An Analysis of the English Grammar Deviations in the 2016 Song Lyrics by African-American Singers

PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI

AN ANALYSIS OF THE ENGLISH GRAMMAR DEVIATIONS IN THE 2016 SONG LYRICS BY AFRICAN-AMERICAN SINGERS

A SARJANA PENDIDIKAN THESIS

Presented as Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements to obtain a Sarjana Pendidikan degree in English Language Education

Maria Aurelia Tamara Setiawan

Student Number: 131214130

ENGLISH LANGUAGE EDUCATION STUDY PROGRAM DEPARTEMENT OF LANGUAGE AND ARTS EDUCATION FACULTY OF TEACHERS TRAINING AND EDUCATION SANATA DHARMA UNIVERSITY YOGYAKARTA 2018 PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI

AN ANALYSIS OF THE ENGLISH GRAMMAR DEVIATIONS IN THE 2016 SONG LYRICS BY AFRICAN-AMERICAN SINGERS

A SARJANA PENDIDIKAN THESIS

Presented as Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements to obtain a Sarjana Pendidikan degree in English Language Education

Maria Aurelia Tamara Setiawan

Student Number: 131214130

ENGLISH LANGUAGE EDUCATION STUDY PROGRAM DEPARTEMENT OF LANGUAGE AND ARTS EDUCATION FACULTY OF TEACHERS TRAINING AND EDUCATION SANATA DHARMA UNIVERSITY YOGYAKARTA 2018

PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI

ABSTRACT

Setiawan, Maria Aurelia Tamara. (2018). An Analysis of the English Grammar Deviations in the 2016 Song Lyrics by African-American Singers. English Language Education Study Program, Department of Language and Arts Education, Faculty of Teacher Training and Education, Yogyakarta: Sanata Dharma University. African-American Vernacular English (AAVE) is one of the non-standard varieties of English language which was created earlier by the Africans in the period of slavery. AAVE was applied in some literary works such as poems, novels, and song lyrics. It is still used by the youth, especially the students of the English Language Education Study Program (ELESP) in Sanata Dharma University who keep applying the AAVE in their academic writing in some courses. However, the application in the song lyrics inflicts two questions in this research. They are: ―In what way do the 2016 song lyrics by African-American singers show deviations from the English grammar?‖ and ―Why do the 2016 song lyrics by African-American singers show deviations from the English grammar?‖ This research used the qualitative method and purposive sampling because the singers whose song lyrics selected as the object were intentionally chosen. The singers chosen were the singers whose songs were popular in 2016. Documents and content analysis is the technique used to analyze the object of this research. There are seven deviations found in the song lyrics and four reasons why the deviations occurred. The findings of this research are expected to be a proper additional information or source for the learning and teaching process of some courses in the ELESP.

Keywords: non-standard language, deviations, African-American Vernacular English, song lyrics, singers, 2016

PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI

ABSTRAK

Setiawan, Maria Aurelia Tamara. (2018). An Analysis of the English Grammar Deviations in the 2016 Song Lyrics by African-American Singers. Program Studi Pendidikan Bahasa Inggris. JPSB. FKIP. Yogyakarta: Universitas Sanata Dharma.

African-American Vernacular English (AAVE) adalah salah satu jenis bahasa Inggris non-standar yang dibuat oleh orang-orang Afrika pada masa perbudakan. AAVE digunakan dalam beberapa karya literatur seperti puisi, novel, dan lirik lagu. AAVE masih digunakan oleh orang-orang muda, terutama mahasiswa Pendidikan Bahasa Inggris (PBI) di Universitas Sanata Dharma. Mereka kerap kali menggunakan AAVE dalam tulisan akademik mereka dalam beberapa mata kuliah. Bagaimanapun juga, penggunaan AAVE dalam lirik lagu menimbulkan dua pertanyaan di dalam penelitian ini. Pertanyaan-pertanyaan tersebut adalah: ―Dalam hal apakah lagu-lagu di tahun 2016 yang dinyanyikan oleh penyanyi Afrika-Amerika menunjukkan penyimpangan dari tata bahasa Inggris?‖ dan ―Mengapa lagu-lagu di tahun 2016 yang dinyanyikan oleh penyanyi Afrika- Amerika menunjukkan penyimpangan dari tata bahasa Inggris?‖ Studi ini menggunakan metode kualitatif dan pengambilan sampel secara sengaja karena penyanyi yang liriknya dipilih sebagi objek studi dipilih secara sengaja. Penyanyi-penyanyi yang dipilih adalah penyanyi yang lagu-lagunya populer di tahun 2016. Analisis dokumen dan isi adalah teknik yang digunakan dalam studi ini untuk menganalisa objek dari studi ini. Ada tujuh penyimpangan dan empat alasan mengapa penyimpangan- penyimpangan tersebut muncul. Temuan dari studi ini diharapkan menjadi sebuah tambahan informasi yang layak atau sumber bagi proses belajar mengajar pada beberapa mata kuliah di PBI.

Kata kunci: non-standard language, deviations, African-American Vernacular English, song lyrics, singers, 2016

vii

PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI

“There is surely a future hope for you, and your hope will not be cut off.” -Proverbs 23:18

“If there is no struggle, there is no process.” -Frederick Douglass

“Never stop fighting no matter what anyone says. If it’s in your gut, your soul, there’s nothing, no worldly possession that should come between you and your expression.” -Kanye West

I dedicated this Thesis to: My Dad, Fransiscus Doddy Setiawan my Mom, Hilda Beatrix Motoh my Grandma, Leny Hedwig Motoh my Grandpa, Jacobus Motoh my beloved sisters, Glady and Dinda and myself.

viii

PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

First of all, I would like to offer whole of my praise to the the great Jesus

Christ for His amazing love and guidance and to Our Lady of Perpetual Help,

Holy Mary who everlastingly conveys my prayers to Jesus. Because of the love,

I could get through the process of writing this thesis and finish it as well.

Secondly, I want to give my gratitude for Drs. Concilianus Laos Mbato,

M. A., Ed. D for being such a great advisor. His understanding, guidance and suggestions help me faced and solved my problems in writing this thesis.

I would also express my gratitude to the greatest man ever lived, my Dad,

Fransiscus Doddy Setiawan who supports me in every condition, gives the best for me, and who always believes that I can make him proud. A big thanks to my

Mom, Hilda Beatrix Motoh for her love, support and never-ending care to me.

Although sometimes we are involved in a dispute, but I always admire her amazing love and patience to me. I also would like to thank my compassionate

Grandma, Leny Hedwig, for the endless support and care although sometimes I forget to make a phone call with her. Special thanks for my Grandpa, Jacobus, for his prayer and love from heaven, also for my beautiful and beloved sisters, Glady and Dinda for their care and support to me.

Next, I would like to thank Deviona and Kartika who always support me no matter what and listen to all of my complains. Big thanks for my friends Kak

Helen, Pater Paul, Suster Viannet, Fennie, Astri, Shinta, Bertha, Rika, Ovi,

PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI

Ece, Yesti, Devi, Merry, Mbak Agra, Berto, Ian, Mas Fabri, Dennis, Bianca,

Kak Ardy, Kak Igen, kak Rere, kak Dece, kak Dadi, kak Astrina, Mas Aris, kak Itto, kak Vany, kak Andy, Vania, and Oma Toar for all the support and care while I was writing this thesis.

I would like to thank Ernest Makatita for his love, advice, and care in the process of writing this thesis. I can not get through all the obstacles without his wisdom. Thank you for making me realize that everything has its time and never tired to remind me to keep checking this thesis so I will not forget the content.

The last, I thank everyone whom I cannot mention one by one who supported me in the completion of my thesis.

Maria Aurelia Tamara Setiawan

PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI

TABLE OF CONTENTS

TITLE PAGE ...... i APPROVAL PAGES ...... ii STATEMENT OF WORK‘S ORIGINALITY ...... iv PERNYATAAN PERSETUJUAN PUBLIKASI ...... v ABSTRACT ...... vi ABSTRAK ...... vii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ...... ix TABLE OF CONTENTS ...... xi LIST OF TABLES ...... xiv LIST OF APPENDICES ...... xv

CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTION

1.1 Research Background ...... 1 1.2 Research Questions ...... 4 1.3 Research Significance ...... 4 1.4 Definition of Terms ...... 5

CHAPTER II. REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

2.1 Theoretical Description ...... 6 2.1.1 African-American Vernacular English is Substandard English .... 6 2.1.2 AAVE Characteristics/Features ...... 8 2.1.3 The Application of AAVE in Literary Works and Songs ...... 11 2.1.4 The Language Identity ...... 13 2.1.5 Sociological Theories ...... 14 2.1.6 Rapper = Singer ...... 18 2.2 Theoretical Framework ...... 19

PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI

CHAPTER III. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 3.1 Research Method ...... 21 3.2 Research Setting ...... 22 3.3 Data Source ...... 22 3.4 Research Instruments and Data Gathering Technique ...... 23 3.5 Data Analysis Technique ...... 24

CHAPTER IV. RESEARCH RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

4.1 The Way 2016 Song Lyrics by African-American Singers Show Deviations From The English Grammar ...... 26 4.1.1 Special uses of be and be omission ...... 26 4.1.2 Double negatives ...... 29 4.1.3 Verbal –s absence ...... 32 4.1.4 The use of I‟mma and gonna or gon‟ ...... 33 4.1.5 The use of ain‟t ...... 35 4.1.6 The use of finna ...... 38 4.1.7 The use of been ...... 39 4.2 The Reasons Why 2016 Song Lyrics by African-American Singers Show Deviations from the English Grammar ...... 40 4.2.1 African-American people want to recall the period of slavery years ago ...... 42 4.2.2 African-American people want to state themselves as the real Africans who use English ...... 44 4.2.3 African-American people want to show that their language is systematic and rule-governed ...... 45 4.2.4 African-American people want their language to be approved as the other English language varieties ...... 47

CHAPTER V. CONCLUSIONS, IMPLICATIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS 5.1 Conclusions ...... 49 5.2 Implications ...... 51 5.3 Recommendations ...... 51

xii

PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI

REFERENCES ...... 52 APPENDIX ...... 56

xiii

PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI

LIST OF TABLES

Table Page

Table 2.1 Features of AAVE by Rickford (1999) ...... 11

Table 2.2 Use of selected AAVE features in Detroit, by social class by

Wolfram (1969) ...... 17

Table 4.1 Use of selected AAVE features in Detroit, by social class by

Wolfram (1969) ...... 48

xiv

PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI

LIST OF APPENDICES

Appendix Page

Appendix A Twitter status screenshot and photo ...... 56

PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI

CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

This chapter presented the background information about the reasons why the researcher conducts this research. There are four aspects namely, research background, research questions, research significance, and definition of terms.

1.1 Research Background

There are many kinds of the English language variation. Wardhaugh (2006) noted that ―ethnic variation can be seen in the United States, where one variety of

English has become so identified with an ethnic group that it is often referred to as

African American Vernacular English (AAVE)‖ (p. 50).

African-American Vernacular English is a language created earlier by the

Africans. It was happened when they were in the period of slavery in around

1650s (Healy & Vere-Hodge, 1967, p. 17). Africa was colonized by Britain at the time and the Africans became their slaves. The Africans who became slaves had difficulty in having a communication with their masters. Therefore, they tried to absorb the language used by their masters and with the limited understanding of it, they created their own language so that they can have an immediate and limited communication with their masters. As time goes by, the language then got a name and it is called AAVE or African-American Vernacular English.

PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI

The African-American English has already adapted into some literary works. One of the examples is in Tyrone Williams‘ book (2009) titled African-

American Literature (Masterplots II). Moreover, the language also has been applied to some songs which are sung by African-American singers until now.

The adopted language can be found in the song lyrics they have created.

African-American singers and rappers are famous nowadays. The songs from singers or rappers like Wiz Khalifa, Drake, Rihanna, Chris Brown and Lil

Wayne have been booming worldwide. Their songs contain lyrics that can be both beautiful and sarcastic. Somehow, the lyrics they sang are formed by English grammar which is deviated. They use the language which is created by their people in the period of the colonialization. Singers and rappers such as Kanye

West, Akon, Rihanna, Lil Wayne, and Wiz Khalifa are the examples of the

African-American singers and rappers. Their parents‘ origin is African but they were born and raised in America. However, in April 2009, Minority Rights Group showed the African Americans existence in the United States of America. They are the second largest minority group and now called ‗black‘ Americans or

(evoking solidarity with other non-white minorities around the world) ‗people of color', they are mainly descendants of slaves brought from Africa between the seventeenth and nineteenth centuries (Minority Rights Group, 2015, para. 1).

Being a minority makes them pour the criticsm both explicitly or implicitly to the

African American Literature (see Eversley, 2004, p. xiii) and in the work of song lyrics that they have made. I saw that there are many students who love to sing

English songs, especially the songs which are the new-release songs. Most of the

PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI

songs are from the African-American singer. They keep singing the lyrics and I wonder why the lyrics sound like they are not included as the appropriate English grammar which I have learnt from the grammar rules in Structure class in Sanata

Dharma University. For example, Backstreet Boys‘ song titled Shape of My Heart show the lyrics ―Got nothing to hide no more". In the Standard English (SE), we should change it into "Got nothing to hide anymore‖. In SE, when we use negative words such as nobody, never or nothing, we do not commonly use a negative verb, e.g. It was 10 am but there was nobody in the office, not: It was 10 am but there wasn’t nobody in the office. Besides, when I was teaching Paragraph

Writing to the lower batch for Micro Teaching course, some students were using the sentence from the song lyrics they have ever heard. In fact, from the information told by some lecturers in English Language Study Program of Sanata

Dharma University, those kinds of writings are irrelevant to an academic writing.

It is because the language which is found in the lyrics is not included in standardized English that we have learned. In 2002, Green said, ―Although sentences with the verbal marker be adhere to rules of AAE, they are not acceptable as school or professional language‖ (p. 35).

The reason I chose this topic for my research is that I like to learn the

English language that appeared in the other form of the British English and

American English, for example African-American English, Australian English, etc. That is why I did a research on the African-American English that used in the

African-American song lyrics, especially the songs released in 2016.

PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI

This research discussed the language used by the African-American singers and the reasons they use certain kind of language in their song lyrics. This research also found out whether the lyrics were created just to express the singers themselves or to deliver the message about how they recall the period of the slavery in Africa a long time ago. This research analyzed and elaborated any sociological reason of the song lyrics the African-American singer created and any opposition they want to state through their song lyrics.

1.2 Research Questions

According to the argument in the background, some questions are

formulated:

1. In what way do the 2016 song lyrics by African-American singers

show deviations from the English grammar?

2. Why do the 2016 song lyrics by African-American singers show

deviations from the English grammar?

1.3 Research Significance

This research focused on analyzing the 2016 song lyrics by African-

American singers and showed whether the lyrics have some reasons why they were deviated from the English grammar that has been established.

I expected this research to be a useful thing to my friends in Sanata Dharma to see the reason why African-American singers have their lyrics deviated from

PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI

the appropriate English grammar. I hope this research will be useful in the

Sociolinguistics class or the other classes.

For the Sociolinguistics class, this research will help to give an explanation about the deviations of the English grammar found in the song lyrics. In some

Writing courses (Basic Writing class, Paragraph Writing class, etc), when the students are about to write an academic writing, this research can be a useful information to the students who write their writing based on what they have heard in the rap songs or African-American song lyrics which are recently released.

Through this research, I hope that the lecturers of Sanata Dharma will be able to see that there are still some deviations found in the song lyrics of 2016 which were created by African-American singers. I also hope that there will be the explanation for the students of English Language Education Study Program

(ELESP) of Sanata Dharma University about what are the reasons behind the deviations.

1.4 Definition of Terms

There are some terms used in this research. They are:

1. Vernacular: language spoken by a particular group. In this research,

vernacular means the language spoken by the African-American people.

2. Deviations: something that turns away from what is usual or accepted. In

this research, deviations means the signs of the AAVE which are

irrelevant to the standardized English.

PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI

CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

This chapter provided the theories related to this research. There are two major parts provided in this chapter. The first part is theoretical description and the second part is theoretical framework. In the theoretical description, the researcher explained some theories related to African-American Vernacular

English (AAVE), Sociolinguistics, and singers. In the theoretical framework, the researcher summarized and related the theories to answer the research questions.

2.1 Theoretical Description

This part talked about the theories used to be the source of this thesis. The sources are used to answer the research questions provided in Chapter I. This part contains six theories which will be elaborated below.

2.1.1 African-American Vernacular English is Substandard English

There are some popular names created by people to call the AAVE.

Linguists have referred to this variety of speech as Black English, Black

Vernacular English, and Afro-American Vernacular English. Today, the most- used term is African American Vernacular English (AAVE) but Ebonics (a blend of Ebony and phonics) has also recently achieved a certain currency (Wardhaugh,

PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI

2006, p. 342). There is also another abbreviation for AAVE which is AAE that stands for African American English.

African-American Vernacular English (AAVE) seems to be the language that is bad (see Wheeler, 1999) because of the characteristics that contrast with the

English rules that have been established. Some people considered AAVE as the

―bad English‖. Wardhaugh (2006) has explained earlier about the definition of bad English.

A common view of a pidginized variety of a language, for example, Nigerian Pidgin English, is that it is some kind of ‗bad‘ English, that is, English imperfectly learned and therefore of no possible interest. Consequently, those who speak a pidgin are likely to be regarded as deficient in some way, almost certainly socially and culturally, and sometimes even cognitively (p. 62).

Both whites and blacks, regard any characteristics which seem to mark the speech of US blacks as being instances of either ‗southern‘ speech or ‗lower- class‘ speech. In other words, AAVE is now regarded as either a regional or social variant of the standard language (Wardhaugh, 2006, p. 83).

Vaughn-Cooke (2007) noted that public has linguistically judged that

―Ebonics is inferior and unfit for classroom use, and that the children who speak it have limited intelligence‖ (p. 255). Based on the characteristics which will be explained in the next section, AAVE has considered as substandard English. The

AAVE language has deviated from the standardized English that people have known. However, AAVE is actually systematic and has its own rules. Vaughn-

Cooke explained it in Lessons Learned from the Ebonics Controversy in

Sociolinguistics Variation: Theories, Methods, and Applications (2007) which is edited by Robert Bayley and Ceil Lucas.

PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI

During the Ebonics debate, a simple but fundamental fact about Ebonics – that it is systematic and rule-governed like all languages of the world – was repeated on national and local television and on radio shows and in the print media by some of the most respected linguistic scholars and language specialists in the world. Yet a startling number of highly educated, intelligent, and talented people with a high level of awareness about language refused to accept this fact. (p. 261).

There are some works by linguists that shows AAVE which has considered as substandard English affected teachers‘ behavior and attitudes toward the child who speaks AAVE. They had proven this statement through the practices and strategies they have done in a classroom. The responses to early work on AAE by linguists such as Beryl Bailey, Ralph Fasold, William Labov, Claudia Mitchell-

Kernan and William Stewart ranged from labels such as bad English to a socially unacceptable way of speaking that prevented African Americans from competing in mainstream America (Green, 2002).

2.1.2 AAVE Characteristics/Features

Every language has their characteristics which differentiate each of them.

For example the grammar, the intonation, etc. AAVE also has the characteristics which make it unique. AAVE has certain phonological, morphological, and syntactic characteristics.

Words like thing and this may be pronounced as ting and dis. ... Cold may show loss of the final d (col‟) or even loss of both l and d (co‟), because l after a vowel is often deleted. The result may be that bold and bowl become homophonous with bow. Vowels may be nasalized and nasal consonants lost: run and end may just be in the first case an r followed by a nasalized vowel and in the second case a simple nasalized vowel with no pronunciation at all of the final nd (Wardhaugh, 2006, p. 342).

PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI

Syntactically, AAVE has an obvious characteristic which is the special uses and the omission of be. Green (2002) noted that this kind of character is ―very common and has been used to show how AAE differs from other varieties of

English‖ (p. 35). The elaboration about this will be explained in chapter IV in this research. Chapter IV will be talking about the way African American song lyrics show deviation from the standardized English.

AAVE uses ain‟t frequently as well. For example, ‗if I ain‟t got you‟

(appears in the song If I Ain‟t Got You by Alicia Keys in 2004). Ain‟t is the negative form of all „be‟s . In 2002, Green stated, ―Ain‟t is the negator in other contexts, so whereas it may be used in present perfect paradigms, it is not used solely in that context‖ (p. 39). The use of ain‟t also indicate the past context. For example, ‗He ain‟t ate‟ which means ‗He didn‟t eat‟.

The process until AAVE created was through the pidginization and creolization. Pidginization is the process of a pidgin forming. A pidgin is a language with no native speakers: it is no one‘s first language but is a contact language (Wardhaugh, 2006, p. 61). While creolization is the process of a creole forming and a creole is often defined as a pidgin that has become the first language of a new generation of speakers (Wardhaugh, 2006, p. 63).

Pidginization covers up most characteristics of AAVE. According to

Wardhaugh (2006), pidginization generally involves some kind of ‗simplification‘ of a language, e.g., reduction in morphology (word structure) and syntax

(grammatical structure), tolerance of considerable phonological variation

(pronunciation), reduction in the number of functions for which the pidgin is used

PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI

(e.g., you usually do not attempt to write novels in a pidgin), and extensive borrowing of words from local mother tongues (p. 63).

There are also the features of AAVE which put forward by Rickford (1999).

The features were put in two tables; table 1.1 identifies the main distinctive phonological features of AAVE, and table 1.2 the main distinctive grammatical features of AAVE (pp. 4-9). However, this research will only focus on the grammar of the AAVE. Therefore, this part will only show the shotened table of the main distinctive grammatical features of AAVE and take some parts to be the comparison to the grammar in the song lyrics that have been analyzed.

Table 1.2 Distinctive grammatical (morphological and syntactic) features of AAVE 19 Pre-verbal markers of tense, mood, and aspect

19a Absence of copula/auxiliary is and are for present tense states and actions, as in ―He Ø tall‖ for SE ―He‘s tall‖ or ―They Ø running‖ for SE ―They are running.‖ (see Labov 1969 and Rickford et al. 1988, reprinted in this volume.) 19b Use of invariant be (sometimes bees) for habitual aspect, as in ―He be walkin‖ (usually, regularly, versus ―He Ø walkin‖ right now) for SE ―He is usually walking/usually walks.‖ Used with auxiliary do in questions, negatives, and tag questions, as in ―Do he be walking every day?‖ or ―She don‟t be sick, do she?‖ (Fasold 1972: 150-84, Dayton 1996, Green 1998).

19e Use of unstressed been or bin for SE ―has/have been‖ (present perfects), as in ―He been sick‖ for ―He has been sick.‖ Unlike stressed BIN, unstressed been can co-occur with time adverbials (e.g. ―since last week‖), and does not connote remoteness (Rickford 1975). 19f Use of stressed BIN to mark remote phase (that the action happened or the state came into being long ago) as in ―She BIN married‖ for SE ―She has been married for a long time (and still is),‖ or ―He BIN ate it‖ for SE ―He ate it a long time ago‖ (Rickford 1975, Baugh 1983: 80-2).

PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI

Continued 19i Use of finna (sometimes fitna, derived from ―fixin‘ to‖) to mark the immediate future, as in ―He finna go‖ for SE ―He‘s about to go.‖

20 Other aspects of verbal tense marking

20a Absence of third person singular present tense –s, as in ―He walkØ‖ for SE ―He walks.‖ The use of don‟t instead of ―doesn‘t‖ as in ―He don‟t sing‖ or have instead of ―has‖, as in ―She have it‖ is related, since ―doesn‘t‖ and ―hasn‘t‖ include 3rd singular –s (Fasold 1972: 121-49).

22 Negation

22a Use of ain‟(t) as a general preverbal negator, for SE ―am not,‖ ―isn‘t,‖ ―aren‘t,‖ ―hasn‘t,‖ ―haven‘t,‖ and ―didn‘t,‖ as in ―He ain‟ here‖ for SE ―He isn‘t here,‖ or ―He ain‟ do it‖ for SE ―He didn‘t do it.‖ 22b Multiple negation or negative concord (that is, negating the auxiliary verb and all indefinite pronouns in the sentence), as in ―He don‟ do nothin‖ for SE ―He doesn‘t do anything‖ (Labov 1972a, 1972c; 130- 96). 22c Negative inversion (inversion of the auxiliary and indefinite pronoun subject), as in ―Can‟t nobody say nothin‖ or ―Ain‟t nobody home‖ from ―Nobody ain‘t home‖ for SE ―Nobody is home‖ (Sells, Rickford and Wasow 1996a, b). 22d Use of ain‟t but and don‟t but for ―only,‖ as in ―He ain‘t but fourteen years old‖ for SE ―He‘s only fourteen years old‖ or ―They didn‘t take but three dollars‖ for ―They only took three dollars‖ (Wolfram et al. 1993: 14).

Table 2.1 Features of AAVE by Rickford (1999)

2.1.3 The Application of AAVE in Literary Works and Songs

AAVE was created by the Africans earlier in the period of slavery.

However, the language is still applied in some literary works such as novels, poems, and in some song lyrics as well. There were people called the SNCC

Freedom Singers. They were found by Bernice Johnson Reagon who once

PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI

referred to the Freedom Singers as ‗a singing newspaper‘. To borrow and extend

Reagon‘s analogy, Kennedy‟s Blues can be said to feature a series of musical

―editorials‖ on the state of black America and its collective investment in the promise of the Kennedy administration during the early 1960s. These songs offer tremendous insights into the consciousness of a roused black community, buoyed by a new sense of self-respect and determined to confront racial discrimination in every aspect of American life (van Rijn, 2007, p. x).

AAVE, as in novels has its own way to deliver the message attached to the stories to the reader. Some novelists tried to tell something which is cultivated to be as invisible as possible. Graham (2004) believes that the AAVE novel continues to serve both an ideological and a social purpose, affirming the need to reflect lived reality across class and gender lines, attending to its own improvisational nature, embracing and resisting the past, deepening our sense of who and what it means to be black in a postmodern, postcolonial world, and demanding all the while to be seen as art (p. 7).

Moreover, AAVE is also applied in some poems or words by famous people. In those kinds of literary works, they poured their critics against the inequity they experienced. Eversley in 2004 stated about the critics in the African

American literature.

Many African American critics have implicitly and explicitly confirmed the idea of racial authenticity as a measure of black literary and cultural achievement. In his discussion of music and Afro-American literature, Houston A. Baker, Jr., for example, describes the blues as a vernacular tradition that distinguishes a ―black‖ tradition from a ―white‖ idea of America. (Eversley, 2004, pp. xii-xiii)

PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI

Intra-group variation in use of AAE phonological features is evident within the sample; participants also vary with regard to their adoption of other semiotic practices linked to African American ethnicity (Sonya Fix, 2014). This statement could be an evidence why African-American English is still famous and still applied in the songs.

2.1.4 The Language Identity

The identity we talk about here is the identity of a person who used the language, especially the second language or foreign language, both to show or cover their identity (e.g. their originality and tribe). A promising research about the interlanguage pragmatics of the second language learner or SLL done by

David Block, in his book titled The Social Turn in Second Language Acquisition

(2003), focuses not only on the aspects of language as grammatical system, but on the sociocultural context and identity issues as well. He provided some other researchers to support his argument in his book Second Language Identities which was published in 2007. One of the examples is in the ―work of Julie Belz (2002) who explores the hypothesis that ‗multilingual lang uage play (i.e. language play that involves hybridizations or combinations of L1 and TL) may function as a textual indication of changes in learner self-conceptualizations‘‖ (as cited in

Block, 2007, p. 120). A text entitled ‗meine Sprache‘ (‗my Language‘) from a student who studied German for five semesters said “..knowing German makes everything even better! What I do without German? I wouldn‟t be able to speak my language. I couldn‟t express myself for real, precisely..” According to Block,

PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI

―..these students can be said to have developed a new subject position and a new discourse of self-expression‖ (p. 122).

‗Identity‘ refers to an understanding of who we are and where we stand in relation to other people. This could deduced the findings of Sung‘s research in

2013. Sung interviewed 15 participants from Hong Kong and categorized the

Hong Kongnese into two groups; Hong Kong identity with a local accent and

Hong Kong identity with a native or near-native accent. The Hong Kongnese with a local accent tends to display their Hong Kong identity through the use of a unique local accent. Juno, one of the participants of Sung‘s research said, ―when I speak English, I hope other people can identify me as a Hong Kong person.‖

However, the other participants who categorized as the Hong Kongnese with a native or near-native accent identified themselves primarily as global citizens and indicated their preference to background their local identities in English as a

Lingua Franca (ELF) settings. They want to express their desire to free themselves from the constraints of their Hong Kong identity.

This research found out in what category the African-American singers and rappers should be placed according to the theory of language identity. The placing was based on how they interpret the second language and how the language applied in their daily life.

2.1.5 Sociological Theories

There are some connections between sociolinguistics and sociology.

William Labov, a sociolinguist, hoped that they as the sociolinguists ―will take

PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI

more advantage of their (sociologists‘) skill in the future‖ (as cited in Mallinson in

Language and Linguistics Compass, p. 1035). This section will discuss how the sociological theories are connected with the AAVE as a language which is deviated from the standardized English. The theories are structural functionalism or simply called functionalism, critical, and the symbolic interactionism.

David Émile Durkheim (1858-1917) was a French sociologist who developed a sociology theory called the functionalism. Macionis and Gerber

(2010) suggested that functionalism is a framework for building theory that sees society as a complex system whose parts work together to promote solidarity and stability (p. 14). Functionalism is adhered by a group of people who live as parts of a majority in a place. A certain place is dominated by them. They lived following some things that are standardized, as noted by Durkheim (1993),

―functional theorists tended to assume that values were basically constant and therefore equally problematic‖ (p. 13). Functionalism is structured of elements, such as customs, norms, institutions, and traditions. Vaughn-Cooke suggested the

13 Lessons Learned from the Ebonics Controversy which can tell that the people of United States, in this case, is the people of the majority and therefore are the functional theorists.

The next sociology theory is called the critical. This theory was developed by Karl Marx (1818-1883), a Prussian-born sociologist. According to Geuss

(1981), ―Critical theory maintains that ideology is the principal obstacle to human liberation‖. Critical theory is a normative approach that is based on the judgment that domination is a problem, that a domination-free society is needed (Fuchs,

PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI

2015). These statements explained about the position of African American people and the Africans earlier that they are the community which being oppressed. The language they used is never considered systematic and rule-governed (Vaughn-

Cooke, 2007). It happened because the people of United States have their rule of language or we usually called standardized English which makes the AAVE or

Ebonics seems deviated.

There is also a theory called symbolic interactionism. In 2007, Hall noted that symbolic interactionism is an American theory that develops from practical considerations and that alludes to people‘s particular utilization of dialect to make images, normal implications, for deduction and correspondence with others. This theory was developed earlier by George Herbert Mead (1863-1931) who was an

American sociologist. According to this theory, people inhabit the world that is in large part socially constructed; however, the meaning of objects, events, and behaviors comes from the interpretation others tell and may vary to one another

(―Symbolic Interactionism,‖ n.d., para. 1). This theory shows that people who are the symbolic interactionism theorists are people who behaved based on what they believe and not just on what is objectively true. Crossman (2017) had described an example of how those things above are connected with the problem of race, in this case, the argument between the black people (Africa as their origin) and African-

American people (Africans who born and raised in America).

One shocking example of how this theoretical concept plays out within the social construct of race is manifested in the fact that many people, regardless of race, believe that lighter skinned blacks and Latinos are smarter than their darker skinned counterparts. This phenomenon occurs because of the racist stereotype—the meaning—that has been encoded in skin color—the symbol—over centuries.

PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI

Wolfram‘s (1969) study in Detroit (as cited in Rickford‘s African American

Vernacular English in 1999) according to the social class can also support this research to relate between the sociology things and the matter of AAVE as a language. The study informed about the class stratification in AAVE. The table will be a reference for the discussion in Chapter IV. It will be used as a proof that the language use is related to the social life of the people living in a city or even a country.

Table 1.3 Use of selected AAVE features in Detroit, by social class FEATURE LWC UWC LMC UMC Consonant cluster simplification NOT in past 84% 79% 66% 51% tense (60) Voiceless th [θ] → f, t or Ø (84) 71% 59% 17% 12% Multiple negation (156) 78% 55% 12% 8% Absence of copula/auxiliary is, are 57% 37% 11% 5% (169) Absence of third person present tense –s 71% 57% 10% 1% (136) Absence of possessive –s (141) 27% 25% 6% 0% Absence of plural –s (143) 6% 4% 1% 0%

Notes: LWC = lower working-class (e.g. laborers and other unskilled workers), UWC = upper working-class (e.g. carpenters and other skilled workers), LMC = lower middle-class (e.g. high school teachers and many white collar workers), UMC = upper middle-class (e.g. lawyers and doctors). Numbers represent mean percentages of use in recordings with 12 individuals from each class. Source: Wolfram, 1969

Table 2.2 Use of selected AAVE features in Detroit, by social class by Wolfram (1969)

PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI

The table above will be a reference for the discussion in Chapter IV. It will be used as a proof that the language use is related to the social life of the people living in a city or even a country.

2.1.6 Rapper = Singer

Sing is making musical sounds with the voice, especially words with a set tune. When we are singing, we are delivering something in a secret language that people unconsciously understand (Marek, 2007, p. xix). A person who sings is a singer. A singer sings along with the musical tune as the background. Adele,

Celine Dion, and Jason Mraz are the examples of a solo singer. One Direction,

Backstreet Boys, and Westlife are the examples of the group of singers who performed together in a show.

Moreover, there is a familiar term when we are talking about singers. It is rapper. A rapper refers to a performer who ―raps‖. Rap is a type of popular music of US black origin in which words are recited rapidly and rhythmically over an instrumental backing. Rapping is a musical form of vocal delivery that incorporates "rhyme, rhythmic speech, and street vernacular", which is performed or chanted in a variety of ways, usually over a backbeat or musical accompaniment (Keyes, 2004, p. 1). Stylistically, rap occupies a gray area between speech, prose, poetry, and singing.

Krims (2000) stated that singing was something other than the bracketed, historicizing sampling technique so commonly used to frame soul style in much rap music (p. 148). This could make the relation between singing and rapping.

PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI

Rapping is singing because we have to develop vocal presence, enunciation, and breath control in order to successfully deliver a rap. A singer should pay attention to the breath control (see Lehmann, 1930, pp. 104-106), the tones (see Surmani,

1995, p. 40), and the articulation (see Howard, 2006, p. 33), just like a rapper should do. So rappers are singers, considered the similarity they have.

2.2 Theoretical Framework

This sub-chapter consists of all the theories which are related to analyze the

English grammar deviations in the 2016 song lyrics by African-American singers.

The researcher wants to find out the way 2016 song lyrics show the deviations of

Standard English grammar and why are the deviations occurred. The researcher gives explanation of the theoretical framework used in the research as follows in order to show the contribution of each theory in the theoretical description part.

The researcher employs theory of African-American Vernacular English

(AAVE) to show the grammar uses which are not suitable with the Standard

English. AAVE seems to be the language that is bad (see Wheeler, 1999) because of the characteristics that contrast with the English rules that have been established. However, we can find AAVE in literary works such as poems and novels. Besides, AAVE can be found in song lyrics, especially the popular songs in 2016.

PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI

In addition, the researcher uses a theory of language identity which will answer the questions about why the deviations occurred. ‗Identity‘ refers to an understanding of who we are and where we stand in relation to other people.

The researcher uses the theory of sociology as well. There are three sociological theories; the first is functionalism which is developed by David

Émile Durkheim (1858-1917), critical by Karl Marx (1818-1883), and symbolic interactionism by George Herbert Mead (1863-1931). These theories will help to answer the research question; why the 2016 song lyrics show deviations from the

English grammar.

PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI

CHAPTER III

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

This chapter provided the methodology of this research. It presented the description of research method, research setting, data source, instruments and data gathering techniques, and data analysis technique.

3.1 Research Method

The researcher used the qualitative method for this research. According to

Clissett, (2008, p. 100) qualitative research covers a wide range of approaches for the exploration of "human experience, perceptions, motivations and behaviors" and is concerned with the collection and analysis of words whether in the form of speech or writing. In addition, Leedy and Ormrod (2005) believe that the qualitative research method is used in the following conditions; (a) when there is rarely any information available about the topic, (b) when the researcher‘s variables are unclear and unknown, and (c) when a relevant theory base is missing in any sense. According to Jefferies (2005), the qualitative researcher tries to understand the overall environment and ultimately help others gain a better understanding of how the involved participants are seeing what is really going on in that specific situation on a day to day living.

PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI

3.2 Research Setting

This research was conducted in 2016 when the researcher analyzed the song lyrics by African-American singers. This research also used the billboard.com that became the source to see the 2016 songs which are able to be analyzed.

3.3 Data Source

The source which is used to get the data in this research is these songs in the list below. The data is the song lyrics from the 2016 songs that performed by

African-American singers which lyrics contain the deviations of the English grammar. There are 17 songs which lyrics were analyzed. The songs are:

1. Back To Sleep by Chris Brown

2. Broccoli by D.R.A.M and Lil Yachty

3. Cheap Thrills by Sia featuring Sean Paul

4. Don‟t by Bryson Tiller

5. Don‟t Mind by Kent Jones

6. Down In The DM (remix) by Yo Gotti and Nicki Minaj

7. Famous by Kanye West featuring Rihanna and Swizz Beatz

8. Hotline Bling by Drake

9. LUV by Tory Lanez

10. My House by Flo Rida

11. Panda by Desiigner

12. Say It by Tory Lanez

13. Sorry by Beyonce

PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI

14. Sucker For Pain by Imagine Dragons, Wiz Khalifa, Lil Wayne, Logic,

Ty Dolla Sign and X Ambassadors

15. Watch Me by Silento

16. Work by Rihanna featuring Drake

17. Work From Home by Fifth Harmony featuring Ty Dolla Sign

This research used the purposive sampling because there will be some singers that are purposively selected. The singers created the songs which lyrics will become the object to be analyzed. Purposive sampling is a non-probability sampling method and it occurs when ―elements selected for the sample are chosen by the judgment of the researcher; researchers often believe that they can obtain a representative sample by using a sound judgment, which will result in saving time and money‖ (Black, 2010).

3.4 Research Instruments and Data Gathering Technique

I collected the data using the documents and content analysis techniques.

Tavakoli (2012) explained that document analysis can be written or text based artifacts (textbooks, novels, journals, meeting minutes, logs, announcements, policy statements, newspapers, transcripts, birth certificates, marriage records, budgets, letters, e-mail messages, etc.) or of nonwritten records (photographs, audiotapes, videotapes, computer images, websites, musical performances, televised political speeches, virtual world settings, etc.). In this thesis, the researcher analyzed the data of music lyrics, especially the song lyrics by African-

PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI

American singers or rappers. However, whatever the meaning derived from the data, the qualitative researcher does not make any attempt to control their subject.

I used the data and content of the 2016 songs by and the interview with

Akon (one of the African-American singers) that I found on Youtube. The songs chosen are performed by the singers whose songs are included in the 100 top songs on billboard.com. The interview showed Akon‘s feeling of being a part of minority in a place of majority. Such sources gave the researcher the information about the reasons behind the deviated English grammar found in their song lyrics.

3.5 Data Analysis Technique

The researcher used the song lyrics of 2016, especially songs which were sung by African-American singers. From the information from wikipedia, the researcher found out some singers and rappers whose songs were popular in 2016 are African Americans. They are Rihanna, Desiigner, Flo Rida, Drake,

D.R.A.M., Lil Yachty, Bryson Tiller, Kent Jones, X Ambassadors, Wiz

Khalifa, Lil Wayne, Logic, Ty Dolla $ign, Nicki Minaj, Yo Gotti, Tory Lanez,

Beyonce, Silento, Chris Brown, Sean Paul, and Kanye West. The songs from those singers then became the songs chosen from billboard.com. Billboard.com is the website that provides the 100 popular or top songs in the chart at a certain year.

After listing the songs which are chosen, the researcher listened to 17 songs purposively chosen to be analyzed. In the listening process, the researcher found some grammatical deviations from the Standard English which has been learned

PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI

from the English Language Education Study Program (ELESP). Next, the researcher analyzed the lyrics which have been listened and opened a website called azlyrics.com which provides song lyrics. The researcher consistently used the website to be the reference of the 2016 song lyrics.

After listening to the songs and reading the lyrics from the website, the researcher listed the grammatical deviations that have been listened and read.

Then, the researcher decided to take some signs of deviations of the song lyrics that most often appeared. It was done after the researcher comparing the signs found with the list of AAVE features or characteristics in table which is suggested by Rickford (1999). There are 7 signs of English grammar deviations found and they will be explained in chapter IV.

Referred to the signs which have been found, the researcher analyzed the lyrics and related them to the theories in chapter II. There was an interview with

Akon as well, which gave information about the African-American‘s life in the land of America.

PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI

CHAPTER IV

RESEARCH RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

This chapter reported results and discussion of the research. The data obtained from the song lyrics are used to answer the research question about in what way the 2016 song lyrics by African-American singers show deviations from the English grammar. To support the results, the researcher provided a brief discussion about why song lyrics by African-American singers show deviations from the English grammar. The relation between research results and theories are also provided clearly in this chapter.

4.1 The Way 2016 Song Lyrics by African-American Singers Show

Deviations From The English Grammar

This section elaborated the signs of the deviation of (SE) Standard English found in 2016 song lyrics by African American singers and rappers. There are 7 signs found. This research focused on the song lyrics which are sung by some

African-American singers and rappers show deviations from the English standardized grammar, especially in the words‘ morphology.

4.1.1 Special uses of be and be omission

There are some signs of standard English deviations. One of them is be omission and the special use of be. According to Wardhaugh (2006), AAVE has

PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI

special uses of be or lack of be (the zero copula), as in a contrast between ‗He nice‘ (‗He is nice right now‘) and ‗He be nice‘ (‗He is nice sometimes‘). The absence of be is detected in the present tense states and actions (see Labov 1969 and Rickford et al. 1988). This kind of deviation was found in the lyrics from some singers. The lyrics within the song show the signs of standard English deviation. Below is the explanation.

1. (a) I be Puerto Rican day parade floatin‘

(b) We never gonna die, whoo!

(Kanye West, ―Famous‖)

2. (a) They be asking ‗round town who be clapping shit

(b) I be pullin‘ up stuff in the Phantom shit

(d) We gon‘ kill the bank

(e) She doin‘ her business

(f) I be getting to the chicken

(Desiigner, ―Panda‖)

3. (a) She the bae

(b) And she down to break the rules

PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI

(d) She finesse

(Ty Dolla Sign, ―Work From Home‖)

4. (a) Why you never alone?

(b) Why you always touching road?

(Drake, ―Hotline Bling‖)

5. (a) All these niggas clones tryna copy what I‘m on

(b) Shawty staring at my necklace ‗cause my diamonds really froze

(D.R.A.M, ―Broccoli‖)

All the lyrics which written above are showing the signs of AAE and those are the signs of a language. However, in 2002, Green said, ―Although sentences with the verbal marker be adhere to rules of AAE, they are not acceptable as school or professional language‖ (p. 35). From the explanation above, this matter could be a reason why African-American singers and rappers are still using the

AAE which will be explained in the second part.

Points 1 (a) and 2 (a), (b), (f) are showing the signs of the AAVE characteristic which is the special use of be. The word be above will be replaced by is, are, was, or were according to the rule of standardized English. In an article in The New Yorker, Louis Menand explains that be is used ―to indicate a habitual

PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI

condition, as in ‗Johnny be good,‘ meaning ‗Johnny is a good person‘‖ (p.5) (see

Green, 2002, p. 35).

The rest, which are the points number 1 (c), (d), 2 (c), (d), (f), 3 (a), (b), (c),

(d), 4 (a), (b), and 5 (a), (b), (c) are the examples of the omission of be or the absence of the copula. The absence of copula is the most identifiable feature of

AAVE. Although the copula absence is occurred in other American dialects, no dialects have a high rate of the absence of is like what we found in AAVE (Fasold et al, 1970).

4.1.2 Double negatives

One of the characteristics of AAVE is the double negatives. Up to the 18th century, double negatives were used to emphasize negation (Kirby, 2009, p. 2).

The example of the use of double negatives is I don‟t need no money (from the lyrics of Cheap Thrills performed by Sia and Sean Paul in 2016). In standardized

English, the sentence will be; I don‟t need money. However, in AAVE we will see the two signs of negative, they are don‟t and no. We can see that ―in AAE both the auxiliary and object can be negative‖ (Green, 2002, p. 76).

We are still able to find this AAVE characteristic in the song lyrics in 2016.

In fact, there were some song lyrics from some singers which show this kind of deviation of standardized English, but this research will focus on the song lyrics sung by African-American singers and rappers. Below are the lyrics from the songs sung by African-American singers and rappers that show the double negatives.

PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI

1. (a) It ain‘t nothing but pain

(b) Ain‘t got no other way so we started and finished it

(Lil Wayne (a) and Wiz Khalifa (b), ―Sucker For Pain‖)

2. (a) I ain‘t no saint

(Bryson Tiller, ―Don‘t‖)

3. (a) Ain‘t no telling what I‘m finna be on

(D.R.A.M, ―Broccoli‖)

4. (a) You don‘t need no one else

(b) You don‘t need nobody else

(Drake, ―Hotline Bling‖)

5. (a) It ain‘t no holding back

(Flo Rida, ―My House‖)

6. (a) Don‘t give that away to no one

(Rihanna, ―Work‖)

From the data above, we could see the lyrics in some songs that marked as the lyrics contain one of the AAVE characteristics; the double negatives. In the

PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI

points number 1, 2, 3 and 5, we can see the word ain‟t. Ain‟t is a negator (see

Green, 2002, p. 39). Ain‟t is one of the characters of AAVE which will be explained in the next three sections. Besides, in the points number 4 and 6, there are two negative markers in each sentence. There are don‟t and no. Both have roles to emphasize the negation.

From centuries ago, we have been using the double and even triple negatives to express negation. In 2012, James Harbeck wrote a poem which has been printed in a book Songs of Love and Grammar by James Harbeck and

Jonathan Lu. The poem stated the double negatives clearly on the title, Don‟t Tell

Me No Lies (p. 28). Don‟t is used to express the negative thing; we are not supposed to do something (or in this case the verb) which put behind the word don‟t. The same thing has also occurred in the use of no. No acts as the marker of the negative sentence. However, these two negative markers were put in the same line of a sentence since the emergence of African-American Vernacular English.

The double negatives have been a contrary to the standardized English. In standard English, when we are about to write or say something in a negative form, we should put one negative marker. The rule of AAVE showed the different thing.

As what have written above, the double negatives are used to emphasize negation.

The ―non-standard rule‖ itself is still used in this century. We can find it in 2016 song lyrics.

PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI

4.1.3 Verbal –s absence

Verbal –s absence refers to the absence of the –s suffix on present tense verbs with third person singular subjects (see Rickford 1999: 7). According to

Azar (2002), a singular verb ends in –s (p. 12); for example, a bird sings.

However, we will see that there is a different case in the verb application of

AAVE. In AAVE, the –s is rarely used which is the contrast with what the SE

(Standard English) has ruled.

1. (a) Now Flex drop bombs when he spin it

(Desiigner, ―Panda‖)

2. (a) She ride it like a ‗63

(Ty Dolla Sign, ―Work From Home‖)

3. (a) She feel it in her toes

(D.R.A.M, ―Broccoli‖)

4. (a) If she respond to this DM

(b) It go down in the DM

(d) Then he put his hands in my pants

(e) Do he make more dough than the pizza shop?

PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI

(f) Do he dress every day like it‘s Easter Sunday?

(Nicki Minaj, ―Down In The DM‖)

As we can see in all the points above, the verbs (drop, spin, ride, feel, respond, go, flip, and put) were put after the third person singular subjects (Flex, he, she, and it). There is an exception for the sentences in the interrogative form in point 4 (e) and (f). The do acts as the question word and it acts as the verb in the question. The subjects there are he. He is one of the third person singular subjects.

Therefore, the do there should be replaced by does according to standard English.

4.1.4 The use of I‟mma and gonna or gon‟

I‟mma is the shortened version of I am going to and sometimes written as

I‟ma. Gonna or gon‟ is the shortened version of going to. This kind of words has been used by some singers and rappers, both by African-Americans and the

Americans as well. Seymour and Roeper (1999) stated that the forms of I‟mma and gonna are the reduced forms of I am going to. The use of these words can be found in some lyrics in the song by African-American and American singers and rapper. However, this section will focus only on the song lyrics sung by African-

American singer or rapper.

1. I‟mma

1.1 (a) I‘mma buy her no Celine

(Ty Dolla Sign, ―Work From Home‖)

PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI

1.2 (a) I‘mma show you that where you from don‘t matter to me

(Kent Jones, ―Don‘t Mind‖)

1.3 (a) I‘mma jump from a plane or stand in front of a train

(Lil Wayne, ―Sucker For Pain‖)

2. Gonna or gon‟

2.1 (a) Gon‘ gimme that spare key

(Chris Brown, ―Back To Sleep‖)

2.2 (a) Gonna do it for me

(Silentó, ―Watch Me‖)

2.3 (a) We gon‘ live a good life

(Beyoncé, ―Sorry‖)

2.4 (a) You gon‘ have to do more than just (say it)

(b) You gon‘ have to do less when you (do it)

(Tory Lanez, ―Say It‖)

2.5 (a) We gon‘ go to war

(b) Who gon‘ try us?

(Ty Dolla Sign, ―Sucker For Pain‖)

PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI

2.6 (a) You gon‘ go where you supposed to go

(Kent Jones, ―Don‘t Mind‖)

2.7 (a) Gon‘ fill the bank

(b) Gon‘ drill the bank

(d) Bobby gon‘ trend it

(Desiigner, ―Panda‖)

In the points number 2.1, 2.2, and 2.7 (a and b) the sentences don‘t have any subject in front of the word gonna or gon‟. However, in the points number 2.3,

2.4, 2.5, 2.6, and 2.7 (c and d) the sentences have subjects and are followed by gonna or gon‟. If we connect this matter to the section a (special uses of be and be omission), those sentences above also showed another characteristic of the

AAVE, which is the omission of be. In Standard English, generally, we need to put be or to be after the subject, as what I learned in the Structure classes in

English Language Education Study Program of Sanata Dharma University. The pattern is subject + be/to be + verbing.

4.1.5 The use of ain‟t

This AAVE characteristic can be found in some speech, songs, or literature works nowadays. Ain‟t could be the contractions of to be not, to have not, and to do not. Chesire (1982) stated that ―the development of ain‟t for to be not and to

PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI

have not is a diachronic coincidence‖ (p. 53); in other words, they were independent developments at different times. Ain‟t earlier form as amn‟t (am not) appeared in 1618, while ain‟t as han‟t (has not/have not) appeared in the work of

English Restoration playwrights (Merriam-Webster. Inc, 1991, pp. 7-9). Besides, ain‟t is the contractions of to do not or in the past form is didn‟t. Here is the explanation from Howe (2005) in page 185.

Altogether, then, the regular use of ain‟t for didn‟t in modern AAVE appears to be a recent development. More specifically, I suggest that the dramatic rise of ain‟t usage for didn‟t was initiated by urban African American baby boomers. For instance, Labov et al. (1968) reported that in the sixties African American adolescents in Harlem made equal use ain‟t and didn‟t. By contrast, adults use didn‟t primarily, and make very little use of ain‟t‖ (p.255).

1. (a) „cause nuttin in this world ain‟t more dan what u worth

(Sean Paul, ―Cheap Thrills‖)

2. (a) It ain‘t no holding back

(Flo Rida, ―My House‖)

3. (a) Ain‘t no telling what I‘m finna be on

(b) If I ain‘t about guap I‘m gone

(D.R.A.M, ―Broccoli‖)

4. (a) Your dick ain‘t good enough to be stylin‘ on me

(b) I ain‘t talkin‘ pancakes

PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI

(Nicki Minaj, ―Down In The DM‖)

5. (a) But it ain‘t a crime

(Tory Lanez, ―LUV‖)

6. (a) You know I know that this ain‘t right

(b) Ain't goin' act like you ain't bout

(Tory Lanez, ―Say It‖)

7. (a) I ain‘t sorry

(b) I ain‘t picking up

(d) But I ain‘t fucking with anybody

(Beyoncé, ―Sorry‖)

8. (a) Ain‘t sorry that I woke ya

(b) I ain‘t sorry ‗bout your job

(Chris Brown, ―Back To Sleep‖)

Although ain‟t is rarely found in normal writing (especially, in this case, academic writing), it is often used in more informal writing, such as popular song

PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI

lyrics. German (2011) stated that in genres such as traditional country music, blues, rock n' roll, and hip-hop, lyrics often include non-standard features such as ain‟t (p. 154). Ain‟t is often showed as the sign of double negation (section b), as in points number 1, 2, and 3 (a). In points number 3 (b and c), 4 (b), 7, and 8, ain‟t means am not. Ain‟t in the points number 1, 2, 4 (a and c), 5, and 6 (a and c) means is not.

4.1.6 The use of finna

The earlier form of finna is fixing to. Finna (including variants fixina, fixna and fitna) indicates that the event is imminent; it will happen in the immediate future (Green, p. 70).

On the work of Julia Thomas and Timothy Grinsell from The University of

Chicago, we can see that finna behaves like a performative modal in AAVE, giving rise to a proximate future interpretation (following Ninan 2005, Kaufmann

2012). However, it is formally distinct from the future marker gonna. Finna is often paraphrased as about to. A Twitter account, @chanhoagland on July 17,

2016, posted a status which has been viral in the social media, "so my foreign exchange student has been keeping notes of words/phrases he hears so he can study them..." along with the pictures of the words list and her student's photo. In the list, we can see that he wrote: "finna= about to" (see Appendix 1). Bouta as about to occurs broadly in Northern Cities dialects among White and African

American speakers, while finna occurs only among African American speakers.

PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI

This is why finna becomes one of the AAVE characteristics. The lyric below shows the use of finna in the musical works.

1. (a) Ain‘t no telling what I‘m finna be on

(D.R.A.M, ―Broccoli‖)

4.1.7 The use of been

There are two kinds of been; the stressed and the unstressed been. The stressed use of been or BIN with a past tense form of the verb may denote a special aspectual function that marks an activity that took place in distant past

(Wolfram, p. 120). While the unstressed been or bin in SE is ―has/have been‖ and it is different with the stressed been because unstressed been can co-occur with time adverbials and does not connote remoteness (see Rickford 1999: 6).

1. (a) This what they all been waitin‘ for

(b) They been waitin‘ for this shit for a long time, didn‘t they?

(Desiigner, ―Panda‖)

2. (a) Lately you say he been killing the vibe

(b) You deserve what you been missing

(Bryson Tiller, ―Don‘t‖)

3. (a) I been at it with my homies

PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI

(b) I been rollin‘ with my team

(d) We been loyal, we been fam

(e) I know I been bustin‘

(Logic, ―Sucker For Pain‖)

4. (a) But I been on it

(Tory Lanez, ―Say It‖)

As what I have learned in the Structure classes in the university, I found that been need to have an antecedent which are have, has, or had, depend on the subject and time. However, the lyrics above show the opposite. Points number 1 up to 4 don‘t enclose have, has, or had in front of been. In points 1 (a), 2 (b), 3 (a- e) and 4, there is no time adverbials so the lyrics in those points could be considered as the sentences using the unstressed been or bin. While the points 1

(b) and 2 (a) show the time adverbials (for a long time and lately). Therefore, they are considered as the stressed been or BIN.

4.2 The Reasons Why 2016 Song Lyrics by African-American Singers Show

Deviations from the English Grammar

The part above explained about how 2016 song lyrics by African-American singers show deviations from the English grammar or SE (Standard English). We have seen the signs of AAVE characteristics which appeared in the song lyrics.

PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI

This part tells about the reasons why 2016 song lyrics by African-American singers show deviations from the standardized English.

Before moving on the reasons I have found, this part will show the controversy of Ebonics or AAVE. In 2007, A. Fay Vaughn-Cooke wrote about

Lessons learned from the Ebonics controversy: implications for language assessment in Sociolinguistics Variation: Theories, Methods and Applications by

Robert Bayley and Ceil Lucas. There are 13 ‗lessons learned‘. They are:

1. The majority of people in the United States do not believe that all languages are equal. 2. The majority of people believe that Ebonics and other non-standard varieties of English are deficient. 3. Many people believe that Ebonics is only slang. 4. Many people believe that Ebonics is street language. 5. Many people believe that Ebonics speakers have limited intelligence. 6. Many people believe that listeners cannot understand Ebonics. 7. The evidence that Ebonics is systematic and rule-governed is often rejected or ignored. 8. Many people believe that is acceptable to ridicule and to make jokes about Ebonics and other non-standard varieties of English. 9. Many people think that the differences between Ebonics and Standard English are minimal and can be learned without formal instruction. 10. Many people believe that federal and state funds should not be used to pay for Standard English instruction for Ebonics speakers. 11. Many people ignore and even ridicule language experts when they present the facts about Ebonics. 12. The intricate relationships between language and power in the United States are hidden from most people. 13. A relatively small but persistent chorus of voices has resisted the subordination of Ebonics for more than thirty years, and they continued this resistance during the debate.

Some points listed above are supporting my findings. Therefore, I need to put these ‗lessons learned‘ so the readers can compare with what the earlier researchers have found on their works. The African-American singers somehow represent the feelings of all African who raised or lived in America. The word

PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI

―African-American people‖ in the discussion below refers to African-American; mostly the singers or rappers. Below are the reasons why 2016 song lyrics are still using the ‗non-standard English‘ in the application of their work of songs.

4.2.1 African-American people want to recall the period of slavery years ago

“The system in America was never built for black people.., this is my personal opinion..., because that system has never been changed, those documents has never been altered” - Akon, 2015 From the interview with Al-Jazeera English

The period of slavery in Africa by white people happened in around 1650s

(Healy & Vere-Hodge, 1967, p. 17). The Africans became the whites‘ slaves. In order to have a suffice communication with their masters, the Africans tried to learn the language they heard daily from the master. Their self-taught language is then known as the African American Vernacular English.

This language is still used until now, especially in daily conversation, informal writing (music), and literary works. The singers whose parents' origin is

Africa and raised in America or Europe applied the language in their musical works. However, the language they kept using is considered deviated from the

Standard English. The people, especially who are linguistically naive, consider that Ebonics is inferior and unfit for classroom use, and that the children who speak it have limited intelligence (Vaughn-Cooke, 2007). In other words, people considered the AAVE as the language for uneducated people.

PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI

There is a famous singer and sometimes a rapper who still active until now.

In 2016, he just released a single titled Heatwave together with a famous DJ (Disc

Jockey), Robin Schulz. He is Akon. He is an African who raised in America and while doing his musical work, he is trying to make a better Africa as well. Akon stated in his interview with Al-Jazeera English in 2015, ―...because there's a paternalistic view that still exists today and this is like decades after colonialism and so on that Africa still must be saved by the way‖. African-Americans who live in America are still feeling the sense of slavery years ago. The large influx of

African Americans in these metropolitan areas (such as New York, Chicago,

Detroit, Philadelphia, Washington, DC, Los Angeles, and Baltimore; according to

Bailey, 2001) led to intensified racial isolation and, along with other social and cultural ramifications of such de facto segregation, a social environment conducive to the maintenance of ethnolinguistic differences.

There is a matter of power as well. In Vaughn-Cooke‘s 13 lessons learned from the Ebonics controversy, in point number 12 is written: "the intricate relationships between language and power in the United States are hidden from most people‖. The African Americans realize that ―the domination and oppression started during slavery and continues to this very day, although not to the same degree‖ (see Bayley and Lucas, 2007, p. 268). The descendants of African slaves are trying to show that they still remember the time of slavery of their ancestors.

They are making literature works or musical works to pour their thoughts through their deviated-from-Standard-English song lyrics they were ‗intentionally' made.

Actually, pouring thoughts to the song already occurred since the time of slavery.

PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI

William Trotter, the Lake Company‘s overseer at the canals digging for Phelps

Lake in Washington County in 1786, said that ―at night they (the Africans) would begin to sing their native songs‖ (see G. White & S. White, 2005, p. x).

4.2.2 African-American people want to state themselves as the real Africans who

use English

The English language has been voted as the language we use internationally.

We can see English languages applied in products, advertisements, etc. Even in

Indonesia, some local products use English to promote their products. Almost all people in the world use English. However, there are some people who use English nicely but still want to attach their accent. Besides, there are some people who use

English perfectly and want others to see themselves as the global people.

According to Sung‘s research in 2013, there are two groups of people showing their identity. There are two kinds of identity discussed in the research; local identity and global identity. The people with local identity want others to see them as the real people from their place. For example, from Sung‘s research, a participant said that he wants people to identify him as a Hong Kongnese when he speaks English (p. 47). Whereas, there are people with global identity who speak

English with a native or near-native accent and do not want to make English

‗looks bad' when they use Hong Kong accent in speaking English. From Sung's research, one of the participants said that it is not a good identity when she/he uses a Hong Kong accent and does not want people in other countries to think that

Hong Kong people can write English well, but cannot speak English well.

PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI

Although AAVE is considered stigmatized (see Ball, Makoni, Smitherman, and Spears, 2003, p. 30) and a bad English according to most English speakers

(see Wheeler, 1999, p. 40), the Black Americans and even white people and some people in this world are still using it in their daily life and in the literary works or musical works as well. However, in Affinity magazine (May 2016), Collazo wrote: "AAVE is for black people". Looking at the way the African American singers and rappers using AAVE (in this case the accent and linguistics features) continuously in their song lyrics, we can see that they want people who heard their songs to identify them as the Africans who sing using the English language.

4.2.3 African-American people want to show that their language is systematic and

rule-governed

Systematic is done or acting according to a fixed plan or system; methodical.

While rule-governed is according to custom or rule or natural law. African-

American English (AAE) is a systematic, rule-governed linguistic system that is spoken by many African-American people in the United States (Washington, n.d.). In contrast to the explanation from the previous sentence, ―the majority of people in the United States believe that Ebonics is inferior‖ (Bayley and Lucas, p.

256). These two understandings are very oppositional. However, Rickford (2012) stated that the opinions about Ebonics depend on whom we ask.

Black writers from Paul Laurence Dunbar to Zora Neale Hurston to August Wilson have made extensive use of it in their work, and some, like James Baldwin ("this passion, this skill, ... this incredible music."), Toni Morrison, and June Jordan have praised it explicitly. Black preachers and comedians and singers, especially rappers, also use it for

PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI

dramatic or realistic effect. But many other people, black and white, regard it as a sign of limited education or sophistication, as a legacy of slavery or an impediment to socioeconomic mobility.

Talking about AAVE means we are talking about the English language that generated and developed by the Africans years ago. There are some arguments when we are talking about Standard English and AAVE. ―There is a strong temptation, especially when one of the two has higher prestige, to take one to be the correct way to speak and the other to be incorrect‖ Wheeler (1999, p. 41).

Some people see AAVE as a deviated language from the standardized English and should be avoided to use as much as possible. It is happened because of the different ‗level‘, which in this case AAVE is placed in the lower level and

Standard English is placed higher than AAVE. A linguistic scholar, Fayvaughn-

Cooke was often invited to appear on talk shows. He said, ―I was stunned by the responses of many talk shows hosts and members of the audience to my carefully selected linguistic examples that provided incontrovertible evidence that Ebonics is a systematic and rule-governed language. Most people flatly rejected the evidence.‖ (Bayley and Lucas, p. 266).

However, from the discussion in the previous section, we can see in the song lyrics that actually AAVE has its rules and systems. The singers and rappers constantly use the rules in their song lyrics. For example the use of ain‟t in the double negatives or finna and other signs of AAVE in the 2016 song lyrics discussed before. From that point of view, we can see that the African Americans want to show that their language is systematic and rule-governed.

PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI

4.2.4 African-American people want their language to be approved as the other

English language varieties

There are some varieties of English language, e.g. American English,

Australian English, etc. Some of the varieties have been approved as the official

English dialects. However, since years ago, AAVE is considered unofficial because ―AAVE is the everyday spoken speech of African Americans, composed of grammatical elements and linguistic structures that contrast with the official standard‖ (ed. Juang and Morrissette, 2008, p. 415). There is a gap between SE

(Standard English) and AAVE that makes people who speak using the language

‗judged‘ by the language preference.

The linguist Max Weinreich once said that a language is a dialect with an army and a navy. The students of Oakland school (who are predominantly African

American) do not have the kind of power that brings their speech linguistic prestige. New York Representative Peter King (R-Seaford) revealed his ignorance and contempt for the variety when he claimed that ―Ebonics is a verbal stew of inner-city street slang and bad grammar – it is not a language‖ (Evans 1997: A17, as cited from Bayley and Lucas, 2007). Referring to the table of the use of the selected AAVE features in Detroit (by social class) by Wolfram (1969), people in the upper middle-class avoided using AAVE in their speech.

PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI

Table 1.3 Use of selected AAVE features in Detroit, by social class FEATURE LWC UWC LMC UMC Consonant cluster simplification NOT in past 84% 79% 66% 51% tense (60) Voiceless th [θ] → f, t or Ø (84) 71% 59% 17% 12% Multiple negation (156) 78% 55% 12% 8% Absence of copula/auxiliary is, are (169) 57% 37% 11% 5% Absence of third person present tense –s 71% 57% 10% 1% (136) Absence of possessive –s (141) 27% 25% 6% 0% Absence of plural –s (143) 6% 4% 1% 0%

Table 4.1 Use of selected AAVE features in Detroit, by social class by Wolfram

(1969)

Facts that AAVE is considered as a bad dialect, powerless and even not a language, lead to a vision that people who speak AAVE will have to ‗work hard‘ in order to show others that AAVE is deserved the official label. The struggle to maintain AAVE and make it official has been done years ago. As the struggle is going on, ―passionate appeals from distinguished linguistic researchers to end the cruel mockery of the language of Ebonics speakers, many of whom are young children, fell on deaf ears‖ (Bayley and Lucas, p. 263). There are a number of ways to actualize it. One of them is through musical works; through the constant

PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI

and systematic features of AAVE that singers and rappers attach to their song lyrics.

PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI

CHAPTER V

CONCLUSIONS, IMPLICATIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS

This chapter presented the conclusions, the implications, and the recommendations of the research findings. This chapter is divided into three parts.

The first is the conclusion related to the research questions, the second is the implications, and the third is the recommendations for teachers, students, and further research.

5.1 Conclusions

From the background, we can see that this research is focused on the deviations from SE (Standard English) found in some song lyrics by African-

American singers or rappers. This research found out in what way the song lyrics show the deviations of the English grammar that has been established and what are the reasons. This research is expected to have contribution is some courses in

ELESP of Sanata Dharma University such as Basic Writing, Paragraph Writing and other courses which have been explained in chapter I.

Based on the results and discussions in chapter IV, some conclusions can be drawn. They are stated as follows:

1. There are seven markers of morphological features of AAVE found in the

2016 popular (based on billboard) song lyrics purposively selected. They

are special uses of be and be omission, double negatives, verbal –s

PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI

absence, special uses of be and be omission in I’mma and gonna or gon’,

ain’t act as present and past marker, the use of finna, and the use of

two kinds of been which are BIN and bin.

2. There are four reasons why 2016 song lyrics by African-American singers

show deviations from the English grammar. They are:

a. African-American people want to recall the period of slavery years ago,

b. African-American people want to state themselves as the real Africans

who use English,

c. African-American people want to show that their language is systematic

and rule-governed, and

d. African-American people want their language to be approved as the other

English language varieties.

There are some literatures reviewed to be the sources of data needed for this research and some literatures that give theories related to this research. The theories used in chapter II to be reviewed are about AAVE as a bad English,

AAVE Characteristics, the application of AAVE in literature works, language identity, sociological theories, and the relation between singers and rappers.

This research used the qualitative method as the methodology for this research and purposive sampling for the selected data. To collect the data I used the documents and content analysis as the process explained in chapter III.

PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI

5.2 Implications

This research is expected to contribute in the teaching and learning process in Sanata Dharma University, especially in the English Language Education Study

Program (ELESP). There are some courses in ELESP which will be the focus of this thesis: Introduction to Sociolinguistics and Sociolinguistics course.

The reason of this thesis expectation is because this thesis is talking about

African-American Vernacular English (AAVE) which will be introduced in those two courses.

5.3 Recommendations

According to the conclusions above, there are some recommendations related to this research. a. Students of ELESP in Sanata Dharma University are to learn more about the

requirement of an academic writing. They are expected to understand that

some song lyrics are not applicable in academic writing. b. Students of ELESP in Sanata Dharma University are to learn more about

Sociolinguistics because as the English speakers, we need to be aware about

the linguistic variation according to the social matter. c. Students of ELESP in Sanata Dharma University are to read about AAVE

because it is one of the English language varieties.

PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI

REFERENCES

Azar, B. S. (2002). Fundamentals of English grammar (3rd ed.). New York: Pearson Education.

AZlyrics. (n.d.). Retrieved on August 17th, 2016, from https://www.azlyrics.com/

Bailey-Johnson. (2001). Sistahs in college: Making a way out of no way. Malabar: Krieger Publishing Company. billboard. (2016). Retrieved on August 9th, 2016, from https://www.billboard.com/charts/year-end/2016/hot-100-songs

Black, K. (2010). Business statistics: Contemporary decision making (6th ed.). Hoboken: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Block, D. (2007). Second language identities. London: Continuum International Publishing Group.

Chesire, J. (1982). Variation in an English dialect: A sociolinguistic study. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Clissett, P. (2008). Evaluating qualitative research. Journal of Orthopaedic nursing, 99-105.

Collazo, R. (2016, May 22). AAVE is for Black People and Black People Only. Affinity Magazine. Retrieved on September 1st, 2016, from http://affinitymagazine.us/2016/05/22/aave-is-for-black-people-and-black- people-only/

Crossman, A. (2017, March 2). ThoughtCo. Retrieved on July 26th, 2017, from ThoughtCo.: https://www.thoughtco.com/labeling-theory-3026627

Durkheim, E. (1993). Ethics and the sociology of morals. (R. T. Hall, Trans.) New York: Prometheus Books.

Eversley, S. (2004). The real Negro: The question of authenticity in twentieth- century African American literature. New York: Routledge.

Fasold, R., & Wolfram, W. (1970). Some linguistic features of Negro dialect. In Fasold, & Shuy (Eds.).

Fix, S. (2014). AAE as a bounded ethnolinguistic resource for white women with African American ties. Language & communication, 35, 55-74.

PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI

Fuchs, C. (2015). The international encyclopedia of political communication. (G. Mazzoleni, Ed.) Hoboken: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

German, G. D. (2011). Appalachian and African American lyrical traditions. In D. Banks, Aspects linguistiques du texte poetique (p. 154). Paris: Editions L'Harmattan.

Geuss, R. (1981). The idea of a critical theory. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Graham, M. (2004). Introduction. In M. Graham, The Cambridge companion to the African American novel (p. 7). New York: Cambridge University Press.

Green, L. J. (2002). African American English: a linguistic introduction. New York: Cambridge University Press.

Hall, P. M. (2007, February 15). The Blackwell encyclopedia of sociology. Retrieved on November 17th, 2017, from Blackwell Encyclopedia of Sociology Online: http://www.sociologyencyclopedia.com/public/

Harbeck, J., & Lu, J. (2012). Songs of love and grammar. Retrieved on September 22nd, 2017, from http://www.lulu.com.

Healy, A. M., & Vere-Hodge, E. R. (1967). The map approach to African history (4th ed.). London: University Tutorial Press.

Howard, E. (2006). Sing! Los Angeles: Alfred Music Publishing.

Howe, D. (2005). Negation in African American vernacular English. University of Calgary, 172-201. Retrieved on July 14th, 2017, from http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.507.7&rep=rep1 &type=pdf

Jefferies, S. C. (2005). Qualitative research. In Department of physical education & leisure services. Washington: Central Washington University.

Juang, R. M. (2008). Africa and the Americas: Culture, politic, and history. (R. M. Juang, & N. Morrissette, Eds.) Library of Congress Cataloging-in- Publication Data. Retrieved on November 16th, 2017, from https://books.google.co.id/books?id=wFrAOqfhuGYC&pg=PR3&hl=id&s ource=gbs_selected_pages&cad=2#v=onepage&q&f=false

Keyes, C. L. (2004). Rap music and street consciousness. Urbana: University of Illinois Press.

PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI

Kirby, P. (2009). Double and multiple negatives. Retrieved on July 2nd, 2017, from https://www.american.edu/cas/tesol/resources/upload/Kirby_Philippa.pdf

Krims, A. (2000). Rap music and the poetics of identity. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Labov, W. (1969). A study of non-standard English. Washington, DC: ERIC Clearinghouse for Linguistics.

Leedy, P. D., & Ormrod, J. E. (2005). Practical research: Planning and design (5th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Merrill Prentice Hall.

Lehmann, L. (1952). How to sing. (R. Aldrich, Trans.) New York: The Macmillan Company.

Macionis, J. J., & Gerber, L. M. (2010). Sociology (7th ed.). Toronto: Pearson Education Canada.

Makoni, S., Smitherman, G., Ball, A., & Spears, A. (2003). Black linguistics: Language, society and politics in Africa and the Americas (1st ed.). London: Routledge.

Mallinson, C. (2009). Sociolinguistics and sociology: Current directions, future partnerships. Language and linguistic compass, 1034-1051.

Marek, D. H. (2007). Singing: The first art. Lanham: Scarecrow Press, Inc.

Merriam-Webster, Inc. (1991). The Merriam-Webster concise school and office dictionary. Springfield: Merriam-Webster Incorporated.

Metro Lyrics. (n.d.). Retrieved on November 3rd, 2016, from http://www.metrolyrics.com/

Minority Rights Group. (n.d.). Minority rights group international. Retrieved on March 7th, 2017, from http://minorityrights.org/minorities/african- americans/

Rickford, J. (1988). The evolution of creole languages: Real and apparent time evidence. In K. Ferrara, B. Brown, K. Walters, & J. Baugh (Eds.), Linguistic change and contact: NWAV-XVI (pp. 298-309). Austin: University of Texas.

Rickford, J. R. (1999). African American vernacular English. Oxford: Wiley- Blackwell. Retrieved on September 27th, 2016, from http://www.johnrickford.com/portals/45/documents/papers/Rickford- 1999e-Phonological-and-Grammatical-Features-of-AAVE.pdf

PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI

Rickford, J. R. (2012). What is Ebonics (African American English)? Linguistic society of America. Retrieved on May 19th, 2017, from https://www.linguisticsociety.org/content/what-ebonics-african-american- english

Rijn, G. v. (2007). Kennedy's blues: African-American blues and gospel songs on JFK. Jackson: University Press of Mississippi.

Seymour, H., & Roeper, T. (1999). Grammatical acquisition of African American English. Boston: University of Massachusetts. Retrieved on February 14th, 2017, from http://www.umas.edu/language_acquisition/Roeper%20papers/Roeper- AAE.pdf

Sung, C. M. (2014). Accent and identity: exploring the perceptions among bilingual speakers of English as a lingua franca in Hong Kong. International journal of bilingual education and bilingualism, 17(5), 544- 557.

Surmani, K. F. (1995). Teach yourself to sing: Everything you need to know to start singing now. Los Angeles: Alfred Publishing Co., Inc.

Tavakoli, H. (2012). A dictionary of research methodology and statistics in applied linguistics. Tehran: Rahnama Press.

Vaughn-Cooke, A. F. (2007). Lessons learned from the Ebonics controversy: implications for language assessment. In R. Bayley, C. Lucas, R. Bayley, & C. Lucas (Eds.), Sociolinguistics variation: Theories, methods, and applications (p. 254). New York: Cambridge University Press.

Wardhaugh, R. (2006). An introduction to sociolinguistics (5th ed.). Oxford: Blackwell Publishing.

Wheeler, R. S. (1999). The workings of language. London: Praeger. Retrieved on July 29th, 2017, from https://web.stanford.edu/~zwicky/aave-is-not-se- with-mistakes.pdf

White, S., & White, G. (2005). The sounds of slavery: Discovering African American history through songs, sermons, and speech. Boston: Beacon Press.

Williams, T. (2009). African American literature (Masterplots II) (Revised ed.). Pasadena, CA: Salem Press.

PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI

APPENDIX

Appendix A Twitter Screenshot

PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI