supporting H. foreseeable future. Four of the six definition of an endangered species in aboriginum will be completely locations currently supporting C. accordance with sections 3(6) and inundated by the projected 1.8-m (5.8- corallicola will be completely 4(a)(1) of the Act. ft) sea level rise by 2100. As habitat is inundated by the projected 1.8-m (5.8- We find that a threatened species fragmented by the effects of sea level ft) sea level rise by 2100. As habitat is status is not appropriate for Consolea rise and development, it will be difficult fragmented by the effects of sea level corallicola because of the severity of the for the species or its habitats to rise and development, it will be difficult current threats acting on the remaining overcome manmade and natural barriers for the species or its habitats to small populations that are isolated from to dispersal. Stochastic events such as overcome manmade and natural barriers one another. The threats acting on this hurricanes, and resulting storm surge to dispersal. Hurricanes, storm surge, species are occurring rangewide and are and extreme high tide events, can and extreme high tide events can not concentrated in any particular modify habitat and destroy entire modify habitat and destroy entire portion of the range. Due to the severity populations. populations. of the threats, natural recolonization of Of 12 extant populations, all but 2 Of six extant populations, one wild the plant’s historical range is not have fewer than 100 plants. Small population and three reintroduced possible; because the threats are ongoing populations are more vulnerable to populations are small. Small and expected to continue into the genetic bottlenecks, catastrophic events, populations are more vulnerable to foreseeable future, this places Consolea and random demographic fluctuations genetic bottlenecks, catastrophic events, corallicola in danger of extinction now. (Factor E). Finally, existing regulatory and random demographic fluctuations Therefore, we have determined that this mechanisms are inadequate to address (Factor E). Finally, existing regulatory species meets the definition of an current threats, and current mechanisms are inadequate to address endangered species rather than a conservation measures have not current threats, and current threatened species. reversed population declines or habitat conservation measures have not Under the Act and our implementing loss (Factor D). These threats have acted reversed population declines or habitat regulations, a species may warrant on populations of H. aboriginum in the

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past, are acting on them currently, and and determination applies to the species plans. When completed, the recovery will continue to act them into the throughout its entire range. outline, draft recovery plan, and the foreseeable future. The threats described final recovery plan will be available on Available Conservation Measures are imminent and severe, and some our Web site (http://www.fws.gov/ threats, including poaching, hurricanes, Conservation measures provided to endangered), or from our South Florida storm surge, nonnative species, and sea species listed as endangered or Ecological Services Office (see FOR level rise, affect all populations. threatened under the Act include FURTHER INFORMATION CONTACT). The Act defines an endangered recognition, recovery actions, Implementation of recovery actions species as any species that is ‘‘in danger requirements for Federal protection, and generally requires the participation of a of extinction throughout all or a prohibitions against certain practices. broad range of partners, including other significant portion of its range’’ and a Recognition through listing results in Federal agencies, States, Tribes, threatened species as any species ‘‘that public awareness and conservation by nongovernmental organizations, is likely to become endangered Federal, State, Tribal, and local businesses, and private landowners. throughout all or a significant portion of agencies; private organizations; and Examples of recovery actions include its range within the foreseeable future.’’ individuals. The Act encourages habitat restoration (e.g., restoration of We find that Harrisia aboriginum is cooperation with the States and requires native vegetation), research, captive presently in danger of extinction that recovery actions be carried out for propagation and reintroduction, and throughout its entire range based on the all listed species. The protection outreach and education. The recovery of severity and immediacy of threats required by Federal agencies and the many listed species cannot be currently impacting the species. Its prohibitions against certain activities accomplished solely on Federal lands overall range has been significantly are discussed, in part, below. because their range may occur primarily reduced; the remaining habitat and The primary purpose of the Act is the or solely on non-Federal lands. To populations are threatened by a variety conservation of endangered and achieve recovery of these species of factors acting in combination to threatened species and the ecosystems requires cooperative conservation efforts reduce the overall viability of Harrisia upon which they depend. The ultimate on private, State, and Tribal lands. aboriginum. The risk of extinction for goal of such conservation efforts is the When this rule is effective (see Harrisia aboriginum is high because the recovery of these listed species, so that DATES), funding for recovery actions will remaining populations are isolated and they no longer need the protective be available from a variety of sources, small, and all populations are measures of the Act. Subsection 4(f) of including Federal budgets, State vulnerable to poaching, hurricanes, the Act requires the Service to develop programs, and cost share grants for non- storm surge, nonnative species, and sea and implement recovery plans for the Federal landowners, the academic level rise. Threats are acting conservation of endangered and community, and nongovernmental synergistically, and all contribute to this threatened species. The recovery organizations. In addition, pursuant to species being in danger of extinction at planning process involves the section 6 of the Act, the State of Florida the present time. Therefore, on the basis identification of actions that are will be eligible for Federal funds to of the best scientific and commercial necessary to halt or reverse the species’ implement management actions that data available, we have determined that decline by addressing the threats to its promote the protection or recovery of Harrisia aboriginum meets the survival and recovery. The goal of this Chromolaena frustrata, Consolea definition of an endangered species in process is to restore listed species to a corallicola, and Harrisia aboriginum. accordance with sections 3(6) and point where they are secure, self- Information on our grant programs that 4(a)(1) of the Act. sustaining, and functioning components are available to aid species recovery can We find that a threatened species of their ecosystems. be found at http://www.fws.gov/grants. status is not appropriate for Harrisia Recovery planning includes the Please let us know if you are aboriginum because of the severity of development of a recovery outline interested in participating in recovery the current threats acting on the shortly after a species is listed and efforts for any or all three of these remaining small populations that are preparation of a draft and final recovery species. Additionally, we invite you to isolated from one another. The threats plan. The recovery outline guides the submit any new information on this acting on this species are occurring immediate implementation of urgent species whenever it becomes available rangewide and are not concentrated in recovery actions and describes the and any information you may have for any particular portion of the range. Due process to be used to develop a recovery recovery planning purposes (see FOR to the severity of the threats, natural plan. Revisions of the plan may be done FURTHER INFORMATION CONTACT). recolonization of the plant’s historical to address continuing or new threats to Section 7(a) of the Act requires range is not possible; because the threats the species, as new substantive Federal agencies to evaluate their are ongoing and expected to continue information becomes available. The actions with respect to any species that into the foreseeable future, this places recovery plan identifies site-specific is proposed or listed as an endangered Harrisia aboriginum in danger of management actions that set a trigger for or threatened species and with respect extinction now. Therefore, we have review of the five factors that control to its critical habitat, if any is determined that this species meets the whether a species remains endangered designated. Regulations implementing definition of an endangered species or may be downlisted or delisted, and this interagency cooperation provision rather than a threatened species. methods for monitoring recovery of the Act are codified at 50 CFR part Under the Act and our implementing progress. Recovery plans also establish 402. Section 7(a)(4) of the Act requires regulations, a species may warrant a framework for agencies to coordinate Federal agencies to confer with the listing if it is endangered or threatened their recovery efforts and provide Service on any action that is likely to throughout all or a significant portion of estimates of the cost of implementing jeopardize the continued existence of a its range. The threats to the survival of recovery tasks. Recovery teams species proposed for listing or result in Harrisia aboriginum occur throughout (composed of species experts, Federal destruction or adverse modification of the species’ range and are not restricted and State agencies, nongovernment proposed critical habitat. If a species is to any particular significant portion of organizations, and stakeholders) are listed subsequently, section 7(a)(2) of the range. Accordingly, our assessment often established to develop recovery the Act requires Federal agencies to

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ensure that activities they authorize, might not otherwise be protected by the species, at the time it is listed in fund, or carry out are not likely to Act, and increases the severity of the accordance with the Act, on which are jeopardize the continued existence of penalty for unauthorized collection, found those physical or biological the species or destroy or adversely vandalism, or trade in these species. features modify its critical habitat. If a Federal It is our policy, as published in the (a) Essential to the conservation of the action may affect a listed species or its Federal Register on July 1, 1994 (59 FR species and critical habitat, the responsible Federal 34272), to identify to the maximum (b) Which may require special agency must enter into formal extent practicable at the time a species management considerations or consultation with the Service. is listed, those activities that would or protection; and Federal agency actions within the would not constitute a violation of (2) Specific areas outside the species’ habitat that may require section 9 of the Act. The intent of this geographical area occupied by the conference or consultation or both as policy is to increase public awareness of species at the time it is listed, upon a described in the preceding paragraph the effect of a listing on proposed and determination that such areas are include management and any other ongoing activities within the range of essential for the conservation of the landscape-altering activities on Federal listed species. The following activities species. lands administered by the Department could potentially result in a violation of Conservation, as defined under of Defense, NPS, Fish and Wildlife section 9 of the Act; this list is not section 3 of the Act, means to use and Service, and U.S. Forest Service; the comprehensive: the use of all methods and procedures issuance of Federal permits under (1) Import of any of the three plant that are necessary to bring an section 404 of the Clean Water Act (33 species into, or export of any such endangered or threatened species to the U.S.C. 1251 et seq.) by the U.S. Army species from, the United States without point at which the measures provided Corps of Engineers; construction and authorization; pursuant to the Act are no longer management of gas pipeline and power (2) Remove and reduce to possession necessary. Such methods and line rights-of-way by the Federal Energy any of the three plant species from areas procedures include, but are not limited Regulatory Commission; and under Federal jurisdiction; maliciously to, all activities associated with construction and maintenance of roads damage or destroy any of the species on scientific resources management such as or highways by the Federal Highway any such area; or remove, cut, dig up, research, census, law enforcement, Administration. or damage or destroy any of the species habitat acquisition and maintenance, The Act and its implementing on any other area in knowing violation propagation, live trapping, and regulations set forth a series of general of any law or regulation of any State or transplantation, and, in the prohibitions and exceptions that apply in the course of any violation of a State extraordinary case where population to endangered plants. All prohibitions criminal trespass law; pressures within a given ecosystem of section 9(a)(2) of the Act, (3) Deliver, receive, carry, transport, cannot be otherwise relieved, may implemented by 50 CFR 17.61, apply. or ship in interstate or foreign include regulated taking. These prohibitions, in part, make it commerce, by any means whatsoever Critical habitat receives protection illegal for any person subject to the and in the course of a commercial under section 7 of the Act through the jurisdiction of the United States to activity, any such species; requirement that Federal agencies import or export, transport in interstate (4) Sell or offer for sale in interstate ensure, in consultation with the Service, or foreign commerce in the course of a or foreign commerce any of the three that any action they authorize, fund, or commercial activity, sell or offer for sale species; carry out is not likely to result in the in interstate or foreign commerce, or (5) Introduce any unauthorized destruction or adverse modification of remove and reduce the species to nonnative wildlife or plant species to critical habitat. The designation of possession from areas under Federal the State of Florida that compete with critical habitat does not affect land jurisdiction. In addition, for plants or prey upon Chromolaena frustrata, ownership or establish a refuge, listed as endangered, the Act prohibits Consolea corallicola, or Harrisia wilderness, reserve, preserve, or other the malicious damage or destruction on aboriginum; conservation area. Such designation areas under Federal jurisdiction and the (6) Release any unauthorized does not allow the government or public removal, cutting, digging up, or biological control agents that attack any to access private lands. Such damaging or destroying of such plants life stage of Chromolaena frustrata, designation does not require in knowing violation of any State law or Consolea corallicola, or Harrisia implementation of restoration, recovery, regulation, including State criminal aboriginum; or enhancement measures by non- trespass law. Certain exceptions to the (7) Modify the habitat of Chromolaena Federal landowners. Where a landowner prohibitions apply to agents of the frustrata, Consolea corallicola, or requests Federal agency funding or Service and State conservation agencies. Harrisia aboriginum on Federal lands authorization for an action that may Preservation of native flora of Florida without authorization or coverage under affect a listed species or critical habitat, (Florida Statutes 581.185) sections (3)(a) the Act for impacts to these species. the consultation requirements of section and (b) provide limited protection to Questions regarding whether specific 7(a)(2) of the Act would apply, but even species listed in the State of Florida activities would constitute a violation of in the event of a destruction or adverse Regulated Plant Index, including section 9 of the Act should be directed modification finding, the obligation of Chromolaena frustrata, Consolea to the Field Supervisor of the Service’s the Federal action agency and the corallicola, and Harrisia aboriginum. South Florida Ecological Services Office landowner is not to restore or recover Federal listing increases protection for (see FOR FURTHER INFORMATION CONTACT). the species, but to implement these species by making violations of Critical Habitat reasonable and prudent alternatives to section 3 of the Florida Statute avoid destruction or adverse punishable as a Federal offense under Background modification of critical habitat. section 9 of the Act. This provides Critical habitat is defined in section 3 Section 4 of the Act requires that we increased protection from unauthorized of the Act as: designate critical habitat on the basis of collecting and vandalism for the plants (1) The specific areas within the the best scientific data available. on State and private lands, where they geographical area occupied by the Further, our Policy on Information

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Standards Under the Endangered confer only an educational benefit to proposed project on the species itself. Species Act (published in the Federal these cacti beyond that provided by The jeopardy analysis evaluates the Register on July 1, 1994 (59 FR 34271)), listing. Alternatively, the designation of action’s impact to survival and recovery the Information Quality Act (section 515 unoccupied critical habitat for either of the species, while the destruction or of the Treasury and General species could provide an educational adverse modification analysis evaluates Government Appropriations Act for and at least some regulatory benefit for the action’s effects to the designated Fiscal Year 2001 (Pub. L. 106–554; H.R. each species. However, we stated that habitat’s contribution to conservation of 5658)), and our associated Information the risk of increasing significant threats the species. Therefore, the difference in Quality Guidelines provide criteria, to the species by publishing more outcomes of these two analyses establish procedures, and provide specific location information in a represents the regulatory benefit of guidance to ensure that our decisions critical habitat designation greatly critical habitat. This would, in some are based on the best scientific data outweighed the benefits of designating instances, lead to different results and available. They require our biologists, to critical habitat. different regulatory requirements. Thus, the extent consistent with the Act and We received numerous comments critical habitat designations may with the use of the best scientific data from private and Federal entities stating provide greater benefits to the recovery available, to use primary and original that the locations of Consolea of a species than would listing alone. sources of information as the basis for corallicola and Harrisia aboriginum are Rare cacti are valuable to collectors recommendations to designate critical already available in scientific journals, and the threat of poaching remains habitat. online databases, and documents imminent (Factor B) for Consolea When we are determining which areas published by the Service, which led us corallicola and Harrisia aboriginum. should be designated as critical habitat, to reconsider the prudency There is evidence that the designation of our primary source of information is determination for these species. Given critical habitat could result in an generally the information developed that our original determination rested increased threat from taking, during the listing process for the on the increased risk of poaching specifically collection, for both species. Additional information sources resulting from publicizing the locations butterflies, through publication of maps may include the recovery plan for the of Consolea corallicola and Harrisia and a narrative description of specific species, articles in peer-reviewed aboriginum through maps of critical critical habitat units in the Federal journals, conservation plans developed habitat in the Federal Register, and in Register. However, such information on by States and counties, scientific status light of the received during the public locations of extant Consolea corallicola surveys and studies, biological comment period we now believe critical and Harrisia aboriginum populations is assessments, other unpublished habitat is prudent for Consolea already widely available to the public materials, or experts’ opinions or corallicola and Harrisia aboriginum. through many outlets as noted above. personal knowledge. Our rationale is outlined below. Therefore, identification and mapping The principal benefit of including an of critical habitat is not expected Chromolaena frustrata area in critical habitat is the increase the degree of such threat. In the We found that designation of critical requirement for agencies to ensure comments we received on the proposed habitat for Chromolaena frustrata is actions they fund, authorize, or carry listing and critical habitat designation, prudent, and made a finding that critical out are not likely to result in the we were alerted to the existing habitat is determinable for the species. destruction or adverse modification of availability of many, if not all, For further discussion, see the proposed any designated critical habitat, the populations or locations of Consolea listing rule (October 11, 2012; 77 FR regulatory standard of section 7(a)(2) of corallicola and Harrisia aboriginum. the Act under which consultation is 61836) in which we also proposed to Critical Habitat Determinability designate critical habitat for completed. Critical habitat provides Chromolaena frustrata. As discussed protections only where there is a Having determined that designation of above, the public has already had an Federal nexus, that is, those actions that critical habitat is prudent for Consolea opportunity to comment on the come under the purview of section 7 of corallicola and Harrisia aboriginum proposed designation. Our final the Act. Critical habitat designation has under section 4(a)(3) of the Act, we designation of critical habitat for no application to actions that do not must find whether critical habitat is have a Federal nexus. Section 7(a)(2) of Chromolaena frustrata will be determinable for the species. Our the Act mandates that Federal agencies, published in the near future. regulations at 50 CFR 424.12(a)(2) state in consultation with the Service, that critical habitat is not determinable Consolea corallicola and Harrisia evaluate the effects of its their proposed when one or both of the following aboriginum actions on any designated critical situations exist: habitat. Similar to the Act’s requirement (i) Information sufficient to perform Critical Habitat Prudency that a Federal agency action not required analyses of the impacts of the We found that designation of critical jeopardize the continued existence of designation is lacking; or habitat was not prudent for Consolea listed species, Federal agencies have the (ii) The biological needs of the species corallicola and Harrisia aboriginum in responsibility not to implement actions are not sufficiently well known to our October 11, 2012 proposed rule (77 that would destroy or adversely modify permit identification of an area as FR 61836). We based this finding on a designated critical habitat. critical habitat. determination that the designation of Federal actions affecting the species We reviewed the available critical habitat would increase the threat even in the absence of designated information pertaining to the biological to Consolea corallicola and Harrisia critical habitat areas would still benefit needs of Consolea corallicola and aboriginum from unauthorized from consultation pursuant under to Harrisia aboriginum and habitat collection and trade, and may further section 7(a)(2) of the Act and may still characteristics where the species are facilitate inadvertent or purposeful result in jeopardy findings. However, located. This and other information disturbance and vandalism to the cacti’s the analysis of effects of a proposed represent the best scientific data habitat. We stated that designation of project on critical habitat is separate and available and have led us to conclude occupied critical habitat is likely to distinct from that of the effects of a that the designation of critical habitat is

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determinable for Consolea corallicola determination in the Federal Register Regulation Promulgation and Harrisia aboriginum. Therefore, we on October 25, 1983 (48 FR 49244). Accordingly, we amend part 17, will also propose designation of critical References Cited subchapter B of chapter I, title 50 of the habitat for Consolea corallicola and Code of Federal Regulations, as follows: Harrisia aboriginum under the Act in A complete list of all references cited the near future. is available on the Internet at http:// PART 17—[AMENDED] www.regulations.gov and upon request Required Determinations from the South Florida Ecological ■ 1. The authority citation for part 17 National Environmental Policy Act (42 Services Office (see FOR FURTHER continues to read as follows: U.S.C. 4321 et seq.) INFORMATION CONTACT). Authority: 16 U.S.C. 1361–1407; 1531– Authors 1544; 4201–4245; unless otherwise noted. We have determined that ■ 2. Amend § 17.12(h) by adding entries environmental assessments and The primary authors of this final rule for Chromolaena frustrata, Consolea environmental impact statements, as are the staff members of the South corallicola, and Harrisia aboriginum, in defined under the authority of the Florida Ecological Services Office. alphabetical order under FLOWERING National Environmental Policy Act, List of Subjects in 50 CFR Part 17 PLANTS, to the List of Endangered and need not be prepared in connection Threatened Plants, to read as follows: with listing a species as an endangered Endangered and threatened species, or threatened species under the Exports, Imports, Reporting and § 17.12 Endangered and threatened plants. Endangered Species Act. We published recordkeeping requirements, * * * * * a notice outlining our reasons for this Transportation. (h) * * *

Species Historic range Family Status When listed Critical Special Scientific name Common name habitat rules

FLOWERING PLANTS

******* Chromolaena Thoroughwort, Cape U.S.A. (FL) ...... Asteraceae ...... E 826 NA NA frustrata. Sable.

******* Consolea corallicola Cactus, Florida U.S.A. (FL) ...... Cactaceae ...... E 826 NA NA semaphore.

******* Harrisia aboriginum Prickly-apple, ab- U.S.A. (FL) ...... Cactaceae ...... E 826 NA NA original.

*******

* * * * * Dated: September 25, 2013. Rowan W. Gould, Acting Director, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. [FR Doc. 2013–24177 Filed 10–23–13; 8:45 am] BILLING CODE 4310–55–P

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