(Consejo De Editores ) Advisory Board

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• Dr. José Tejada Fernández, Universidad Autónoma de Barcelona, Editors Board (Consejo de Editores ) España • Dr. Juan Silva Quiroz, Universidad de Santiago de Chile, Chile Editor-in-Chief (Editores Jefe) • Dr. Julio Cabero-Almenara, Universidad de Sevilla, España • Dra. Rosa García-Ruiz, Universidad de Cantabria, España • Dr. Lorenzo Cantoni, Università della Svizzera Italiana, Suiza • Jaime Padilla-Verdugo, Universidad Politécnica Salesiana, • Dr. Luis Miguel Pedrero Esteban, Universidad Pontificia de Ecuador Salamanca, España • Dr. Luis Miguel Romero Rodríguez, Universidad Internacional Assistant Editors (Editores Adjuntos) de La Rioja, España • Dr. Napoleón Esquivel, Universidad Politécnica Salesiana, • Dr. Manuel Area, Universidad de La Laguna, España Ecuador • Dra. María Caridad Valdés Rodríguez, Universidad de las Thematic Editors (Editores temáticos) Ciencias Informáticas, Cuba • Dra. Sílvia Ester Orrú, Universidade de Brasília, Brasil • Dra. Maria Isabel Punín Larrea, Universidad Técnica Particular • Dr. Alejandro Rodríguez-Martín, Universidad de Oviedo, de Loja, Ecuador España • Dra. María Teresa Bejarano Franco, Universidad de Castilla La • Dra. Auxiliadora Sales Ciges, Universitat Jaume, España Mancha, España • Dra. Maria-Soledad Ramírez-Montoya, TEC de Monterrey, International Coeditors (Co-Editores internacionales) México Dr. Geraldo Caliman, Universidade Católica de Brasília, Brasil • Dra. Mercedes González-Sanmamed, Universidad de La Coruña, España • Dra. Natalia González Fernández, Universidad de Cantabria, Advisory Board (Consejo Científico) España • Dra. Paloma Antón Ares, Universidad Complutense de Madrid, • Dr. Alejandro Rodríguez-Martín, Universidad de Oviedo, España España • Dr. Alfonso Torres Carrillo, Universidad Pedagógica Nacional, • Dra. 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Claudia del Pilar Vélez, Universidad de San Buenaventura de Brasília, Brasil de Cali, Colombia • Dr. Jaime Rivas Castillo, Universidad Don Bosco, El Salvador • Claudia Moreno Standen, Universidad de Chile, Chile • Dr. Jean Carlos García Zacarías, Pontificia Universidad Católica • Dra. Constantina Xavier Filha, Universidade Federal de Mato del Ecuador, Ecuador Grosso do Sul, Brasil • Dra. Jennie Brand Barajas, Universidad La Salle, México • Dr. Cristian Desbouts, Università Pontificia Salesiana, Italia • Dr. José Andrés García Méndez, Escuela Nacional de • Dra. Damia Mendoza-Zambrano, Universidad Laica Eloy Antropología e Historia, México Alfaro de Manabí, Ecuador • Dr. José Antonio Fernández Bravo, Universidad Camilo José • Dr. Daniel Leonidas Loncón, Universidad Nacional de la Cela, España Patagonia, Argentina • Dr. José Antonio Trasferetti, Pontifícia Universidade Católica de • Dr. Daniel Llanos Erazo, Universidad Politécnica Salesiana, Campinas, Brasil Ecuador • Dr. José Francisco Alvarado García, Universidad • Diana Ávila, Universidad Politécnica Salesiana, Ecuador Iberoamericana, México • Dr. Eduardo Fabara Garzón, Universidad Andina “Simón • Dr. José Guilherme dos Santos Fernandes, Universidade Federal Bolívar”, Ecuador do Pará, Brasil • Dr. Eduardo Mercado Cruz, ISCEEM, México • Dr. José Luis Guzón Nestar, CES Don Bosco, UCM y San Pío • Elena Guadalupe Rodríguez-Roa, Universidad La Salle, México X, UPSA, España • Dra. Elisabete Oliveira, ECOS - Comunicação em Sexualidade, • Dr. José Luis Moral, Università Pontificia Salesiana, Italia Brasil • Dr. José Raúl Jiménez Ibáñez, Universidad de La Salle, Colombia • Dra. Josiane Peres Gonçalves, Universidade Federal de Mato • Dra. Mariana Coralina Carmo, Universidade Estadual de Grosso do Sul, Brasil Campinas, Brasil • Dr. Juan José Leiva Olivencia, Universidad de Málaga, España • Dra. Maribel Enaida Alegre Jara, Universidad Nacional del • Dr. Juan Vicente Ortiz Franco, Fundación Universitaria Los Santa, Perú Libertadores, Colombia • Dra. Maribel Pinto, Instituto Politécnico de Viseu, Portugal • Dra. Kathie Njaine, Fundação Oswaldo Cruz, Brasil • Dr. Mário Marcelo Coelho, Pontifícia Universidade Católica de • Laura Liliana Rosso, Universidad Nacional de Nordeste, São Paulo, Brasil Argentina • Dr. Marlécio Maknamara, Universidade Federal da Bahia, Brasil • Laura Sánchez Blanco, Universidad Pontificia de Salamanca, • Dra. 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Sonia Liliana Ivanoff, Universidad Nacional de la Patagonia, Argentina • Dra. Sonia Sampaio, Universidad Federal de Bahía, Brasil • Susana Barco, Universidad Nacional del Comahue, Argentina Published by (Edita) • Dra. Suyai Malen García Gualda, Universidad Nacional del Comahue, Argentina Universidad Politécnica Salesiana • Dra. Suzana dos Santos Gomes, Universidade Federal de Minas www.ups.edu.ec Gerais, Brasil • Dra. Tânia Regina Dantas, Universidade do Estado da Bahia, Board of Publication Brasil (Consejo de Publicaciones) • Dra. Tania Suely Azevedo Brasileiro, Universidade Federal do Oeste do Pará, Brasil Dr. Javier Herrán Gómez, sdb • Dra. Teresa Laura Artieda, Universidad Nacional del Nordeste, Dr. Juan Bottasso Boetti, sdb Argentina Dr. Juan Pablo Salgado Guerrero Dr. José Juncosa Blasco • Dr. Tiago Duque, Universidade Federal de Mato Grosso do Sul, MSc. Jaime Padilla Verdugo Brasil Dra. Floralba Aguilar Gordón • Dra. Vanessa Figueiredo, Universidade Federal de Mato Grosso MSc. Sheila Serrano Vincenti do Sul, Brasil MSc. Fabricio Freire Morán • Dra. Vania Tanira Biavatti, Universidade Regional de Blumenau, MSc. John Calle Sigüecia Brasil MSc. René Unda Lara • Dra. Victoria Jara, Universidad Politécnica Salesiana, Ecuador MSc. Betty Rodas Soto • Dra. Wedja Maria Oliveira Leal, Pontifícia Universidade MSc. Andrea De Santis Católica de São Paulo, Brasil MSc. Mónica Ruiz Vásquez • Dr. Wellington de Oliveira, UFVJM, Brasil • Dr. Welson Barbosa Santos, Universidade Federal de Goiás, General Editor UPS (Editor General UPS) Brasil • Willy Chambi Zabaleta, Universidad Salesiana de Bolivia, Dr. Luis Álvarez-Rodas Bolivia • Dra. Ximena Vélez Calvo, Universidad del Azuay, Ecuador Editorial Universitaria Abya-Yala • Yamila Irupé Núñez, Universidad Nacional de Misiones, (Quito, Ecuador) Argentina Hernán Hermosa (Coordinación General) • Dra. Yamirlis Gallar Pérez, Universidad Internacional SEK, Av. 12 de Octubre N23-116 y Wilson, Bloque A, UPS Ecuador Casilla 17-12-7-19 Teléfono: (593-2)3962-800 ext. 2638 • Dra. Yolanda Castro Robles, Pontificia Universidad Javeriana, E-mail: [email protected] Colombia Portal electrónico: http://www.abyayala.org july-december 2019 Vol. 14, No. 2 Contents

Editorial...... 157

MONOGRAPHIC SECTION (SECCIÓN MONOGRÁFICA) “Inclusive Education: progress, dilemmas and challenges for an intercultural context” Educación Inclusiva: avances, dilemas y retos para un contexto intercultural

Thematic Editors Dra. Sílvia Ester Orrú, Universidade de Brasilia, (Brasilia, DF, Brasil) Dr. Alejandro Rodríguez-Martín, Universidad de Oviedo (Asturias, España) Dra. Auxiliadora Sales Ciges, Universitat Jaume I (Castellón, España)

GUADALUPE VERNIMMEN AGUIRRE ...... 162 Ecuadorian Intercultural Education: a conceptual review Educación Intercultural Bilingüe en Ecuador: Una revisión conceptual NURIA MACARENA RODRÍGUEZ y DRA. MARÍA MACARENA OSSOLA ...... 172 University Tutoring and intercultural education: debates and experiences Tutoría universitaria y educación intercultural: debates y experiencias AZUCENA OCHOA CERVANTES ...... 184 The type of participation promoted in schools is a constraint factor for inclusive education El tipo de participación que promueve la escuela, una limitante para la inclusión DR. JOAN ANDRÉS TRAVER-MARTÍ, DRA. ODET MOLINER GARCÍA y DRA. AUXILIADORA SALES CIGES...... 195 Negociating curriculum: Learning Service in Included School Negociando el currículum: aprendizaje-servicio en la escuela incluida DRA. ROSA M. ESPADA CHAVARRÍA, DRA. MIRIAM BERNARDA GALLEGO CONDOY y DR. RAYCO H. GONZÁLEZ-MONTESINO...... 207 Universal Design of Learning and Inclusion in Basic Education Diseño Universal del Aprendizaje e Inclusión en la Educación Básica

MISCELLANEOUS SECTION (SECCIÓN MISCELÁNEA)

MARIO MEGÍAS-DELGADO, PATRICIA DE-CASAS-MORENO y GEMA PARAMIO-PÉREZ...... 220 Advertising and media competence for environmental education in primary school students Publicidad y competencia mediática para la educación ambiental en alumnos de primaria ADELINA ESPEJEL RODRÍGUEZ e ISABEL CASTILLO RAMOS...... 231 Environmental education in the baccalaureate: From school to family Educación ambiental en el bachillerato: De la escuela a la familia JUAN CARLOS CEBALLOS SEPÚLVEDA, JULIÁN DARÍO FORERO SANDOVAL y ALFREDO ÁLVAREZ OROZCO...... 243 School media, scenarios to form political subjects in school Medios escolares, escenarios para formar sujetos políticos en la escuela JOAMSNER MAGDALENA ARÉVALO...... 256 Historical journey of literacy in Venezuela from the un-learning Recorrido histórico de la alfabetización en Venezuela desde el desaprendizaje FERNANDO DAVID MÁRQUEZ DUARTE...... 266 Model United Nations: a constructivist tool Modelo de Naciones Unidas: una herramienta constructivista Publication guidelines “Alteridad”...... 278 july-december 2019 Vol. 14, No. 2

Tucusito Technique: Watercolor

ART GALLERY

Darío Ramos

He was born in Quito on September 20, 1968, and is a legally blind person. his style of painting includes figurative art and symbolism. Currently he no longer paints because the disease is advancing. july-december 2019 Vol. 14, No. 2, 157-159 Editorial

The universal declaration of human rights marks the course of the 20th century. Among them is the right to education. To guarantee it, and for it to be of quality, public policies that favor it from an inclusive and intercultural perspective are required, without discrimination or prejudice. In the contemporary context, the concepts of diversity and difference are broadened in relation to social inequalities and vulnerability. The paradigm of normality/abnormality is questioned and even rejected by the scientific community and by educational centers. Already in the 21st century, the paradigm of inclusion is strengthened and causes a rethinking of education in a globalized and plural world, all from human complexity and the learning possibilities that diversity offers. There are multiple experiences that show the consolidation of this educational model in different socio-educational contexts, with innovative and challenging proposals, which, in turn, pose dilemmas and an enriching debate about this process of educational transformation towards inclusion and interculturality. The present issue of the Journal «Alteridad» aims to deepen the construction of this new look towards diversity; analyze advances related to cultures, public policies and innovative practices for inclusion in education systems; make citizen participation visible for social empowerment and share stories of experiences from different perceptions and theoretical-methodological approaches concerning inclusive education in the international sphere. For this reason, regional and national studies and research projects are of great interest, as well as comparative analyzes between institutions or countries that highlight the dilemmas and challenges of inclusive education in an intercultural context. Regarding the idea of interculturality and inclusion from public policies, the first article of the Monographic Section, Ecuadorian Intercultural Education: a conceptual review, presents the challenges of Intercultural Bilingual Education (IBE), in this case in Ecuador, contextualizing the historical and conceptual backgrounds of the struggle and demands of indigenous movements. The case allows us to accent on the analysis of the process of institutionalization of Bilingual Intercultural Education and reflect on the challenges and dilemmas that involve managing cross-cultural, rather than multicultural, relations between cultures as a political and ethical project. The question of the progress of public policies in national and international contexts and how they respond to minority and vulnerable groups, either from policies of recognition of difference or equality policies, is presented to us from the beginning. This conceptual review places us in a global view of the educational system that is concret- ized consecutively in different contexts and educational proposals, in the remaining articles that complete the monograph. In this way, the following study, University Tutoring and intercultural education: debates and experiences, focuses on the academic and labor trajectories of indigenous youth and their university training process at the National University of Salta, Argentina, and on the Dr. Alejandro Rodríguez-Martín / Dra. Auxiliadora Sales Ciges / Dra. Sílvia Ester Orrú / Dr. Napoleón Esquivel

contribution that the tutorships have had to their academic success at the personal level, as well as intercultural response in the university field of relationships that are built and negotiated on a daily basis between peers. These two levels of analysis, biographical and institutional, refer us to the classical questions about the role and function of the school institution, from its initial stages to the university and the transition to adult life, in a global, plural and unequal world. They update the demands of fighting against racism and challenge intercultural communication in processes of constant negotiation and resignification. Therefore, the third study, The type of participation promoted in schools is a constraint factor for inclusive education, from Querétaro, in Mexico, points out the importance of developing participatory processes to build inclusive school environments, in which diversity is recognized and valued and real situations of learning and participation are promoted by secondary school students. It is interesting and very illustrative to recognize the school context as a privileged space for interculturality and inclusion from participation, but also to highlight the factors that can make this participation limited or peripheral in decision-making and the democratization of the school life. One question is hovering all the time over this work: how do participation strategies favor inclusion? And this same question could describe the fourth article, Negotiating curriculum: Learning Service in Included School, that brings us closer to the design and development of the curriculum, its link to the territory and the possibility of negotiation and participation of students in processes of problematization of classroom educational practices. The students’ voice stars in a Service-Learning project that tests the collaborative culture and shared leadership of the educational community. It makes us think about the mobilization of knowledge that the cooperative and participative dynamics generate within the framework of projects of emancipatory accompaniment and school improvement. And finally, it leads us to concerns of high conceptual density based on concrete methodological proposals, that is, how can participatory curricular projects form a critical citizenship as active agents of social transformation? How can methodological, educational, and organizational changes generate a new inclusive culture in educational systems? This challenge is addressed by the fifth and final study of this monograph, Universal Design for Learning and Inclusion in Basic Education in Ecuador, approaching the reality of knowledge and teaching strategies from the Universal Design for Learning (UDL) in basic education of Ecuador. The emphasis is placed on the attitude of teachers’ innovation in the face of the demands of attending to the needs of all students from an inclusive quality approach. Addressing diversity involves planning, interacting and evaluating in a flexible, open and multi-level manner, valuing all knowledge and creating contexts rich in situated learning opportunities. The UDL allows us to revise our conceptions of diversity and learning, providing guidelines that promote equal opportunities and equity in the classroom contexts, generating special learning spaces that contribute to the success of all students. The different realities described and analyzed in the studies that make up this monographic issue bring to light the great issues posed by intercultural and inclusive education in concrete political, pedagogical and didactic proposals that allow us to acquire new knowledge from a critical perspective.

The Miscellaneous Section starts with the article Advertising and media competence for environmental education in primary school students, where is evidenced that media and advertising significantly influence young people generating the need to train critical subjects on environmental issues. In this line, considering advertising as a strategy for the teaching of environmental education, five advertising spots have been presented to 75 students of the Huerto-Alegre school farm in Granada-Spain to probe the level of knowledge they have on environmental issues. The conclusion is that in the field of environmental education there is no connection between school education and the family, generating the need to work together. Complementing the previous work, the research Environmental education in the baccalaureate: From school to family shows how the students of the Center for Industrial Technological Baccalaureate and Services 212 (CBTis) of Tetla de la Solidaridad, Tlaxcala, Mexico, raise their family’s awareness of environmental issues, through practical and viable actions that link the school environment and the community. It is stated that environmental education must generate an environmental culture where the protagonists are the parents and children, which allows creating environmental awareness, values and behaviors aimed at conserving the environment. The research, School media, scenarios to form political subjects in the school presents the pedagogical process that seeks to make from high school students from six educational institutions in the Colombian cities of Medellín, Montería and Bucaramanga active political subjects having as references epistemological categories such as communication/education, school media and political subject. The research helps students to determine themselves as subjects of their own political education by means of the creation of the contents of the school media of certain public and private institutions. The scientific work Historical journey of literacy in Venezuela from the un-learning states that at the current historical moment, citizens are exposed to a large amount of information presented by the media, which requires skills to understand and interpret information, understanding this hermeneutical exercise as a literacy practice seen from the conceptual lens of the critical rationalism and unlearning. The objective is to assume Paulo Freire’s concept of literacy and use it in the reading and interpretation practices of information coming from the media. United Nations Model: a constructivist tool is a research carried out on the application of the United Nations Model (UNM) in a group of students of the Master’s Degree in Education of the National Pedagogical University of Mexico, aimed at fostering knowledge and critical awareness. Among the main conclusions reached after the application is that the UNM is a useful pedagogical tool to be used in environmental education, international cooperation, negotiation, public speaking, debate, role play and interactions among participants within a diplomatic framework. We finished the editorial section by inviting you to send your scientific productions for the Monographic Section of volume 15 - number 1 (January-June 2020), entitled The educational possibilities of virtual and mixed augmented reality, coordinated by the thematic editors, Dr. Julio Cabero Almenara, Dr. Julio M. Barroso Osuna, research faculty of the University of Seville and Dr. Verónica Marín Díaz research professor at the University of Córdoba. We also invite you to send your research

Alteridad. 14(2), 7-159 159 Dr. Alejandro Rodríguez-Martín / Dra. Auxiliadora Sales Ciges / Dra. Sílvia Ester Orrú / Dr. Napoleón Esquivel

on educational topics to be published in the Miscellaneous Section. We say goodbye communicating that the editorial team of «Alteridad» is working to improve the presentation of its web portal.

Dr. Alejandro Rodríguez-Martín Thematic coordinator Universidad de Oviedo

Dra. Auxiliadora Sales Ciges Thematic coordinator Universitat Jaume I

Dra. Sílvia Ester Orrú Thematic coordinator Universidade de Brasília

Dr. Napoleón Esquivel Deputy Editor Revista Científica “Alteridad”

“Inclusive Education: progress, dilemmas and challenges for an intercultural context” “Inclusive Education: Progress, dilemmas and challenges for an intercultural context”

La Isabel Technique: graphite pencil july-december 2019 p-ISSN:1390-325X / e-ISSN:1390-8642 Vol. 14, No. 2, 162-171 http://alteridad.ups.edu.ec https://doi.org/10.17163/alt.v14n2.2019.01 Ecuadorian Intercultural Education: a conceptual review

Educación Intercultural Bilingüe en Ecuador: Una revisión conceptual

Guadalupe Vernimmen Aguirre is a full professor at the University of Guayaquil (Ecuador) ([email protected]) (https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2942-9022)

Received: 2018-02-14 / Reviewed: 2019-04-06 / Accepted: 2019-05-16 / Published: 2019-07-01

Abstract Resumen The article explores the challenges of El artículo explora los desafíos de la Educación Intercultural Bilingual Education in Ecuador (EIB). For Intercultural Bilingüe (EIB) en Ecuador. Para ello, se this, it reviews the theorical background and the his- analizan los antecedentes teóricos e históricos del pro- tory of the institutionalization of the EIB. It considers ceso de institucionalización de la EIB. Toma en cuenta the history of the struggles and resistances found by las resistencias de los movimientos indígenas por edu- indigenous movements for educating themselves in an carse en una lengua ancestral desde sus inicios hasta ancestral language from its beginnings up to the insti- llegar a la institucionalización del Sistema de Educación tutionalization of the Bilingual Intercultural Education Intercultural Bilingüe (SEIB) en el año 1988. El prob- System (SEIB) in 1988. the problem of this study is: lema que se plantea el presente estudio es: ¿cuáles son which are the principal conceptualitation of intercultur- las principales conceptualizaciones de la interculturali- ality that allows us to reflect around the EIB in Ecuador, dad que permiten reflexionar alrededor de la EIB en for developing and public policies. As a general objec- Ecuador a favor del desarrollo y las políticas públicas? tive there is an analysis of the EIB in the order of the Como objetivo general se analiza el devenir de la EIB, relationship between cultures and how these can be los conceptos y marcos legales que la sitúan. El ensayo strengthened or have as simply interchange. The pre- se adhiere al estudio crítico de la EIB en el marco de liminary hypothesis is that the Ecuadorian country it is las relaciones entre culturas y cómo estas podrían for- talecerse o simplemente intercambiarse. Se presenta allowed a more multicultural education rather than the como hipótesis preliminar que en el país ecuatoriano intercultural education and that affects local developing, se avala una educación más multicultural que intercul- son it’s a fundamental to implement cultural public poli- tural y esto incide en el desarrollo social, por lo tanto, cies that also allows the interculturality as a political an es fundamental la implementación de políticas públicas ethic project in Ecuador. culturales que también impulsen la interculturalidad Keywords: Interculturality, cultural policy, como proyecto político y ético en Ecuador. indigenous, communication, cultural development, Descriptores: Interculturalidad, políticas públi- decolonization. cas, desarrollo social, cultura, educación.

Suggested form of citing: Vernimmen Aguirre, G. (2019). Ecuadorian Intercultural Education: a conceptual review. Alteridad, 14(2), 162-171. https://doi.org/10.17163/alt.v14n2.2019.01 Ecuadorian Intercultural Education: a conceptual review

1. Introduction the field of studies of culture and communication in an interdisciplinary key. It is neuralgic to review the consequences of Therefore, this essay analyzes what colonial capitalism in Latin America. The his- Intercultural Bilingual Education is and what has torical conditions that allowed languages like the been the theoretical and historical context that Kichwa to be considered worthless, but at the affected its institutionalization, going through same time, have been strategically used by the the processes of resistance as the struggles of Spanish colonizers at different times to domi- the indigenous movement, until arriving at the nate. Those who came to America learned the routes for international aid and the participation language to communicate with the Indians and of religion and a model of hegemonic modernity. teach the prevailing Christian religion (while the Special attention is paid to the national original ancestral beliefs were discredited), later, and international legal and regulatory frame- during modernity, international support was work that protects and promotes rights for an received to promote the education of the indig- IBE. The official documents and the academic enous peoples and they did so in the indigenous literature place IBE in Ecuador in context to language because from the struggle of indig- recognize which are the points of tension that enous movements there was a need to be includ- problematize the situation of the Peoples and ed in education projects, which subsequently Nationals that receive an IBE and what is the sit- gave rise to Bilingual Intercultural Education. uation of the hegemonic population in Ecuador Therefore, it is taken into consideration that the as it is the white-mestizo society. itineraries of multiculturalism and intercultural It is thought about constructing decoloniz- projects in Ecuador will always refer, especially, ing changes taking into account four dimensions to the history of education and the struggles of posed by De Souza Silva (2013): epistemological, indigenous movements. ontological, methodological and axiological. In It is recognized that in Ecuador happens the first place, epistemological, in reference to the same that did for the Australian indigenous Walsh when he reflects on the incidence of the Nakata: phenomenon of knowledge and the processes (...) “the language of a people and the his- that construct it; ontological to the extent that tory of their development are still secondary and specific capitalist realities are determined; meth- remain a subordinate consideration to linguists’ odological because it is based on the processes of interpretations of how grammar determines inquiry from methods, and axiological from the meaning (...)” (Nakata, 2014, p.84). type of intervention and ethical and aesthetic This has brought disastrous consequences values for the recognition of reality. such as the linguistic and social discrediting of Finally, it is recommended that Ecuador’s ancestral languages when they are not analyzed Public Policies consolidate plans, programs and and considered by their contexts of struggle, projects that support a more equal relationship resignification and the needs of education itself, in terms of reaching an intercultural dialogue for under the great umbrella offered by the analysis socio-cultural development. of multiculturalism and interculturality from a critical and functional perspective for the indig- 2. Method enous peoples and nationalities of Ecuador. In this framework, it has been fundamen- The applied method is a bibliographic tal to reflect on the urgency of an epistemological review with a grounded theory that will be and critical turn in indigenous and intercultural contrasted with the main contributions of inter- education in Ecuador, as defined by authors of culturality understood in a more complex way

Alteridad. 14(2), 162-171 163 Guadalupe Vernimmen Aguirre

than a simple relationship between cultures. refers to the notion that the indigenous peoples Therefore, within the selection of the bibliogra- at first had to revitalize their culture (multi- phy, the studies carried out by authors belong- culturalism) motivated by public policies that ing to the social sciences and communication wanted to maintain social, political, cultural and under a critical perspective of capitalist moder- economic inequalities and then the indigenous nity, to establish radically different relationships peoples had to integrate with the rest of society with forms of power and new life, stand out. it for dialogue (interculturality), what is currently involves disciplining and regulating racialized seen from a critical and functional perspective and excluded thoughts and situations. Therefore, is conceived as an ethical and political project the disciplines with which the theme will mainly under construction. be carried out are: education, studies of culture With this background, the legal frame- and communication. works established for the analysis have been substantiated. At the national level, the basis 3. Analysis and results is found in the Political Constitution of the Republic of Ecuador (2008) while internation- When studying the history of colonization we are ally it is Convention 169 of the ILO and the led to what Rodríguez (2017) explains through Human Rights of Indigenous Peoples of the various authors (Mariátegui, 1928; Cueva, 1980), United Nations. Several documents on inter- that the situation of indigenous education from cultural education, such as the national devel- the consolidation of the nation-state in America opment plans that were published at different Latina was affected by capitalism and the rejec- times, emerge from the national document. The tion of the indigenous because they considered it last one (2017-2023) corresponds to the current socially, politically and culturally inferior. president, Lic. Lenín Moreno Garcés, among Such is the case, that for Vera Candau, other official documents that as we will see, in from the colony to the 20th century, a stage is Ecuador they take action from the multicultural consolidated that has as its mark “an explicit and not so much from the intercultural. ethnocentric violence of imposition of the hege- The Constitution of Ecuador (2008) went monic culture on the indigenous populations. through a series of reforms, among the changes Eliminating the ‘other’ was the tone of the was added a reinforcement of the rights of indig- colonial period” (Vera, 2013, p.146). However, enous and Afro-Ecuadorian peoples. Article 68 according to the author, in the first stage of the (chapter 4, section eight) states that “the national 20th century, the modern nation-state project education system will include education pro- that became an assimilationist trend, that is, in grams that conform to the diversity of the coun- the standardization and cultural homogeniza- try. It will incorporate administrative, financial tion, and under this view, the first indigenous and pedagogical decentralization and de-con- bilingual educational institutions were built. centration strategies into its management”. Meanwhile, in the field of social develop- This article allows to take into account sev- ment in America, prior to the 1950s, due to the eral things. First, that the education system must influences of Occidentalism and current capital- include, by right, specific programs structured ism, development was sought as a fundamental according to each culture. Second, these programs goal, that is, as a point of arrival. However, at that must be managed and executed by people from time it was tried to be from the initiative of non- the communities corresponding to each culture, hegemonic groups where countries like Ecuador since they are the ones who know their context needed to “grow out” through exports to find and needs, which is why Article 68 obliges the ways of economic and social prosperity. This education system to develop decentralization and

de-concentration strategies. Third, this article In 1988, the “National Direction of obliges indirectly that educational programs are Intercultural Bilingual Education” (DINEIB) was developed in the language of each community, created. This constituted legitimacy from the since this is an essential cultural axis. institutionalization, however in addition to the According to Bastidas, quoting Ferrão, problems mentioned above, it takes into account from the 70s to the 80s, EIB began to be talk- the excessive bureaucracy and uninational and ed about in Latin America and specifically in vertical view from the State and cultural assimi- Ecuador it is linked to issues of the State, so that lation (CONAIE, 1994, p.44, Guerra, 2003). from a verticality one wants to define the ethnic, In 1990, the indigenous movement and subjecting it to be inalienable to the Ecuadorian in particular the “Confederation of Indigenous and not only as a matter that only affects the Nationalities of Ecuador” (CONAIE) demanded indigenous (Bastidas, 2015). that the Ecuadorian State take into account their In fact, during the first stage of indigenous rights and interests in the education of indig- education, in the context of the struggles of social enous children (Abram, 2013; Moya, S.f). It is movements are Dolores Cacuango (1881-1971), then that they begin to work for a system of their Nela Martinez (1912-2004), Maria Luisa Gomez own IBE, although not conclusive or propitiating de la Torre (1887-1976), Transito Amaguaña interculturality. This multiculturalist education (1909-2009). Also, due to the “Ecuadorian tried to revitalize the culture itself, however, Federation of Indians” (FEI) and through other many times teachers, students and parents dis- groups sponsored by the “Ecuatorian Women’s agreed with the type of education (Abram, 2013, Alliance”, Kichwa-Spanish schools are created in pp. 2-3). Cayambe. Being an initiative that displeased the One could review how the IBE from its landowners, the education of the children took beginnings to the nineties of the twentieth cen- place at night and in secret. tury sought the development of public policies Subsequently, educational programs were entrenched in multiculturalism, by strengthen- created with the support of the Judeo-Christian ing its own culture, especially from linguistics. church, such as that of the “Lauritas” mission- It was part of the public agenda, due to the aries of 1940 who were in charge of religious pressure of the indigenous movements, as well women from Colombia who lived in Ecuador. as the religious participation of foreign private And so, in the following years, the religious organizations and the State. takes initiative in conjunction with the Ministry Despite the great efforts of the Government of Education. Later in 1963 with the “Summer of Ecuador to highlight and empower the indig- Linguistic Institute” (SIL), the indigenous lan- enous community through the Constitution guages were promoted in exchange for spread- with emphasis on intercultural bilingual educa- ing the Protestant religion to the Kichwa, Shuar, tion, the last census of 2010 showed that 20.4% Secoyas, Siona, Huao, Chachis and Tsachis indig- of the indigenous population self identifies as enous groups (Yánez, sf). illiterate. Although during said year it was shown In the year 1979 during the Government that there was an increase in the education level of former President Jaime Roldós Aguilera, of basic education and high school of men and intercultural bilingual education was institution- women, the indigenous population remained alized with economic and human difficulties, marginalized (INEC, 2010). where the struggle of the indigenous movements For this reason, in 2011 the Ministry of of Ecuador began to stand out (Vélez, 2008; Education officiated the “Project for the strength- Moya, 1998). ening of intercultural bilingual education” with a duration of four years. This project was aimed at

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fourteen nationalities in twenty-two provinces its part, objective 4 of Good Living 2013-2017 of Ecuador and aimed to improve the quality of is focused on strengthening the capacities and the Intercultural Bilingual Education program potentials of citizens, which seeks to guarantee (Ministry of Education, 2010). However, the all citizens their right to education, under the Ministry indicated that the main problem related precept of equity and sustainability. All the goals to the project was “the low quality of the educa- of this objective revolve around education. tional services of the peoples and nationalities Following these objectives, 46,588 students that guarantees the permanence of languages have registered in the Bilingual Intercultural and cultures” (2010). Due to this, the Ministry of Education System and 4406 teachers have been Education trained teachers in pedagogical tech- trained in 2012 (Buen Vivir, 2013). According to niques, didactic material for students who have data from the National Secretariat for Planning not acquired kichwa as their mother tongue and and Development, the Development Plan has validation by incorporating the needs of each had a positive impact during the first year, indigenous nationality in the curricula. since in the higher basic education there was The National Plan for Good Living (2009- an increase of three percentage points between 2013) was created during the government of 2012 and 2013, as well as that of high school the former president, economist Rafael Correa which went up in two points within the same Delgado, and derived from the ancestral prin- period. Another positive indicator shows that ciple of Sumak Kawsay, which conceptualizes illiteracy in the indigenous population (15 to 49 and promises for Ecuador in terms of develop- years old) increased from 11% in 2012 to 7.6% ment, improvements in the political, economic, in 2013. However, in secondary school, there was social, cultural and ecological. An instrument a dropout rate of 8.7%. One of the main reasons to combine public policies with government for dropping out of school at this stage shows administration and public investment. that 41% acquire economic responsibilities from In the National Plan for Good Living a very young age, therefore they must work at an (2013-2017) of the twelve objectives, 2 and 4 early age, 18% for lack of economic resources, supported the Bilingual Intercultural Education 13% for attending the household chores, and System. Objective 2 guarantees equality through 11% because he/she was not interested. access to quality health and education services In the current Government of Lenín to individuals and groups that need special Moreno Garcés, it is considered in the last attention due to permanent inequality, exclu- National Development Plan (2017-2023) that sion and discrimination. Among its objectives is the State has three neuralgic obligations that to “strengthen and concentrate the literacy and are decisive for its proper functioning: respect, post-literacy programs for those with unfinished protect and perform. Respect: that the State does schooling, from a point of view in which the gaps not violate the rights and protects to prevent are closed, based on gender, cultural and territo- that from happening (and in case it happens to rial identity.” Goal 2.5 of this objective aims to demand the reparations of the case) and finally, encourage inclusion and social cohesion, peace- realize that the State must be proactive to guar- ful coexistence and a culture of peace, eliminat- antee the rights, with emphasis on groups of ing all forms of discrimination and violence. priority attention. In this sense, the Constitution Specifically, “create communication and edu- of the Republic of Ecuador (2008) in article 57, cational mechanisms that promote respect and no. 14 states that in Higher Education the Model recognition of diversity and affirm intercultural of the Bilingual Intercultural Education System dialogue and the exercise of the collective rights (MOSEIB) should be promoted, made official in of nationalities and indigenous peoples.” For 1993, with the last edition of the document pre-

sented in 2013, and that the main social actors and skills, value systems and all other social, of the IBE System must be from the same people economic and cultural aspirations. (ILO, 1989) and historically oppressed nationalities. Finally, it can be pointed out that this Through this article, Ecuador promises Development Plan, prepared during the once again, autonomy to indigenous communi- Government of the current president of the ties to develop their own educational programs Republic of Ecuador, like the previous two docu- with the support of the state. In literal 2 of the ments, points out the importance of adjusting same article it is established that the authority Intercultural Bilingual Education with: (...) “shall ensure the formation of members of these peoples and their participation in the for- Cultural, linguistic and environmental rele- mulation and execution of education programs, vance that meets the specific educational needs with a view to gradually transferring to these of peoples and nationalities. This implies peoples the responsibility of the realization of revaluing bilingual intercultural education as these programs, when they take place”(ILO, a historical conquest of peoples and nation- 1989). This literal requires the state to prepare alities, and highlighting their intergenerational members of these communities in educational claim by resisting processes of homogeniza- matters so that in the future these communities, tion and assimilation. in total autonomy, develop their own education- Thus, intercultural bilingual education al programs. In addition, article 27 suggests that and ethno-education encapsulate and remain public institutions relate and integrate with com- with the current government, as well as with the munities to learn about social, cultural, linguistic former president of the economist Rafael Correa reality and develop the educational programs Delgado, at least in discursive terms, as perma- concerned (Rabbit Arellano, 2008). nent priorities in the country’s education, from For its part, the “Program for Development early stimulation up to higher education. and Cultural Diversity for Poverty Reduction and International organizations have also Social Inclusion” (PDC) was carried out through influenced government decisions for the devel- the fulfillment of the Sustainable Development opment of the indigenous population. In 1989, Goals, proposed by the United Nations. Of the Ecuador signed the Indigenous and Tribal Peoples seventeen objectives, the fourth seeks to “guaran- Agreement with the World Labor Organization tee inclusive and equitable quality education and (ILO). This agreement has four main axes: the promote lifelong learning opportunities for all” right of indigenous peoples to maintain their (United Nations, 2016). Therefore, it is intended customs, strengthen their cultures, defend their that the entire population have full and decent different ways of life and their right to participate access to work, education and health. actively in the decisions that concern them (ILO, It should be mentioned that according 1989). The aforementioned establishes the bases to the “Human Development Report” of 2016, on which the provisions of the agreement must indigenous peoples represent 5% of the world be interpreted. population, however, 15% are of limited eco- In the fifth part of social security, article nomic resources (United Nations, 2017). Taking 27 establishes that: into account this problem, the PDC was created as a public policy to eradicate racial discrimi- Educational programs and services for the nation and ethnic and cultural exclusion on peoples concerned should be developed and December 28, 2009. Part of this public pol- implemented in cooperation with them in icy sought to develop the initial indigenous order to respond to their particular needs, education in which four dictionaries of the and should cover their history, knowledge

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Secoya, Cofanes, Wao and Shuar nationalities Learning Process (PAI)” (article 2). This, with- were drawn up. In turn, the Ministry of Health out the necessary direction could be assumed programmed a change in the health system to in verticality and the lack articulation of a dia- deliver an adequate service to the needs of the logue that allows the horizontal communica- indigenous population (Ministry of Culture and tion between the peoples and nationalities of Heritage, 2016). Ecuador. However, the logic is the application Entrepreneurship was also an important of models provided by Western systems in the pillar to advance the indigenous population, so a educational field, this despite the fact that the sustainability plan was created in several sectors, agreement between the general provisions of in favor of the recovery of ancestral knowledge the sixth section, states that the State must “hold (Ministry of Culture and Heritage, 2016). Due teachers and authorities of bilingual intercultural to the success of the project the Government educational establishments accountable, of the carried out a second phase of the PDC whose generation of permanent research mechanisms, objective was to help strengthen the intercultural collective construction of educational resources society through reflection spaces, normative and with cultural and linguistic relevance” all this institutional frameworks and the creation of with relevance to the relationships between cul- public policies to enhance culture, intercultural tures (MinEdu, 2017, p.5). dialogue, and decrease spaces of discrimination The field of relations between cultures has towards the peoples and nationalities that live been complex to define, since it is loaded with in Ecuador (Ministry of Culture and Heritage, a series of representations and meanings. The 2016). The results of this project (2013-2015) concept of interculturality is taken into account were positive as 16 of the 28 ventures of the from the reflections of Catherine Walsh (2001, indigenous community have business plans, 2005, 2008), who pointed out that this notion is which has helped them to position their prod- based on the need for the radical transformation ucts in local markets, promoting the economy of the structures, institutions and relationships in distant places, however the indigenous person of society. The author points out that intercultur- is instrumentalized by inserting him into the ality is the central axis of an alternative historical capitalist market. Likewise, the offer of artisanal, project. Walsh will go further and explain that tourist, agricultural and livestock products in the interculturality -understood as a necessary tool local and cantonal markets has been expanded and project for the transcendental transforma- (Ministry of Culture and Heritage, 2016). Finally, tion of the State and society- needs to break with the project allowed to return and strengthen the the uni-national framework, emphasizing the customs, traditions and ancestral knowledge of plura-national not as a division, but as the most indigenous communities, but not necessarily to appropriate structure to unify and integrate. build a hegemony. Therefore, it is stated that the field of On the other hand, it is imperative to relations between cultures has been complex to evidence the Agreement of the Ministry of define. Moreover, the problem lies in translat- Education which establishes that the curricula ing it in terms of a transformative public policy. of “Basic General Education” for the process- It should be borne in mind that the difficulty es of “Family Child Community Education” begins when in a particular society there pre- (EIFC), contemplate a cultural assimilation dominates a class that, under the halo of cultural from the “Insertion into the Semiotics Processes supremacy, has better living conditions in its (IPS), Cognitive, Affective and Psychomotor context; such a disjunctive predisposes to the Strengthening (FCAP), Development of Skills recognition and valuation of cultural minorities and Study Techniques (DDTE) and Investigative

that will end up being marginalized under the and “yanka shimi ‘mean” the language that is not manipulations of the implicit hegemonic order. valid (Abram, 2013). This transformation of the That is why it is worth specifying the ancestral language demonstrates the need for differences between multiculturalism and inter- a cultural revitalization, which deserves other culturality. On the one hand, multiculturalism decolonizing efforts, recognizing that intercul- responds to the ‘essence’ of cultures, interculturality is the fundamental motor for develop- turalism emphasizes interaction or dynamics ment and globalization could push us to apply between at least two cultures, without ignoring a functional model to the realities and socio- the scenarios of power disputes, links, negotia- cultural contexts. tions, cooperation and conflict (González, 2005). Therefore, it is proposed to follow the In this sense, it will be useful to take into metaphor of the ecology of the media (Scolari, account the reflections that Virgilio Alvarado has 2015) to make a communication proposal that developed within the framework of intercultur- allows to include the indigenous in a globalized ality and public policies. Said author points out world and thus build other representations of the that the proposal of interculturality aspires to an indigenous. These transformations must happen intercultural society protected by a political proj- in the field of analog and digital communication ect that allows establishing a dialogue between following communication strategies that allow cultures. This dialogue, says the author, should the evolution and socio-cultural transformation start with the acceptance of one’s own identity of racialized beings, and, mainly from the field and self-esteem (Alvarado, 2002). of education, these efforts can be carried out, otherwise and following the metaphor of Scolari 4. Discussion and conclusions (citing McLuhan), ancestral cultures could fall into danger of extinction. Following a limited anthropological review of Within the framework of the following the education of the native peoples of Ecuador proposal, the important thing is to recognize the contrasted with other realities of America, in cultural similarities (to communicate, to bring Bolivia and in the Ecuadorian country itself, the together, to commune) with coexisting realities struggles of the indigenous movements and also of a multicultural country like Ecuador but tak- the support of international organizations stand ing concrete steps to build interculturality. out. In Peru, on the other hand, support was The reality always transcends a monologue possible thanks to the State and certain experi- to a dialogue and horizontal communication, mental projects that happened. Regardless of engages in interculturality understanding this the processes that have been carried out in dif- as public policies for dialogue between cultures ferent countries, at present, it has been opted to and that requires the participation of racialized strengthen relations with the community corre- beings and the white-mestizo population. sponding to each geography, in such a way that it Several authors agree, when they refer to interferes in intercultural projects (Zavala, 2007). interculturality as a project under construction, In Ecuador, multiple cultures converge as it would be assumed that the only intercul- and multiculturalism is a reality, but intercultural of this duality is the indigenous person and turality becomes a project to be built. That is, rarely the mestizo who would enter into attempts having multiculturalism does not mean that to dialogue with the other (socially assumed as cultures live in harmony because the indigenous opposite and different). person is at a disadvantage due to historical cul- Thus, interculturality in Ecuador is not a tural loss of prestige. Such is the case that in the given fact (as the concept of multiculturalism Kichwa culture expressions such as “runa shimi” refers), but since it is a project, it must be carried

Alteridad. 14(2), 162-171 169 Guadalupe Vernimmen Aguirre

out through long-term planning that demarcates The challenge lies in the equal recognition in a the effects of colonization over five hundred globalized context to enable social integration in years, however, it has not been a priority on the an intercultural key. Government’s agenda in terms of public policies. In short, interculturality cannot - should It would be advisable to give support to the cul- not - be assumed as a category of analysis that tural revitalization of Ecuador, and that means omits the willingness to dialogue with cultural betting on a change in the productive matrix and difference. Therefore, it is particularly impor- a hegemonic change, so that it is later considered tant to consider public policies that define the a governmental priority, however, at the same participation of white-mestizos so that there is a time that Kichwa and Shuar begin to be consid- communication and an integral dialogue, leaving ered among the official languages of the country, aside the activities of cultural folklore and forms according to the Constitution (2008) then, this of monoculturalism of Western heritage. task of teaching these languages in public and private institutions to ensure that, once again, Bibliographical references the only intercultural persons are not racialized beings is expected to begin. There must, there- Abram, M. (2013) La Educacion Bilingue Intercultural fore, coexist other forms of knowledge manage- en las cuatro nacionalidades de la costa del ment, to learn and live in spaces of intercultural- Ecuador. Quito: Prometeo Senescyt. ity fostered by social and cultural miscegenation. Conejo Arellano, A. (2008). Educación Intercultural The arrival of the conquerors in America Bilingüe en el Ecuador. En La propuesta edu- gave rise to a series of conflicts that marked the cativa y su proceso. (https://bit.ly/2Q6bnpP) Bastidas Jiménez, M. (2015). Educación Intercultural dichotomy and segregation of the indigenous Bilingüe en el Ecuador: Un estudio de la groups of the country, so it is difficult to escape demanda social. Alteridad, 10(2), 180-189. from these rationalization traps where the other Confederación de Nacionalidades Indígenas del is seen as underdeveloped or savage. Ecuador –CONAIE (1994). Proyecto político It is considered essential to develop and de la CONAIE. Quito: Consejo de Gobierno promote communication, a political and mili- de la CONAIE. tant agenda for intercultural dialogue, so the Constitución Política de la República del Ecuador media and advertising agencies have a funda- (2008). mental role as producers of social meanings. De Souza Silva, J. (2013). La pedagogía de la felicidad In addition, it would not be a setback to high- en una educación para la vida. El paradigma light the proposal of multiculturalism to further del ‘buen vivir’ / ‘vivir bien’ y la construcción extend the Kichwa language in Ecuador, knowing pedagógica del ‘día después del desarrollo’. En C. Walsh (Ed.), that with this learning one can understand, value Pedagogías decoloniales. Prácticas insurgentes de resistir, (re) existir y and revitalize the culture Others. (re) vivir. Quito: Abya-Yala. It is recommended to look for new forms González, I. (2005). La cooperación educativa ante that, from the communication of social cam- la rebeldía de las culturas (1ra. ed.). España: paigns, people become aware of the social uses of Editorial IEPALA. terms in Kichwa as “runa” whose literal meaning Guerra, F., (2003) VI. Las mutaciones de la identi- is person, identity. In addition, it is convenient dad en la América Hispánica. En Antonio that whites-mestizos embrace their fragmented Annino, François-Xavier Guerra (Coords.), and minimized Ecuadorian culture that has Inventando la nación. Iberoamérica siglo XIX historically suffered discrimination. New epis- (pp.185-220) México: FCE. temological and empirical horizons must be INEC (2010). El Censo informa: Educación. sought for the construction of social identities. (https://bit.ly/1K4kb3v).

Ley Orgánica de Educación Intercultural (LOEI) (2011). Senplades (2013). Plan Nacional de Desarrollo, (https://bit.ly/2W2PyNp) (2018/01/17). Buen Vivir. (https://bit.ly/2nezplJ). Ministerio de Cultura y Patrimonio (2016). Proyecto Senplades (2017) Plan Nacional de Desarrollo, Toda Desarrollo de y Diversidad Cultural para Una Vida. (https://bit.ly/2hrQrcp). la Reducción de la Pobreza e inclusión Vélez, C. (2008). Trayectoria de la Educación social, PDC. Segunda Fase (2013-2016). Intercultural en Ecuador. Revista Educación (https://bit.ly/2VwPJvY) y Pedagogía, 103-112. Buenos Aires. Ministerio de Educación (2013). Modelo del (https://bit.ly/2VKibiU) (2017/01/02). Sistema de Educación Intercultural Bilingüe Vera Candau, M. (2013). Educación Intercultural crí- (MOSEIB). (https://bit.ly/2C6vkWO). tica. Construyendo caminos. En Pedagogías Moya, R. (1998). Reformas educativas e intercul- decoloniales. Prácticas insurgentes de resistir, turalidad en América Latina, s.c., Revista (re) existir y (re) vivir. Quito: Abya-Yala. Iberoamericana de Educación. Número 17. Walsh, C. (2001). La Educación Intercultural en la Educación, Lenguas, Culturas. Educación. Lima: Ministerio de Educación. Naciones Unidas (2016). Informe de los Objetivos de Walsh, C. (2005). Pensamiento crítico y matriz (de) Desarrollo Sostenible. (https://bit.ly/2sPPdvi). colonial. Reflexiones latinoamericanas. Quito: Naciones Unidas (2017). Informe Sobre Desarrollo Editorial Abya-Yala. Humano 2016. (https://bit.ly/2nezplJ). Walsh, C. (2008) Interculturalidad y plurinaciona- Nakata, M. (2014). Disciplinar a los salvajes, violentar lidad: Elementos para el debate constituyente. las disciplinas. Quito: Abya-Yala. Quito: Universidad Andina Simón Bolívar. OIT (1991). Convenio 169 de la Organización Yánez Cossío, C. (s.f.) “Macac”: Teoría y práctica de Internacional del Trabajo. la educación indígena. Estudio de caso en el Rodríguez Caguana, A. (2017) El largo camino del Ecuador. Quito: Macac. Taki unkuy. Los derechos lingüísticos y cul- Zavala, V. (2007). Avances y desafíos de la educación turales de los pueblos indígenas del Ecuador. intercultural bilingüe en Bolivia, Ecuador y Quito: Huaponi Ediciones. Perú. Estudio de casos. Perú: CARE. Scolari, C. (2015). Ecología de los medios. Entornos, evo- luciones e interpretaciones. Barcelona: Gedisa.

Alteridad. 14(2), 162-171 171 july - december 2019 p-ISSN:1390-325X / e-ISSN:1390-8642 Vol. 14, No. 2, 172-183 http://alteridad.ups.edu.ec https://doi.org/10.17163/alt.v14n2.2019.02 University Tutoring and intercultural education: debates and experiences

Tutoría universitaria y educación intercultural: debates y experiencias

Nuria Macarena Rodríguez is a Doctoral Candidate of the National Council of Scientific and Technical Research (CONICET) in the Research Institute of Social Sciences and Humanities (ICSOH). National University of Salta (Argentina) ([email protected]) (https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3692-294X) Dra. María Macarena Ossola is Assistant Researcher of the National Council of Scientific and Technical Research (CONICET) in the Research Institute of Social Sciences and Humanities (ICSOH). National University of Salta (Argentina) ([email protected]) (https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7222-7464)

Received: 2019-01-30 / Reviewed: 2019-05-07 / Accepted: 2019-05-15 / Published: 2019-07-01

Abstract Resumen This article reflects about the meanings which Este artículo reflexiona sobre los significados assumes the University Tutoring for indigenous students que asume la tutoría universitaria para los estudiantes and tutors peer, who have participated of this instance indígenas y tutores pares que han participado de esta during their degree courses development at the National instancia durante el desarrollo de sus carreras de University of Salta (Argentine). The objective is to rec- grado en la Universidad Nacional de Salta (Argentina). ognize what are the contributions of the tutoring in the El objetivo es reconocer cuáles son los aportes de la retention and university graduation of the indigenous tutoría en la retención y graduación universitaria de las youth, as well as its impact on the formulation of an y los jóvenes indígenas, como así también su impacto intercultural education proposal at the university level. The en la formulación de una propuesta educativa intercul- methodology is qualitative, and a case study is analyzed tural a nivel universitario. La metodología es cualitativa in which the socio-school trajectories of two indigenous y se analiza un estudio de caso en el que se recon- students and two tutors peer are partially reconstructed. struyen parcialmente las trayectorias socio-escolares The results indicate that the tutoring make up a formative de dos estudiantes indígenas y dos tutores pares. Los space in itself, where knowledge and skills are transmitted resultados señalan que las tutorías conforman un espa- from which the students appropriate at different times of cio formativo en sí mismo, donde se transmiten cono- their academic and work trajectories. In the conclusions cimientos y habilidades de las cuales los estudiantes se it is emphasized that the tutoring for indigenous peoples apropian en diferentes momentos de sus trayectorias constitute an area in which intercultural relations are built académicas y laborales. En las conclusiones se destaca and negotiated on a daily basis. que las tutorías para pueblos originarios constituyen Keywords: Intercultural education, university, un ámbito en el cual las relaciones interculturales se tutoring, students, indigenous peoples, youth. construyen y negocian cotidianamente. Descriptores: Educación intercultural, universidad, tutoría, estudiantes, población indígena, juventud.

FSuggested form of citing: Rodríguez, N., & Ossola, M. M. (2019). University Tutoring and intercultural education: debates and experiences. Alteridad, 14(2), 172-183. https://doi.org/10.17163/alt.v14n2.2019.02 University Tutoring and intercultural education: debates and experiences

1. Introduction are institutions that are in permanent construction, tense for their diversity and adherence to Argentina historically has been identified as a tradition. Their objectives have changed over white country, descendant of Europeans, deny- time, but they maintain a high degree of cred- ing and making invisible the original peoples that ibility among the population in general, and inhabit its territory (Briones, 2005). However, among young people in particular. They entail a the constitutional reform of 1994 reaffirmed promise - not always clear or explicit - of a valu- their rights, recognizing their ethnic and cul- able and fairer future, which cannot be reduced tural pre-existence, and guaranteeing respect for to a space for training for a job (Coronado, & their identity, a bilingual intercultural education, Gómez Boulin, 2015). recognition of the legal personality of their com- In Argentina, universities have an unre- munities and community ownership of the lands stricted quota. The students of this level are they occupy. The Annual Report of Indigenous numerous and, at the same time, more and more Peoples 2014 indicates that, in recent years, diverse in terms of interests, origin and previous the increase in indigenous consciousness about trajectories. Correlatively, desertion is a central belonging to a people is notable in Argentina. concern, since more students are leaving than This has the effect of increasing recognized those who remain and graduate. In this regard, indigenous peoples (Mikkelsen, 2014). Thus, it is central to emphasize that these institutions while in 2001 there were 600 329 people who represent an equal opportunity, which does not were recognized as belonging or descendants favor those who fight their acceptance and per- in the first generation of an indigenous people manence from initial positions of disadvantage (INDEC, 2001), in 2010 there were 955 032 peo- (Coronado, & Gómez Boulin, 2015). ple in the same condition (INDEC, 2010). It should be noted that the National The topic of Higher Education of Education Law No. 26 206 of 2006 establishes Indigenous Peoples began to be addressed in Bilingual Intercultural Education as a modality Argentina as of 2000, belatedly in compari- of the educational system at its initial, primary son with other countries in the region. This is and secondary levels; but it does not include mainly due to the fact that public universities are higher education, which is governed by the seen as open and accessible, given their gratuity Law of Higher Education No. 24 521 of 1995 (Rezaval, 2008, Paladino, 2009) and the type of and by regulations that were issued to enable public policies that are implemented at this level its application (Sánchez Martínez, 2003). This tend to favor inclusion of the economically mar- law does not contemplate cultural diversity, ginalized groups, with a delayed interest into the interculturality or plurilinguism, despite hav- identities of the subjects (Claro, & Seoane, 2005). ing been sanctioned in a context of neoliberal However, it is important to bear in mind multiculturalism. However, in recent years, and that Argentine public universities -from their due to the autonomy that characterizes public origins- were not designed for interculturality, universities, different ethnically based initiatives nor for cultural and linguistic diversity. They have been implemented (Ossola, 2016), with are intrinsically conservative organizations that nineteen national universities that have some respond to premises of the world of the nine- institutional policy for students of indigenous teenth and first half of the twentieth, which are origins (Guaymás, 2016). organized as systems with academic units-facul- In Salta, a province located in the north ties, departments, schools, institutes, etc.-with of Argentina, bordering six provinces (Jujuy, a certain degree of autonomy and own identity Catamarca, Tucumán, Santiago del Estero, Chaco (Coronado, & Gómez Boulin, 2015). Universities and Formosa) and three countries (Paraguay,

Alteridad. 14(2), 172-183 173 Nuria Macarena Rodríguez / Dra. María Macarena Ossola

Bolivia and Chile), there are 79 204 people who uses made of them that will define their never- self-identify as indigenous or descendants of some ending meanings (Diez, García, Montesinos, original people, on a total of 1 214 441 inhabit- Pallma, & Paoletta, 2015), it is convenient to ants. This represents 6.5% of the population, well outline some ideas for an analysis that does not above the 2.4% nationwide (INDEC, 2010). In pretend to be final, but problematizing. addition, this is the province that has the greatest On the one hand, to speak of inclusion diversity of native peoples: Kolla, Wichí, Guaraní, it is necessary to refer to exclusion, because the Ava Guaraní, Weenhayek, Chané, Chorote, Qom first is a consequence of the recognition of the (Toba), Chulupí, Tapiete, Diaguita-Calchaquí, existence of the second and the importance of Tastil, Iogys, Atacama and Lule.1 intervening to attend to those who are excluded The National University of Salta (UNSa) (Wigdorovitz de Camilloni, 2008). Then, who is defined in its Fundamental Bases (1972) as are the excluded? The poor, the inhabitants a “border academic institution” (Ossola, 2015, of remote rural areas, indigenous populations, Hanne, 2018), due to the imprint of its geopoliti- linguistic and religious minorities, persons with cal location and the diversity that characterizes disabilities, those suffering from contagious dis- the province. In addition, it is a University of eases, all those who are differentiated from others “plebeian tradition” (Carli, 2012), by receiving and, for this reason, have a social stigma attached students from medium and low socioeconomic to them (Wigdorovitz de Camilloni, 2008). levels. It is important to highlight that most of On the other hand, it is important to its students are the first family generation to clarify that there is no proportional relation- access this level of education (Ilvento, Martínez, ship between exclusion and inclusion, but rather Rodríguez, & Fernández Berdaguer, 2011). Since they are interrelated processes that occur simul- 2010, the UNSa has a “Project of tutorships taneously. Greater inclusion actions will not with the students of Indigenous Peoples”, which proportionally diminish the forms of exclusion includes the participation of peer tutors, in the and may even generate other manifestations of accompaniment of indigenous students who exclusion. In fact, to think that one group poses wish to do so. These tasks include a socio- inclusion actions for another, represents a mode emotional and academic approach, in order to of exclusion, as it strengthens certain relations of achieve their retention and graduation. domination. In this article we analyze the experiences Regarding the possibility of schooling, the of students and graduates who have participated meanings of inclusion do not occur in a vacuum, in this project, with the aim of understanding but are part of the different visions regarding the the impact of tutoring in their socio-academic motives and the achievements that are pursued training. through formal education. This is more significant thinking about higher education, which is 1.1. Inclusion and interculturality in not mandatory. In addition, it implies recogniz- the university ing that inclusion and exclusion are analytical categories that, on certain occasions, fail to There are multiple definitions for terms such account for the complexity of the real socio- as inclusion and exclusion, so it is necessary to school trajectories of the subjects, who appropri- clarify the sense in which they are understood. ate the academic spaces in particular ways, based Although trying to specify inclusion and exclu- on unequal conditions of existence. sion categories is not limited to revising or Other concepts to be defined refer to agreeing on a definition, but it is the theoretical situations called interculturality and/or cultural framework together with the context and the diversity, historical, social and academic con-

structions that are in permanent dispute and their beneficiaries for reproducing, within the negotiation (Briones, Delrio, Lanusse, Lazzari, University, historical situations of oppression of Lorenzetti, Szulk, & Vilvaldi, 2006) and therefore, indigenous peoples, such as tutelage (Luciano, they should not be taken as facts of reality, but as 2009), and patronage (Paladino, 2006). In this keywords, through which it becomes possible to way it is pointed out that it is not enough to form reflect on how the links between the different indigenous people to ensure their protagonism, sectors that make up society are imagined. It is if we do not brake with the different forms of considered that the social studies that investigate colonization (Luciano, 2009). Hence, the impor- situations of interculturality should include the tance of accepting that initiatives that seek inclu- political arenas in which disputes are carried out sion on the basis of premises of intercultural- by their meanings, assuming the intercultural ity in the university setting should consider the as an ideological sign, to then track the regimes structural inequality of the societies in which of truth that encourage the notions of common we live (Reygadas, 2007). This is important to sense behind which are hidden relations of social prevent structural differences from becoming and symbolic asymmetry (Briones et al., 2006). natural stigmas (Delgado, 2002). This is important if one considers that, in recent years, in several countries, the discourse of 1.2. University tutorships cultural homogenization has been changed to a recognition of ethnic diversity, granting a series There are different meanings and different of specific rights to certain groups. At this point modalities of tutorships. The one analyzed in it should be noted that, at least in Argentina, state this paper corresponds to a university tutoring, policies do not pursue intercultural aims more defined as an accompaniment and support to the than in their denomination. This is so, as long students in their process of acquisition of learn- as dialogue is not encouraged, they are focused ing and competences at a personal and profes- on certain groups and many times formulated sional level (Lovato Fraile, & Ilvento, 2013). This without the participation of the target sectors. process happens in university, but the acquired That is to say, ethnic identities are recognized, skills can also be observed in the labor trajecto- but conditions for the modification of social ries (and life, in broader terms). In this way, we relationships are not generated (Diez, 2004). can define the tutorships as a socio-pedagogical Therefore, it is necessary to reflect on link between different university actors, aimed at the distance between the theoretical postulates personalizing the students’ academic experience. based on interculturality and public policies When talking about accompaniment, it for educational inclusion (Möller, 2012) since refers to a space for meeting, permanent testing, there is a gap between the objectives linked to putting into practice, to think with and to others, an intercultural horizon and the effects of the which mediates between the real conditions of strategies implemented by the projects aimed at each organization and the conditions required by inclusion (Ossola, 2015). In this way, programs the students (Coronado, & Gómez Boulin, 2015). designed to include, empower and provide spac- This makes it possible to show that the university es of autonomy end, in many cases, by locating tutorships are not conceived as closed or fin- the target populations in subjugation positions ished, but that they are in constant construction, that reproduce the larger social relationships as interactive spaces and interpersonal links. (Delgado, 2002). The moment in which institutionalized In the specific case of the inclusion of tutoring originates differs according to the edu- indigenous students in conventional universi- cational level one is referencing. the Argentine ties, inclusion policies have been criticized by university context, the tutorships existed from

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the very beginnings of the universities, but their students who participate or have participated in function and objectives were varying according the tutorship; male and female (indigenous and to the historical and sociocultural context in non-indigenous) and the Project coordinator. which they were developed, as well as the chang- The interviews were aimed at the reconstruction ing university models in the country. At present, of socio-school trajectories from biographical the role of the tutor in the universities is linked narratives. In order to carry out this reconstruc- to helping and fulfilling tasks that complement tion, the focus is placed on the intersections the teaching of the professors; in these modalities between biography and education, which allow there is greater flexibility in the exercise of the us to recognize the importance of school institu- roles of tutor and student, where the positions tions in the (re) elaboration of the life projects are not immutable (Capelari, 2016) and the hier- of the subjects. This decision assumes that -in archical relationships are blurred. education- autobiographical research generates It is important to consider two central knowledge about subjects, but also about their aspects of the tutorships that are analyzed in this social and territorial ties (Delory-Momberger, work: 1. that it is about peer tutoring, that is to 2009). say that both are students of the same univer- Inquiring into the autobiographical nar- sity, making possible the rotation in the roles of rative allows a partial reconstruction of the tutors and tutored, as well as a certain symmetry school trajectories of the subjects, understood in relationships; 2. that participation in them is as the paths of people within the school system, voluntary, not mandatory, which entails the chal- compared with the expectation that the design lenge of involving students in such spaces. of such a system implies (Terigi, 2008). A large part of the existing studies are based on statistical 2. Materials and method data that allow us to delineate theoretical or ideal school trajectories, which point out the trajecto- This article gathers partial conclusions of a qual- ries of subjects whose trajectory conforms to the itative research framed in the Anthropology of predicted or standardized one (Terigi, 2008). the Education and Critical Pedagogy, consisting On the other hand, there are real school of a case study,2 which supposes an analysis of trajectories that do not necessarily conform to the particular and the unique, that allows to give the expectations of the formal educational sys- account of a determined sociocultural context tem, since children and young people develop at one point. However, the analyzed situation their schooling in heterogeneous, variable and allows us to reflect on certain conditions that often unforeseen ways (Terigi, 2008). For the affect the selected case and also in other similar case under study, it is important to point out ones (Research Group: Hum 0109, 1997). that among indigenous peoples there is a marked The selection of the case (Project of tutor- distancing from the trajectories adjusted to the ships with the students of native peoples) was norm as the subjects advance in age and, more made based on three criteria: 1. That the case so, when the age and the level studied are cor- offer greater learning opportunities with respect related or, specifically, age and approved course. to the general topic (Stake, 1995); 2. The feasibil- In this way, repetition, over-age and desertion ity of access to information; 3. Its preliminary characterize the school trajectories of indigenous partial exploration (Ossola, 2015), which allows students in our country (UNICEF, 2009), which a longitudinal study in which some variables of raises the question, again, about the methods inquiry are shared. and techniques to obtain the information. For the collection of information, in- As the studies on school trajectories avail- depth interviews were conducted with: young able are based on the statistical data of each

country, they have an important limitation, since few cases are studied, but in greater depth (Yuni, these data do not consider people as a collection & Urbano, 2016). or analysis unit. The most frequent school data Based on what was proposed, five partici- -the ones from which public-school policies pants were selected, with the criterion that they are delineated and evaluated- refer to the sub- present different situations regarding the case: jects, but they are not the source of information 1. The author of the project and coordinator of (Terigi, 2008). the tutoring spaces. 2. Two tutors, one belong- Therefore, to try to understand school ing to an indigenous community, who has not experiences in the context of the lives of indig- yet graduated and who has lost contact with the enous youth and tutors of indigenous students, tutorships; and a non-indigenous, who gradu- a qualitative research logic has been used. The ated and still collaborates with the tutorships. biographical interviews, in particular, allow us to 3. Two students who participate in most of the approach the life histories of the subjects, from proposed activities from the tutoring space. It their own history, which enables the reconstruc- is important to clarify that for this article it was tion of formal aspects of their schooling (age prioritized to take up the word of the two tutors, of entry, years of permanence, etc.), as well as taking into account the thematic axes developed. of subjective aspects (self-assessment of school performance, causes of the approach or distance 3. Data analysis of institutions, etc.). This analysis can be effective in questioning certain prejudices regarding the school failure 3.1. Tutoring as a training space of indigenous children, adolescents and youth. Similar studies have shown that the school works For this particular case study, it has been pointed for the native peoples through centrifugal and out that the accompaniment program for indig- centripetal forces, that is, the school simultane- enous peoples of the UNSa was not enough to ously exercises attraction and repellence for these match the university trajectories of indigenous peoples (Hecht, 2010). It has also been noted students with the theoretical trajectory stipulat- that there are global re-readings of previous ed for university students in Argentina -five years individual and collective experiences (Aikman, of uninterrupted training and exit immediately 1999), while organizing and projecting alterna- after completing their career- (Ossola, 2015). tives for the future (Czarny, 2008). The university However, tutoring plays an important role in experience, in particular, has a space that allows maintaining, over the years, the link between the reconstructing the traces that schooling has left institution, self-recognized indigenous students in these peoples (Luján, Soto, & Rosso, 2018). and peer-tutors. Regarding the selection of the subjects to A graduate who served as a tutor, com- be interviewed, and in accordance with the quali- ments on the impact of her time in the tutor- tative logic of the study, an intentional sampling ships in her subsequent teaching career: was carried out by means of which the cases were selected due to their capacity to generate [...] this tutoring has changed even my path relevant information (Yuni, & Urbano, 2016). In of teacher training and, being a tutor then [...] qualitative studies, the idea of representativeness I already received, and I’m getting other jobs and all this, but after all I end up going back, so of the sample is linked more to the significance to speak, I never finish leaving the University than quantity, while each of the informants has for this link with the kids, with the space, with particularities from which the analysis is made, the service ... with tutoring ... (Collaborator in this sense, the samples tend to be intensive: and former tutor of the ProTconPO)

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While tutoring provides accompaniment 3.2. Tutoring and revaluation of the to strengthen the academic performance of stu- communitarian dents, in this testimony the young woman points out how her experience as a tutor influenced The administration of time for study and for the later professional decisions, since the link with realization of other activities -mainly linked to indigenous students deepened her desire to per- the community sphere- are topics for reflection form as a teacher. In this case, the tutorship and debate in the tutoring spaces. One of the favored retention and oriented the labor inser- axes to understand the ways of inhabiting the tion of a former tutor, a function not contem- university by indigenous students is to under- plated in its bases, but important in the current stand the complementarity between the activities context of uncertainty regarding university and that take place in the city (among them, the study work trajectories of the students, beyond their in the university) and those that take place in the ethnic identifications. community: The graduate also points out that the tutorship make up a pedagogical place, a “learn- [...] when they go to their homes, for example ing site” to which she always ends up return- ... the fact of collecting money, working in the ing, realizing that social support and contain- harvests, going ... or vacations, it is time to ment are not unidirectional (tutors-students), return to work with the family group and the but operates in multiple directions ( between community. (Collaborator and former tutor of ProTconPO) tutors, tutors and students, tutors, students and coordination, coordination and students, etc.). It is necessary to highlight the role that the As a training space, it is clear that the tutorships community has in selecting the young people who generate practices that will later be motivating to will go to university and the careers they are going be inserted in other areas of the university, such to take, based on what is communitarialy desir- as teaching. able or necessary (Czarny, Ossola, & Paladino, [...] and many [indigenous students who have 2018). There are careers that enjoy consensus participated in the tutorships] are already among the indigenous communities: those linked tutors, and many are attached assistants, and to the field of health (medicine or nursing), those you see that this role is accompanied by other related to formal education (teacher) and law things as well, that the tutorships, perhaps -which represents the possibility of defending have provided this other space, to see for communities against the threats of the majority the other ... uh ... you say ‘well, I think that society. In this way, studying at the university has the expectations or certain objectives were different meanings, including aspects such as the fulfilled’. (Collaborator and former tutor of possibility of experiencing new life opportuni- ProTconPO ties in the city, meeting community expectations, returning to the community to account for the This shows an element that was not part roles previously assumed and obtaining a degree of the initial objectives of the project, which is university (Czarny et al., 2018). the contact with certain forms of teaching and From the perspective of indigenous youth, learning, and with contents that are formative in tensions stand out between the willingness to order to practice teaching with a style that pro- exercise a career for personal desire and the motes empathy. demands of the communities. In this regard, a tutor tells us:

As a tutor, it happened to me that a really versity degree, to feel satisfied with the choice brilliant student of the Mathematics Major, and to collaborate with her community. who was regularizing everything and promot- A specific way of uniting the demands that ing the subjects that were promotional in her different sectors exert on the decisions of indig- major, she changed her major to Anthropology. enous youths is found in this trajectory. In this Totally different. And she comes and says: ‘I’m case, the role of the university tutor was impor- going to change’, and I ‘what are you going to change?’, ‘[I’m going to change] major, I can- tant so that the young woman could express her not take it anymore’ she says. And for me it was feelings while facing the changes, and feel that a bucket of cold water, that a person comes to what she chose was going to be accepted and tell you that she is going to change the course valued from the tutoring space. of her life. She changed to anthropology, and I say ‘well, if it’s good for your’, she told me why 3.3. Tutorships and CEUPO she changed, uh ... there were many things in the community that made her change her The students that participate and make up the mind. Also, the meetings with the group here, tutorships, were constituted in a self-denomi- then she began to wonder. Mathematics was nated group CEUPO (Community of University her passion, that is, that cannot be denied, but Students of Indigenous Peoples) and from there she does not really see herself as a professional they carry out joint activities. The CEUPO is of mathematics, she does not see how to con- presented as: tribute [from the math], she wants to contribute to the community, [...] Yes, she says, as a A group of university students who fight for teacher [of mathematics] maybe, if I’m in the recognition and respect for cultural diversity community or in a faculty there, but no, she in our University. In this group we voluntarily does not see it as a ‘future’. Then she changed participate students of the different faculties, to anthropology, and the first year of anthro- sharing knowledge and experiences of our pology she kept going to the service [tutoring] cultures and life in the University. We are a at [the Faculty of Sciences] I think she’s still community that has a voice, we are echo of our going even, she goes through the service, and ... ancestral cultures, with identity, with history; she’s really fascinated with the career, the first we are a community that opens paths in this trips, because from the first year they make university (Taken from the Facebook page of trips [...] she tells me that she has confirmed the CEUPO). that it was anthropology what she wanted, that she had never realized. (Collaborator and The CEUPO is an important space to former tutor of ProTconPO). maintain and sustain the ethnic identifications Through the story of the tutor you can of the indigenous students during the accom- access a reconstruction of the meanings that a plishment of their degree careers: student made about her passing through two The University for me is a huge and good different majors at the same university. First, house, the CEUPO would be our community, she enrolled in the Bachelor of Mathematics, the it would be [the place of] our cultures, where career for which she had an explicit preference our beliefs, our knowledge, our ways, maybe, and in which she demonstrated very good per- of seeing the world are, but within another formance. As time went by, she began to know institution. So for me the CEUPO is like a new fields of knowledge in the university and in family, a family within the University, another the community, and she visualized the Bachelor house, a small house for all cultures, that in Anthropology, as an area in which she could allows us to know ourselves, that allows us to combine different expectations: to receive a uni- maintain our culture, our identity, our way of

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thinking. (Former tutor of ProTconPO, from The quote reflects the singularities of an indigenous community). teaching and learning in contexts of cultural and linguistic diversity. In this type of situation, the The CEUPO, born from the tutorships, ways of transmitting knowledge are rethought, constitutes, from the perspective of the inter- -for previous ideas must be deconstructed viewee, the space in which the bonds of closeness around an academic concept-, the ways and and familiarity are recreated: “the house” within styles of tutorial accompaniment, and the proper the university. This accounts for the effective- look around what is learning in the university. ness of the program in its search to achieve socio-affective containment, beyond academic performance. 4. Discussion and conclusions The qualitative study carried out allows us to 3.4. Formative experiences and linguis- begin an approach to the complex meanings tic diversity that form part of the tutoring space for indigenous students at the National University of Access to higher levels of education among indig- Salta. Taking into account the intensity of the enous peoples is usually associated with the loss relationships that take place there and the logics of the mother tongue and its displacement due to of organization and transmission of knowledge the majority use of state or hegemonic languages (academic and non-academic) that occur within (Hecht, 2010). However, among the young people it, we propose to conceive university tutorships of the Wichí people who are studying under- for indigenous students as communities of prac- graduate degrees at the UNSa, it has been pointed tice, that is, as social organizations with their out that the high degree of linguistic vitality in own guidelines and objectives, in which their their language operates as a mechanism of group participants organize themselves through differ- containment in the entry phase at the university ent activities for the transfer of specific skills and (Ossola, 2015). Likewise, in relation to tutorships, knowledge (Lave, & Wenger, 1991). important challenges appear regarding the modes In the daily life of the tutorships one can of construction and transmission of knowledge in observe the multiple elements of the academic multilingual contexts: formation, what the subjects put at stake, their expectations and future. In the particular case of The texts tell you about concepts that do not accompanying indigenous students, the tutor- exist in their mother tongue. So, it is about trying to find and contextualize that word. Eh ... ships function as an intermediate space between it’s a very abstract work and it’s three or four the rigidity of the university structures and the times the effort you have to make to under- familiarity of the community practices. Due to stand a text, to read a text, read a page of a text. this, they become a suitable space to analyze the Then, it is a very personal work, exhausting I traces that education has left in the students, would say, tiring and even frustrating for the both formally and in the family-community. student. Em ... we have the case of one of the The tutorships for indigenous peoples wichí boys in [the Bachelor in] nursing, who reflect the great tensions of the identity, profes- has [the subject] Introduction to Nursing, sional and community construction of the young which are some very long texts about nursing people who participate in it. Interculturality is care, about certain concepts of nursing care, experienced from everyday life as an incessant em ... then, is to see how to do ... (Collaborator work to translate meanings and belong to dif- and former tutor of ProTconPO) ferent spaces: community, family, tutorships, academic programs, etc.

One of the greatest challenges in this area (Endnotes) is interaction within the framework of linguistic diversity. In this sense, students who come from 1. Cross-reference of 2010 Census data with those of ENOTPO (National Encounter of Territorial Organizations of Indigenous contexts with pronounced vitality of the indige- Peoples, 2015), conducted by Elisa Sulca and Nuria Rodríguez nous language face a double strangeness: in front (2019) within the framework of their doctoral theses. of the academic mode of learning and in front 2. This case study is carried out within the framework of the of Spanish as a language to acquire knowledge. Doctoral Thesis by Nuria M. Rodríguez, entitled “Interculturality Given these challenges, tutors play a leading role and University. Development, advances and perspectives of the projects of tutoring with students of native peoples in in accounting for multilingual situations and the National University of Salta.” PhD in education. National personally accompanying bilingual students. University of Tucumán. It is also emphasized that inclusion is not unidirectional: it is constantly traced in back and forth movements, starting from real situations in Bibliographical references which students and tutors confront their knowl- Aikman, S. (1999). La educación indígena en edge and come close and distance themselves Sudamérica. Interculturalidad y bilingüismo from the university institution according to indi- en Madre de Dios, Perú. Lima, Perú: IEP vidual, family and communitarian conditions ediciones. that they cross. Briones, C. (2005). Formaciones de alteridad: contex- The case study presented allows us to tos globales, procesos nacionales y provin- account for a specific area, but the lessons learned ciales. En C. Briones (Comp.), Cartografías from it are significant for thinking about the argentinas. Políticas indigenistas y formacio- complex reality experienced by Latin American nes provinciales de alteridad. Buenos Aires: university students in the current context. Antropofagia. Briones, C., Delrio, W., Lanusse, P. Lazzari, A. Lorenzetti, M. Szulk, A., & Vilvaldi, A. (2006). 5. Acknowledgements and Diversidad cultural e interculturalidad support como construcciones socio-históricas. En A. Amegeiras y E. Jure (Comps.), Diversidad This research is possible thanks to the financ- cultural e interculturalidad (pp. 255-264). ing of the National Council of Scientific and Buenos Aires: Prometeo libros y Universidad Technical Research (CONICET). It has the sup- Nacional de General Sarmiento. Capelari, M. I. (2016). port of the Institutional Project “Territoriality El rol del tutor en la Universidad: configuraciones, significados y prácticas. and power. Conflicts, exclusion and resistanc- Buenos Aires: SB. es in the construction of society in Salta”, of Carli, S. (2012). El estudiante universitario. Hacia una the Research Institute in Social Sciences and historia del presente de la educación pública. Humanities (ICSOH), and of the research proj- Buenos Aires: Siglo XXI Editores. ect “Impact of recent transformations in the Claro, M., & Seoane, V. (2005). Acción afirmativa. indigenous communities of the Chaco Salteño: Hacia democracias inclusivas. Santiago de identity reconfigurations, new modernities Chile: Fundación Equitas. and public policies”(Research Council of the Coronado, M., & Gómez Boulin, M. J. (2015). National University of Salta). Orientación, tutorías y acompañamiento. En Special thanks are given to the members of Educación Superior. Análisis de las trayecto- the mentoring project with the students of indig- rias estudiantiles. Los jóvenes ante sus encru- Buenos Aires: Noveduc. enous peoples of the UNSa, who have generously cijadas. Czarny, G. (2008). Pasar por la escuela. Indígenas shared their experiences. y procesos de escolaridad en la ciudad de

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Alteridad. 14(2), 172-183 183 july - december 2019 p-ISSN:1390-325X / e-ISSN:1390-8642 Vol. 14, No. 2, 184-194 http://alteridad.ups.edu.ec https://doi.org/10.17163/alt.v14n2.2019.03 The type of participation promoted in schools is a constraint factor for inclusive education

El tipo de participación que promueve la escuela, una limitante para la inclusión

Azucena Ochoa Cervantes is a full-time research professor at the Autonomous University of Querétaro (México) ([email protected]) (https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4515-9069)

Received: 2019-01-29 / Reviewed: 2019-04-05 / Accepted: 2019-05-20 / Published: 2019-07-01

Abstract Resumen Several authors have shown that one of the Diversos autores han mostrado que una de las barriers for learning and inclusion is the level of par- barreras para el aprendizaje y la inclusión es la partici- ticipation that is promoted within the school context, pación que se promueve dentro del contexto escolar, ya since through participation the conditions are created que a través de la participación se crean las condiciones for the appreciation of diversity and, therefore, for the para el aprecio a la diversidad y, por ende, para la inclusión. inclusion. However, in the school context, the par- Sin embargo, en el contexto escolar la experiencia de participation experience to which students have access is ticipación a las que el alumnado tiene acceso son limita- limited. On this basis, a study was conducted with the das. Sobre esta base, se realizó un estudio con el objetivo objective of analyzing the type of participation pro- de analizar el tipo de participación que se promueve en moted in secondary school. To achieve the objective, la escuela secundaria. Para alcanzar el objetivo, se aplicó a questionnaire was applied to 539 middle school stu- un cuestionario a 539 estudiantes de nivel secundaria de dents from public schools in the metropolitan area of escuelas públicas de la zona metropolitana de la ciudad the city of Querétaro, Mexico. The results shown that de Querétaro, México. Los resultados muestran que si although the school is the main area of participation bien la escuela es el principal ámbito de participación que that students recognize, their ideas regarding of their reconocen las y los estudiantes, sus ideas al respecto de la participation are limited to the issuance of an opinion participación están acotadas a la emisión de una opinión that must be carried out in a specific way, which limits que debe ser realizada de una manera específica, lo cual learning and inclusion. limita el aprendizaje y la inclusión. Keywords: Inclusion, inclusive education, partic- Descriptores: Inclusión, educación inclusiva, par- ipation, secondary education, inclusion barriers, young ticipación, educación secundaria, barreras para la inclu- children, teenagers. sión, niños, niñas y adolescentes.

FSuggested form of citing: Ochoa Cervantes, A. (2019). The type of participation promoted in schools is a constraint factor for inclusive education. Alteridad, 14(2), 184-194. https://doi.org/10.17163/alt.v14n2.2019.03 The type of participation promoted in schools is a constraint factor for inclusive education

1. Introduction and state of the The importance of promoting child participation lies not only in what is a legally issue established right, but is a process that will allow children to develop better learning and improve The normative documents of basic education in the conditions of the environments in which Mexico establish educational equity as a prior- they operate. In addition to the above, participa- ity. Talking about equity necessarily refers to the tion allows students to exercise active citizenship school climate that is generated to create envi- because it is from this that they enter into rela- ronments conducive to learning not only con- tionships with others, assuming responsibilities cepts, but also attitudes and values that support for the improvement of the community. the democratic society, this would mean that the In a previous work (De la Concepción, school is “a place of life for the child in which he 2015), we describe the trends that have occurred is a member of society, is aware of his belonging in the approach to research or experiences to it and to which he contributes” (Dewey, 2001, reported around child participation: the first p.224) has to do with participation since the recogni- Based on the above, we believe that education of rights (IFE , 2007; Zanabria, Fragoso, tion at school should provide formative experi- & Martínez, 2007); the second is related to the ences that allow a coexistence in which every- works that show that with the participation of one participates, since participation ensures children, childhood develops the capacity to inclusion. influence and transform the environment in Inclusive education refers to an educa- which they live (Muñoz, 2003, UNICEF s.f, tional process that seeks that children and ado- Valderrama, 2013). The third trend in research lescents have access to quality education, which is that which considers participation as a core would imply taking into account the diver- component between the concepts of citizenship sity of people’s needs and this could be achieved and democracy (Acosta, & Pineda, 2007, Botero, through the promotion of participation. To pro- Torres, & Alvarado, 2008, Cajiao, 1998, Van Dijk, mote inclusive education, then, priority must be 2007, Hart, 1993, Fernández, 2009, Lansdown, given to an appreciation for differences, which 2001, Trilla, & Novella, 2011). Finally, the studies requires recognizing each of the people who that have to do with the meanings or concep- make up the school groups and, from this, tions that the protagonists give to the term par- encouraging participation to generate learning. ticipation are identified (Carmona, 2008, Bosch, This necessarily implies that educational institu- & González-Montfort, 2012, Hernández, 2014, tions privilege organizational and pedagogical Ochoa Salinas, & Díez-Martínez, 2014; Ochoa, practices in which differences are not assumed 2015). Within this last approach, the results of as deficits and where the participation of the the present study are inserted. community is present in all areas of school life From the previous review, we affirmed through various means. that for children to be able to exercise their Participation from this perspective allows: participation, it is a priority that the necessary Learn with others and collaborate with them conditions are created for it, specifically in the during classes and lessons. It implies an active school context, as well as its proximity, it is the involvement with what is being learned and context recognized by girls, boys and adolescents taught and the same could be said in relation (NNA) as the main area of participation; so it is to the education that is being experienced. But necessary that the school teaches to participate participation also implies being recognized for developing skills, knowledge and attitudes that what one is and being accepted for it (Echeita, allow dialogue and association. However, to 2016, p.4).

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achieve this, it is necessary to create a climate of boys and girls “wear shirts” related to some cause, trust in which horizontal relationships are estab- even if they do not know what it is and therefore lished between the adults in charge and the chil- do not participate, only “they are”. As a third step dren. This would imply to banish beliefs about is the symbolic participation, this is characterized participation since in previous studies it has been by the possibility that children are allowed to possible to verify that the pedagogical activities express themselves, but this expression does not in the schools are rigid and the forms of partici- influence the project. The author refers to the pation have to do with the emission of a response three previous steps as “no participation”. or with the follow-up of the instructions given Continuing up the ladder we find the by the Teachers (Cerda, Loreto, Magendzo, Cruz, fourth step, that of assigned but informed, in & Varas, 2004, De la Concepción, 2015). which the participants know the objectives of Based on the idea that participation is the project, know about their role in it and have promoted at school, it is necessary to reflect on the opportunity to get involved voluntarily after whether the forms of participation guarantee they have enough information to make this deci- educational inclusion as they are characterized sion. In the fifth step, consulted and informed, by high directionality and rigidity. the children become consultants of the people in charge of the project. The sixth step called Typologies to observe -and promote- the projects initiated by adults is that decisions about participation of NNA activities are shared with children. The sev- enth step are the so-called projects initiated and Some authors and organizations (Hart, directed by children, and finally, the highest level 1993, Trilla, & Novella, 2001, Gaitán, 1998, OEA/ of participation in the ladder, the eighth step of INN, 2010) have proposed some useful forms projects initiated by children in which decisions and parameters through which it would be pos- are shared with adults (Hart, 1993). sible to observe the participation of children and Based on the previous typology, Trilla and adolescents; these proposals can serve as general Novella (2001) propose four kinds of childhood indicators to promote school participation in a participation: climate of respect and appreciation for diversity. Simple participation, consisting of taking The menu of indicators and monitoring part in an activity as a spectator without the inter- system of the right to participation of children and vention of children in the preparation or content adolescents considers that child participation is a or development. They just follow directions. process that to be effective, should consider three Consultative participation, involves taking moments: information, construction and recog- the opinion of students in matters of their com- nition of opinion and expression and listening. petence or interest, this implies active listening Therefore, it is necessary to provide accessible and by adults. pertinent information, allow and respect opinions Projective participation, children become and maintain active listening so that their opin- responsible for the project and become actors ions can be expressed (OEA/INN, 2010). of change. This type of participation is more Roger Hart (1993) makes a proposal for complex and can be presented at different times analysis with the aim of reflecting on the scope of the project. of children’s participation in community proj- Meta-participation, is that the students ects. Uses the metaphor of a ladder to gradually claim their right to participate, which requires the describe child participation. The first step on creation of mechanisms and spaces for participa- Hart’s ladder refers to manipulation; the second tion, as well as a climate of trust that allows it. step is that of decoration, in which, for example,

The authors emphasize that the levels are 2. Materials and methods not progressive, but that advances and setbacks can occur. In turn, Gaitán (1998) conceives child A qualitative study was carried out following the participation as a process to increase the power case method. This method allows the in-depth of organized childhood in its relationship with description of the multiple causes that the prob- adults and proposes three indicators, with sub- lematic generates, because “important human levels, to observe it: actions rarely have a simple cause” (Stake, 2010, Awareness refers to the ability of girls, p.43). In this method, several data collection boys and adolescents to understand their right techniques are used to collect the voices and to participate “The more awareness they have, scenarios involved in the case under study. In the greater their participation” (p.91). In turn, this regard, Hernández, Fernández and Baptista this indicator is composed by the sublevels: no (2006) define it as “studies that, when using awareness, intuitive awareness, basic awareness quantitative, qualitative or mixed research pro- and deep awareness. cesses, deeply analyze a unit to respond to the Decision capacity is to assess the alterna- problem’s approach” (p 224). tives that exist within the project, the sub-levels According to its objective, the present case that make up this indicator are: no option, single study was descriptive, since what is sought is to option, relative option, multiple options. characterize the conditions in which participa- Capacity of action, this indicator refers to tion in secondary schools takes place. the activities that were driven by the participants, The sample consisted of 539 high school this indicator presents the sublevels: imposed students from two public schools in the city of action, driven action, negotiated action and van- Querétaro, Mexico, of which 183 were first grade, guard action. 178 second grade and 178 third grade. Unlike the previous authors, for Gaitán The instrument was a questionnaire to (1998) these indicators are related to each other and investigate the conditions in which the partici- their order is also important, since it determines the pation of the students takes place, from the par- direction of the path to be traveled. A higher level ticipatory experiences that they claim to live in of awareness translates into more decision-making their school, the instruments were structured in capacity and a better quality of action. the following sections: the first with general data, These typologies could be useful not only the second described four situations with prob- to observe but also to generate the conditions so lems that affected them on a daily basis. In this that authentic participation is encouraged and, section they wrote, in addition to their opinion, at the same time, to promote inclusion since the what they would do in that situation. The third lack of participation is a barrier to it. section was composed of fifteen open questions In order to promote participation, it is that inquired about the following aspects: important to foster a climate of trust that allows Conceptions of girls and boys about par- for the expression and exchange of ideas, thoughts ticipation: When you hear the word participate, and feelings, as well as the implementation of what do you think about? in what places can you methodological strategies based on active pedago- participate? how do you participate? gy and learning based on experience, which would Conceptions of girls and boys about partici- imply the collective construction of knowledge. pation in the school context: Can you participate Based on what has been proposed, in in your school? How do you participate in your this paper we aim to analyze the conditions for school? participation that are given-or not-in secondary Conceptions of children about child partici- schools based on what the students say. pation as a civil and political right: Is participa-

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tion a right? Why is participation a right for girls in the answers. Therefore, the percentage that is and boys? presented in the corresponding charts does not The answers were transcribed and the data refer to the number of participants but to the of the questionnaire were tabulated in categories types of response. to later make a global analysis, that is, a compari- The first question had to do with inves- son of the data with the theoretical referents. tigating the ideas that the students have about participation, they were asked the question: When 3. Analysis and results you hear the word participate, what do you think? As can be seen in Chart 1, the idea of participa- As mentioned in the description of the method- tion they present has to do with the issuance of an ology, the questionnaire was applied to the stu- opinion, followed by speaking or saying. It is also dents, and since the questions were open, they interesting that the answer that has the follow- were transcribed and organized based on their ing proportion is that of I don’t know and others. conceptual similarity. As an answer could con- This is important because it can indicate that this tain several ideas, we proceeded to place them population does not have clarity in one of the in categories, later they were counted and per- necessary conditions to promote participation, centages were calculated to observe the trends the recognition of the right to do so.

Chart 1. Percentages of response types to the question: When you hear the word participate, what do you think?

Categories % Give an opinion 40 Talk or say 16 Other 10 I do not know/Did not answer 10 Participate 9 Is a right 6 Raise your hand 4 Help 4 School activities 1 100 Source: own elaboration.

In order to deepen the recognition of opinion (79%); If we relate this result to the pre- participation as a right, the next question was vious one, we can observe that the conception of whether they considered participation as a right participation is circumscribed to the expression and why they considered it as such. 100% of the or emission of an opinion. However, there are participants considered that participation is a some answers that allude to other aspects, such right, this data is relevant because for a right to as because we are the same (13%), the remaining become effective its recognition is necessary. 8% alluded to is an obligation. In relation to the reasons why they consid- Subsequently we inquired about the areas ered that participating is a right, most of them of participation that distinguish students. concentrated on allowing them to express an

Chart 2. Percentages of response types to the question: In what places do you think you can participate?

Categories % School 30 Home 28 Everywhere 24 Other 7 Classroom 5 I do not know/Did not answer 5 In the right place 1 100 Source: own elaboration. The answers in Chart 2 indicate that the this should be taken into account to promote school is distinguished as the privileged area active methodologies. of participation, followed by the home. The To inquire about the participation experi- aforementioned is of fundamental importance ences that the students said they had, they were because the school, given the proximity to the asked how they participate. The answers mostly students, could promote participatory experi- referred to: giving my opinion 57%, helping 11%, ences that imply the construction of inclusive talking 10%, raising the hand 8%, other 8% and environments of learning and coexistence. Observing the formalities with 6%. With the intention of inquiring about It is observed that the way in which students the initiative that students may or may not have distinguish that they participate is by giving their to exercise participation, we asked them about opinion followed by helping and talking. Relating their experience while participating. Most of these answers with those presented in Chart 1, it can the answers were concentrated in the category: be confirmed that the idea of participation present- always with 28%, followed by when I want 25%, ed by the participants is simple (Trilla, & Novella, when they ask me to 20%, when is needed 12%, 2001) or a symbolic participation (Hart, 1993). and 12% for school activities. These responses are To inquire specifically about the school striking because they clearly denote the motiva- context, we asked about how they participate in tion factor as important to favor participation; school. The answers are presented in Chart 3.

Chart 3. Percentages of types of response to the question How do you participate in school?

Categories % Giving my opinion 38 Raising my hand 23 Observing the formalities 14 Helping 10 Talking 9 School activities 6 100 Source: own elaboration.

Unlike the answers of the previous ques- while the answer giving my opinion decreases. tion, the answer: raising the hand increases, The emergence of the category we call Observing

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the formalities is interesting, given that here and their involvement in the implementation were included answers about how participa- of activities and/or strategies where different tion in the school is expected, for example, forms of participation are promoted. with a strong and clear voice, without nerves, To inquire, specifically, about how partici- with confidence, among others. The emergence pation in the classroom occurs, we asked about of this type of response denotes the influence this particular space. The answers are presented of the beliefs of adults about participation in the following chart.

Chart 4. Percentages of response types to the question How do you participate in your classroom?

Categories % Giving my opinion 37 Raising my hand 26 School activities 21 I give proposals or ideas 10 Talking 3 Helping 3 100 Source: own elaboration.

In this case, the highest percentage of in the answers refers to school activities (21%), responses is concentrated on giving my opinion, so it is deduced that the population of this study followed by raising my hand and school activi- identifies the participation with the execution of ties. This type of response included activities proper school actions. The following trends in that had to do with exhibitions, go to the board, the responses alluded to sports (16%), cultural read, answer specific questions, that is, execute (13%), did not answer (9%) and others with 6%. instructions from the teacher to complete some As it was said, in order to promote authen- schoolwork. tic participation, it is necessary to involve students In order to try to notice specific partici- in the problems that affect them, so that in turn pation actions, they were questioned about the they are also involved in their resolution. To know activities in which they have been invited at the which problems they observe, they were asked to school. The highest percentage of responses is describe a situation that would worry them in concentrated in none (35%). The following trend their school. The answers are presented below. Chart 5. Percentages of response types to the question: Write a situation that worries you about your school

Categories % Treatment among students 21 Attitude of teachers 20 School facilities 17 Situations of risk (insecurity, drug addiction, crime) 12 Cleanliness 9 Sexuality, gender 9 I do not know/Did not answer 8 There are none 2 Qualifications/Failing 2 100 Source: own elaboration.

What concerns students the most is the To deepen in the above, they were ques- treatment among students, followed by the attitude tioned about the resolution of this problem and of teachers. It can be inferred, from these answers, their participation as actors in the solution. The that there may be conflicts of coexistence in these answers are given in the following chart. groups, since the two problems with the highest percentages of responses allude to this.

Tabla 6. Porcentaje de tipos de respuesta a la pregunta ¿Cómo la resolverías?

Categorías % Sancionando 17 Dando aviso a una autoridad 15 Hablando/opinando 15 Participando 12 Medidas de Seguridad 11 Ayudando 9

Otras 8

Limpiando 8 Arreglando/Haciendo 5 100 Source: own elaboration. As can be seen in Chart 6, the way in which in the school, it is a limited participation and the problem is conceived is primarily sanctioned, limited to school activities, thought and planned followed by giving notice to the authority. These by adults, what is called a simple participation answers are revealing and confirm what is shown (Trilla, & Novella, 2001). We agree with Gaitán throughout the previous charts, and the students (1998) regarding the need to promote participa- of these groups have a limited conception of par- tory activities that allow children and adolescents ticipation and a passive attitude given that in the a greater level of awareness about their decisions schools the participation experiences are limited and their actions. However, this would imply to school activities directed by the teacher. This that the students in the school would stop being has as a consequence that the students assume a spectators and mere executors of orders. role of spectator who thinks of heteronomous In this sense, and as it was observed in the options to solve the conflicts that concern them. results, if the students consider that the participation is limited to the issuing of an opinion and 4. Discussion and conclusions that this should be under the canons established by the institution, they are assuming a passive Normative documents and political discourses role, which does not favor the promotion of recognize the importance of promoting inclusive authentic participation. Therefore, it is neces- education, however, these intentions are rarely sary to generate a climate that promotes diverse translated into consistent practices within insti- activities that do not privilege a single form of tutions. From the results it can be seen that the participation -the oral one-, as it usually happens participation ideas mentioned by the students in our schools, which generates mechanisms of are related to the issuance of an opinion, we can exclusion since usually the same children partici- also affirm that, although there is participation

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pate in this manner. In this regard, Corona and ate environments of respect and appreciation for Morfín (2001) affirm that: diversity, a change of view of adults about childhood and about their participation within the Verbal expression is only one and perhaps not school is required. School that considers three the most important of the many ways that aspects: children have to manifest what is happening • The pedagogical, implementing participa- inside them. The acts, the emotional expres- tory methodologies that impact on learn- sions including the tantrums, the attitudes and ing. the silences are full of meaning and it is necessary to sharpen the sensitivity to understand • The cultural, because it involves giving them. (p 44) voice to children and with this redistribut- ing the power of decision making. From these results we can see that the • The promotion of rights. Participation experience that is lived in the school in relation should not be considered as a conces- to participation is limited to the academic sphere sion by adults but as a right that must be and is directed by the teachers, since the daily respected. activities are structured and organized by the According to the Model of Compulsory adults, assigning a passive role to the students. Basic Education (SEP, 2017) proposed by the This is confirmed by contrasting previous works Mexican State, as well as various international (Ochoa, 2015, Ochoa, Pérez, & Salinas, 2018). In organizations such as UNESCO (2015), inclu- this regard, Bolívar (2016) mentions that: sion and equity are “the cornerstone of a transformative education” (p. 7), which would imply The institutional or organizational structure the implementation of participatory strategies, of a school provides a set of tasks, processes as well as create the necessary conditions and and meanings in daily life that are promoting a mechanisms for everyone to participate. specific citizenship. The learning of values and attitudes requires, then, experiencing them in the organizational structure of the school or Acknowledgements school establishment, so there are forms of organization that institutionalize better edu- We gratefully acknowledge the partial funding for cate for a democratic society. A school to learn this research by the Fund for the Strengthening how to exercise citizenship must promote, in of Research of the Autonomous University of the first place, active participation at all levels. Querétaro. (p.79) Bibliographical references One of the barriers to inclusion is the type of participation that is promoted. The other is Acosta, A., & Pineda, N. (2007). Ciudad y partici- the non-recognition that the participation of pación infantil. Bogotá: CINDE. children and adolescents is a right. This implies Bolívar, A. (2016). Educar democráticamente para that the conditions for its exercise are not cre- una ciudadanía activa. Revista Internacional ated. Moreover, if the children and adolescents de Educación para la Justicia Social, 5(1), themselves do not recognize it as such, it will 69-87. be difficult for them to demand compliance. Bosch, D., & González-Montfort, N. (2012). ¿Cómo perciben los alumnos su participación en Hence the importance of being safeguarded and los centros de secundaria? Una investiga- promoted. ción sobre las representaciones sociales de Thus, in order to favor the participation los alumnos. En De Alba, N., García, F. y of children and adolescents, and thereby gener- Santisteban, A. (Eds.), Educar para la par-

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194 © 2019, Universidad Politécnica Salesiana, Ecuador. july - december 2019 p-ISSN:1390-325X / e-ISSN:1390-8642 Vol. 14, No. 2,195-206 http://alteridad.ups.edu.ec https://doi.org/10.17163/alt.v14n2.2019.04 Negociating curriculum: Learning-Service in included school

Negociando el currículum: Aprendizaje-Servicio en la escuela incluida

Dr. Joan Andrés Traver-Martí is a Professor of the Universitat Jaume I (Spain) ([email protected]) (https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5948-1035)

Dra. Odet Moliner García is a Professor of the Universitat Jaume I (Spain) ([email protected]) (https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5318-5489)

Dra. Auxiliadora Sales Ciges is a Professor of the Universitat Jaume I (Spain) ([email protected]) (https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9915-0401)

Received: 2019-01-31 / Reviewed: 2019-05-02 / Accepted: 2019-05-15 / Published: 2019-07-01

Abstract by students are highlighted, such as those that facilitate This article analyzes the planning and imple- their own voice in a collaborative work, like theater or mentation of a Service-Learning- (SL) as a curricular mockups, and others oriented towards the knowledge practice. The aim of this study is to describe the mobilization using social networks. Discussion section development of the SL project as a curricular practice emphasizes the relevance and educational value of this linked to the territory and to analyze the curriculum experience of participation and democratic negotia- negotiation strategies and student participation in the tion of the curriculum due to the few initiatives that educational practice. Methodologically, it is a case study exist in this regard and the fact of reconciling it with with an ethnographic approach, where have been used the interests of the territory. qualitative tools such as participant observation, inter- Keywords: School community relationship, stu- views and focus groups, documentary analysis and the dent participation, democratization of education, inter- research diary. The results show the process of nego- cultural education, Service-Learning. tiation and development of the SL practice carried out among all sectors of the educational community. Resumen It was through the use of cooperative dynamics and Este artículo analiza la planificación y puesta en participatory social diagnosis such as social cartogra- acción de una práctica curricular de Aprendizaje Servicio. phy, cooperative learning and classroom assemblies. In El objetivo del estudio es describir el desarrollo del addition, the main participatory strategies developed proyecto de Aprendizaje Servicio (ApS) como práctica

Suggested form of citing: Traver-Martí, J. A., Moliner García, O., & Sales Ciges, A. (2019). Negociating curriculum: Learning Service in Included School. Alteridad, 14(2), 195-206. https://doi.org/10.17163/alt.v14n2.2019.04 Dr. Joan Andrés Traver-Martí / Dra. Odet Moliner García / Dra. Auxiliadora Sales Ciges

curricular vinculada al territorio y analizar las estrategias de cian las principales estrategias participativas desarrolladas negociación del currículum y de participación del alum- por el alumnado entre las que destacamos aquellas nado en dicha práctica educativa. Metodológicamente se que facilitan la articulación de su propia voz de manera trata de un estudio de caso con aproximación etnográfica, colaborativa, como el teatro o las maquetas, y aquellas en la que se utilizan herramientas cualitativas como la otras orientadas a la movilización del conocimiento como observación participante, las entrevistas y grupos de dis- el uso de las redes sociales. En la discusión se constata cusión, los registros audiovisuales, el análisis documental y la relevancia que tiene esta experiencia de participación el diario de campo del equipo investigador. Los resultados y negociación democrática del currículum debido a las dan cuenta del proceso de negociación y desarrollo de pocas iniciativas que existen en este sentido y al hecho la práctica curricular de ApS llevado a cabo entre todos de conciliarlo con los intereses del territorio. los sectores de la comunidad educativa, mediante la uti- Descriptores: Relación escuela-comunidad, par- lización de dinámicas cooperativas y de diagnóstico social ticipación estudiantil, democratización de la educación, participativo como la cartografía social, el aprendizaje educación intercultural, Aprendizaje-Servicio. cooperativo y las asambleas de clase. Además, se eviden-

Hernández, 2012). It implies an active link and 1. Introduction and state a reflection for change from an inclusive leader- of the art ship. For this reason, forming critical citizens means legitimizing the globalizing function of Included School an educational project through democratic dia- We propose the redefinition of the role of the logue, equal participation and commitment to school and other social institutions in relation social transformation. Thus, this educational to the place they occupy in their territory. We transformation makes sense in a broader social rethink school change and educational improve- process that culturally emancipates and allows ment from models that are based on the prin- social reconstruction (Kincheloe, & Steinberg, ciples of inclusion (Echeita, 2008, Echeita, & 1999). This means granting a role of political Ainscow, 2011); interculturality (Essomba, 2006; activism to teachers and communities. A debate Aguado, & Ballesteros, 2015) and communi- is opened in schools about the exclusionary prac- ty and democratic participation (Dewey, 1995, tices that can sustain the teacher’s own training Muñoz, 2011). We conceive the school as an such as the curriculum, the development and use inclusive school, that is, it is belligerent against of materials and resources, expectations about inequalities and exclusion and promotes per- students and their families, the evaluation of sonal agency and social commitment. Inclusion, results, the language used or the values and atti- interculturality, democratization and territori- tudes that are promoted in the school. alization structure this proposal as principles From the contrast of the scientific litera- of the inclusive intercultural education model ture, we refer to the international background of (Sales et al., 2011, Moliner et al., 2011) that we school transformation projects with an inclusive have been developing in recent years. intercultural orientation, such as the Halton Project (Stoll, & Fink, 1999) and the model of Curricular practices linked to the territory Ecole Communautaire Citoyenne (FNCSF, 2011) in Canada, the Accelerated Schools Project (Levin Citizen participation, which is essential et al., 1993) in the United States, or the Improving to promote from the formation of a critical and the Quality of Education for All project (IQEA) democratic citizenship, to intervene in the pro- (Ainscow, Hopkins, Southworth, & West, 2001). cesses of globalization (Dezuanni, & Monroy- At the national level, it is worth highlighting the

training of teachers to lead inclusive intercul- community service tasks. Learning and Service tural schools (Essomba, 2006), the diagnosis of form a feedback loop: “learning acquires a civic intercultural educational contexts (Aguado et sense and service becomes a workshop of values al., 2003); the Learning Communities network and knowledge” (Puig, 2009, p.9). It is, there- (Alcalde et al., 2006), the network of inclusive fore, a didactic methodology that forms respon- schools (Echeita, 2006) and the project of demo- sible citizenship, with an ethical and solidary cratic schools “Proyecto Atlántida” (2001). conscience in contexts of social transformation From the conclusions of our previous (Pérez Galván, & Ochoa Cervantes, 2017). In research we highlight three key elements for the addition, it implies a mobilization of the knowl- development of curricular educational practices edge acquired and produced, the results obtained linked to the territory: full democratic participa- and the process of knowledge construction is put tion, the visibility of the students’ voice and the at the service of the community and the territory interconnection of knowledge. This conception (Naidorf, 2014). of the curriculum assumes the challenges of complex thinking that, as a setting, as a content, 2. Case study as a nature and as a process, gives a new impetus to educational action (Moraes, 2010). In the present case study, the focus is placed on Therefore, this network of knowledge built the process of planning and putting into practice from democratic participation puts at the center a curricular proposal such as Service-Learning to of the process the voice of the student body, inquire about the participation of students in the which acquires a leading role in making deci- negotiation of the curriculum and its connection sions about any aspect of school life (Susinos, & to the territory. Ceballos, 2012) and which allows democratization in the structures of participation and man- Context and background agement, learning skills of deliberative dialogue and political-social competences. In this sense, The CRA of Benavites-Quart de les Valls is a the development of curricular educational prac- grouped rural school of the province of Valencia tices linked to the territory, from the adoption (Spain) that was constituted in the 2005/2006 of a holistic communicative perspective from academic year with the objective of optimizing dialogical approaches (Traver et al., 2010) takes the educational resources available in two bor- on special relevance within the framework of the dering populations. It is a school that has two included school. classrooms, one in each municipality and that houses around 167 students. SL as a curricular practice In recent years the CRA has become an educational community managed by a coor- Linking the curriculum to its territory means dinating commission formed by teachers, stu- advancing in proposals where the political dents, families and local administration. It dimension has to be present starting from the has its own identity that includes in its motto school as an agent of change. It also involves “SOMESCOLA (WEARETHESCHOOL)” that reconstructing shared spaces that guarantee the defines the educational style of the center as dia- common good, taking the curriculum as a social logical, democratic and inclusive. As the courses fact as its axis. As defined by Puig (2009), ser- take place, new students from other schools are vice-learning is a methodology that combines incorporated, changing their identity from the the learning of content, competencies and val- center and configuring, at the same time, new ues in a single activity with the performance of ideas that influence the sense of belonging to the

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CRA. It has become an educational reference, munity assembly the teachers proposed the SL as a result of the successive projects developed methodology as an opportunity to develop this within the framework of the construction of the type of curricular practices and, from there, the inclusive intercultural school. Because of its edu- planning of the action proposal began: develop- cational model receives visits and conducts train- ment and problematization of a curricular pro- ing courses in other schools. He has extensive posal developed through SL. The topic chosen experience in democratic participation strategies through a participatory and deliberative process using participatory methodologies in the class- of the educational community was the reform rooms, organizing open days, and incorporating and improvement of the infrastructures of the self-management strategies such as mixed work two CRA classrooms. The development context commissions and the coordinating commission of this practice was focused on two classrooms as a collective decision-making body. of the CRA, one for each classroom, from which Over the years the school has been democ- the proposal was carried out involving the rest ratizing its structures and strategies and has of class groups and the school’s educational become aware of the plurality of voices and the community. need to articulate them. However, the last com- As part of a multi-annual PAR process, munity assemblies warned of the fact that partic- this paper focuses on the Case Study with an eth- ipation was located too much in the “periphery” nographic approach to a service-learning proj- of the learning process (more focused on fam- ect, the result of a decision by the educational ily participation in some extracurricular spaces) community to reflect on the linking of curricular and the need to focus on the curricular practices practices to the territory of the school, during the began to become more apparent. At the same 2017-18 school year. time, it was observed that the voice of the students was still weak and was often invisible in the Objectives School Council and in the debate sessions. Our accompaniment to this school, as To understand this SL project within the frame- external consultants, has been articulated around work of the included school, we set out the fol- a process of Participatory Action Research (PAR) lowing objectives: a) Describe the development (Ander-Egg, 2012) developed through annual of the SL project as a curricular practice linked cycles for five courses. During the first phase of to the territory. b) Inquire about the strategies of the project (contact with the context and shared curriculum negotiation and student participa- negotiation of the demand) several participation in the curriculum practice of SL. tive social diagnostic dynamics were developed that allowed to project the desired school to the Method educational community, as well as to establish For the elaboration of the case study, we have the point of the participatory process in which it used qualitative tools characteristic of ethno- finds itself. In these sessions, the different sectors graphic studies such as participant observation, of the school pointed out the need to continue interviews and discussion groups, audiovisual deepening in the democratic participation of records, documentary analysis and the field diary the educational community and in linking the of the research team. school with the territory. For this, one of the The participants in the study were the 6th proposed lines of work to start a new cycle of grade students of the CRA, the two teachers of PAR. was to initiate processes of curriculum the two classrooms and the families participat- negotiation (what to learn and how to do it) ing in the SL, as well as the center’s management with the educational community. In a com- team and the town hall’ education council.

The analysis of the content of the data ized in three dimensions that substantiate the produced has allowed us to reconstruct the quality of the educational link that the proposal learning process, emphasizing the moments and harmonized between the school and the terri- strategies of curriculum negotiation and student tory: the academic and curricular content con- participation. The data has been triangulated tained in the proposal, the service offered to the with the participants and the returned generated community, and its viability. information has served to, in turn, document the process as a strategy for mobilizing the knowl- Community Assembly edge of the participants themselves. In the assembly the options to carry out the SL were presented, and the faculty, who had been 3. Results evaluating, in a previous session, the curricular The results of this study, regarding the two stated possibilities of the different proposals, priori- objectives, are related from the own process of tized the improvement of the infrastructures of origin, negotiation and development of the SL the two lecture rooms of the CRA as project curricular practice. In its description, the guide- theme. The families commented that the proj- lines of the ethnographic narrative logic have ect had a double objective: on the one hand, to been followed, in order to demonstrate the par- improve the conditions of the school and, on the ticipatory strategies developed by the students. other, it would help to continue strengthening the idea of the CRA as a shared project. The origin of SL Project planning: negotiations begin The celebration of the Open Day was used to organize mixed work groups (teachers-students- The planning process of the school reform proj- families) that, following the technique of the ect begins in the classroom and takes place in photo-speaker, made proposals to develop the two sessions of two hours each, in each one of SL. For this work we start from the results of a the classrooms. A first session is dedicated to previous activity, a social cartography (Lozano planning the practice and the second to establish et al., 2016) which detailed, on the maps of the tools that allow documentation. The sessions two locations, the different spaces and elements were held with the teacher, five representatives of of the territory in which to articulate educational the families of each classroom and the students. proposals that link the work of the school with It was established that the research group would their community. accompany the documentation of the process. Subsequently, and based on the proposals elaborated in the Open Day, a working session a) First session: Planning the practice of SL was held in the CRA open to the participation In this session, the SL notebook was introduced of all sectors of the educational community. and each of its parts was explained, with the pro- The work dynamics were explained and mixed posal that each teacher adapt it and customize it. discussion groups (students, families, teachers, In addition, the minimum criteria that should neighborhood/territorial agents/local adminis- guide the practice were established: tration) were formed, whcih, dynamized by members of the research team, they went on to • That it be consistent with the Center’s carry out the deliberative analysis of the propos- Educational Project (CEP) and with the als and, based on it, formulate the prioritization principles and dimensions of inclusion and of the proposals. This deliberation was concret- interculturality followed in it.

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• That at all times the relationship between Curriculum negotiation process the learning of the curriculum (Center Curricular Project - CCP) and the fulfil- In the SL planning sessions, the teachers dynamize ment of the service (the link with the terri- the group-class, in constant dialogue with the tory) was clear. students and the families attending. They compare the methodology of Project-Based Learning The two projects that were finally pre- (PBL), which they already know, focusing on sented to be carried out were: the philosophy of the service and the values it entails. A debate about the relation of the SL with • “EL colegio que queremos” (The school we the school model that the CRA has as an ideal is want): SL project to be carried out in the introduced here. Quart classroom, in which 14 sixth grade It is the students who raise the possible students participated: ten boys and four girls. dynamics of cooperative work and the use of • “Escuela Nueva” (New School): SL project the Google Drive platform as a space to share to be carried out in the Benavites class- information, organize tasks and make visible the room, in which 15 students from 4th, 5th weekly progresses during the project. and 6th grade of Primary School partici- The curricular contents involved in the pated: seven boys and eight girls. SL are analyzed and compared with the learning results established by the current legislation in b) Second session: Analysis of the SL the autonomous community. This task is done in small groups of students and families, to To analyze the practice from an included school highlight the relationship between the curricular approach, in addition to attending to the coher- practice that globalizes learning and puts them at ence of the SL with the educational and curricu- the service of the community and the prescrip- lar project of the center, we rely on the dimen- tive objectives in compulsory education. sions and indicators of the CEIN Guide (Sales The conclusion reached is that the school et al., 2010b), which is a self-evaluation guide to reform project covers many areas of knowledge accompany the participatory processes of con- and multiple learning outcomes, many more struction of the inclusive intercultural school. than using the textbook or the more traditional Each teacher selected the indicators of the guide teaching units. for the analysis of the practice that were related All the sections of the SL notebook are to the principles of the educational model of the planned: contents, objectives, expected results, school. type of service, recipients and work phases. In order to document the SL process, It is the first time that these class-groups techniques such as questionnaires, graphs, inter- have the presence of families in this moment of views, discussion groups, newspapers and audio- planning and decision making. Therefore, the visual presentations were proposed, allowing relatives are asked for a degree of collaboration to collect the different moments of the project and involvement beyond timely participation. and share them with the rest of the educational They are wanted to be integrated in the tasks of community. The research team accompanied the the process and in their follow-up, opening all process, offering ourselves as one more resource the classroom work sessions to their participa- for the center and as a critical friend in order to tion and accompaniment. strengthen and enrich the proposals.

The SL begins: what do we need and how nity and local agents. To do this, it is decided to do we organize ourselves?1 make a small video every Friday, explaining the weekly work done to be able to disseminate it in The project begins with the creation of working each WhatsApp group of the school. groups. From a sociogram, a self-esteem test and When the students have collected all the the centers of interest of the students themselves, information and analyzed the survey and the three heterogeneous groups are created. The first interviews, they share the results in a mural to one (Patineitors) focuses on investigating the make it public. space of the patio, in order to improve it and get A new classroom assembly allows organiz- a coeducational space. The second (Aventadors) ing the new tasks of each group: designing plans focuses its research on the educational environ- and models; contacting companies, the munici- ments and school furniture of the center. The pal architect and other schools; stablishing bud- third (Ampligrup) deals with the expansion of gets; rethink the educational use of school spac- the school, to be able to have more classrooms es; participation in educational contests for the without having to take space from the patio. collection of economic resources. These groups are organized through the Once a month, the roles are exchanged so distribution of roles (supervisor, coordinator, that all the students pass through all the respon- public relations, material manager and modera- sibilities, acquiring the same competences. tor), to have an individual responsibility, in addi- When the reform project of the school tion to signing a contract with the standards that takes shape, they investigate the way to make must be met by members of the group, and spec- their proposal reach the local and Autonomous ify the work plan that they follow in each session. Administration. They prepare the application, A brainstorm of ideas, contributions, present it in a plenary session of the City Council interests, tastes, etc. are collected from the people and deliver it to the Infrastructure Office of the who want to collaborate: students, teachers and Autonomous Government. families of the school. The following sessions are From the general project, it is decided in used to analyze and classify the received propos- the assembly to start making some changes in als and distribute them among the three groups. the courtyard that make visible the work done. A survey is also conducted in all CRA classrooms Use the Thursday workshops for the design and to gather information about the needs of each construction of games with recycled material class. An interview is held with the management for the playground (bicycle parking, solar clock team and with the teachers of the whole school with ball game, scales and musical instruments to know the status of the process of expansion of (music wall). the school (lands that are available and needs of the teachers to be able to distribute the spaces). The project mobilizes knowledge At the same time, an investigation is launched on which playground features are viable (slides, tun- When the course ends and the project ends, it is nels, ropes, sand court, etc.), through an Internet time to present it to the entire educational com- search, with reference to innovative and sustain- munity and show the Service: a whole proposal able schools from all over the world. for school reform, carried out by sixth grade students in collaboration with families, local agents, The development in open access experts and other schools. Taking into account that the SL links the One aspect taken into account from the begin- curriculum with the territory giving a service to ning is the documentation and communication the community, there is the need to disseminate of the project to the entire educational commu-

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the project at three levels: educational commu- with the SL, using concrete facts. The final reflec- nity, administration and territory. In a collaboration of this journey, made among the different tive project like this, dissemination goes beyond participating groups, raises the benefits of this informing about the results, it implies the mobi- methodology for the acquisition of significant lization of the knowledge generated in the pro- learning connected with its most immediate real- cess of learning and of inquiry in the form of ity. The three sectors participating in the process a Service. Thus, the project does not really end (teachers, students, families and research team) until such a return occurs, that appropriation by made a very positive assessment of the curricular the community, for which the students organize, practice, noting that this process of negotiating in coordination with the teachers and families, a the curriculum was a novelty and a challenge, Seminar of SL in which the working groups pre- given the scarce educational initiatives in this pare participatory dynamics. Interactively show regard. their work process and results, while the community gives their opinion and contributions 4. Discussion and conclusions to the work done. The dynamics are varied and include a timeline (with the TIKI-TOKI digital The case studied frames the problematization tool) to show the entire process that has led to and reflection of the curriculum practice of SL the realization of the SL project. Teachers decide in a broader process of improvement from the to publish this on the center’s website and spread IAP. Based on the results, in the process of shared it via WhatsApp. They also organize workshops negotiation of the demand and gestation of the that the members of the educational community project, several fundamental elements emerge to go through and that consist of: a staging with take into account: puppets, with live music, of the rocket trip that represents the work they have done in the proj- • The participatory dynamics themselves ect; a musical with familiar songs to which the relate the interests of the actors that ini- lyrics change; a theater play, in which one is the tially may be different but in the end are narrator and two are characters, to express how complementary. Thus, for example, the they have felt, the difficulties that have appeared teachers point out the need to continue and how they have overcome them and to col- deepening the democratic participation of lect proposals for the future; a scale model of the the educational community and the link school of expanded polystyrene, 1:28 scale and of the school with the territory; families pictogram figures made by the students, which demand a curricular work or more linked represent the spaces that the classrooms should to what they consider genuinely school; the have; a mapping workshop in which they present students start with the purpose of improv- the toys that have been created in the workshops ing the school, physical or infrastructure on the Thursdays and propose to the people that because the school is too small. It is an ele- they distribute them around the courtyard area; ment of inclusive research that is developed a tree of dreams that, dynamized by teachers, under participatory models working coop- shows what dreams the school has fulfilled up eratively to give voice to people who par- to now. ticipate in research (Parrilla et al., 2017). Finally, the students create a dynamic in • The strategies allow to put in relation which participants are asked to read some of the contents and interests gathered in the the objectives and curricular contents that were school curriculum with those of the own chosen in the planning session. Several students territory and baste from these wicks an explain how they have acquired these learnings educational proposal that guarantees qual-

ity learning for all (Rodríguez, 2017). One the curriculum. In this way bridges of of the main virtues of the experience is that understanding are built between all sectors of turning all of us into apprentices and of the educational community that bring teachers at the same time, into compan- us closer to the ideal of building a shared ions and fellow travelers of the other par- educational and school project. Nothing is ticipants. In this way, under the leadership closer to the model of democratic school to of teachers, it has been possible to invert which we aspire so much. the classic hierarchical relationship of the classroom to introduce egalitarian learning The shared analysis of the information relationships. The learning climate has had allows to plan the action in a communitarian much more to do with what are known as way and the emergent elements are: communities of practice (Wenger, 1999) than with the typical teacher-to-student • Citizen participation: the working sessions dyadic relationship. open to the participation of all sectors • Joint planning as a participation expe- of the educational community (students, rience. The negotiation of the curricu- families, teachers, neighborhood/territo- lum through participatory dynamics leads rial agents/local administration), favor the to a proposal for the development of a involvement of all groups and the delibera- curricular practice linked to the territory tive analysis of proposals and of its priori- through two work projects with the SL tization. methodology. Thus, the SL is configured • Democratization of decisions: through as a strategy that allows to generate E-A mixed discussion groups all the actors processes in which everyone participates involved have a voice in decision-making. (students, families, teachers) by relating the In the planning of the action (community curriculum to the territory and placing the planning of the SL in the class), the voice of students in the center of the action (Puig, the students who learn planning strategies 2009). Too many times we see the few and project their longings for improve- opportunities that students have to learn ment in a concrete and shared project, in one of the most important ingredients of relation to the center’s ideology (Aguado & genuinely human behavior: the planning Ballesteros, 2015). of our actions. Planning and evaluation are • Collaboration between school and terri- still two actions absent from the interactive tory: the educational proposal through SL classroom space and from the instruction allows to link the work of the school with that teachers provide to their students. its community. The improvement content These are two activities that, based on a of the school facilities responds to the productive vision of the teaching work, needs of the educational community and they perform outside the classroom, when positions it, socially and politically, in front the students are not present. And, as we of the local and regional administration. well known, planning is learned by plan- The dimension of the project encourages ning. Well, this experience offers a unique to make divergent and possible proposals opportunity to start working with students for the improvement of spaces and educa- planning and at the same time learning tional environments. to do it. In addition, the fact of opening • The mobilization of knowledge: the pro- participation to families has given a com- cess of appropriation of knowledge for its munity dimension to the negotiation of practical implementation (Naidorf, 2014)

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and the shared construction of knowledge Trainers in School Improvement Processes from has occurred throughout the process. Participatory Action Research”, funded by the In addition, throughout this process there Autonomous Government (AICO/2018/066) has been a voice that has been articulated with We want to thank all the members of greater force than ever: that of the students. In the educational community of the CRA of fact, most of the mediations with families pres- Benavites-Quart de les Valls for their collabora- ent in the experience have been made by boys tion and participation, as a fundamental part of and girls. Teaching, as we all know, is the great- this research and its final beneficiaries. est learning experience. And, in this sense, we believe that we have been able to place students (Endnotes) in a position to achieve their highest learning potential. Thus, these practices move towards 1. From this point, as a result and as an example, we describe only a true democratic participation of the students one of the two experiences due to space limitations. that is not reduced to a response to a specific curricular activity, but it encompasses a shared Bibliographical references intergenerational knowledge management process in spaces of deliberation and responsibility Aguado, T., & Ballesteros, B. (2015). Investigando la linked to the common good (Susinos, & Ceballos, escuela intercultural. Experiencias y resulta- 2012). All this places us in an educational experi- dos del grupo INTER. En A. Escarbajal (Ed.), ence that fosters all the participants a critical and Comunidades Interculturales y democráticas. active awareness of their own reality, in this case, Un trabajo colaborativo para una sociedad (pp. 99-112). Madrid: Narcea. something as important as the infrastructure of inclusiva Aguado, T., Ballesteros, B., & Malik, B. (2003). Cultural a public school. We enter that space that Freire Diversity and School Equity. A Model to called “awareness”, which contributes so much Evaluate and Develop Educational Practices to practice a transformative and emancipatory in Multicultural Education Contexts. Equity education. & Excellence in Education, 36(1), 50-63. Finally, it is necessary to recognize the https://doi.org/10.1080/10665680303500 leadership exercised by the teachers of the CRA. Ainscow, M., Hopkins, D., Soutworth, G., & West, M. A leadership that begins to be within the param- (2001). Hacia escuelas eficaces para todos. eters that in educational research we recognize Manual para la formación de equipos docen- as “distributed leadership” (Sales et al., 2016, tes. Madrid: Narcea. Spillane, 2005). A model of leadership that is Alcalde, A. et al. (2006). Transformando la escuela: central to the experiences of democratic schools comunidades de aprendizaje. Barcelona: Paidós. and models of social justice. Ander-Egg, E. (2012). Repensando la investigación- acción-participativa. Buenos Aires: Lumen- Supports and acknowledgments Humanitas. Dewey, J. (1995). Democracia y educación. Madrid: This study is part of the research projects: “The Morata. included school: planning and implementation Dezuanni, M., & Monroy-Hernández, A. (2012). of curricular educational practices linked to the Prosumidores interculturales: creación territory”, financed by the Ministry of Economy de medios digitales globales entre jóve- and Competitiveness and the European Regional nes. Comunicar, 38, 59-66. http://dx.doi. Development Fund (ERDER) (EDU2015 -68004- org/10.3916/C38-2012-02-06 R) and “Mobilization of Knowledge on Inclusive Echeita, G., & Ainscow, M. (2011). La educación Education: Roles and Strategies of Researchers/ inclusiva como derecho. Marco de referen- cia y pautas de acción para el desarrollo de

una revolución pendiente. Tejuelo, 12, 26-46. tigamos en educación inclusiva: cuatro pro- (https://goo.gl/wN4efU) (2019-31-01). yectos con un enfoque educativo y social. Echeita, G. (2006). Educación para la inclusión o edu- Revista Interuniversitaria de Formación del cación sin exclusiones. Madrid: Narcea. Profesorado, 89(31.2), 145-156. Echeita, G. (2008). Inclusión y exclusión educativa. (https://goo.gl/kMcrgm) (2019-31-01). “Voz y quebranto”. REICE-Revista Electrónica Pérez Galván, J.M., & Ochoa Cervantes, A. (2017). El Iberoamericana sobre Calidad, Eficacia y aprendizaje servicio (APS) como estrategia Cambio Educativo, 6(2), 9-18. (https://bit. para educar en ciudadanía. Alteridad, 12(2), ly/30qPoig) (2019-31-01). 175-187. Essomba, M.A. (2006). Liderar escuelas interculturales Proyecto Atlántida (2001). La convivencia y la disciplina e inclusivas. Equipos directivos y profesorado en los centros escolares. Proyecto de innovación ante la diversidad cultural y la inmigración. Atlántida. Educación y cultura democrática. Barcelona: Graó. Madrid: Federación de Enseñanza de CC.OO. Fedération Nationale Des Conseils Scolaires (https://goo.gl/sANJAh) (2019-31-01). Francophones (FNCSF) (2011). École com- Puig, J. M. (Ed.). (2009). Aprendizaje Servicio (ApS). munautaire citoyenne, un projet rassembleur Educación y compromiso cívico. Barcelona: par et pour la francophonie canadienne, octu- Graó. bre. (https://bit.ly/2VvLFMG) (2019-31-01). Rodríguez, E. (2017). La estandarización en el currí- Kincheloe, J. L., & Steinberg, S. R. (1999). Repensar el culum educativo. La punta del iceberg de la multiculturalismo. Barcelona: Octaedro. homogeneización. Alteridad, 12(2), 248-258. Levin, H. et al. (1993). Accelerated School for at-Risk Sales, A., Moliner, L., & Francisco, A. (2016) Students. New Brunswick, N.J: Center for Collaborative professional development for Policy Research in Education. distributed teacher leadership towards school Lozano, M., Traver, J.A., & Sales, A. (2016). La escue- change. School Leadership and Management, la en el barrio: cartografiando las necesi- 37(3), 254-266. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/13 dades de cambio socioeducativo. Aularia: 632434.2016.1209176 Revista Digital de Comunicación, 5(2), 13-20. Sales, A., Moliner, O., & Traver, J. A. (Eds.) (2010). La (https://bit.ly/2HFkGta). construcción de la escuela intercultural inclu- Moliner, O., Sales, A., & Traver, J.A. (2011). Trazando siva desde procesos de investigación-acción. procesos de cambio desde un modelo edu- Castelló: Publicacions de la Universitat cativo intercultural inclusivo. En O. Moliner Jaume I. (Ed.), Prácticas inclusivas: experiencias, Sales, A., Traver, J.A., & García, R. (2011). Action proyectos y redes (pp. 29-40). Castellón: research as a school based strategy in inter- Publicacions de la Universitat Jaume I, cultural professional development for tea- Moraes, M.C (2010). Transdisciplinariedad y educa- chers. Teaching and Teacher Education, 27(5), ción. Rizoma freireano, 6 911-919. (https://goo.gl/eo955V) (2019-31-01). Spillane, J. (2005). Distributed Leadership. Muñoz, G. (2011). La democracia y la participa- Educational Forum, 69(2), 143-150. ción en la escuela: ¿cuánto se ha avanza- https://doi.org/10.1080/00131720508984678 do desde las normativas para promover la Stoll, L., & Fink, D. (1999). Para cambiar nuestras participación escolar? Revista de estudios y escuelas. Reunir la eficacia y la mejora. experiencias en educación, 10(19), 107-129. Barcelona: Octaedro. (https://goo.gl/nWkGwW) (2019-31-01). Susinos, T., & Ceballos, N. (2012). La voz del alum- Naidorf, J. (2014). Knowledge Utility: from Social nado y la presencia participativa en la vida Relevance to Knowledge Mobilization. escolar. Apuntes para una cartografía de la Education Policy Analysis Archives, 22(89), 1-27. voz del alumnado en la mejora educativa. http://dx.doi.org/10.14507/epaa.v22n89.2014 Revista de Educación, 359, 24-44. Parrilla, A., Susinos, T., Gallego, C., & Martínez, B. (https://goo.gl/RnESV1) (2019-31-01). (2017). Revisando críticamente cómo inves-

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Traver, J. A., Sales, A., & Moliner, O. (2010). Ampliando ciencia y cambio en educación, 8(3), 96-119. el territorio: algunas claves sobre la partici- (https://bit.ly/2VNxyXQ). pación de la comunidad educativa. REICE Wenger, E. (1999). Communities of Practice: Learning, Revista Iberoamericana sobre calidad, efi- Meaning and Identity. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

206 © 2019, Universidad Politécnica Salesiana, Ecuador. july - december 2019 p-ISSN:1390-325X / e-ISSN:1390-8642 Vol. 14, No. 2,207-217 http://alteridad.ups.edu.ec https://doi.org/10.17163/alt.v14n2.2019.05 Universal Design of Learning and Inclusion in Basic Education

Diseño Universal del Aprendizaje e inclusión en la Educación Básica

Dra. Rosa M. Espada Chavarría is a professor and researcher at the Rey Juan Carlos University (Spain) ([email protected]) (https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8386-3298)

Dra. Miriam Bernarda Gallego Condoy is a teacher and researcher at the Salesian Polytechnic Universitya (Ecuador) ([email protected]) (https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4684-5984)

Dr. Rayco H. González-Montesino is a professor and researcher at the Rey Juan Carlos University (Spain) ([email protected]) (https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6830-3951)

Received: 2019-01-30 / Reviewed: 2019-04-23 / Accepted: 2019-05-16 / Published: 2019-07-01

Abstract ties for students with low hearing and vision. We Inclusive education is made concrete in the conclude with the need for teacher training in UDL classroom, taking into account the diversity of pupils, as a didactic alternative in the framework of inclusive which is the necessary step to ensure equal opportu- education by providing the same opportunities to all nities in access to the educational process. The objec- students regardless of their individual characteristics. tive of this paper is to know the methodologies and Keywords: Universal Design for Learning, inclu- didactic strategies used by basic education teachers sion, equal opportunities, accessibility, diversity, teaching and whether these are based on the Universal Design strategies. for Learning (UDL). The methodology is quantitative and descriptive in scope, using a Likert scale question- Resumen naire with 29 items. As a complement to the study, La educación inclusiva se concreta en las four qualitative open-ended questions are also carried aulas atendiendo a la diversidad del alumnado, lo que out. The final sample is 26 teachers, who work with supone el paso necesario para garantizar la igualdad children between 7 and 12 years old, from four educa- de oportunidades en el acceso al proceso educativo. tional establishments representing three of the natural El presente trabajo pretende conocer las metodologías regions of Ecuador. The main results reflect a limited y estrategias didácticas que utilizan los docentes de knowledge of the UDL and its principles, highlighting educación básica y si estas se basan en el diseño uni- that in public schools and in those where there is a versal para el aprendizaje (DUA). La metodología es higher percentage of students with disabilities, only de corte cuantitativo de alcance descriptivo, para el 29% of teachers know approximately what the UDL que se utilizó un cuestionario de escala tipo Likert de means. On the other hand, there are actions that affect 29 ítems. Como complemento al estudio se realizan, the formative process and the equality of opportuni- además, 4 preguntas abiertas de carácter cualitativo.

Suggested form of citing: Espada Chavarría, R. M., Gallego Condoy, M., & González-Montesino, R.H. (2019). Universal Design of Learning and Inclusion in Basic Education. Alteridad, 14(2), 207-217. https://doi.org/10.17163/alt.v14n2.2019.05 Dra. Rosa M. Espada Chavarría / Dra. Miriam Bernarda Gallego Condoy / Dr. Rayco H. González-Montesino

La muestra final es de 26 docentes, que trabajan con formativo y a la igualdad de oportunidades de estudi- niños entre 7 y 12 años, de cuatro establecimientos antes que presentan baja audición y visión. Concluimos educativos representando a tres de las regiones natu- con la necesidad de capacitación docente en DUA rales del Ecuador. Los resultados principales reflejan como alternativa didáctica en el marco de la educación un conocimiento limitado del DUA y sus principios, inclusiva al proporcionar las mismas oportunidades destacando que en las escuelas publicas y en aquellas a todo el estudiantado independientemente de sus que existe un porcentaje mas alto de estudiantes con características individuales. discapacidad, solo el 29% de los docentes conocen de Descriptores: Diseño Universal para el manera aproximada lo que significa el DUA. Por otro Aprendizaje, inclusión educativa, igualdad de oportuni- lado, se observan actuaciones que afectan al proceso dades, accesibilidad, diversidad, estrategias didácticas

2011). In inclusive education and in the applica- 1. Introduction and state tion of methodological strategies of the UDL, of the art the teacher plays an important role, since the inclusive approach implies the implementation Inclusive education is considered an effec- of resources and strategies that allow the educative means to educate everyone, regardless of tional community and, specifically, the teaching their individual or social differences or barriers staff, to successfully face the changes implied by (UNESCO, 2015). However, this requires strate- this new educational practice (Díez, & Sánchez, gies to carry out its principles of equal opportu- 2015). nities, attention and respect for diversity, acces- Therefore, it is important to know what sibility, among others (Blanco, & Duck, 2011). is the teachers’ understanding of the universal The universal design for learning (UDL) appears design for learning and what methodological as a response to the viability of the principles of strategies and didactics, identified with these inclusive education (Sánchez, Díez, & Martín, principles, apply in their educational practices. 2016), understanding it as a didactic strategy In the teaching practice, teachers perform a set that applies the universal principles of universal of activities, methods and techniques, as well design to the design of the curriculum, in such as using language, materials and symbols to a way that, learning can reach all students in an represent concepts and evaluation. Therefore, equitable manner, where the didactic materials it is important to know to what extent, teachers used through technological means, renew the attend to the diversity of students and how they use of rigid traditional materials, lacking creativ- guarantee equal opportunities in access, par- ity, little functional and creative; and, with this, ticipation and development of the curriculum attention is paid to the diversity of the students (Sánchez, Díez, & Martín, 2016). On the other and the different sensory, motor, cognitive, affec- hand, it is necessary to highlight the relevant role tive and linguistic abilities (Díez, & Sánchez, that the emotional aspect will play in the learn- 2015). ing process through strategies that use the UDL. In the Ecuadorian context, the Organic The emotional component is a crucial Law of Education and Interculturality (LOEI) in element in learning. It shows the differences; articles 11 and 12, states that: inclusive educa- therefore, it is important to know the ways of tion is the process of identifying and respond- addressing diversity from the emotional coming to the diversity of students’ needs through ponent, knowing how the teacher motivates stu- greater participation in the learning of cultures, dents to learn. The declaration of Salamanca, in of communities and of people who are excluded its commitment to achieve an education for all, from the educational system, in order to reduce states that access to school must be given to all exclusion in education (Ministry of Education,

children. The educational centers must welcome “ensure an inclusive and equitable quality educa- children with disabilities, with high capacities, at tion and promote learning opportunities for all risk of social exclusion, regardless of their eth- people throughout life” (UNESCO, 2015). nicity and/or culture (Espada, 2017). The UDL, which initially emerged related For this reason, our research focuses on to architecture, and later with the development regular education at the level of basic general of products and services, enters the educational education, since it is at the basic education levels field supported by technological tools, becoming where quality education must be guaranteed, defined today as a reference guide for education which will influence the practice of an inclusive for all. According to Rose and Mayer creators of culture. Ecuador is a pluricultural and multicul- the UDL, they used technology to identify three tural country. differentiated networks that intervene in learn- According to Article 1 of the current ing processes: “Recognition network (the ‘what’ Constitution, Ecuador is a plurinational and of learning), strategic network (the ‘how’ of multicultural country, as well as a diverse coun- learning), and the affective network (the involve- try, strengthened by the similarities of its people, ment in learning)” (Alba, 2015). This is how the with inhabitants from diverse ancestral roots UDL is based on four elements that are: neuro- such as: mestizos, indigenous people, montubios science, cognitive learning, information technol- and Afro-Ecuadorians. (Constituent Assembly, ogy (ICT) and education. 2008) On the other hand, between the Amazon, Regarding neuroscience, it is indicated Sierra and Costa, the country has 15 indig- that the child’s brain learns more when the stu- enous nationalities (Benítez, & Garcés, 2016). dent explains to his classmates about a particular Therefore, education in this context is nuanced topic and, he learns more, after performing a by the diversity of students from different groups physical activity. Thus, brain activity can be char- that are part of the nation, with ordinary schools acterized in terms of three brain networks that being the meeting point and key space that pro- participate in learning, these are: recognition motes an inclusive society and that avoids atti- networks, networks of strategies and affective tudes and situations of discrimination, creating, networks (Barrera, 2009). In recognition net- in addition, host communities that achieve an works, the child perceives and identifies infor- education for all. (UNESCO, 1994). mation from outside; it refers to the “what of It is therefore important to know how learning”. In strategy networks, the child plans, education for all is becoming reality, through executes tasks and expresses ideas in different the practice of universal learning design at the ways; refers to “how of learning.” In affective level of Basic Education. Thus, the objective of networks, the child is motivated and committed the research is to identify the type of knowledge to learning; it is the “why of learning”. (Barrera, on universal design for the learning of teach- 2009). ers of basic education and analyze the level of From these three networks of relation- application they make of it in their classrooms. ships emerge the three fundamental principles In this way we can assess educational practices of universal design for learning that are: mul- and detect the needs in teacher training to ensure tiple forms of representation, multiple forms of quality education, promoting educational inclu- action and expression, and of multiple forms of sion and universal design for learning. involvement; noting that the functioning of each The ignorance of this practice may be of these subnetworks is different in each person compromising education for all, as stated in (Alba, Sánchez, & Zubillaga, 2013). The principle the declaration of Inchon, which establishes the of multiple forms of representation focuses on objective of sustainable development for 2030 the different ways in which students perceive and

Alteridad. 14(2), 207-217 209 Dra. Rosa M. Espada Chavarría / Dra. Miriam Bernarda Gallego Condoy / Dr. Rayco H. González-Montesino

understand the provided information. Hence, questions related to the three UDL principles: the importance of facilitating a variety of options information representation, action and expres- related to auditory, visual or tactile information, sion, motivation and learning involvement. which supposes proportional multiple options The instrument is based on the contribu- for language and symbols (Alba, 2015), which tions of the CAST (2011) (Center for Applied facilitate understanding by activating the previ- Special Technology) research organization that ous knowledge that is stored in the individual, focuses its efforts on promoting, and expanding due to their past experiences (Ausubel, 2002). the universal design for learning, thus promoting The principle of multiple forms of action learning opportunities for all, and focusing on and expression is based on the different ways those people who have some type of disability. that students can develop in a learning environ- The 2013 version translated by Alba, Sánchez, & ment, since it is possible that some students have Zubillaga (2013) has been used. a greater ability for written expression than in The information is complemented with verbal expression and vice versa. In the same way, four open questions of qualitative character, there can be differences when executing tasks, oriented to the knowledge of the UDL, to the hence it is necessary to handle diverse options in meaning of education and inclusive culture, to the processes of expression and action. Regarding the teaching strategies used to favor educational the principle of multiple forms of involvement, inclusion together with the assessment of the he argues that the affective component activates need for teacher training in design of universal a brain network that intervenes in learning. strategies for learning. Therefore, we can consid- In this way, the affective part is established er the used methodology as a mixed type, since as a key element in the learning process, which it not only presents quantitative data when ques- means that each student has an important dif- tionnaires are used as a data collection instru- ference in the involvement or motivation to learn ment, but also incorporates elements of the or what to learn, as well as showing preference qualitative methodology by literally including for the type of collaboration in the execution the information of the participants, whether it is of activities, preferring in some cases individual spoken or written (Quecedo, & Castaño, 2003). work and in others collective work. This fact sup- The initial sample is of 28 teachers, seven poses that the fact of facilitating different ways of per educational center, being the criterion of participation is precise not only to enhance the inclusion that they are in charge of elemen- motivation and involvement, but also to allow an tary and middle school children, that is, teachers emotional balance. working with children aged between 7 and 12 years. Finally, 2 teachers from the semi-public 2. Materials and methods school did not respond, leaving the sample in 26 teachers (9 men and 17 women), with an age A type of descriptive research was carried out. ranging from 26 to 60 years. To select educa- Bearing in mind that questionnaires are research tional establishments, the following criteria have instruments that allow us to obtain system- been met: type of establishment regulated by atic and orderly information on a wide range of the Ministry of Education (public, semi-public, issues at the same time, we have used them to private or private and bilingual intercultural) gather as much information as possible about and the natural regions of Ecuador, identifying the indicators and questions proposed by the one of the Costa, two of the Sierra and one in the Universal Design for Learning. (UDL). For all Amazon region, not having been possible to have these reasons, a 29-item Likert scale question- a reference of the insular region. naire model was carried out that incorporates

In this way, we have a private center in the frequent or because they are considered more city of Quito, province of Pichincha (7 teachers); a relevant to understanding the UDL practice. As public establishment located in the La Concordia shown in chart 1, it is perceived that the pres- Canton 200km from the capital, with proximity ence of students with disabilities occurs more to the cities of Santo Domingo and Esmeraldas in the public establishments (Santo Domingo) (7 teachers); a semi-public establishment in the and semi-public (Loja) than in a private estab- Province of Loja located 860 km from the capi- lishment (Pichincha) or intercultural bilingual tal (border line between Ecuador and Peru) (5 (Sucumbíos). teachers); and a bilingual intercultural educa- However, according to the data shown in tional establishment located in the province of Chart 2, despite the fact that the LOEI estab- Sucumbíos, 300 km from the capital and 30 km lishes in its principles the right to education as a from the border with Colombia (7 teachers). The right for all, and the Ministry of Education from people surveyed are mostly women and the age different areas offers training spaces for educa- range ranges from 24 to 35 years, being particu- tional inclusion, campaigns for awareness and larly interesting the teachers of the semi-public demands that students with SN be welcomed institution of Loja that have an age range between and promoted in the discourse of inclusive 46 and 60 years. Regarding the educational level, education, it seems that in practice it is found 25 teachers have a third level degree and a teacher that teachers do not know what it means and with a fourth level degree. what the UDL is. In the public school and in those institutions where there is a percentage of 3. Analysis and results students with disabilities, only 29% know what the UDL means, highlighting that in most cases In light of the obtained results, we highlight the they are approximations to a real definition of it, observations that reveal the greatest contribution linking them to the helping, to a methodology or to their analysis, either because they are more relating it to learning difficulties.

Chart 1. Presence of students with disabilities in the classrooms

Students with disabilities in the classrooms Yes No Pichincha 29% 71% Sucumbíos 29% 71% Santo Domingo 100% Loja 60% 40%

Chart 2. Knowledge of Universal Design for Learning

Knowledge of UDL Yes No

Pichincha 14% 86%

Sucumbíos 100%

Santo Domingo 29% 71%

Loja 100%

In all cases, the faculty is aware of the goes unnoticed by students, with the Sucumbíos amount of information they transmit, but it institution indicating, at 43%, that unnoticed

Alteridad. 14(2), 207-217 211 Dra. Rosa M. Espada Chavarría / Dra. Miriam Bernarda Gallego Condoy / Dr. Rayco H. González-Montesino

information can reach 60% -70% of the total of usually in 57%, not finding situations in which what they transmit. the answer is “never”. This is not the case when we refer to item 4. Representation principle 6 that responds to whether alternatives for visual information are provided, for example, voice Regarding item 5 of the questionnaire, does it text descriptions in images. As shown in Chart offer alternatives for auditory information? for 3, 60% of the teachers in the semi-public school example, subtitles in presentations, use of graph- indicate that they always use such alternatives. ic diagrams. The semi-public school of Loja On the one hand, 29% of the teachers of the stands out, indicating 40% that it always consid- intercultural bilingual school indicate that they ers these alternatives. Meanwhile, the teachers of always use them, and 14% of the teachers of the the intercultural bilingual school say they use it same institution never use these strategic options to provide the information through alternative visual formats.

Chart 3. Alternatives for visual information

Visual alternatives Pichincha Loja Santo Domingo Sucumbíos

Always 43% 60% 29% 29%

Usually 43% 40% 43% 43%

Sometimes 14% 29% 14%

Never 14%

The data with greater evidence for item 7, time, it is striking that a considered percentage which asks whether the teacher provides written of teachers from all educational institutions transcriptions of videos or sound documents, for indicates that they never consider the Written example, lyrics, character interventions..., are in transcriptions of videos and sound documents the teachers of Sucumbíos. Chart 4 shows that that are mainly directed to students who have only 28% of these teachers say that they always low hearing or vision. or usually use these strategies and, at the same

Chart 4. Written transcriptions of videos or sound documents

Written transcriptions Pichincha Loja Santo Domingo Sucumbíos Always 40% 14% 14% Usually 43% 29% 14% Sometimes 43% 40% 43% 57% Never 14% 20% 14% 14%

For item 10, Do you present the key con- who always use these strategies are those linked cepts in alternative forms to text ?, for example, to the semi-public education of Loja, identified through images, movement, photography, physi- with 60%, then the teachers of the private and cal or manipulatable material... and as shown intercultural bilingual school (Sucumbíos), and in chart 5, the highest percentage of teachers the private school of Pichincha, both with 43%.

Chart 5. Presentation of the key concepts in an alternative to the text

Alternative presentation to the text Pichincha Loja Santo Domingo Sucumbíos Always 29% 60% 14% 29% Usually 43% 20% 14% 43% Sometimes 29% 20% 71% 29% Never

always use these strategies, being of greater use 5. Action and expression principle in the semi-public institution, while a percentage As can be seen in Chart 6, the results of item between 14% and 43% say they never use them. 13: Do you use technological assistance tools?, It is the public institution that has the highest for example, touch screens, accessible software, percentage in the non-use of these assistance keyboard commands for the mouse, joysticks..., strategies. This data is revealing, given that it is between 14% and 20% of the teachers say they in the public schools where the greatest number of students with some type of disability is found.

Chart 6. Use of assistive technologies tools

Alternative presentation to the text Pichincha Loja Santo Domingo Sucumbíos Always 14% 20% 14% 14% Usually 14% 20% 14% Sometimes 43% 60% 43% 57% Never 29% 43% 14%

with 43%, followed by teachers of the semi- 6. Multiple means of public institution represented with 40%. The involvement private and public educational intuitions, mark the option never by 14%. Regarding item 20, does the development of Finally, item 29 raises the question: Do contents consider the interest of students accord- you favor the recognition of students’ own prog- ing to diversity? For example, cultures, ethnic ress? it is observed how the teachers of the semi- groups, disability status..., the results obtained public school indicate the option always with reflect that the semi-public institution teachers 80% of answers, followed by the teachers of the state that 60% always consider it. Then there is private and intercultural bilingual school with the intercultural bilingual institution, in which the option usually, represented 57%. It is impor- 57% of teachers indicate the option usually, tant to point out that no teacher ever marked the compared to 14% of the public school that states option never, which makes it possible to under- that they never to do it. So there is a significant stand that in all institutions there is a practice percentage of teachers who do not recognize the of encouraging the recognition of one’s own interest of each student and, therefore, does not progress, ensuring that the student is aware of his personalize the teaching. or her own learning process. However, it is wor- In response to item 26 Do you organize risome that this is not a 100% standard practice communities or learning groups focused on the in all centers. interests or common activities of the students? as Regarding the open questions, regard- can be seen from the analyzed data, the bilingual ing the question: what do you understand by intercultural school marks the option always inclusive education? the teachers of the public

Alteridad. 14(2), 207-217 213 Dra. Rosa M. Espada Chavarría / Dra. Miriam Bernarda Gallego Condoy / Dr. Rayco H. González-Montesino

school (Santo Domingo) reflect in their defini- ments in all educational institutions. This fact tion aspects related to the access to education, may suppose that it is affecting both the training the diversity in the capacities, in modifications process and the equal opportunities of students of the methodology, along with equal opportu- who have low hearing or vision. According to nities. On the other hand, the bilingual intercul- Alba (2015), transcriptions provide options that tural school (Sucumbíos) emphasizes learning help reduce barriers or difficulties related to the together, continuous training and equal oppor- decoding of unfamiliar symbols. In this way, it is tunities. Teachers of the semi-public school considered necessary to encourage the use of text (Loja), are more inclined towards classes that alternatives that allow the student to understand welcome diversity, inclusion in the environment, complex meanings. However, it is important to methodological changes and help. Finally, in the emphasize that regarding the presentation of private school (Quito), they refer to the right to key concepts in an alternative way to the text education, the multitude of diversity and meth- (as it can be through the use of images, videos, odological changes. With regard to successful photographs), it is taken into account by the activities to favor inclusion, awareness-raising teaching staff. This may be due to the fact that activities using games and stories stand out in being key concepts, they are presented in specific practically all cases. And finally, everyone agrees moments in the classroom and do not require a on the need for training in UDL. large investment of time for their preparation. Having a collaborative work with the whole 7. Discussion and conclusions faculty, aimed at planning content based on universal design for learning would reduce the time In accordance with the objectives set out at the spent in the design of materials and, therefore, beginning of our research, it has become evi- encourage and allow greater understanding of dent that there is limited knowledge about the the contents. UDL, and, therefore, about the application of the On the other hand, this type of teacher methodological strategies related to it. However, coordination would in fact mean developing the the results also provide information on the use creative capacity of the teaching staff since they of teaching strategies used by teachers from dif- would jointly develop materials and/or strate- ferent geographical areas that invite reflection gies to be able to reach all the students with the on the process of implementation of inclusive information, taking into account the individual education and the different attitudes or percep- differences and the different types of intelli- tions about the types of diversity. In view of the gences existing in the classroom. Regarding the data obtained for each of the principles of uni- principle of action and expression, the scarcity versal design for learning, the absence of alterna- of technological assistance tools such as wheel- tives to visual information is worrisome, since chairs, prostheses, communicators and telecom- this aspect reflects that a high number of stu- munications services stands out (Sánchez, 2018). dents does not have adequate accessibility to the In this regard, it can be shown that the institu- information, mainly affecting students with low tion that does not reveal any percentage in the vision. As Alba (2015) states, “to overcome this use of these assistance strategies is the public barrier, information must be provided through school. It should be remembered that the public other alternative, non-visual formats” (Alba, school obtained a higher percentage in terms of Sánchez, & Zubillaga, 2013). the presence of students with disabilities. It is On the other hand, it makes us think about worrisome that the centers that count in their the high percentage of teachers who do not use classrooms with a greater number of students written transcriptions of videos or sound docu- with disabilities are those that do not use assis-

tive technologies, even though these are consid- teacher marked the option “never”, which allows ered as a fundamental pillar to generate inclusive to understand that in all the institutions there learning communities. This may be because is the practice of promoting the recognition of assistive technology requires funding that may be one’s own progress, ensuring that the student is too much of the school. aware of his or her own learning process. Regarding the means of involvement, we However, it is worrisome that this is not a must consider that, although in general, if taken standard 100% practice in all centers. Through into account the fact that there is a high percent- feedback the student has more information, and, age of teachers that considers the interests of therefore, it allows him to approach the ideal sit- students, it must be an aspect to improve, since uation to which he must arrive. In other words, most of the time these interests are linked to it aims to eliminate the distance between current their cultural and social identity, which helps to performance and the desired one (Ramaprasad, make education more personalized by providing 1983, Roos, 2004). So, it can be affirmed, in meaningful learning to the student. This learning relation to our objective, that there is very lim- is called “meaningful learning” and occurs when ited knowledge about the UDL, and, therefore, a new information is connected with a relevant the application of the methodological strategies concept, preexistent in the cognitive structure related to its principles is even more scarce. (Chrobak, 2017). Regarding the objective of knowing if there On the other hand, the UDL proposes the is a relationship between geographic location and realization of common activities through the educational inclusion and the knowledge and use creation of learning communities, which must of UDL, it is clear that teachers who are farther be made of common interests. In this regard, the away from cities have fewer opportunities to gen- intercultural bilingual school, followed by the erate an education process of equal opportunities teachers of the semi-public institution, present guaranteeing a quality education as proclaimed by the most continuous actions. The fact that the the UDL. However, it is necessary to point out that, private and public educational intuitions mark with respect to indicators related to the principle the option “never”, can be attributed to the fact of multiple means of involvement, more linked that, in the big city, “contradictorily”, there is easy to motivational and emotional aspects, border communication and when dealing with children, institutions with other countries and/or those that community learning in not common, as it is enjoy an accentuated and rooted cultural identity, more viable in small populations. The interest it seems that they have more internalized function- that teachers of the bilingual intercultural school ing systems linked to the community and its rela- provide for forming learning communities may tionship with it, perceiving similarities with active be due to the cultural factor, but at the same didactic methodologies such as cooperative learn- time it is striking that the result has not been ing, which presents unbeatable characteristics for 100% considering that the teachers are native the promotion of educational inclusion. Therefore, professionals of the area. This principle reflects we can think that not all traditional methodologi- a historical cultural conception of development, cal strategies slow down the process of educational which shows that knowledge is not constructed inclusion. Such is the case of those that come from individually, but is built between people as they ancestral thoughts that take into account survival interact (Duque, & Packer, 2014). Another of as an ethnic group or linguistic group, such as the interests of the UDL is to promote the rec- the practice of narrations used by teachers in the ognition of the own progresses in the students bilingual intercultural school and the formative to improve the educational quality and, in this meetings around the “drinking of guayusa.” respect, it is transcendent to point out that no

Alteridad. 14(2), 207-217 215 Dra. Rosa M. Espada Chavarría / Dra. Miriam Bernarda Gallego Condoy / Dr. Rayco H. González-Montesino

In this way, we agree with Martínez (2014), of teachers in general and of basic education in when referring to the construction of learning particular. Attention to diversity is one of the from the analysis of the lived experiences and requirements that current legislation applies to that are, therefore, familiar the concepts and educational institutions; therefore, “the need to ideas raised, since they will allow them to reach train teachers in the application of the paradigm the resolution of future problems. In any case, of universal design for learning and its advan- diversity is diverse in itself and facing this real- tages in providing the same opportunities for all ity, accepting and respecting other situations students, regardless of their individual character- of diversity, beyond one’s own, is essential to istics, is undoubtedly a way to improve attention achieve real inclusion. to diversity” (Diez & Sánchez, 2015). Hence, many students experience diffi- Given this, it can be said that whoever culties in not taking into account the diversity has access to communication acquires the infor- of teaching and learning processes (Booth, & mation and, therefore, accesses knowledge. If Ainscow, 2015). In certain situations, cultural or teachers do not have access to information, ethnic diversity is addressed, but other situations educational processes with a view to providing such as diversity in the functioning of people are education in equal opportunities become slower not taken into account, and this can only mean than in spaces where there is more information their exclusion. The different social groups, eth- and the media favor it. nic groups and cultures have different norms, After the expedition in 2008 of the new values, beliefs and behaviors, which are not gen- Constitution of the Republic, it was established erally part of the school culture, which may limit that “education is a right of people throughout their possibilities of learning and participation, their life and an inescapable and inexcusable or lead to exclusion and discrimination (Echeita, duty of the State. It constitutes a priority area of 2018). public policy and state investment, a guarantee In light of the results analyzed together of equality and social inclusion and an indis- with the teachers’ own demands, we can con- pensable condition for good living” (Article 26). clude with the need to continue providing train- In addition, article 27 of the same regulations ing to teachers related to the quality of educa- establishes that education must be “participato- tion, educational inclusion and equal opportu- ry, mandatory, intercultural, democratic, inclu- nities, since the actions carried out so far do not sive and diverse, of quality and warmth”; that is, seem to be enough. Therefore, teacher training in that all people must be included in the education relation to attention to diversity and educational system (Ministry of Education, 2012). inclusion and the UDL becomes an urgent need At the end of the research, it can be said to provide teachers with tools and not only to that the UDL is placed as a didactic alternative think of education as a right for all, but to prac- within the framework of inclusive education. It tice such an approach, for there is nothing more responds to the need to break with the homog- dynamic and challenging for the teacher than enizing approach of traditional education, which the integral development of all children. In any considers that all students learn in the same way case, we consider necessary the participation of and that the teacher role is to organize and pre- the universities in the training in these areas of pare the materials with the same format for all, knowledge, both in the basic training of teach- encouraging exclusion rather than inclusion. In ers and in specialized training such as master any case, this study describes to us and approach- degrees, along with the review, expansion and es a reality, but in order to have more evidence of creation of plans and/or projects that incentiv- the situation it would be necessary to carry out ize the public policies of Ecuador in the training a national study, which will have a larger sample

population, because, although relevant, this fact Duque, M., & Packer, M. (2014). Pensamiento y len- it is a limitation to generalize or make absolute guaje. El proyecto de Vygotsky para resolver affirmations. la crisis de la piscología. Tesis Piscología, 9(2), 30-57. (https://bit.ly/2WrgJ1F) (2019/01/20). Echeita, G. (2018). Educación para la inclusión o edu- Bibliographical references cación sin exclusiones. Madrid: Narcea. Espada, R. (2017). Bases psicopedagógicas y detec- Alba, C. (2015). Aportaciones del Diseño Universal ción de necesidades educativas especiales. En para el Aprendizaje y de los materiales digi- Máster en Atención a Necesidades Educativas tales para el logro de una enseñanza acce- Especiales para Niveles de Educación Infantil sible. En J. Navarro, M. Fernández, F. Soto y Primaria. Universidad Rey Juan Carlos. & F. Tortosa, (Ed.), Respuestas flexibles en (https://bit.ly/2MJGqpX) (2018/12/21). , 1º ed. Murcia: contextos educativos diversos Martínez, J. (2014). El sueño oriental. O la dificultad de Región de Murcia Consejería de Educación la incorporación del territorio amazónico al (https://bit.ly/2ccLNvf) (2019//01/23). estado nacional en Ecuador. Antropología, (14), Alba, C., Sánchez, P., & Zubillaga, A. (2013). Pautas 37-64. (https://bit.ly/2DGwqup) (2019/01/10) . sobre el Diseño Universal de Aprendizaje Ministerio de Educación (2011). Ley Orgánica de 2.0 (versión traducida al español). Madrid. Educación Intercultural. Quito: Ministerio de (https://bit.ly/2Wnczbf) (2019/01/22) Educación. Asamblea Constituyente (2008). Constitución de la Quecedo, R., & Castaño, C. (2003). Introducción a Quito. República del Ecuador. la metodología de investigación cualitativa. Ausubel, D. P. (2002). Adquisición y retención del Revista de Psicodidáctica, 14, 5-40. . conocimiento. Una perspectiva cognitiva Ramaprasad, A. (1983). On the definition of fee- Barcelona: Ed. Paidós. dback. Behavioral Science, 28, 4-13. Barrera, L. (2009). Neurociencias y su impor- (https://bit.ly/2IYqnFI) (2019/01/10). tancia en contextos de aprendizaje. Roos, B. (2004). Learning and Assessment in the Revista Digital Universitaria, 10(4), 1-18. Knowledge Society. Umea: Universidad de (https://bit.ly/2I54T60) (2019/01/25). Umea, en EDEN 2004 Annual Conference, Benítez, L., & Garcés, A. (2016). Culturas ayer y hoy. New challenges and Partnerships in an enlar- Quito: Abya-Yala. ged European Union: Open, Distance and Blanco, R., & Duck, C. (2011). Educación Inclusiva en e-Learning in Support of Modernisation, América Latina y el Caribe. (17), 37-55. Aula, Capacity Building and Regional Development, (https://bit.ly/2B9d) (2019/01/29). 16-19 June, University of Technology and Booth, T., & Ainscow, M. (2015). Guía para la edu- Economics, Budapest, Hungary. cación inclusiva. Madrid. Sánchez, R. (2018). La inclusión de las TIC en la (https://bit.ly/2EhiLu4) (2019/01/28/) educación de las personas con discapacidad. CAST (2011). Universal Design for Learning Quito: Abya-Yala. Guidelines versión 2.0. Wakefield, MA: Sánchez, S., Díez, E., & Martín, R. (2016). El Diseño Author. Traducción al español versión 2.0. Universal para atender a la diversidad en la (2013). (https://bit.ly/2IaxAP6) (2019/01/27). educación. Contextos Educativos, 9, 121-131. Chrobak, R. (2017). El aprendizaje significativo para https://doi.org/10.18172/con.2752 fomentar el pensamiento crítico. Archivos UNESCO (1994). Declaración de Salamanca. (12), 1-12. de ciencia de la Educación, 11 Salamanca: UNESCO. (https://bit. https://doi.org/10.24215/23468866e031 ly/1wiQz1c) (2019/01/15). Díez, E., & Sánchez, S. (2015). Diseño Universal UNESCO (2015). Declaración de Incheon y Marco para el aprendizaje como metodología de Acción para la realización del Objetivo de docente para atender a la diversidad en Desarrollo Sostenible 4. Francia: UNESCO. la universidad. , (43), 87-93. Aula Abierta (https://bit.ly/2ejZBWa) (2019/01/15). (https://bit.ly/2HD8w7n) (2019/01/29).

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july-december 2019 Vol. 14, No. 2

Miscellaneous Section (Sección Miscelánea)

El niño de oro Technique: charcoal july - december 2019 p-ISSN:1390-325X / e-ISSN:1390-8642 Vol. 14, No. 2, 220-230 http://alteridad.ups.edu.ec https://doi.org/10.17163/alt.v14n2.2019.06 Advertising and media competence for environmental education in primary school students

Publicidad y competencia mediática para la educación ambiental en alumnos de primaria

Mario Megías-Delgado is a Research Technician at the University of Huelva (Spain) ([email protected]) (https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2035-1479)

Patricia De-Casas-Moreno is an Associate Professor at the Antonio de Nebrija University (Spain) ([email protected]) (https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1205-8106)

Gema Paramio-Pérez is Assistant Professor Doctor of the University of Cádiz (Spain) ([email protected]) (https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3359-1981)

Received: 2019-01-21 / Reviewed: 2019-04-28 / Accepted: 2019-05-17 / Published: 2019-07-01

Abstract conclusions show that in spite of linking environmental The media and, above all, advertising play a very problems with the spots viewed there is a discontinuity in important role in the formation of society, especially in the family and school contexts, even with the help of the the youth sector. In this sense, we must reinforce the mediator, emphasizing the need to reinforce the compe- pedagogical models in the classroom to get critical citi- tencies in the formation and knowledge of students. zens. On the other hand, the environment, in recent years, Keywords: Environmental education, advertis- has become one of the most popular topics of study. ing, educommunication, persuasion, minors, qualitative Therefore, this research aims to shed light on the use of analysis. advertising for the teaching of environmental education in the context of Primary Education. For this, qualita- Resumen tive research has been carried out through participant Los medios de comunicación y, sobre todo, observation and focus groups. The sample consists of five la publicidad juegan un papel muy importante en la advertising spots related to environmental issues and 75 formación de la sociedad, especialmente, en el sector students of the Huerto-Alegre school farm in Granada, más joven. En este sentido, hay que reforzar los mod- trying to clarify the level of knowledge that these students elos pedagógicos en el aula para conseguir ciudadanos have about the object of study. The main results and críticos. Por otro lado, el medio ambiente, en los últi-

Suggested form of citing: Megías-Delgado, M., De-Casas-Moreno, P., & Paramio-Pérez, G. (2019). Advertising and media competence for environmental education in primary school students. Alteridad, 14(2), 220-230. https://doi.org/10.17163/alt.v14n2.2019.06 Advertising and media competence for environmental education in primary school students

mos tiempos, se ha convertido en uno de los temas sobre el objeto de estudio. Los principales resultados más populares de estudio. Por lo tanto, la presente y conclusiones demuestran que a pesar de vincular investigación pretende arrojar luz sobre el uso de la problemas medio ambientales con los spots visionados publicidad para la enseñanza de la educación ambiental existe una discontinuidad en los contextos familiar y en el contexto de la Educación Primaria. Para ello, se ha escolar, incluso con ayuda del mediador, incidiendo en la llevado a cabo una investigación cualitativa a través de necesidad de reforzar las competencias en la formación la observación participante y grupos focales. La muestra y conocimiento del alumnado. compuesta por cinco spots publicitarios relacionados Descriptores: Educación ambiental, publi- con temas medioambientales y 75 alumnos de la granja cidad, educomunicación, persuasión, menores, análisis escuela Huerto-Alegre de Granada, trata de esclarecer cualitativo. el nivel de conocimiento que poseen estos estudiantes

We must emphasize the impact of this 1. Introduction and state type of topic, especially in educational terms. of the art In this way, it is necessary to refer to the postulates of the international document “Earth The media have emerged as an essential persua- Charter” on the scope and reach of the media. sive instrument for social transformation. In this In article 13.a., the need of society to receive same line, the power of informative messages, information on environmental matters, as well as manipulation and oversaturation of informa- development plans, is pointed out. On the other tion is causing new phenomena that should be hand, article 14.c. highlights the importance studied as priority elements and with the great- of reinforcing the role of mass media as social est rigor possible. At this point, advertising plays mediators on current ecological challenges. In an influential role in the daily routine of peo- conclusion, it is important to educomunicatively ple, who spend much of their time consuming empower minors in order to develop a correct increasingly personalized information provided critical attitude towards the media. In this way, by advertising brands, a fact that encourages the one can check and work the different educational consumption of specific products. possibilities of the existing ads linked to the EE. On the other hand, the popularity of media topics such as climate change and the rise of environmental advertising is becoming 2. Perspectives of Environmental increasingly hot. There are many challenges fac- Education (EE) ing environmental education (EE). Among them, the implementation of an educational system Concern about the environment is a growing that considers this subject as a priority subject trend. In this sense, multiple authors highlight and not as an objective inferred from other spe- those problems that differentiate the physical- cific subjects such as Nature Sciences or Social environmental aspects (climate change, desert- Sciences. In this line, one of the fierce obstacles ification and deforestation, soil erosion, the with which EE finds in schools is the difficulty of increase of carbon dioxide, changes in the water introducing educational programs, which pro- cycle, air pollution, etc.), of socio-environmental mote student awareness and the identification of issues such as overpopulation, poverty of the teaching content with their daily environment. Third World, the economy and the environ- The present exploratory study, aims to analyze ment, the problem of energy, etc. (Morales- environmental advertising and media compe- Hernández, Caurín-Alonso, & Souto-González, tence, as an effective tool to reduce the disconti- 2015, Castillo-González, 2018). nuity between the family and the school.

Alteridad. 14(2), 220-230 221 Mario Megías-Delgado / Patricia De-Casas-Moreno / Gema Paramio-Pérez

The concept of environment covers different alternatives to solve these problems. unimaginable limits, since it has an external Therefore, facing this outlook, environmental dimension to the subject itself and in the same educators and teachers play an essential role way, it comprises everything that surrounds since they are the ones who should help the it: biotic and abiotic factors (air, water, ani- multiple subjects to analyze the information, mals, human beings, soil, etc.), artificial ele- make good judgments and motivate them to ments (technological devices, chemical prod- participate actively in society. Likewise, they ucts, cities, etc.) or socio-cultural elements (lan- must develop and implement pedagogical pro- guage, habits, traditions, values, etc.) and the grams to work on skills and convert information human being’s relationships with these elements into meaningful practice (Flor, 2005, Torres- (Giordan, & Souchon, 1999). Therefore, the Rivera, Messina-Calderón, Salamanca-Salazar, & concept can be understood as “a whole where Sepúlveda-Sepúlveda, 2016, Páramo, 2017). everything natural and human interrelates and interacts” (Jiménez, Yebra, & Guerrero, 2015). 3. The school and EE. Critical As a result of these assessments, it is necessary to establish and understand the theoretical bases of thinking and media education Environmental Education (EE). Since the UNESCO proposals in 1977 on EE In this sense, at the International Congress in schools through the progressive reform of of Education and Training on the Environment study programs, there have been many diffi- of Moscow, held in 1987, this concept was culties. The treatment of information is only defined for the first time. done from a long maturation process and from a fragmentary perspective that has little to do Permanent process in which individuals and communities become aware of their environ- with the environment of the students and that ment and learn the knowledge, values, skills, contrasts two types of culture: the superficial experience and also the determination that (disclosed by the media) and the school (within enables them to act, individually and col- disciplinary programs without any relation to lectively, in the resolution of environmental reality (Department of Science, Technical and problems present and futures. (UNESCO- Environmental Education, 1997). UNEP, 1987, p.3) According to Sánchez and Sandoval (2012), the school must promote media education in It should be noted that Environmental formal and informal contexts. In this sense, it Education develops pro-environmental attitudes is necessary to include families in working on to current environmental problems and chal- advertising messages and their communication lenges (Marcote, & Suárez, 2005, Castillo, 2010). dynamics. This element is fundamental to reduce According to Beck (2004) an effective EE will the dissonance in the teaching-learning processes be the result of redirecting all the environmen- and to enable the students to discern the audio- tal degradations (greenhouse effect, acid rain, visual contents, thus obtaining an autonomous destruction of the ozone layer, use of pesti- student body with their own criteria. cides, radiation, loss of virgin land, soil erosion, According to Novo (2010), the basic prin- demand for air and water and the production ciples of EE can be divided into two levels. On and management of waste, among others) in all the one hand, the ethical level, where the posi- their dimensions and interrelations. However, tions of man in relation to the environment will it is necessary to understand that not all social be reviewed. At this point, Stapp (1978) points groups perceive environmental problems in the out that effective ways should be established as a same way, so we have to look for and propose means of approaching the nodal axes of environ-

mental behavior. There must be a link between environmental problems that challenge us and what is done (practice) and what we feel doing considering emotions as the central axis of it (affection). In this way, values are inculcated Environmental Education, highlighting the need, and assimilated, which will modify the student’s by individuals, to own their own value system relationship with the environment. On the other (Pérez, & Rojas, 2016). hand, it is necessary to attend to the conceptual level, where the global concept model of 4. Media, advertising and EE the environment is studied and the natural and socio-cultural aspects are interrelated. Likewise, According to Aznar-Minguet and Ull-Solis the relationships and social implications of ener- (2009) the new citizen needs a comprehensive gy concepts and their possible uses for the devel- education to be competent. The concept of com- opment of a better quality of life are considered. petence is known as the set of knowledge, skills, Therefore, it is necessary to highlight the abilities and attitudes required in each one of the complexity presented by reality, supported by personal circumstances (Geli et al., 2004, Orden- the EE, since it is necessary to involve multiple Hoz, 2011, Scolari, 2018). In this way, the forma- components for it to be effective. Likewise, emo- tion of these subjects committed to the environ- tions will play a very important role in their ment, requires a variation in interpretive models growth, allowing the prediction of attitudes based on the relationship between the human towards the environment and how to work with being, the natural environment and the socio- it (Pooley, & O’Connor, 2000; Collado-Ruano, cultural environment. 2016). For this reason, it is necessary to present Undoubtedly, in the face of the popu- the innate characteristics of the object of study in larity of environmental issues, the influence order to make a better contextualization on the of the media, as well as the oversaturation subject: practicality, education promotes values of messages, have alarmingly proliferated. This and positive behaviors towards the environment; explosion of information dates from the mid- morality, it is a permanent process in which 70s in the United States, subsequently installed society is aware of the studied scenario; cognitive in the European continent. In Spain it can be globality, clarifies and harmonizes the concerns highlighted that, in the year 2000, there were and values (ethical, aesthetic or economic) of already a total of 200 professionals specializing each of the individuals and societies in relation in environmental information, appearing on to their perception of the environment; utility, the same date the Association of Journalists seeks the practical resolution of problems that of Environmental Information (APIA). In this affect the environment and the human being; sense, although the prevailing role of this type constant actualization, the EE needs to be in of news in the media has already been exposed, constant readjustment in face of the multiple it is important to emphasize studies related to existing environmental problems; and humaniz- advertising as an object of study. The first studies ing, human rights and universal values, applying carried out in Spain relating advertising and the these principles will achieve peace on Earth, as environment were carried out by the Globalízate well as the implementation of harmony with the Association in 2005. These studies analyzed the physical-natural environment (NAAEE, 2000, offer and presentation of environmental issues Riera, Sansevero, & Lúquez, 2017). through advertising spots such as car spots, air In short, we must pay attention to the pollution and energy savings, among others. In knowledge that is being developed in envi- order to study this type of spots, the Association ronmental matters, establishing a process of indicated a series of criteria to be able to ade- permanent learning, facing society with the quately evaluate the messages. On the one hand,

Alteridad. 14(2), 220-230 223 Mario Megías-Delgado / Patricia De-Casas-Moreno / Gema Paramio-Pérez

positive, the receiver is informed about the emis- However, there is environmental content in the sion that occurs, the types and quantities that commercial programming of television, which is are generated, among other important aspects cultivating attitudes of an environmental nature. about pollution. On the other hand, indifferent, In short, environmental advertising some content is reported through the fine print. requires specific needs related to the establish- Finally, negative, in this type of content there is ment of a critical literacy on the subject, help a promotion of harmful attitudes towards the the citizen to know and preserve natural values, preservation of the environment (Camana, & as well as the need to know the mechanisms of Almeida, 2017, Mendoza, 2018). action when facing advertising (Saber, 2017). According to Díez (1998), “if advertising is analyzed, it is shown that it is directed, in most 5. Materials and methods cases, more to our emotions than to provide us with information”. The use of this strategy The development of environmental competence is key in advertising since both the memory of envisages multiple teaching-learning approaches the brand and the message that is transmitted and methodologies. The possibility of using is associated, remembered and better identi- advertising as a tool for learning and support- fied through emotional attachments (Baraybar- ing environmental education may represent the Fernández et al., 2017). possibility of unifying the current discontinuity Therefore, faced with this presented con- produced between the student’s environment text, it is necessary to work and reinforce media and school education. literacy, as well as the development of a correct The objective of this research is to shed critical attitude. This takes an essential role since light on the use of this tool for the teaching envi- 2008 due to the intervention of the European ronmental education in the context of Primary Parliament, defining it as the aptitude to under- Education. The media competences of the stu- stand and evaluate the multiple characteristics of dents will be analyzed while facing environmen- the media (Sánchez, & Sandoval, 2012; López, & tal advertising and their perception on the link Aguaded, 2015). with the environment. To this end, an environ- According to Ruiz and Conde (2002), mental educator specializing in communication advertising should not be the mirror of an irre- participated, acting as a mediator between the sponsible reality with our environment being superficial information presented and the edu- collected through regulatory laws, which are still cational contents. not carried out. The presented study has been developed Currently, the media landscape in environ- with qualitative methodology, to make a deep mental issues is discouraging, as there is a lack of analysis of the subjective perception of the sam- professionalism in the sector and also a lack ple regarding the object of study. The tech- of interest on the part of advertisers (Delmas, niques used for the development of this article & Cuerel-Burbano, 2011). Raising awareness were: observation for the first phase, and focus among the population in order to reduce the group and semi-structured interviews (under current environmental deterioration should be the informed consent of the legal tutors), for the central axis of environmental advertising. the second phase, prior to the analysis of the However, it is still a utopia, since what is gen- information. erated is scarce, marginalized, politicized and The research has been divided into three with catastrophic tints. Given this, it is palpable phases: selection of advertising spots, prepara- that environmental issues are always left out of tion of the interview script and start-up of the all the news, except for major natural disasters. focus group.

Phase I. Spots selection: An exhaustive 10, 11, 12). In each group was present a research- review of the advertisements broadcasted on er and the mediator in environmental education. television during 2007-2015 was conducted, The start-up of the activity consisted in resulting in 27 selected spots. The selection of that the students watching the Spot and the sub- this period of analysis responds to the possibility sequent development of the discussion following that during their life they have been able to watch the semi-structured script. them in different media. Through the technique of observation and applying the following crite- 6. Analysis and results ria of inclusion: environmental theme, familiarity for students, duration (less than three minutes The information extracted from the discussion to avoid loss of attention) and the relationship groups was divided by spots and was structured of the company that advertises with the environ- in four categories: the role played by the envi- ment; 5 spots were finally selected to carry out ronment in the spot, the positive environmental the discussion group: Greenpeace 2010 and 2014, actions taken from the advertising message, the Coca-Cola 2011 and 2012, and Iberdrola 2014. negative environmental actions taken from the It is important to emphasize the role advertising message and, last, the purpose of the played by the environment in the spot, the posi- spot or purpose of the message to be transmit- tive and negative environmental actions removed ted. The analysis was carried out by two research- from the advertising message, and finally, the ers in a parallel through the qualitative program purpose of the spot or purpose of the message to Mxqda to guarantee the validity of the study. be transmitted. Phase II. Preparation of the interview Greenpeace-Lego script. In this second phase, a battery of open questions was developed to respond to the Examining the first visualized spot “Lego and objectives of the study. After several filters, the the oil company Shell”, the following results can researchers agreed on those that would corre- be highlighted. Regarding the role played by spond to the categories of analysis of the subse- the environment, students point to “oil” as the quent information, leaving open the possibility concept most related to this topic of study. In of including others that arose during the devel- addition, they insist on the great aggression that opment process of the discussion groups and the environment suffers with the extraction of that could be of interest for the study. this type of fuel. This vision of the context, in Phase III. Selection of the sample and general, is focused on the natural environment. development of the focal group. The selection of However, some students point out that, in the the sample was intentional, and was composed same way, the social environment is important of a total of 75 Primary Education students, who regarding this problem. participated in an educational-environmental In relation to the portrayed actions that stay offered by the Huerto-Alegre school farm in respect the environment, the students have not Granada. The ages of the subjects were between been able to identify the existing pro-environ- 8 and 12 years old, and belonged to three dif- mental actions in the spot, nor relate them to ferent educational centers of different provinces their daily life. On the other hand, most students (Béjar-Almería, Granada and Alhaurín de la have stated, however, that the actions of human Torre-Málaga). beings can help or harm the environment. Five focus groups were conducted with 15 In relation to the question of what actions students in each, distributed by age ranges (8, 9, have been made visible that harm the environment, most students have treated the extrac-

Alteridad. 14(2), 220-230 225 Mario Megías-Delgado / Patricia De-Casas-Moreno / Gema Paramio-Pérez

tion of oil as a negative action. In this way, they Coca-Cola highlight that it produces as much damage in the natural environment as in the social one. The third advertisement shown was “Coca-Cola: Undoubtedly, this nuance offered by the subjects Reasons to believe”. Therefore, considering the shows an important fact since they recognize role played by the environment in the content, that people are responsible for carrying out these the minors indicated that the images showed a actions and responsible for them. well-cared for environment, although there were In the same line of study and attending to some that have pointed out its deterioration. the reflection on the message of the spot, as the The vision that has predominated has been that main objective, the students have indicated that of the natural environment, however, for some they expected that this advertising message will students, it was related to the social environment. help to take care of the natural environment. A In reference to the actions proposed and small part of the sample has also cared for the that respect the environment, the pro-environ- social environment. However, only one student mental attitudes offered by the students have has detected the true end of the spot: to boycott been related to the rules agreed upon in the pre- of the LEGO company due to its relationship sentation of the students’ day during their stay with the oil company Shell. In this way, it is evi- at the school farm and not with what was shown dent that the students have not understood the in the spot. In this way, it can be highlighted true message. that, for this item, when analyzing and obtaining The second spot reviewed was “Greenpeace: answers, no relationship has been found between Oceans”. Therefore, compared to the role played superficial and school information. by the environment, it can be noted that many According to the actions related to damage of the responses have tended to interpret the to the environment, the minors have identified flooding of certain spaces as something bad for wars and the actions derived from them, such the natural environment, when it is something as the creation of weapons or the launching of totally natural. With this curiosity, multiple stu- missiles. Likewise, other harmful habits have dents tried to propose actions to take care of the also been noted, such as throwing garbage on environment. In this sense, first of all, in relation the ground. to pro-environmental actions, they agreed that Finally, regarding the question related to there is a need to take care of the natural envi- the message of the spot, the results have been ronment in order to improve the health of soci- conclusive, since the students themselves have ety. On the other hand, the negative actions that detected that the main purpose of the spot is the most impressed the minors are the ones causes consumption of Coca-Cola. by the increase of the tides, not verifying the Fourth, the spot “World Peace Day: Coca- fact that these are natural. In addition, we must Cola” was analyzed. Concerning the role played emphasize the implication and security that they by the environment, the minors related it to the show in relation to water quality and the thawing natural environment, relegating the social and of the poles. Finally, around the reflection and cultural environment to a secondary consider- message conveyed by the spot, the all students ation. Also, they found controversies surround- understood, as the main message, to take care of ing the care of the environment, as some claim it the natural environment. to be contaminated and others did not. Regarding the actions to respect the environment, the fact that most of the students have not noticed any action is of concern. In addition, some students associate pro-environmental

actions with the rules imposed in the school tations of the subjects in relation to the watching farm, as in the previous spot. Similarly, they of the spots. In this way, we can appreciate the point out that those harmful actions are the cir- need to provide environmental and media edu- culation of vehicles, as well as painting graffiti on cation to the students, due to the influence of buildings. These responses are remarkable, since the vast amount of information offered through they are damages that originate and mainly affect the media. the social and cultural environment. Finally, in the question of reflection on the end of the spot, 6. Discussion and conclusions the students have indicated that the objective of the spot is the consumption of brand, although The media is a tool of massive influence they also realize the possibility of helping and on the critical attitude of the spectators. In this taking care of others. sense, advertising becomes the best option to mediate positively or negatively in the construc- Iberdrola tion of the ideals of society. As a result of this, the need to educate children in media to edu- We finish with the fifth analyzed spot: “Iberdrola communicatively empower them so they can be Today”. On the one hand, concerning the role capable to interpret and reflect on the informa- of the environment, it should be noted that this tion oversaturation. Faced with this, the news spot is one of the most challenging for students, and messages related to the environment have due to its theme and by its informative discourse. become very popular, as well as Environmental Therefore, the answers obtained show that the Education. Therefore, the present study has tried students have only taken the interpretation of to verify the validity of advertising, which is the natural environment, although references shown through television as a resource within to the social environment are made through the this theme of Environmental Education. appearance of construction ideas. It should be noted that, after carrying out Regarding the actions that favor and the relevant analyzes, the desired results have respect the environment can be highlighted the not been achieved, in the sense that the students use of renewable energy. They also emphasize have not been able to correctly relate the concept the company’s environmental policy. This idea of the environment in the viewed spots. Also, we is presented in the spot. However, the minors can highlight the discontinuity between fam- do not understand what the concept means and ily and school in the sense that the training or what it consists of. On the other hand, in the knowledge acquired in different contexts are unfavorable actions, the answers have not been not developing in parallel. In the same way, they satisfactory, since the students have not inter- have not been able to relate school contents, even preted the actions harmful to the environment, when the mediator is present during the test. In but they have mentioned all those they knew this way, it is necessary to encourage and work on about their daily life and, in some cases, tried this type of competences in Primary Education. relate them to the spot. Similarly, there is an urgency to establish correct Finally, about the purpose of the spot, pedagogical models to help solve these gaps in there are students who have understood that the classroom. Also, to be able to work with this the message is the hiring of Iberdrola’s services, type of resources it is necessary to develop a cor- while others point out that it is about taking care rect media literacy among the students, regard- of the environment by changing our ways. ing advertising, in order to be able to analyze To conclude with this section, we can high- correctly and critically an advertising spot and light as multiple the appreciations and interpre-

Alteridad. 14(2), 220-230 227 Mario Megías-Delgado / Patricia De-Casas-Moreno / Gema Paramio-Pérez

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230 © 2019, Universidad Politécnica Salesiana, Ecuador. july - december 2019 p-ISSN:1390-325X / e-ISSN:1390-8642 Vol. 14, No. 2,231-242 http://alteridad.ups.edu.ec https://doi.org/10.17163/alt.v14n2.2019.07 Environmental education in the baccalaureate: From school to family

Educación ambiental en el bachillerato: De la escuela a la familia

Adelina Espejel Rodríguez is a research professor at the Autonomous University of Tlaxcala (Mexico) ([email protected]) (https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0299-796X)

Isabel Castillo Ramos is a research professor at the Autonomous University of Tlaxcala (Mexico) ([email protected]) (https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7761-3225)

Received: 2019-02-08 / Reviewed: 2019-04-01 / Accepted: 2019-05-20 / Published: 2019-07-01

Abstract its permit reinforce their own conscience, develop and This paper has as objective to show how bac- promote environmentally friendly values and behaviors, calaureate students involve and raise awareness within for care, conservation of natural resources. The Mexican their families through practical and feasible actions to population needs to promote the environmental culture. preserve and care for the school and the community Keywords: Environmental, young, baccalaureate, environment. Research is developed in the framework of community, awareness, value. qualitative methodology. The information was collected using participant or direct observation method; home- Resumen works, daily notebooks, it also was applied a question- El documento tiene como objetivo mostrar naire with questions to answer in open and close form. cómo los estudiantes del nivel medio superior (NMS) This research was practiced into Centro de Bachillerato involucran y concientizan a su familia, a través de Tecnológico Industrial y Servicios 212 (CBTIs), of Tetla acciones prácticas y viables para conservar y cuidar de la Solidaridad, Tlaxcala, México in 2017 year As study el entorno escolar y comunitario. La investigación se subjects were 85 students and their family were 282, desarrolla en el marco de la metodología cualitativa. linked to applied Family Environmental Program (PAF) La información se recolectó utilizando el método de as operative strategy. The data resulting from field work observación directa o participante; tareas, bitácoras, were systematized and processed in order to do easy its asimismo se les aplicó un cuestionario con pregun- analysis and interpretation. Students applied the PAF with tas para respuestas en forma abierta y cerrada. Esta their families, also teach to each one to preserve the envi- investigación fue realizada en el Centro de Bachillerato ronment. It is concluded that environmental education Tecnológico Industrial y Servicios 212 (CBTis) de Tetla should be from parents to sons and from sons to parents; de la Solidaridad, Tlaxcala, México, en el año 2017. Los

Suggested form of citing: Espejel Rodríguez, A., & Castillo Ramos, I. (2019). Environmental education in the baccalaureate: From school to family. Alteridad, 14(2), 231-242. https://doi.org/10.17163/alt.v14n2.2019.07 Adelina Espejel Rodríguez / Isabel Castillo Ramos

sujetos de estudio fueron 85 estudiantes y 282 famili- a padres, esto permite reforzar su propia conciencia, ares, vinculados para operar su Programa Ambiental desarrollar, fomentar valores y conductas amigables Familiar (PAF) como estrategia operativa. Los datos con el medio ambiente, para el cuidado y conserva- resultantes del trabajo de campo se sistematizaron y ción de los recursos naturales. La población mexicana procesaron para facilitar su análisis e interpretación. necesita fomentar la cultura ambiental. Los estudiantes aplicaron el PAF, con sus familias, así Descriptores: Ambiental, jóvenes, bachillerato, como enseñar a cada uno de sus integrantes para comunidad, conciencia, valores. preservar el medio ambiente. Se concluye que la edu- cación ambiental debe ser de padres a hijos y de hijos

by different currents: the naturalist, related to 1. Introduction the ecosystem or biosphere, which teaches about In the face of global and local environmental nature or experiential; the conservationist, which problems (EP), it is necessary to implement groups the proposals in the conservation of models or strategies of environmental educa- natural resources; the resolutive, with which it is tion (EE) in educational institutions that involve about informing or driving people in the devel- both students and their families to reduce EPs opment of skills to solve EPs or mitigate them; in Mexico. Therefore, the aim of this paper is to and the action is accentuated in dynamic tasks show how young people from the upper middle (Sauve, 2004). In addition, the moral current level involved their family in environmental or conduct is established in a set of values and activities or actions, in order to jointly create attitudes, conscious and coherent among them; environmental awareness to mitigate EP from while sustainability is about learning to ratio- their environment. In recent decades, globally nally use the resources of the present, to ensure there is a greater concern for EPs that are dis- the basic needs of the future (Sauve cited in Paz, played in different parts of the planet, which is Avendaño, William, & Parada, 2014). why every day EA strategies or models for edu- García Díaz (cited in Morón, & Morón, cational institutions are stablished, investigated 2017, p. 251) indicates that there are three models or innovated. EE should be a permanent and in relation to EE: a) Naturalistic, adjusted to the transversal process in the formal education sys- understanding and knowledge of the contents of tem, where students acquire and promote their the subjects related to the environment (ES) and awareness, knowledge, attitudes, behaviors, val- environmental research; b) Environmentalist, ues, competencies and practical experiences to where it seeks to favor, help, respect and preserve act individually, as a group or collectively in the the environment through awareness, motivation, resolution or mitigation of environmental prob- knowledge and training to the population, seek- lems. However, EE should not only be a strategy ing mitigation of the EP; and c) A third model for transmitting information in formal educa- called sustainable development with the purpose tion, but also a form of teaching focused on of using resources rationally and sustainably to praxis. Therefore, “its results must be reflected seek a change in the economic, social and envi- in the daily life of families and governmental ronmental structure. and non-governmental institutions, and it must In this work, by the way it is conceived also have a factor of social change, aiming at the and practiced the EE is seen from the currents: development of environmental values and atti- Resolutive, because schoolchildren are informed tudes” (Rivas cited in Salinas, 2016, p.11). about EPs and they, together with their families, The EE, by the way they conceive and carry develop skills and strategies to reduce them; it out in the educational action, can be exposed praxica, the students and the members of the

family are placed in a vision of work, of educa- achievement of positive attitudes and committed tion, and reflection; it is also explained from the behaviors in the subjects (Morachimo, 1999). ethical-moral current, which is based on a set It also allows the individual to analytically and of environmental commitments and values that reflexively evaluate their position, behavior and they and their families are acquiring through the awareness of the environment (Paz, Avendaño, course. Likewise, the EE is seen from the envi- William, & Parada, 2014, p. 260). ronmental model, which seeks to benefit, help, Environmental awareness, when linked to respect and preserve the environment through EE, is explained as cognition, emotions, respon- awareness, information and training to the pop- sibility, practices and lifestyles that the indi- ulation, for the mitigation of the EP. vidual dynamically and actively shapes with their In each of the currents and models it is nature (Febles cited in Alea, 2006). We speak of sought that the EE is an instrument to activate, a multidimensional knowledge, with different promote and develop environmental awareness, dimensions (Chuliá, cited in Moyano, & Jiménez, focused on originating the friendly participation 2005). In this respect, according to Gomera of teaching, in the conservation, use and improve- (cited in Espejel, & Flores, 2017), we can distin- ment of the E, in addition it is accentuated in the guish four (See Chart 1).

Chart 1. Dimensions of environmental awareness

• Recognition of environmental deterioration, affirmations and emotions in environmental matters. Affective • Friendly attitude towards the environment, motivation is achieved and stimulate feelings in order to sensitize.

• To obtain information, knowledge and understanding about environmental deterioration. Cognitive • Develops environmental skills and values for the conservation and care of the environment

Conative • Availability to favor attitudes, behaviors and environmental values to reduce EP.

Dynamic • Practice of responsible work, both private and social. Source. Own elaboration based in Gomera (2008) and Morachimo in Avendaño (2012).

people to build them in a manner consistent 2. Education and family with their school-family environment. These can The family has been conceptualized as the main be proactive, for example, “love, honesty, respon- base of the human species, which is constantly sibility, tolerance, humility, respect for human immersed and related to its nature. “The fam- dignity, respect and care for the E, attention to ily is a space for living relationships and coexis- the satisfaction of needs, quality of life, care of tence where feelings, emotions, behaviors, values the health and attention in education”(Rojas, and diverse attitudes are expressed, associated 2002, p.90). Family is a space where values, with the behavior of living beings” (Rojas, 2002, notions and ideals for the progress of people and p.190). the care of their environment are transferred and Families are the basis for inculcating val- taught. ues of responsibility, respect and discipline to The EE must start from the teaching of take care of the environment in a friendly man- parents to children so that the family can trans- ner. The EE must be redirected from home to mit values and behaviors that serve to care for school and vice versa. School education should and preserve the school and community’s E. strengthen the knowledge and values of young Currently, it is sought that environmental educa-

Alteridad. 14(2), 231-242 233 Adelina Espejel Rodríguez / Isabel Castillo Ramos

tion is transversal with the different disciplines to The education of young people is acquired unify knowledge and learnings from a daily and from the experience and family, school and empirical reality. community life, which makes each individual In the present work the family is argued as a have their own culture with values and attitudes transmitter and receiver of environmental values, different from their environment. Although the following Bronfenbrenner (cited in Mathiesen et strongest and affective bonds for the acquisi- al., 2002), it is considered as an open system of tion of values are within the family (Fragoso, great relevance for the development of people. & Canales 2009). Therefore, this paper analyzes But also “Its fundamental educating function, the environmental values transmitted by par- responsible for transmitting social norms and ents to their children or vice versa, from young values to their descendants and preparing them to people to parents, due to the updated education function in the social world, has been recognized they acquire in the course of their continuing in all cultures throughout history” (Levy cited in education. Mathiesen et al., 2002, p 56). Given this, young people participate in The family, together with the education- an exchange of communication and training of al institution, friendships and social informa- knowledge, attitudes and environmental values, tion networks, are the main transmitters of the obtained in educational institutions. They seek knowledge, values, behaviors, attitudes, roles and to be involved in a participatory manner with habits that help us to develop as rational people each member of their family in order to contrib- within a society (Papalia cited in Mathiesen ute, promote and develop environmental values et al., 2002). In this research, it is sought that together. Jacometo and Rossato (2017, p.58) young people transfer environmental knowledge allude that “Affective bonds provide psycho- in a responsible and timely manner to family logical and social support in the family, helping members, to encourage environmental action in to cope with everyday problems.” This article homes and communities. describes the way in which young people involve Society shapes its values through fam- their parents, family and friends, to develop and ily and school socialization. The child or young promote values acquired in school, in order to people visualize their environment according mitigate EP. to the way of life offered by the family (Loera cited in Fragoso, & Canales, 2009) parents must 3. Methodological strategy intervene in a conscious way to form values, knowledge and attitudes that allow their children The research is developed in a qualitative con- an approximation with the real world. However, text to expose and deduce the interactions and educational institutions are modeled as a space subjectivities (Dieterich, 2003, Gayou, 2012) of of relationships with different individuals, who the students. This methodology conceptualized have a culture and knowledge different from by Taylor and Bogdan (2000) and Hernández, those learned at home. Fernández and Baptista (2014) as: The one that The school becomes a privileged place describes the information in textual form of where students interact with different groups, individuals either in written form or in dialogue. with their own cultures, with particular ways Also, the perceptible observation. Methodological of valuing the world that surrounds them and notions that allow achieving the objective pro- complement it with the particular way that they posed in the present investigation. To execute the develop in their classrooms to expand their hori- research, first of all, the teacher in a didactic and zons (Fragoso, & Canales, 2009, p.178). practical way, applied the phases of the EE model (Espejel, 2015) to the students, to motivate them,

provide environmental information, teach them cited by Gayou, 2012, p.104). This technique skills, values and commitments with their envi- needs to have a close relationship with individu- ronment, with the aim to encourage and increase als to work. the environmental awareness of the students, To make a more complete and methodi- as well as being able to transmit, establish and cal inquiry and assessment, the students were organize activities with members of their family. asked to answer a questionnaire and submit Within the actions of the EE model, a FEP is con- the logs where they captured the FEP activi- sidered as a tool that contains a series of specific ties. The questionnaire was organized in three actions and practices (planned and proposed parts: a) General aspects, b) Executed actions, c) by the students, according to the environmental Organization of teams, d) Satisfaction of carried problems of their community), projected to be out actions. executed in a given period, with the fundamental purpose of identifying and mitigating the EPs of 3.3 Systematization and analysis of educational institutions and localities (Espejel, & information Flores, 2017). Afterwards, the young people took the information and knowledge to their homes The observations, narrations of their logs, proj- so that their relatives could participate in the ects and the questionnaire allowed us to describe, elaboration and execution of their FEP. systematize and analyze the information. “The method of descriptive analysis is the one that was 3.2 Sample and techniques used to show the successful results of the present research work” (Espejel, & Flores, 2017, p. 299). To carry out the research work, CBTis 212 was According to the objectives proposed in the proj- selected, which is located in the municipality of ect, the categories of analysis were presented in a Tetla de la Solidaridad, Tlaxcala, Mexico; mainly, logical and coherent manner. The Excel program because the institution is adjacent to the most was used for systematization to organize, classify important industrial zone of the State and because and categorize the information. It was consid- the municipality presents major environmental ered that: problems, such as: erosion, deforestation, contamination by solid waste, air and water pollution The analysis of qualitative data, respond not (Espejel, 2009). Also, because in CBtis 212 the to the quantification of information but to the subject of Ecology is accredited, which is taught process of interpretation with the purpose of in the fourth semester of the common core, its discovering concepts and relationships in the contents are related to environmental educa- raw data, and then organizing them in explan- tion and sustainable development. The study atory schemes. (Strauss, & Corbin, 2002, p.20) involved 85 students of the fourth semester of the baccalaureate of CBTis 212, who were studying 4. Analysis and results Ecology, of the evening shift of the specialties of Logistics, Mechatronics, Programming (A) and 4.1. General aspects of the participants Programming (B). Each student elaborated his FEP with activities that his same family proposed. The research involved 85 young people from The total number of participants was 367. CBTis 212, between 16 and 17 years old, male For the collection of information direct (35) and female (50), of four specialties of the participant observation was used “to obtain evening shift. Each student together with his impressions of the surrounding world through family elaborated his FEP with activities that all relevant human faculties” (Patricia and Adler, they proposed among themselves. The parents (mother, father) of the students who participated

Alteridad. 14(2), 231-242 235 Adelina Espejel Rodríguez / Isabel Castillo Ramos

are adults between 38 and 44 years old on aver- father, mother, brother and sister collaborated; age. The brothers and sisters who collaborated however, students integrated others, such as are between 11 and 17 years old. Those who friends, girlfriends or boyfriends, because their participated the most were the mothers, then the parents could not participate in all activities brothers, dads and sisters, among others. because of their work (See Chart 2). The total number of participants in the FEP was 367 subjects, of whom the mainly the

Chart 2. Participants in the FEP of the NMS students

Total Total Total Total

Students 85 Fathers 49 Mothers 76 Brothers 51

Sisters 42 Uncles 8 Aunts 9 Grandmothers 7

Grandfather 3 Cousins (M) 4 Cousins (F) 7 Friends 4

Female friends 1 Boyfriend 2 Nephews (M) 3 Nephews (F) 6

Sister in law 3 Husband 1 Neighbor (M) 1 Neighbor (F) 2

Others 3 Aggregate Total 367

Source: Own elaboration Regarding the family’s work and school pate in the work of ecology. It is worth mention- activities, it was found that the majority of the ing that families are based on feelings of love and fathers of the students are employees, workers solidarity, to preserve affective bonds and carry and merchants, only 9% are professionals. While out projects in a shared manner (Jacometo, & 18% of moms are employed, 37% are housewives Rossato, 2017). and only 3% are professionals. This last fact is Some testimonies are shown: relevant because it suggests the reason why they participated more with the children while carry- First, I came home and I told them that the ing out the FEP. Most of the brothers and sisters teacher had told us in class about caring for who collaborated are students. the environment and what could happen in a few years if we still do not have conscience, so I told them that the teacher had left us as 4.2. Sensitization-motivation and envi- homework to carry out an ecological project ronmental knowledge to the mem- in which we do some activities that benefit the bers of the family environment. When I explained to them, they noticed that I was excited and eager to start In order to carry out their FEP, the students had working, which motivated my family to follow to inform their parents of the environmental my steps and integrate to raise awareness and activities that they should complete as a family. help the environment. (Pablo, Mechatronics) At first, it was difficult for the students to convince them, however, when they explained the Subsequently, the young people sensitized- objectives and the importance of taking care of motivated the family members, through the the E, the parents agreed to support and partici- knowledge acquired in the classroom, about the environmental deterioration so that they under-

stood the importance of implementing environ- could be reduced with viable activities, later mental actions. The students showed the docu- we planned the actions that we were going ment of “Carta 2070”, images of the EPs of their to carry out during the following months, to community and told them about the plot of the fight the contamination that there is in the film “The inconvenient truth” of Al Gore. This community, we organized ourselves according to what each one wanted to do, to improve the information, as stated by Rivas (cited in Salinas, E and the community environment. (Alberto, 2016), impacted and sensitized the family. Future Programming-B) and current generations require friendly values and feelings with the E for the care and conserva- Other young people, individually, planned tion of natural resources. As well as being familiar the environmental activities of their FEP and with the environment, to achieve friendly atti- then invited their family to participate. Each tudes with nature (Kollmuss, & Agyeman, 2002). member of the family selected the environmental The students showed that they had fos- activity that they liked the most. The students tered, developed and increased environmental planned their FEP activities with easy and fea- awareness to their families, since they decided sible actions that could be carried out in a short to support the activities projected in their FEP. time, since some family members worked and Likewise, they understood and reflected that they were not available to carry out complex tasks. would also benefit from taking care of their envi- Every time someone came up with an idea, they ronment. Molano and Herrera (2014) argue that commented on it and expanded it to see which in addition to achieving favorable attitudes and one was the most appropriate and that had a behaviors with the E, the aim is to move from greater impact on nature. discourse to practice. The activities were projected and carried out according to the time availability of the I told my parents that this family project is members of the family, sometimes in the morn- to take care of our E, in order to keep our planet healthy and to live a few more years, in ing, sometimes in the afternoon. Some decided this respect my family understood, reflected, to make the most difficult on Saturday, as the conscientized and started helping me (putting father could help with the actions where greater together bottles, efficient light-bulbs, batteries, strength was needed. Also, during the weekends posters, water saving, etc.). (Mauricio, Logistics) they worked in the community. Sometimes they were not able to execute all the planned activities, because there were prob- 4.3. Organization and planning to carry lems, such as: lack of time, little interest, disap- out the FEP pointment, as they picked up the garbage and the next day it was dirty all over again; due to lack of Each student organized in a different way to cap- health and fatigue of the grandparents, due to the ture and design his or her FEP, some analyzed all schedules they had to meet, lack of creativity and the EP in the community and from these they knowledge, bad weather, poor communication, established the goals and the actions to mitigate lack of tools and due to unpunctuality. them. The students in the course of ecology learned that first an environmental diagnosis 4.4. Actions executed by members of must be elaborated in order to have knowledge the family of the local to the global: The young people elaborated their FEP in order First, we sat down to talk and discuss about the to raise awareness and teach the members of EPs that there are in the community and which their family to take care of the E, so that their

Alteridad. 14(2), 231-242 237 Adelina Espejel Rodríguez / Isabel Castillo Ramos

children can enjoy and have a better quality of The students also proposed their goals to life. The FEP have fostered an environmental prevent, avoid, control and mitigate environ- awareness and a dynamic collaboration, favor- mental problems to have a cleaner planet and ing the school-community conjunction (Acosta, enjoy it with the family. Also, become ecological Fuenmayor, León, & Sayago, 2006). The structure voices to inform the family, neighbors and others of the FEP includes an objective, name of the the serious problems that pollution is causing, family or name of the team, community where it which should be reduced with different propos- is applied, EP to mitigate, viable actions, date and als and practical solutions. members of the family that execute it. The main EP that the family fought was Most of the students carried out their FEP the contamination of solid waste and that of with the purpose of promoting environmental battered green areas, where the greatest number awareness in the members of their family about of actions were organized to mitigate them. The the damage that is being caused to the E, as mother and the student were the most involved; well as recommending to be more careful with for soil contamination, less environmental work the daily and labor activities that contaminate was done. their environment. The EE is a motivator of In Chart 3 we can see the members of the environmental awareness, focused on causing family, as well as their participation in number the dynamic intervention of teaching-learning of tasks to mitigate the PA of their school or for the conservation and preservation of the E community. The environmental actions that (Morachimo, 1999). As an example: were carried out the most were: collecting garbage, separating and recycling, not wasting and We must create awareness in each one of the reusing water, cleaning green areas, lectures, members of the family, so that we participate talks, composting, cleaning lagoons, rivers and together in the execution of environmental streets, collecting rainwater, planting trees and activities, to achieve a cleaner environment plants, as well as watering them, putting trash and therefore have a better future for our chil- cans and posters. dren. (Verónica, Logistics)

Chart 3. Family participation in environmental activities

Environmental problems that were mitigated Father Mother Brother Sister Student

Solid waste pollution 25 51 33 17 62

Battered green areas 30 56 24 20 61

Deforestation 23 42 19 18 49

water waste and pollution 23 47 19 20 54

Visual contamination 15 20 11 13 27

Lack of environmental values 26 42 11 17 47

Soil pollution 7 9 7 5 9 Source: Own elaboration

The students, along with their family, also help the family economy, selling recyclable proposed environmental actions to mitigate the material and thus value more their environment. problem of solid waste, they mainly want to con- Alfie (cited in Molano, & Herrera, 2014, p. 193) tribute to have a clean and healthy environment, said that “environmental training seeks aware-

ness and responsibility to achieve the solution to be dry and this would imply no longer working environmental deterioration.” for money, but for water.

When carrying out this project, we discovered Water is something vital for our life on earth many contaminated places, with a lot of gar- and if it were to end it would be a disaster, that bage that people throw away. So, we decided to is why we must take care of it since this liquid contribute to our community by collecting it is very important for our existence on earth. so that people realize that what they are doing For without it we could not live, because it is is very wrong. (Carolina, Mechatronics) very important for our hydration as well for the crops and animals that exist on the planet The students and their families planned earth. (Magdalena, Programming-A) activities to solve the environmental problem of the damaged green areas and deforestation, The lack of environmental values is anoth- mainly to support the E, having shaded areas, a er problem that the student struggled with the pleasant climate, a good quality of life, greater family, mainly because they observed that people fauna, locating trees in appropriate places, reha- do not have the habit of taking care of their E. bilitate arid areas, more oxygen, take care of the Students want to change their way of thinking planet so that trees and plants are in optimal and educating new generations in the environ- conditions, improve the appearance of the com- mental field, in order to have a better or equal munity to raise awareness in children and adults, environment in the future. The main idea was to and prevent diseases. raise awareness among the population to care for and preserve natural resources: My mom and I decided to do it because it is very important to keep our parks clean and Because pollution in all aspects is something looking good, because that’s where most small that affects the life of the human being, but children play. And it is very bad that the places sometimes some people do not do anything to where they play are mistreated and littered take care of the environment, since they don’t with garbage, because they can get diseases. know how to do it, it is best to orient them so (Martha, Programming-B) that this problem does not continue to grow in the communities. (Irma, Logistics) The family decides to take actions so as not to waste and contaminate the water because The different members of the family liked it considers that it is necessary to be environ- to participate in the FEP, mainly to contribute mentally aware, since one day it may end or be and care for their environment and interact with scarce. Also, they do not want to run out of this nature and the coexistence that is established vital liquid, since they do not like the idea that between them, also to encourage and increase their future children and grandchildren cannot environmental awareness. Only the father and enjoy it or simply cannot meet their needs of the student mention that to give good example daily life. The members of the family value water to the children. The sister and the brother are the because they know it is very important for the only ones who allude that doing environmental existence of the land and without it life would be actions is a pleasant experience. Levy (cited in a disaster, for example, there would be no agri- Mathiesen et al., 2002) mentions that one of the cultural production, the lakes and rivers would functions of the family is to transmit values of all kinds, to function and act in the social and environmental world (See Chart 4)

Alteridad. 14(2), 231-242 239 Adelina Espejel Rodríguez / Isabel Castillo Ramos

Chart 4. Reasons why the members of the family liked to carry out the FEP

Father Mamá % Hermana % Hermano % Estudiante % To set an example for children and 30 5 family To contribute and care for the 60 41 57 25 50 Have interaction with nature and the 10 18 20 coexistence of the family Satisfaction of caring for the E 25 15 To have and encourage awareness 35 14 12 10 Pleasant experience 29 38 Others 6 Source: Own elaboration

Some testimonies: ing of the information for the practical and feasible action on global and local EPs. It is an example that we set for our children The educational institution of the NMS and that our children will give to our grand- has the task of training competent young people children, in this way we become aware of that contribute to sustainable development in how to take care of the environment to have a a critical, reflective and argumentative man- future. I really liked doing the activities, I had ner to favor the solution and mitigation of fun when we planted the trees and gathered all the garbage from the streets. (Dad and sister) EP in the areas of their environment. This is one of the generic competences that marks the Comprehensive Reform of Higher Secondary Education (RIEMS) which students of the NMS 5. Discussion and conclusions must develop “to contribute to sustainable devel- The family is the basis for transmitting values opment in a critical manner with responsible and friendly behaviors towards the E, for the actions and assuming an attitude that favors the care, conservation and preservation of nature. solution of environmental problems at the local, However, it is unavoidable to increase knowledge, national and international levels “(Diario Oficial, encourage and develop environmental awareness 2008, p.5). to engage in practical and viable actions in the The way to take and apply environmental family, school and community context. Jiménez projects in high school institutions allows stu- cited in Apaza (2014) affirms that ecological dents and their families to acquire the following awareness is fostered in the family and values advantages: increase coexistence and time with learned in the home are reinforced, manifesting the family, develop the ability to communicate in daily environmental actions that optimize the and convince, increase environmental aware- living environments of the community. ness, learn to decrease costs of electricity, water It is worth mentioning that the Mexican and learn to plan and execute environmental population needs to promote environmental activities. Remacha and Belletich (2015) and culture, for this reason the family EE must be Rodríguez Vargas and Luna (2010) point out fed back with the knowledge and experiences that projects expand creative skills in students acquired by the students in the different educa- mainly when they are formed into teams for the tional levels, so that they converge in the updat- performance of shared tasks. In addition, applying this type of EA projects generates emotions of well-being, pleasure, stimulation, desolation

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242 © 2019, Universidad Politécnica Salesiana, Ecuador. july - december 2019 p-ISSN:1390-325X / e-ISSN:1390-8642 Vol. 14, No. 2,243-255 http://alteridad.ups.edu.ec https://doi.org/10.17163/alt.v14n2.2019.08 School media, scenarios to form political subjects in school

Medios escolares, escenarios para formar sujetos políticos en la escuela

Juan Carlos Ceballos Sepúlveda a Professor of the Pontifical Bolivarian University (Colombia) ([email protected]) (http://orcid.org/0000-0002-1627-137X)

Julián Darío Forero Sandoval a Professor of the Pontifical Bolivarian University (Colombia) ([email protected]) (https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5283-8425)

Alfredo Álvarez Orozco an associate Professor of the Pontifical Bolivarian University (Colombia) ([email protected]) (https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0271-0199)

Received: 2019-01-29 / Reviewed: 2019-04-28 / Accepted: 2019-05-17 / Published: 2019-07-01

Abstract ogy allowed furthermore, comprehending from the This research intends to contribute to the for- students, as subjects of study, the processes of political mation of political subject as students and active par- formation with the management of information and ticipants in the production of school communication the content of the school media in public and private media. It refers to a qualitative study which inquiries institutions. Nonetheless, a common conception of about the alternatives for the citizen education, with the political was evidenced, and it overcomes the high school students who assume the roles of produc- idea of representativeness to become dimensioned as ers of scholar media. The entirety of the proposal is the construction of society and the work in aims of epistemologically based on the concepts: communica- everyone´s wellbeing. tion/education, school media and political subject. In Keywords: School media, political subjects, citi- this perspective, the project materialized in three cities zenship, politics, schools, education. of Colombia (Medellín, Monteria and Bucaramanga) and six public and private educative institutions, with Resumen a methodological route guided by an ethnographic La investigación busca aportar a la formación study that facilitated observing how school media are de sujetos políticos desde la condición de estudiantes produced drawn from the triangulation of collected y participantes activos en la producción de medios de information from focus groups and interviews, and comunicación escolar. Se trata de un estudio cualitativo then digitalized in the NVivo software. This methodol- que indaga sobre alternativas de educación ciudadana,

Suggested form of citing: Ceballos Sepúlveda, J. C., Forero Sandoval, J., & Álvarez Orozco, A. (2019). School media, scenarios to form political subjects in school. Alteridad, 14(2), 243-255. https://doi.org/10.17163/alt.v14n2.2019.08 Juan Carlos Ceballos Sepúlveda / Julián Darío Forero Sandoval / Alfredo Álvarez Orozco

con jóvenes de educación secundaria que asumen el rol grupos focales, y sistematizada en el programa NVivo. de productores de medios escolares. Toda la propuesta Esta metodología permitió comprender, desde los se fundamentó epistemológicamente en los conceptos: estudiantes como sujetos de estudio, los procesos de comunicación/educación, medios escolares y sujeto formación política con el manejo de la información y los político. Desde esta perspectiva, el proyecto se material- contenidos de los medios escolares de las instituciones izó en tres ciudades de Colombia (Medellín, Montería y públicas y privadas. No obstante, se evidenció una con- Bucaramanga) y seis instituciones educativas de carácter cepción común de lo político que supera la idea de rep- oficial y privado, con una ruta metodológica orientada resentatividad para ser dimensionada como el trabajar por un estudio etnográfico que facilitó observar cómo por el bienestar de todos y la construcción de sociedad. se producen los medios escolares a partir de la trian- Descriptores: Medios escolares, sujeto político, gulación de información recolectada en entrevistas y ciudadanía, política, colegios, educación.

school media serve as space for the forma- 1. Introduction and state tion of the political subject, in which the stu- of the art dents express their ways of seeing their worlds (Valderrama, 2010), crossed by the experiential The school media generate various tensions in culture (Pérez, 1998), the appropriation of the the school. Freinet (1977) introduced the print- word to narrate those worlds (Freire, 1985) and ing press in the classroom, in order to favor where critical awareness, the capacity for dis- stories based on students’ own lives. Then, in sent, autonomy, leadership and empowerment Latin America, most of these projects follow (Rojas, & Arboleda, 2014), some of the charac- instrumental, informative and adult-centered teristics that identify the political subject can be approaches (teachers) (Huergo, & Fernández, developed. 2000), (Kaplún, 2010) or disarticulated institu- A qualitative ethnographic methodology tional projects as proposed by (Rodríguez, 2004) was applied to observe the process of produc- and (Valderrama, 2007) that are far from what tion of school media in educational institutions, was proposed by the French educator in the sec- supported by interviews and focus groups for ond decade of the 20th century. students and teachers. With the incorporation of technologies, The research is focused on the process of the discussions focus on the appropriation or producing the school environment and chang- denial of digital culture, either to extend the ing the role of the student, who goes from being exercise of the Right to Communication (Bacher, a “mere receptor” to producer of meanings 2009) or to follow traditional writing practices. (Martín Barbero, 1998); participation in these The challenge for the school is to encourage stu- experiences allows other cultural options: “to dents to appropriate other languages, in addition offer them the possibility of knowing, seeing, to writing, to produce content, memories and feeling, experimenting with the objective of realities and generate processes of symbolic and intervening and transforming” (Gamarnik, 2011, cultural exchange (Romero, 2011). p.13); that is, to pass from the receiver to the Three research groups of the Pontifical social actor and producer of meanings. Bolivarian University of Colombia,1 UPB, exe- The study is supported in three concepts: cuted the project “School media as training spac- communication/education, school media and the es for the political subject in educational institu- political subject. The initial basis of this relation- tions of Medellín, Montería and Bucaramanga”, ship is problematizing education (Freire, 1985) with the purpose of investigating whether the for its reflective character and as a permanent

act of discovery of reality (p.88); an education istics: “democratic, with a sense of community, that overcomes the transmission and accumula- capable of developing a personal opinion and tion of information, and develops in students establishing itself as an active receiver, gen- critical thinking, a reading of their life experience erator and transmitter of knowledge in their related to the educational and social context, daily lives” (2015, p. 89). To which Rojas and and which, then, narrates them appropriating Arboleda (2014) complement: respect for differ- different communication languages (Perceval, & ence, acceptance of other ways of thinking and Tejedor, 2008) that constitutes it in a significant acting in symbolic and real world. To this, Ruiz learning (Aparici, & García, 2017), similar to the and Prada (2012) added indicating that the fact features that identify the political subject. of telling their life, constructing stories, describ- The communication and education rela- ing their own contexts, allows the subject to tionship is marked by two perspectives: for commit to the action and to the transformation Barbas (2012), edu-communication is “process, processes, there lies the sense of political subjec- movement, flow of meanings, creative and re- tivity and the exercise of criticism (p.51), there- creative action, permanent construction-decon- fore, as Kriger (2010) points out, one becomes struction-reconstruction of reality” (pp. 166) a political subject when there is an intention to -167) and Huergo (2001) who maintains that change the world of which one is a part of. These this relationship communication/education aspects appear in school media, when they are (with the slash) is an articulation based on the understood as a space or process of producing “formation of subjects (object of education) and content, where students can recognize them- production of meanings (object of communica- selves in the difference, discuss their points of tion)” (p. 28). view, show their leadership, their ability to reach The school media is assumed from two agreement and communicate their ideas that concepts: the first, as devices to visualize class- give an account of what they live in school and room experiences and for the members of the in their social context. educational community to produce “contents, memories and realities that are shared with 2. Materials and Method their environment in a process of symbolic and cultural exchange” (Romero, 2011, p.48); and The research developed was qualitative in nature. as spaces to tell “the stories of his or her life, in It had an interest in asking, interpreting and a legitimate act of communication, not only to relating the observed: “emphasizes understand- peers, but to the inhabitants of his/her context” ing and interpretation from the subjects and (p.50); the second, Ceballos and Marín (2017) their process of meaning in specific educational indicate that the school media are spaces of com- contexts, with their own beliefs, intentions and munication, education and culture, produced motivations” (Reynaga, 1998, p.126). collectively by the educational community, to To capture the knowledge of students “generate reflections and conversations from the and teachers that make up the school media, an published topics, in a way that favors processes of ethnographic interview was conducted (Guber, dialogue and discussion among the recipients of 2001), as a reflexive exercise among researchers, these contents and (...) encourage to share these students and teachers: “it is a social relationship messages with other recipients” (p.58). in such a way that the data provided by the inter- The concept of political subject is based viewee reflect the reality that the teacher builds on Fernandez who shares some of its character- with the interviewee at the meeting” (p.77).

Alteridad. 14(2), 243-255 245 Juan Carlos Ceballos Sepúlveda / Julián Darío Forero Sandoval / Alfredo Álvarez Orozco

The focus groups, according to Reguillo and focus groups, the concepts were specified, (1998), contribute to the reflective nature of applying the Nvivo software. the instrument: “when the collective experience Next, a brief review of the Educational of the individual becomes evident, the subjects Institutions (E.I) will be made and the obtained enter into a dynamic of negotiation of meanings results will be exposed with their respective both with the other subjects and with them- analysis, bearing in mind the research question: selves” (p.35). What contributes to the formation of the stu- The selection process of the educational dent, as a political subject, the participation in institutions in each city (Medellín, Bucaramanga, the production of school media of public and Montería), was made with the following criteria: private educational institutions? five or more years of publication of the school media; work team made up of students and 3.1. Medellin guided by a teacher; periodic meetings (weekly or biweekly), within a public educational institu- Public Educational Institution (Public E.I.): tion and a private one, to have different points of founded in 1970, has five thousand students in reference. In total there were 6 educational insti- the Primary, Secondary, Technical upper second- tutions, two for each city. The field work took ary education and Academic upper secondary place in the second semester of 2017, between education levels. The school medium is a news- August and November, the second period of aca- paper founded in 1979, has an annual periodic- demic development in high schools in Colombia. ity, with 61 editions published until 2017. It is coordinated by a communicator and teacher who 3. Analysis of results is part of the Department of Spanish Language. The writing team was composed of ten students. The data obtained is qualitative: concepts and Private Educational Institution (Private ideas that emerge from the interviews or focus E.I.): founded in 1975, founded in 1957 and groups. For this article the questions posed its modality is academic, imparted to men and to the actors are taken up on two concepts: women from pre-school to basic secondary and school media and the political subject. Following upper high school. The experiences of school Angrosino (2012), the ethical categories, the medium in the E.I. date back more than ten result of a theoretical survey (already discussed), years, with newspapers, TV shows or school acquire other meanings from the comments radio stations. For this case, the school station made by the consulted students and teach- was taken into account, coordinated by a teacher ers, thus becoming an “emic” dimension (pp. from the area of Spanish Language and had as 99-100). From the registration of the interviews support a group of six students who broadcast a weekly show.

Chart 1. Results, interviews students and teachers of Medellín about school media

Question Actor Concept Idea

A school medium is like, in this case, the newspa- • Newspaper per, which is part of the entire educational com- • Educational community Student of munity and includes all the people in the school to • Transmission Public E.I. transmit information, transmit thoughts, ideas, as • Thoughts a new way of learning. • Learning

• Process A school medium is a process, an organization of • Brainstorming Student of some ideas, some knowledge, some concepts that • Knowledge Public E.I. are organized to be transmitted to the students of • Concepts the school, to the teachers, to the directors. • Transmission • Educational community

Student of Method that students and teachers use to learn • Method to inform Public E.I. about new things that happen at school. • Current information

What is a school The student media what it does is give neutral in- medium? Student of formation, that is, even when we are students and • Neutral information Public E.I. we don't like to say that the teacher was right, we • Teacher have to be on the teacher's side.

It is a channel of communication and discussion of • Communication and certain problems that are seen in the school, it is discussion channel (...) like that space where they can give their own Teacher of • Space to comment opinions without being coerced or pressured (...) it Public E.I. without censorship is a space to discuss and debate certain problems, • Discuss issues of the not only of the institution, but also of the city (...) institution and the city the children are the ones who write the most.

The school medium presents institutional and stu- • Institutional information dent interest information. It is a vehicle to express • Means of expression Teacher of (...) in principle it is for free expression, but there • Free speech Public E.I. must be a slight censorship, because they could • Mild censorship publish things that are not acceptable. • Maintain institutional line

From these comments, some differences in that are known by others when the contents the ideas of a school media, in a public context are published; it is a collective construction and and a private one are appreciated. In the first, it social product as pointed out by Kaplún (1998). is a medium with an academic focus (produced Different to the concepts in the private E.I., by students); where they circulate, in addition because in it, some expressions associated with to information, knowledge, thoughts and ideas different means (speakers, for example), that which gives a different character to the contents, communicate institutional information of what to be shared in the educational community. A “happens in school” and, above all, the idea of key contribution is to associate the medium as transmitting information by “neutral technolo- a process and not as a result or final product gies” (Saintout, 2003) arise. Therefore, without (Mujica, 2001), a stimulus to the expression of involving critical ideas or thoughts, they subject the students. It is emphasized that the school to the teacher’s approval. media allows to express thoughts and ideas

Alteridad. 14(2), 243-255 247 Juan Carlos Ceballos Sepúlveda / Julián Darío Forero Sandoval / Alfredo Álvarez Orozco

From the perspectives of teachers, in the In an environment of trust and commit- public E.I. is perceived an idea of position- ment to express ideas, opinions and develop ing the students as authors of their writings, their own content, there may be the awareness with the possibility of expressing their opinions of publishing content with a public character, to either of the institution or the city, without the impact the educational community, “write to be intention of being restricted: “Ideas circulate, read” (Freinet, 1983). On the contraire, if stu- are exchanged and confronted” (Henao, 2012, dents are subject to censorship, even if it is mild, p.133). In the private E.I. is contradictory: on the when expressing their ideas, their interests or one hand, recognizes that it is a vehicle of free opinions, their field of participation and influ- expression, but at the same time points out that ence in these spaces is limited. it must have a certain level of censorship.

Chart 2. Results of interviews students and professors of Medellín about the political subject

Question Actor Concept Idea

• Create awareness The political subject is the ability of a person to create • Ideas to transform Student of awareness of their environment, and provide ideas to • Sense of belonging Public E.I. transform (...) is to have a sense of belonging, that abi- • Ability to transmit good lity to transmit good ideas. ideas

• Responsible A political subject has to be someone responsible, who Student of • Critical is critical and who has the ability to lead, to know how Public E.I. • Leadership to solve situations. • Resolve situations

He is a person who expresses and feels what he wants, Student of • Expression capacity (...) he wants to move his country, his city, his municipa- Public E.I. • Commitment to society lity, his idea and his thought forward. What is the political It is to be a honest person who knows many things, subject? • Knowledge gives many opinions that may not share, but that res- Student of • Opinion pects, should not be a corrupt as when we think about Public E.I. • Pntegrating Person Colombian politics, (...) implement their opinions in a • Respect respectful way with everyone.

A person who participates in the different scenarios of • Participates Teacher of the city and the country (...) a person who contributes • Contributes Public E.I. with a critical spirit to make their neighborhood better. • Critical spirit

• Line of thought (political) Being a politician subject seems to me a person who is Teacher of • Political affiliation not divorced with a line of thought (...) is being involved Public E.I. in the political discussion of the country. • Participant in political discussion

Between the students of both institu- ness, are responsible, have a sense of belonging tions emerge some characteristics, related to the and contribute their knowledge to a society, have “political subject”, associated to those who work the capacity exert leadership and listening, seek for the common good: those that create aware- to do good and propose solutions. Some relate it

to corruption. The answers indicate that students Students value that participating in a consider it important to be aware of the politi- school medium, as a space and process not as a cal subject, conducive to the construction of a product, gives them the ability to speak and criti- society and feel part of a “we” (Nussbaum, 2014). cally reflect, throughout the production process, Teachers have more basic ideas of the materialized in meetings and in the meeting political subject. For them is someone who par- between peers (students and the teachers), where ticipates in nearby spaces where one can have they learn to value respect for the difference. In direct influence, such as the neighborhood and addition, it promotes leadership, acquiring its not only exercising the right to vote. The one of own criteria, learning from the issues and pro- the private institution considers that is the one posing solutions to problems. Young people need who has an ideology or a filiation to a political a voice, to be seen and taken into account “is the party and its participation is framed in the politi- right to socially exist” (Martínez, 2014). cal discussion, related to traditional politics. The teachers said: According to the above, it is worth considering some shared ideas about whether the fact The newspaper is the institutional medium of of integrating and participating in school media the school (...) as we are doing the discussions contribute to the formation of the political sub- and, among themselves they are realizing (...) ject. To do this, students and teachers were asked: that there are some rules, some parameters, a social responsibility, that there is ethics as Participation in the school media: What contrib- communicators (...) since they are all different, utes to the formation of the political subject? they also have to listen to other voices and they In this regard, the students of the public also have to listen to what the other thinks. educational institution responded: (Teacher, Public Educational Institution)

The ability to lead, learn to accept the ideas of I have tried to make them objective, (...) in the other people (...) as a human being I must con- sense that when they interview, if they do not sider myself within a society; my ideas cannot agree with him, they will not delegitimize him. be unique, I must learn to work in community. If there are disagreements, I have tried that (Student 1) initial disagreement does not vitiate the article. (Professor Private Educational Institution) ... from the topics discussed one can learn a lot from them and have our own criteria and According to what teachers have stated, propose a solution, wanting what’s good for participation in a school environment implies society. (Student 2). the recognition of some norms and, above all, recognition of the other’s voice as different. For their part, in the private Educational Therefore, it requires that the school media be Institution, they shared: considered as a process, rather than a product Above all social skills, we study in a mixed that serves as a channel or restricted instrument school that gives us great advantages in the to disclose institutional information; in terms of social field; radio has trained us as citizens, Freire (2008) it is “a gnosiological experience” which I feel very positive, because, although we (p.50), in this case, experience of knowledge con- listen and have our opinions, we are informed. struction and formation of the political subject. (Student 1). 3.2. Montería It contributes to my personality (...) is to accept that the other also has personality, and Public Educational Institution (Public E.I.): will also do other things. (Student 2) founded in 1970, it has a coverage of 2000 stu-

Alteridad. 14(2), 243-255 249 Juan Carlos Ceballos Sepúlveda / Julián Darío Forero Sandoval / Alfredo Álvarez Orozco

dents for all levels of primary and secondary Private Educational Institution (Private basic education. It has 82 teachers, four manag- E.I.): founded in 1958, it is a school run by a ers and six administrative staff. The school medi- Christian community that also offers all basic um is a television program that has a monthly education levels, from preschool to high school. periodicity, years of work and integrated by a The school medium is a printed magazine that is group of thirteen students who distribute the published annually, with a trajectory of six years functions of preproduction and audiovisual pro- and is coordinated by a social communicator duction, coordinated by the professor of the area with the support of fourteen students. of Social Sciences.

Chart 3. Results of interviews students and teachers of Montería about the school media

Question Actor Concept Idea

It is defined as a system designed for communica- • System for communica- Student of tion and information of the school population; spa- tion and information Public E.I. ce where different methods are used that attract • School population the receiver, in this case, the students. • Receiver

Student of Space provided by an institution to inform about • Space to inform Private E.I. different facts, news and activities related to it.

What is a school It is a medium that makes the community very visi- Teacher of • Media to make visible. medium? ble and empowers the children who do it and moti- Public E.I. • Empower vates them to achieve more distant things.

It is a medium that serves to put in context the institutional reality for the target audience that the • Put in context organization has and to generate interest in the • Target audience Teacher of external environment. Also to facilitate the pro- • Internal communication Public E.I. cesses of internal communication and to provide processes knowledge to students about writing, research, • Contribute knowledge spelling, among others.

There is a divergence in the conception account, not so much for the contents where of what is and means school media for the there is a distancing from the informative agen- interviewees of public and private educational da, but in the way of presenting the topics. Thus, institutions. In the first, the definition of the the students of both institutions assume the concept is broader: it responds to the interests school media as their own and define it as a par- of the institutional and involves the communi- ticular way of making their daily life known. The ties of the city that have access to the television positions of those in charge of the media of both program. On the other hand, in the private institutions maintain a certain coherence with school, the priority is to inform about the topics what the students expressed, because it allows of institutional interest, focused on the internal the initiative to propose the themes, a formative and external recipients of the printed magazine. principle that Ruiz (2008) directs towards edu- Also, the school medium is a curricular strategy cation “of political subjects, participatory and that supports and fosters writing and research prepositive citizens” (p.124). skills and competencies. About the political subject: In general, in both institutions the mass media is appreciated, as a reference to take into

Chart 4. Results of interviews students and professors of Montería about being a politician

Question Actor Concept Idea I do ... because, say in the case of my class, I am the monitor, so I am in charge of watching over what they Student of • Watch over others ask of me and when we have any need, I am the one Public E.I. • Being better who watches over them and that is like a political way of being better with what we want. But it is not just that, if the person asks you to be a representative, someone who looks older before them, Student of is not that, if they ask you for something, then you will • Represent someone Public E.I. do it right away. First you have to analyze and see if • Social Benefit what they ask is going to be for the benefit or harm for Do you consider society. yourself a politi- Yes, I am a politician when I know how to give my opi- cal subject? nion, and I understand the opinion of others ... I am a politician when I understand that the world not only • Difference Student of thinks as one, but that everyone has a different opinion; • Social beings Private E.I. if there are 40 people there are 40 different worlds. • Mutual Being a politician is knowing how to take those 40 opi- understanding nions under the same path even though not everyone thinks the same, that is being political. Know that in a society there will always be some clas- • Difference Student of hes, some contrasts and one will know how to unders- • Social beings Private E.I. tand those things, because we are social beings that • Mutual can relate to others and we can understand ourselves. understanding From every point, in some way, what they show is their political feelings, but they have learned that we should How do the con- not impose: we must share, for the better. • The political feeling tents published Teacher of • Political thinking in the school Public E.I. Undoubtedly, they form as political subjects with politi- • Building society media contribu- cal thought, the dynamics makes them understand that, te to the political as social actors, we are politicians (unlike politicking), formation of that this is crucial to build society. the educational • Reflection and Strengthens bases, helps them reflect on beliefs or po- community? Teacher of analysis sitions in situations. It allows them to open up to the Private E.I. • Open up to the world; compare and analyze world

The conceptual and practical appropria- subjective way that allows students to “critically tion of the political subject stands out among know and think [...] to express their emotions the students: in the public institution there is a and feelings, to get involved in the destiny of tendency to understand the political as the exer- others” (Alvarado, Patiño, & Loaiza, 2012, p.859). cise of working for the good of all, from the role The teacher of the public institution and the played in the educational context as a “strategist social communicator of the private, agree with who knows how to coherently articulate the pub- the position of the students of both schools: they lic and the private” (Arias, & Villota, 2007, p.47). consider that the political subject is lived daily, In the private institution, young people reveal from the way in which we share with others to the conception of politics more from the respect the complex task of building society and that for the other and for the differences. political education is an issue that emerges from The students involved in the production the thought: principle for the construction of the of school media understand the political subject political subject as a subject that is “at the center as the way to do good, build society in an inter- of the world, both to know and to act” (Morín,

Alteridad. 14(2), 243-255 251 Juan Carlos Ceballos Sepúlveda / Julián Darío Forero Sandoval / Alfredo Álvarez Orozco

2006, p.91). By the previous it is deduced: the education. They have a school station with daily school media, when being inserted in the school, broadcasts; 16 students and two teachers partici- serves as scene to make critical reading of the pate in the group of producers. world that they live in and to communicate their Private Educational Institution (Private own ideas; this is how a political subject with the E.I.): founded in 1891, a school run by a com- capacity to speak develops. munity of Catholic nuns that also offers all basic education levels, from preschool to high school. 3.3. Bucaramanga They have a television program with biweekly broadcasts and a trajectory of 26 years. It is Public Educational Institution (Public E.I.): coordinated by three teachers with the support founded in 1976, has a coverage of 1500 stu- of twelve students. dents for all levels of primary and secondary

Chart 5. Results of interviews students and teachers of Bucaramanga about the school environment

Question Actor Concept Idea

It is a means where students participate with the • Space for participation Student of guidance of teachers to express themselves and and expression Public E.I. speak with the language of young people. • Language and worldview of young people

• Means to inform Student of Space to represent the values of the School. • Space to strengthen the Private E.I. institutional identity What is a school medium? Effective means to strengthen internal communi- • Media Teacher of cation and the relationship between teachers and • Space for student Public E.I. students. expression

• Communication channel Teacher of Channel offered by some schools to motivate stu- • Space for motivation and Private E.I. dents in the interest of communicating. the sense of institutional belonging

In the private E.I. school media is assumed opinion and expression of students, from their as an institutional communication channel, vali- imaginations and worldviews. dated with the participation of students and On the political subject, they indicate the teachers; in the public E.I., this is recognized following: as an autonomous space, which promotes the

Chart 6. Results of interviews students and teachers of Bucaramanga about the political subject

Question Actor Concept Idea • Respect the rules Student of The political subject is a good citizen. He who com- • Respect the opinions of Do you consider Public E.I. plies and respects the laws. yourself a politi- others cal subject? Student of Yes, as long as I always seek to present the truth and • Truth Private E.I. respect the opinions of others. • Plurality

How do the con- The station helps them to make a critical and com- • Critival reading Teacher of tents published prehensive reading of reality and in that sense cons- • Ideological and political Public E.I. in the school titutes a space for the political education of students. formation media contribute to the political Strengthens aspects such as leadership and au- • Topics related to citizens- Teacher of formation of tonomy and makes a commitment to the theme of hip, duties and rights are Private E.I. the educational peace. addressed community?

Consider the school medium as a train- fundamental basis of the political subject; it ing space for the political subject, is the goal allows the development of a critical conscience, of both institutions. Therefore, teachers recog- to know some norms, to be guided by ethi- nize that student participation in school media cal criteria that overcomes the denial of the strengthens aspects such as critical reading of word or the fear of expressing ideas. When the reality, leadership and autonomy, key aspects in educational project of the school recognizes its the constitution of the political subject, which communicative potential, the school media is emerge in the production process of the commu- consolidated as a “space of understanding and, nicative contents. In this way, the findings made therefore, it becomes a bridge for the stimulation it possible to identify the presence of what Perez of thought” (Pallarès, 2014, p.212). characterized as the new parallel school that is This leads to consider that the school the media (2007, p.7), a school that enables the media is a meeting space with the other as a development of the specific capacities of the scenario and the setting of collective agreements, political subject. recognition of dissent in which plurality is privileged, where the emergence of “thinking and 4. Conclusions speaking subjects” is favored (Rojas, & Arboleda, p.14), above all because of their ability to com- The process of production of the school medium municate and also where they learn to recognize favors the formation of students as political sub- the other, who they listen to and with whom jects, when it provides the ability to critically they learn to make decisions together (Rojas, & read their educational and social contexts, to Arboleda). produce stories conducive to generating dia- A school environment understood as a logues in the educational community and in space and process of content production, with the environment surrounding the school “To the intention of forming producers of meaning, dialogue is to discover in the fabric of our own rather than reproducers (Duschatzky, Farrán, & being the presence of the social bonds that sus- Aguirre, 2010) serves as a stage to form politi- tain us” (Martín Barbero, 2002, p.35). cal subjects in the school, that is, students that School media offer the possibility of con- learn to respect difference, to read their everyday necting students with their realities, to be nar- life, to have critical thinking and to relate their rated and exercise the right to communication, experiences. Following with Romero (2011),

Alteridad. 14(2), 243-255 253 Juan Carlos Ceballos Sepúlveda / Julián Darío Forero Sandoval / Alfredo Álvarez Orozco

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Educación, la perspectiva latinoamericana terización de las prácticas en instituciones (pp. 281-310). México: ILCE. escolares de Bogotá. Revista Colombiana de Nussbaum, M. (2014). Emociones políticas. ¿Por qué el Educación, (46), 186-218. amor es importante para la justicia? Bogotá: Rojas, A., & Arboleda, R. (2014). La construcción del Paidós (Editorial Planeta). sujeto político en la escuela. Revista Aletheia, Pallarès, M. (2014). Los medios de comunicación 6 (1). 124-139. (http://dx.doi.org/10.11600/2 y tecnológicos como ejes de canalización 1450366.6.1aletheia.124.139) y gestión del conocimiento. Educar, 50(1), Romero, M. (2011). Nuevos paisajes para los medios 207-229. escolares en los terrenos de la sociedad Perceval, J., & Tejedor, S. (2008). Oral-gestual, escri- de la información. Hologramatica 14(2), tura, audio, audiovisual y ¿digital? Los cinco 45-66 (http://www.cienciared.com.ar/ra/ grados de la comunicación en educación. usr/3/1098/hologramatica_n14_v2pp45_66. Comunicar, XV(30), 155-163. pdfhttp://bit.ly/2FFYpNe) (2018-08-15). Pérez, A. (1998). La cultura escolar en la sociedad neo- Ruiz Silva, A., & Prada Londoño, M. (2012). La for- liberal. Madrid: Ediciones Morata. mación de la subjetividad política. Propuestas Pérez, J.M. (2007). Comunicación y Educación. y recursos para el aula. Buenos Aires: Paidós. Cuestiones clave. Madrid: Mentor Media Ruiz, A. (2008) El diálogo que somos. Ética discursiva y Education. educación. Bogotá: Civitas Magisterio. Reguillo, R. (1998). De la pasión metodológica o de Saintout (2003). La ruptura. Un campo en movi- la (paradójica) posibilidad de la investiga- miento. En F. Saintout, Abrir la comunicación. ción. En R. Mejía, y S. Sandoval (Coord.), Tradición y movimiento en el campo académi- Tras las vetas de la investigación cualitativa. co. La Plata: Editorial Universidad Nacional Perspectivas y acercamientos desde las prácti- de La Plata. cas (pp. 17-34). Jalisco: Iteso. Valderrama, C. (2007). Ciudadanía y comunicación. Reynaga, S. (1998). Perspectivas cualitativas de inves- Saberes, opiniones y haceres escolares. Bogotá: tigación en el ámbito educativo. La etno- Siglo del Hombre Editores. Universidad grafía y la historia de vida. En R. Mejía, y Central, Iesco. S. Sandoval (Coord.), Tras las vetas de la Valderrama, C. (2010). Ciudadanía y formación ciu- investigación cualitativa. Perspectivas y acer- dadana en la sociedad de la información. camientos desde las prácticas (pp. 123-154). Una aproximación desde la Comunicación- Jalisco: Iteso. educación. En R. Aparici, Educomunicación: Rodríguez, J. (2004). Medios y tecnologías de la más allá del 2.0. (pp. 281-305). Barcelona: información y la comunicación: una carac- Editorial Gedisa.

Alteridad. 14(2), 243-255 255 july - december 2019 p-ISSN:1390-325X / e-ISSN:1390-8642 Vol. 14, No. 2, 256-266 http://alteridad.ups.edu.ec https://doi.org/10.17163/alt.v14n2.2019.09 Historical journey of literacy in Venezuela from the un-learning

Recorrido histórico de la alfabetización en Venezuela desde el desaprendizaje

Joamsner Magdalena Arévalo is Associate Professor at the National Experimental University Francisco de Miranda (Venezuela) [email protected]) (https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7617-7265)

Received: 2018-04-07 / Reviewed: 2019-05-13 / Accepted: 2019-05-17 / Published: 2019-07-01

Abstract and methodology for literacy, but also the mentioned Currently citizens are exposed to a large amount rethinking becomes necessary. of information presented through various means. This Keywords: Literacy, journey, practices, concept, torrent of information requires skills that are not only rationalism, un-learning. limited to the reproduction and decoding of signs and symbols but, they must be able to interpret and express Resumen themselves through different means and in more than Actualmente los ciudadanos están expuestos a one language. (Crystal, 2011) In this sense, the con- una gran cantidad de información presentada a través cepts related to literacy practices around the world de diversos medios, lo que exige destrezas que no have been transformed towards a more humanistic solo se limiten a la reproducción y decodificación sino approach in which the production and understanding que los mismos deben ser capaces de interpretar y of written discourse is appreciated as a tool for per- expresarse a través de distintos medios y en más de sonal growth, including in this the use of Information un idioma (Crystal, 2011). En este sentido los con- and Communication Technology (ICT). With this in ceptos relacionados con las prácticas alfabetizadoras mind, a historical journey of the concept of literacy in alrededor del mundo se han ido transformando hacia Venezuela is exposed in order to start a deeper study in un enfoque más humanista en el que la producción the future, that reconstructs the concept of literacy and y comprensión del discurso escrito se aprecie como reorients the school practices of reading and writing in una herramienta de crecimiento personal incluyendo el the country, through the frame of critical rationalism and uso de las Tecnologías de la Información Comunicación unlearning (Andrade, 2005 y Popper, 2008). This study (TIC). Con esto en mente se expone un recorrido was based on a documentary review of the sources histórico del concepto de alfabetización en Venezuela available in official media regarding the teaching of read- iniciando con los programas de alfabetización fuera del ing and writing in Venezuela, providing as a main conclu- contexto escolar con el fin de dar inicio a un estudio sion that not only is there no consensus on the vision futuro más profundo que, enmarcado en los postulados

FSuggested form of citing: Arévalo, J. (2019). Historical journey of literacy in Venezuela from the un-learning. Alteridad, 14(2), 256-266. https://doi.org/10.17163/alt.v14n2.2019.09 Historical journey of literacy in Venezuela from the un-learning

del racionalismo crítico y el desaprendizaje (Andrade, aportando como conclusión principal que no solo no 2005; Popper, 2008), lleve a reconstruir el concepto y hay un consenso sobre la visión y metodología para la reoriente las prácticas escolares de lectura y escritura. alfabetización sino que el mencionado replanteamiento Este estudio se basó en una revisión documental de las se hace necesario. fuentes disponibles en medios oficiales en relación con Descriptores: Alfabetización, recorrido, prácticas, la enseñanza de la lectura y la escritura en Venezuela concepto, racionalismo, desaprendizaje.

investigation that inquires about social literacy 1. Introduction practices in Venezuela. Literacy is basically the act of teaching the productive management of the written language. 2. Literacy. Reflection as a Through this brief definition we can appreciate what is usually practiced in classrooms during first step the teaching and learning process of writing. In the course of our lives, humans acquire, learn, However, it is fair to admit that in order for an perfect and discard an infinity of behaviors, individual to communicate competently through some inherited from our social environment, writing, he or she must first understand that such as speech and its cultural idioms, oth- writing and reading are ways of doing things that ers consciously learned in educational contexts, are connected to their daily life and not activities including the written language. This leads to a that are only done for job or academic require- transformation of ourselves that in many cases ments. Being a writer or reader is not about does not stop until the end of our existence. In being an author of books, it is about being a per- this order of ideas, as social beings, individu- son who is inserted into a community through als do not stop expressing themselves, and it is the written expression of ideas. verbal communication, specifically written com- To understand this, current literacy prac- munication, the unequivocal sign of the human tices should go through a process of un-learning condition. Thus, we understand by communi- and critical assessing (Andrade, 2005, Popper, cation the act of putting into sounds, signs or 2008) that, reorienting the concept of literacy, symbols ideas that are aimed at a specific receiver also promotes the transformation of the teach- adapted to a particular context. These sounds, ing-learning process of reading and writing in signs or articulated symbols configure language, school contexts. Several authors have already which is a dynamic phenomenon covered with realized the enormous deficiencies reported by creativity, productivity and complexity. To this the graduates of primary education and even we can add the words of Ferreiro and Teberosky adults who have participated in the different (1991) who affirm that it is the rules and param- literacy programs carried out by the Venezuelan eters of articulation that define a language, since government at different times in history. words alone do not represent anything until they Therefore, an initial exploration of the essential are combined to form sentences that build a concepts of literacy that have been contemplated intelligible message. Franco (2000) adds to this in Venezuela from official government sources idea by saying that “language has no meaning if through the years is presented below, this in it is not in interhuman communication” (p.83) order to take a first step in conducting a deeper and it is without a doubt the written language

Alteridad. 14(2), 256-266 257 Joamsner Magdalena Arévalo

the maximum expression of articulated and ing becomes the modality of transmission par regulated language. excellence, given its enduring nature over time Several authors have already listed the even in times of preponderance of audiovisual differences between oral language and written media and virtual reality (Brown, 2007). language, however, it is appropriate to mention In fact, as Cassany (2003) puts it, writing Harmer (2000) who states that, unlike oral lan- is and continues to be “the most used code to guage, writing must be learned; that is, it requires interact in virtual communities”. The fact that a process of formal instruction that usually fewer and fewer people use paper and pencil to begins in childhood, after the acquisition of oral express their ideas has not taken away the valid- language. This process is called literacy and can ity of writing, on the contrary, social networks, be defined as the act of learning, creation and blogs, and other forms of communication via interpretation of written language for the pur- the Internet have reinforced the importance of pose of communication. Indeed, if it is argued written communication, to the point that people that speech and hearing are developed based on come to create identities that only exist in words the need to express and be understood, this need and images but that influence communities of is much more relevant when it comes to writing, people to such an extent that they transcend real- and that is the undeniable social intention of the ity beyond the virtual. written language. Taking the words of Cassany Continuing with Cassany (2003), com- (1999), writing or reading is a way of using lan- puter mediated communication (CMO) has pro- guage to perform actions and achieve objectives. moted the approach to information from the We read and write with the aim of persuading, point of view of multimodal competence, in arguing, requesting, making catharsis, creating which the individual represents and addresses art, regulating behaviors, among other things. messages from a variety of systems: speech, writ- Language is the means and also the end of the ing, image, audio and any combination that is development of human thought. allowed within the virtual field, so that what Thus, learning implies a change of behav- started as a written document becomes a com- ior, as well as the creation and development of munity of expression. Hence, if the traditional new cognitive structures in the human being, and notion of writing had to be reconceived, it this whole process is externalized and expressed will also correspond to the same with literacy. before the world through language. Likewise, this Literacy can no longer be limited to the han- motivates the individual to change their reality, dling of the signs and symbols mentioned at to experience new ways of living it through lan- the beginning, as well as to the conventions that guage. Thus, any learning process in the human regulate written language; delimiting it to the use being is closely linked to the development of of pencil and paper, but it should cover the use language. It is in fact language the instrument of and management of audiovisual media to create, learning, and in particular words are, then, in that represent, share, understand and interpret infor- desire of man to name everything that makes up mation in various means of human interaction his environment, the form that thought acquires and with different purposes. when it is transformed throughout this process. With regard to this, we can bring up what It can be said, to reaffirm this idea, that UNESCO (cited in Ortiz, 2007), when referring knowledge is the product of learning and that to literacy as: the “ability to identify, understand, language configures it. This leads to the point interpret, create, communicate, and calculate by where, given the social nature of man, he seeks to using written and printed materials related to transmit this knowledge to his fellows and in the different contexts” (p.16). As stated, the process process expand and refine it. It is here that writ- of literacy involves continuous learning in which

tools are obtained that enable participants to 3. From critical reflection to develop as actors in the society in which they find themselves while growing as people in their un-learning professional and personal fields. Within this It has already been suggested that, unlike oral same line of thought is the conception that Ortiz language, writing requires a formal training (2007) states about literacy, describing it as: process, and that orthographic, syntactic and An educational process that creates an enabling pragmatic conventions govern written discourse environment for students to develop their according to each culture and must be complied written communicative skills, assuming read- with so that production is accepted. This process ing and writing as a constant opportunity for of instruction covers both reading and writing learning and growth that allows them to dis- and is adapted, or should adapt, to the cultural cover the thoughts of others, understand the and technological changes of each community. divergence, expand, confront and communi- As already affirmed Cassany and Morales (2008) cate their vision of the world and of life. (p.16) when they explained that although there may be general cognitive skills in the learning of written Crystal (2011), in turn, defines the term language, the impact of the forms and customs literacy as the ability to understand and handle of each community of writers cannot be ignored. different cultural and technological domains. This implies that, although twenty years The author refers in this conceptualization to ago the children had their first contact with the the fact that every day the term covers more and written language to read in the primers and the more skills, for example, the efficient use of com- traditional books of syllabication, while writing puters, smartphones, basic knowledge of more was linked to calligraphy and aesthetics, today it than one language, as well as global terminol- is not surprising that the first reading and writ- ogy and idioms. Along the same lines, Richards ing events are done on a computer or tablets by and Schmidt (2013) relate literate practices and pressing keys and reading screens, interpreting behavior with the socialization and develop- images and making free shapes and drawings ment of individuals in society through the use of with the fingers, instead of a book and a pencil. writing. From this perspective a literate person Although this fact has not necessarily affected would be one who is able to understand, produce the vision of writing process and product within and basically interact with all the elements and in classrooms. all situations within the society to which he o she It is then necessary to ask, what has changed belongs. It is not, then, to know how to read and in the vision of the teaching of the written lan- write, or to express and understand messages; it guage? Has the conception of literacy that char- is about being able to interpret and manage the acterizes the social practices of teachers changed? information produced by the global community, Has the way of teaching and learning to write in other words, be strategically competent in all evolved, or are computers simply included as an current communication contexts. accessory and not as a true communication tool? It is not unwise, then, to say that it is Without a doubt it is in the learning of necessary to change the focus of literacy by fol- writing where the change driven by the technol- lowing the path of critical rationalism and un- ogy can be perceived in greater degree. Although learning to include in it the skills required in the there are functional and orthographic principles production and processing of knowledge today. that are maintained, the writing process would

Alteridad. 14(2), 256-266 259 Joamsner Magdalena Arévalo

have to be object of a phenomenon of un-learn- of social practices, the roles played by humans ing. This understanding, first of all, that learning and the complexity of thoughts in their minds is the “continuous construction and reconstruc- would lead us to reinforce the previous idea of tion of reality” (Guidano cited in Andrade, 2005, how changes in the forms of expression have had p.2), and therefore to un-learn it is necessary to an influence on the actions and even the interac- follow a similar route but dismantling the con- tions of human beings, much more the need to cepts, theories, conventions and structures that initiate a critical deconstruction of social literacy are culturally considered as absolute dogmas, practices in the country is reinforced. in order to adapt them to the new needs and The aim, then, is to start with a revision the new procedures of the individuals. In this of the theories related to literacy in order to sense, Andrade (2005) continues to affirm that establish a theoretical system with which the to un-learn is to recognize that human beings are data collected from reality will be contrasted in movement and, in this way, they must undo and later studies. This in order to make a comparison redo themselves according to the changes that to determine the equivalences, compatibilities come from questioning the environment. or incompatibilities that will ultimately lead to Already Popper (2008) spoke of the enunciate a literacy concept that is more in line importance of questioning reality based on the with current communication contexts. dynamics of society, as well as the data empiri- What is sought is nothing more than sub- cally collected from a deductive test, in what mitting the current conceptions of literacy to a became known as critical rationalism. It is this process of falsification, since taking the words questioning of existing concepts that forces us of Echeverría (1989) this process is in effect to reevaluate the historical conventions on the what generates changes and advances within the learning of written language, that is, it is the knowledge communities. Following the author, same dynamism, the needs and demands of it is argued that the current system of education the new times which leads to generate changes in Venezuela is working with a few notions and in the assumptions regarding the social literacy literacy methodologies that have been inherited practices of schools. While children continue to over the years and from realities that are not perceive the need to learn to read and write based necessarily compatible with the current situation on the usefulness of this form of communication of the country. But from a conscious question- for them, today’s learners do not perceive writing ing and a critical deconstruction of the social or make use of it in the same way as ten years ago, practices related to the written language modi- therefore, it could be assumed that the teaching fications that lead to a true appropriation of the method of a decade ago would become ineffi- cognitive and communicative character of the cient and insufficient for the current generation. writing can be activated. It is important to point out the fact that In this order of ideas there are the premises the texts and the acts that derive from them are of critical rationalism which are intended to con- a reflection of the individual’s thinking. The tinue this theoretical review in accordance with way of thinking is thought and altered as the Popper’s approach. This author conceived criti- vocabulary changes, so that the way in which cal rationalism as a kind of engine that drives to new virtual notions intervene in the way in discard the immutability of scientific knowledge. which people express themselves has weight in In effect, if empirical evidence is taken from, for behavior; the word alters the conscience and example, the high school classrooms, one could therefore the learning processes, as established by find innumerable failures of the students at the Andrade (2004). If on an ontological level; fol- level of the reading and writing in relation to the lowing the statements of Govea (2016), the study micro and macro structures of the texts, as well

as the critical understanding of them. Moreover, struction of new social representations and the it would be found that most students do not transformation of realities, in other words, leads feel any inclination for written language beyond to falsification. the school context or what may be useful in the social network space (Pineda, Lugo, & Arévalo, 4. Method and results 2016). Only this evidence would be sufficient to propose that the current concept of literacy is This work originates from a systematic docu- giving rise to wrong practices, so it is not prema- mentary review of the sources of official infor- ture to claim that it is obsolete. mation available in Venezuela in relation to Undoubtedly, the assumptions made by literacy practices inside and outside the school Popper (2008) are not far from the maxims context. It is worth noting that documentary related to un-learning. Un-learning is defined as research starts from the collection, organiza- the act of tracing the path marked by conceptual tion, analysis and interpretation of information assumptions, up to the immovable moments, to from bibliographic sources, either physical or reconstruct such assumptions according to new electronic (Colls, 1994). In this sense, we pro- needs and realities. Andrade (2005), indicates ceeded to delimit the topic, collect the informa- that “knowledge is awareness of the biological, tion, organize the data and develop a conceptual psychic, sensory, social and spiritual heterogene- scheme to finally complete the analysis of what ity of the knowing subject” (p.4). On a gnoseo- was found, as recommended by Morales (2003). logical level it would be affirmed that knowledge In this order of ideas, having defined is a product of man and his interaction with the the theme as the concept of literacy within the world, therefore, he is the responsible and archi- Venezuelan State, we began with a review of the tect of the cognitive transformations that may institutional web portals and official publica- or may not occur of the acceptance or rejection tions, as the document of the Robinson Mission of the parameters established in his action field. (2005), to then proceed to compare the informa- Obviously, the knowledge product of lan- tion obtained from this source with what was guage and configured through words can only presented in the official documents obtained be transformed or relearned by renaming the in the Educational Zone of the Falcón state, concepts. The same Andrade (2005) states that among them the Primary Education Subsystem “the subject is able to get rid of all his words Curriculum of the year 2007, the Pedagogical and re-word himself” (page 8) when he goes Orientations of the Ministry of Popular Power through the process of discarding what Cegarra for Education (MPPE) 2017-2018 and the and Rodrigo (2004) call obsolete or deceptive Memory and official account of the Ministry of knowledge. Popular Power for Education (2013). It is a question, then, not only of recov- From this collection, and having elabo- ering knowledge already enunciated by others rated the conceptual framework of the data, an but of constructing new knowledge and new analysis was derived in which several aspects ways of thinking through the critical and inten- could be evidenced. In the first place, it was clear tional questioning of what already exists. Piaget that there is no current and unified concept of lit- (quoted in Quiñónez, & Vélez, 2004) called this eracy in the official information sources outside an “imbalance”, in which almost instinctively the the methodological description of the Bolivarian individual formed a series of resistances aimed Literacy Campaign implemented since 1999, at protecting their belief systems. However, this which was directed only to the adult population same cognitive conflict, driven by disagreements and it was based on the guidelines conceived by or gaps in knowledge is what leads to the con- the Cuban method “I can do it”.

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It should be noted with respect to this through an important series of transformations particular point that, apart from the contradic- in terms of concept and methodology since the tory figures published by UNESCO and the last century. In fact, in Venezuela the teaching of Venezuelan Government (in 2015 UNESCO reading and writing has been addressed in pro- affirmed that the literacy rate in Venezuela is grams aimed at adolescents and adults outside 95.4% while the scarce official information avail- the school environment for at least 58 years. An able claim that the literacy rate in Venezuela is exploration of these extra-curricular programs 100%) there is no recent and concrete infor- can provide an idea of the concept of literacy that mation regarding this program, nor any file exists within the Venezuelan State and how it has of the teaching staff in charge of it in order to been changing to adapt to political developments corroborate. and the State’s guidelines. Secondly, another aspect to be highlighted For example, in 1958 after the fall of the is the lack of an official literacy concept emanat- Marcos Pérez Jiménez dictatorship, the program ing from the MPPE and, therefore, of results in Abajo Cadenas (Down with the chains) was cre- the absence of a method adapted to the specific ated, which was defined as a program for the needs of the Venezuelan population, which in “cultural redemption of the illiterate population” turn, causes this responsibility to fall to each (p. 7) and had two objectives, one cultural: “To teacher and decide the most appropriate method elevate the labor masses to incorporate them to apply, which can result inconsistencies in the immediately to the cultural, technical and eco- development of reading and writing among the nomic development demanded by the circum- student population, even within the same insti- stances in which the nation lives” (p. 9) and tution (Pineda et al., 2016). another political one: Likewise, it was evident in this review that the latest curricular reforms that occurred in Develop a healthy nationalism in the common Venezuela were more oriented towards reform- defense of our interests and appreciation of what ing the general structure of the studied subjects is ours; that is to say, a constructive national- in primary and secondary education, the con- ism that conditions in the conscience of the Venezuelan of today the feeling of overcoming figuration of the educational community and our depressing condition as a people; We will the topics to be tackled, and not the method of try to create an eminently national conscience teaching at any level (MPPE, 2017). among Venezuelans, rooted in their Venezuelan Finally, from this review it was possible to ideals and feelings that lead them to exalt our his- elaborate a historical route of the literacy pro- torical values, defend our economic patriotism grams in Venezuela, which served to illustrate, and promote a joint movement of all national in more detail, the evolution of the concept sectors in the purpose of eradicating misery and from the point of view of the policies of the ignorance. The Campaign will seek to lay the Venezuelan State. foundations of a truly independent nation in the future. (Misión Robinson, 2005, p.10)

5. A historical journey of Here illiteracy was already described as a literacy programs in source of misery and ignorance, as well as cultur- Venezuela al uprooting. In this program illiteracy deprives the citizen of the execution of their rights and The programs aimed at teaching written lan- duties with the nation, in productive and politi- guage to both adults and children in school and cal activities. To address this, the method of extra-school environments that has been imple- instruction of normal words was used, which is mented by the Venezuelan government have gone nothing more than the association of a basic or

generating word with an image and then decom- ment the National Literacy Program, first with posed into syllables and letters. This word must the Literacy Work of the INCE and then in 1989 be of frequent use by the apprentices and be with the Basic Literacy Course that included the directly linked to their context. Literacy in this following objectives: program is perceived as a mechanical process that did not encourage the independent creation Provide basic literacy to current and potential or understanding of the text as an instrument of workers. Develop a clear understanding of personal expression and growth; for the program national values and the demands of modern , the use of the written language is life in line with the country’s development Abajo Cadenas process. Contribute to the adjustment and a means to insert oneself in the economic devel- development of the personality of the partici- opment of the country. pants as members of an urban community in a With this initial step, literacy programs democracy. Develop reflective thinking, espe- were transformed, and in 1963 the National cially in relation to the approach of human Literacy Council was created with the objective relationships, social problems and work prob- of “integrating literacy and cultural extension lems. (Misión Robinson, 2005, p.57). programs with those of agricultural extension or job training, social promotion and environmen- It continues with the vision of literacy as tal sanitation.”(Misión Robinson, 2005, p.27). an instrument of insertion into the labor market Again, the practice of reading and writing is seen and will continue with it until the implementa- and managed from economic activities and not tion of the National Plan of attention to the adult from social interaction and cultural expression. population with basic learning needs - National It is intended in this program to teach reading Commission of literacy of 1994, that in this case and writing to future workers and not to indi- was handled by the Ministry of Education in viduals in search of means of expression and which a more humanistic and knowledge con- interaction. By 1979 the Cultural Association for struction vision was given. Development or ACUDE was created. It was a In 1999, the Bolivarian Literacy Campaign nonprofit association conceived by the private was launched, which in 2003 would give rise to sector for which education is “a lifelong process the Robinson Mission, a three-stage program: that transcends the school experience and can Literacy, Battle for the Sixth Grade, and Reading be developed by individuals or family groups” Circles, which was aimed at: (Misión Robinson, 2005, p.30). The ACUDE program changes the con- Eradicating illiteracy and achieve the pursuit ception of written language as something that is of the sixth grade of primary education in youth and adults nationally and internation- learned in order for a citizen to be able to work ally ensuring their political, social and produc- in an activity that is linked to all day-to-day con- tive inclusion in order to achieve higher levels texts, in the life of citizens and families, although of development and welfare in the most vul- it is still related to work and economic activities. nerable social groups in the country. (Memory Thus, it is during the application of ACUDE and account of the Ministry of Popular Power that the use of audiovisual media (recordings for Education, 2013, p. 45) and printed texts) for the teaching of written language is introduced, focusing its messages on In this program, illiteracy is a source of aspects of coexistence, health, hygiene and work exclusion and is an obstacle to the development performance. and welfare of social groups, which is why it is After this, the INCE (National Institute of the State’s policy to attack it. Training and Education) in 1985 began to imple-

Alteridad. 14(2), 256-266 263 Joamsner Magdalena Arévalo

With this in mind, the “Yo sí puedo” (Yes, In this order of ideas, it could be considered I can) program, developed by the Government as a current agreement that, if a literate individual of Cuba, is used in which audiovisual media is one who is able to socialize information pro- (videos, recordings, booklets) are implemented duced by society in different media, then an illiter- to train in a specific number of classes, divided ate would be one who, due to their abilities or lack into three stages. Thus, there are ten classes in thereof, is limited in their field of action and its the first stage and 42 in the second, at the end interaction with written information in its envi- of which the participants must be able to write ronment. In this line, the concepts and practices their names, recognize and write the numbers of literacy should be oriented towards providing 1-30, and construct simple sentences. At the end people with these tools to be actively inserted in of the third stage of Mission Robinson, trainees society, so it transcends the learning of reading should be able to understand readings and write and writing to position itself in the teaching of simple texts. At this point the classes (11-12) skills of mastery and interaction with the world are directed to solve problems of spelling and through reading and writing (Leal, 2016). perform reading comprehension at a literal level. It can be seen in this way how the notion Final considerations of illiteracy, outside the context of formal education, has been changing over the years according If literacy involves a process of personal growth, to the programs that the State has implemented the un-learning of this concept through deduc- to address this phenomenon, although it always tive testing implies ensuring that this growth is emphasizes in its conception the excluding and adapted to the reality lived by each individual economically unproductive character of the con- and the social group of which he or she is a part dition of illiteracy. of, which is a process that should never stop as It is pertinent to affirm that these prem- social dynamics do not stop either. ises are equally applicable to literacy practices Over the years, the concept of literacy within primary education settings, as already in Venezuela has been far removed from the pointed out, there is no concept or unified lit- true communicative nature of written language eracy practice in Venezuela that emanates from practice, focusing more on learning skills for the Ministry of Popular Power for Education, conducting economic activities. This has resulted being under the responsibility and professional in individuals perceiving writing or reading as preparation of teachers the strategies for teach- a work or educational obligation, as something ing reading and writing in the classroom. that is carried out to fulfill some requirement or Thus, as there is no consensus on what assignment and not as a means to express them- literacy practices should be within the school, selves and connect with their environment. there is also no uniform route adapted to the This initial exploration of the main theo- Venezuelan reality that gives children the tools retical and epistemological aspects related to to seize the written language and use it as vehicle literacy highlight the need to continue in the for their personal development and, therefore, study of this practice from the point of view to contribute to national progress. On the con- of un-learning and critical testing of concepts, trary, it is evident that graduates of primary and in order to travel the path that will lead to the secondary education are dragging comprehen- elaboration of a new conception that encour- sion and written production problems that, in ages literacy practices at the school and extra- most cases, prevent them from participating and school level that cultivates writers and readers, interacting efficiently within their community and not simply individuals who codify and through writing. decode their language.

The ultimate goal is to use the notions Franco, A. (2000). Pragmática y gramática comunicativa. here proposed as an initial roadmap for a future Utopía y praxis latinoamericana, 5(9), 81-93. deeper investigation into the literacy practices in Govea, L. (2016). Significaciones y prácticas de lit- Venezuela, an inquiry that can initiate a trans- eracidad de los docentes en el ámbito uni- formation of current behaviors towards others in versitario como base para la creación de una Tesis which all that human beings can achieve through metodología de lectura en su contexto. para optar al grado de Doctor en Educación written language is fully appreciated. en la Universidad Pedagógica Experimental Libertador Instituto Pedagógico Rural Bibliographical references “Gervasio Rubio”. Harmer, J. (2000). Teaching English lenguaje Andrade, R. (2004). Hacia una gnoseología del des- [Enseñando el idioma inglés]. México: aprendizaje consciente. Los tatuajes de la McGraw-Hill. palabra y la consciencia de los tatuajes. Ministerio para el poder popular para la educación Fermentum, 14(39), 28-52. (2013). Memoria y cuenta. Caracas. Andrade, R. (2005). Hacia una gnoseología del des- Ministerio para el poder popular para la educa- aprendizaje consciente: Principios para ción (2007). Currículo del Subsistema de desaprender en el contexto de la comple- Educación Primaria. Caracas. jidad. Revista Electrónica de Investigación Ministerio para el poder popular para la educa- Educativa, 7(2). ción (2017). Orientaciones Pedagógicas Año Brown, D. (2007). Principles of language learning and Escolar 2017-2018. Caracas. teaching. Inglaterra: Longman. Morales, O. (2003). Fundamentos de la investigación Cassany, D. (1999). Construir la escritura. Barcelona: documental y la monografía. Manual para la Paidós Iberica. elaboración y la presentación de la Monografía. Cassany, D. (2003). Escritura electrónica. C & E, Mérida: Consejo de Publicaciones de la ULA. 15(3), 239-251. Misión Robinson (2005). Yo sí puedo. Educere, 9(28), Cassany, D., & Morales, O. (2008). Leer y escribir en 9-18. (https://bit.ly/2LOJ80p) (2016/10/08). la universidad: Hacia la lectura y la escri- Ortiz, M. (2007). La alfabetización inicial en la escuela. tura crítica de géneros científicos. Barcelona: Caracas: IESALC-UNESCO. Universitat Pompeu-Fabra. Pineda, C., Lugo, M., & Arévalo, J. (2016). Diagnóstico Cegarra, J., & Rodrigo, B. (2004). Desaprendizaje para el proyecto “La escuela y la lengua individual: Un paso previo a la creación del escrita”. Proyecto de Investigación avalado capital relacional. Cuad. Adm., 17(27), 11-32. por el Decanato de Investigación UNEFM. Colls, M. (1994). Introducción a la investigación docu- Coro, Venezuela: Universidad Nacional mental. Mérida: Consejo de publicaciones de Experimental Francisco de Miranda. la ULA. Popper, K. (2008). La lógica de la investigación cientí- Crystal, D. (2011). A dictionary of language. Chicago: fica. Madrid: Tecnos. University of Chicago Press. Quiñónez, J., & Vélez, C. (2004). Algunas condiciones Echeverría, J. (1989). Introducción a la metodología de pedagógicas para la formación de la investi- la ciencia. Barcelona: Barcanova. gación en la universidad. Actualidades educa- Ferreiro, E., & Gómez, M. (2002). Nuevas perspectivas tivas en investigación, 4(1), 2-27. sobre el proceso de lectura y escritura. México: Richards, J., & Schmidt, R. (2013). A dictionary of lan- Siglo XXI editores. guage teaching and applied linguistics. Nueva Ferreiro, E., & Teberosky, A. (1991). Los sistemas de York: Routledge. escritura en el desarrollo del niño. México: Siglo XXI editores.

Alteridad. 14(2), 256-266 265 july - december 2019 p-ISSN:1390-325X / e-ISSN:1390-8642 Vol. 14, No. 2,266-276 http://alteridad.ups.edu.ec https://doi.org/10.17163/alt.v14n2.2019.10 Model United Nations: a constructivist tool

Modelo de Naciones Unidas: una herramienta constructivista

Fernando David Márquez Duarte is a teacher in Regional Development at the National Pedagogical University (Mexico) ([email protected]) (https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5653-5002)

Received: 2019-01-07 / Reviewed: 2019-03-21 / Accepted: 2019-05-27 / Published: 2019-07-01

Abstract frame have proven to be crucial for the results that In the following document, the research about these exercises foster in the participants. the study case of the Model United Nations (MUN) Keywords: Education, constructivism, MUN, capa- in a group of students of the Master’s Degree in bilities, environmental education, pedagogy. Education: Environment Education Field (MECEA) of the National Pedagogy University (UPN) Mexicali is Resumen presented. This research is relevant for the education En el presente documento se presenta la investig- study field, specifically from a constructivist approach ación realizada sobre el caso de estudio del Modelo de and from the critical pedagogy, because it is analyzed Naciones Unidas (MUN) en un grupo de estudiantes de the importance of MUN as a pedagogic tool to foster la Maestría en Educación: Campo Educación ambiental knowledge and capabilities in the students, developing (MECEA) de la Universidad Pedagógica Nacional (UPN) a critical consciousness. The research has been con- Mexicali. Esta investigación presenta relevancia para el ducted entirely with a qualitative focus of study case campo de estudio de la educación, específicamente desde with an ethnographic method, including instruments as un enfoque constructivista, así como desde la pedagogía participatory observation, semi-structured interviews crítica, ya que se analiza la pertinencia de los MUNs and field journal. The main findings reached are that como herramienta pedagógica para fomentar cono- in the study case analyzed, MUNs have shown to be cimientos y capacidades en los educandos, desarrollando a useful pedagogic tool to foster and practice knowl- una conciencia crítica. La investigación realizada ha sido edge about environmental education, environmental conducida enteramente con un enfoque cualitativo de impact, international cooperation, the 2030 agenda, caso de estudio con un método etnográfico, incluyendo as well as necessary capabilities for an environmental instrumentos como la observación participativa, entrevis- educator, such as negotiation, public speaking, formal tas semi-estructuradas y diario de campo. Las principales language and debate. Aspects of the MUN like role- conclusiones a las que se llegaron son que en el caso de playing, Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) and estudio los MUNs han mostrado ser una herramienta the interactions between participants in a diplomatic pedagógica útil para fomentar y poner en práctica cono-

SSuggested form of citing: Márquez Duarte, F. (2019). Model United Nations: a constructivist tool. Alteridad, 14(2), 266-276. https://doi.org/10.17163/alt.v14n2.2019.10 Model United Nations:a constructivist tool

cimientos sobre educación ambiental, impacto ambiental, las interacciones entre participantes dentro de un marco cooperación internacional, la agenda 2030, entre otros, diplomático han mostrado ser cruciales para los resulta- así como capacidades necesarias para un educador dos que estos ejercicios fomentan en sus participantes. ambiental como la negociación, el hablar en público, el Descriptores:Educación, constructivismo, MUN, lenguaje formal y el debate. Aspectos del MUN como capacidades, educación ambiental, pedagogía. el juego de rol, la Zona de Desarrollo Próximo (ZDP) y

als of Vygotsky, as well as Piaget as a comple- 1. Introduction and state ment. On the other hand, the postulates of of the art critical pedagogy are analyzed based on Freire’s postulates. In pedagogical studies, one of the great theo- Constructivism proposes that people cre- retical proposals is the constructivist one. In a ate their own learning, so that knowledge is current scenario, this theory has become cen- not imposed from outside the individual, but tral in different educational models around the is formed within. In constructivism students world. This document presents the result of must structure situations where they partici- the use of the United Nations Model (UNM) pate actively through social interaction (Schunk, as a constructivist tool for learning and put- 1997). ting knowledge and skills into practice in a Constructivists declare that thought takes group of students in the Master’s in Education: place in situations (which Piaget calls cognitive Environmental Education Field (MECEA) conflicts) and that people construct knowledge the National Pedagogical University (UPN) in based on their experiences in these situations Mexicali, Baja California (BC), Mexico. (Bredo cited in Schunk, 1997). According to this Considering that this research is carried theory, motivation depends on the cognitive out within a postgraduate framework of envi- activity when interacting with social factors and ronmental education, it is important to consider the forms of teaching, including means of sup- the concept of environmental education, which port and language (Sivan cited in Schunk, 1997). is understood as: Although Piaget and Vygotsky have oppos- The educational action by which the edu- ing ideas, they converge on the essence of the cational community tends to become aware constructivist model, where the student discov- of its global reality, the type of relationships ers a range of knowledge, skills and opportuni- that humans establish with each other and ties, fostered by the teacher’s guidance, through with nature, the problems derived from these situations or controversies. relationships and their root causes ... (Tamayo For Piaget, learning becomes tangible cited Aguirre Ibarra & Mata González, 2011, when learners experience a cognitive conflict page 61). and assimilate it to build or modify internal structures. The pedagogue argued that it was Other central aspects in environmen- necessary to provoke controversies so that the tal education are encouraging citizens to have student obtained learning, since, for him, devel- intercultural awareness, global awareness and opment occurs when the cognitive structures to be agents of collective social change (Mata of the syudent collide with the stimuli from González, & Aguirre Ibarra, 2007). outside. This situation is encouraged by posing The discussion about the postulates and problems to students, so that they can solve them the essence of constructivism that are discussed (Schunk, 1997). It is important to highlight that in this document, come mainly from the propos- when raising problems for students, knowledge

Alteridad. 14(2), 266-276 267 Fernando David Márquez Duarte

and skills that have been previously transmit- and historical processes that have led us to these ted by the teacher are put into practice. Piaget conjunctures. This postulate also reinforces what also poses the need for social interaction, so that Piaget proposes in a constructivist model; that the learner understands that there are different students present situations or controversies that points of view, making them become less ego- lead them to generate awareness with the aim of centric (Schunk, 1997). achieving a more comprehensive learning, in a For his part, Vygotsky argues that the more practical way. interaction of social, historical-contextual and One of the central aspects for this docu- individual factors results in the development ment on the constructivist model is the Zone of the individual. For Vygotsky, the importance of proximal development (ZPD), this concept of interactions lies in the fact that they allow is analyzed extensively in the works of Vygotsky individuals to transform their experiences based and is discussed below, including its importance on their knowledge, to restructure the knowl- for the case study of this investigation. The ZPD edge they obtain and previously had. Vygotsky can be defined as the zone that comprises the argues that it is impossible to separate learning range or spectrum between the current level of and development from the context in which they development of an individual, determined by are inserted (Schunk, 1997). This postulate has the independent solution of problems, and the a close relationship with the postulates of Freire level of development that can reach (potential), (1970), since, for the Brazilian, to educate is to determined by means of the solution of prob- create a situation where the individual learns to lems with the support of a guide, these being a become aware of their environment by himself, teacher or individuals with a higher level of abil- with the aid of the educator that functions as ity (Vygotsky cited in Schunk, 1997). guide. Vygotsky and Freire converge on the fact The learner internalizes knowledge and/ that the student through interactions with his or abilities due to interactions with other indi- environment is the one who must become aware viduals with which he takes part, creating a and learn. The educator, based on these postu- cognitive change. In the ZDP, learners use their lates, works as a guide, does not impose knowl- own perception and understanding of social edge, but supports the learner’s awareness of interactions to translate these experiences into their reality according to their perception, which meanings, integrating an understanding of situ- for both authors must be critical. ations, which allows them to perform tasks that One of Vygotsky’s main arguments is that they could not independently perform. knowledge is constructed through the inter- In a ZPD, the participating individuals (in nalization of mental actions and processes that a given context) obtain greater learning, knowl- occur through social interactions (Schunk, 1997). edge and/or abilities by stimulating and sup- This postulate is extremely relevant for this work, porting interactions with the other participants since in the UNM (which will be explained later) (Kempston, & Thomas, 2014). As can be analyzed, social interactions have a crucial role in the a crucial part of the ZPD is what relates to social learning and skills practiced and generated in the interactions; Vygotsky’s constructivist postulates exercise. In this line it is important to revisit the have this concept in a central consideration, since postulates of liberating education proposed by interactions are what allow individuals to achieve Freire (1970), which the pedagogue presents as greater development as individuals. a problematizing education, which seeks to gen- Continuing with the discussion of theo- erate awareness among learners, with dialogue retical postulates relevant to the case study of being a central element to create awareness, this document, it is necessary to return to the stimulating reflection about the conjunctures postulates of Freire (1970). The Brazilian peda-

gogue proposes a pedagogy of “becoming aware”, This means that it is constructed through the which must use a critical and dialogical method perception and elaboration of reality through and must use innovative techniques to ensure the individuals involved, that is, the critical that the individual reaches the goal of critical conscience is not only an issue that the educa- pedagogy which, according to Freire, is emanci- tors present to the students and they take notes. pation. Developing a critical conscience implies For learners to develop a critical awareness it is political participation for the Brazilian, since necessary that they carry out practices and exer- it implies a capacity for decision and commit- cises that allow them to carry out these elabora- ment to society. As can be seen, the postulates of tions with the context, so that they themselves, critical pedagogy have a strong collective focus, with the help of a guide (who would be the seeking that students seek the collective benefit educator), build this awareness. and not the individual, so the dialogical aspect In this way, instead of considering critical becomes even more important. In this same line, thinking as a purely abstract cognitive process, Freire (1970) considers active methods to gener- Rockwell (1999) presents it as a cultural prac- ate an awareness in the students, where a critical tice, which is constructed in a particular way capacity is developed in the individuals through depending on the context. For this reason, critical collective debate, through challenging situations consciousness cannot be pigeonholed only in a that are posed by the educator. This interaction context of formal education, but can be developed is proposed as a dialogical relationship, not an in non-traditional spaces, where alternative inter- imposition of ideas; a horizontal relationship of pretations of reality are represented or discussed. discussion of ideas to arrive at more comprehen- But this discussion leads to questioning: What sive and inclusive reflections. kind of educational instrument or practice can Combining the development of a critical make learners build this critical consciousness? conscience, it is proposed that it begins with an One answer to this questioning may be the UNM. inner awareness of each individual; of its essence In the UNMs, one of the most developed as a product of a historical process developed to skills is critical awareness and decision-making, the present (Gramsci cited in Rockwell, 1999). this assertion is made since a master’s thesis However, it is important to clarify that Rockwell research has been carried out in which the capac- (1999), taking up Vygotsky’s postulates, empha- ities fostered by the UNMs are analyzed, among sizes that external perceptions are not assimi- other issues (Márquez Duarte, 2018), therefore lated or determine entirely the learning and/or the postulates of critical pedagogy sustain the knowledge of individuals, but that individuals importance of exercises such as the case study create their own knowledge and generate a par- that is analyzed in this document. Likewise, the ticular consciousness combining the perceptions dynamics of the UNM that is explained below, of their context and their previous knowledge has a constructivist component in its center. and ideas, however the pedagogue declares that The United Nations Models (UNM) can the cultural representations of individuals con- be defined as simulations to learn the forms stitute an important part of critical thinking. and objectives of international cooperation and Rockwell (1999) states that learners international decision-making (Patterson, 1996). internalize the tools and knowledge perceived On the other hand, if UNMs are analyzed as a in their social contexts. However, the pedagogue political simulation, they can be understood as a argues that critical thinking is not only an model of a part of reality, usually a situation of abstract cognitive skill, but, for her, it is a mat- decision making and conflict resolution, with the ter of real thought. The author’s claim that it is objective of learning about the interaction and a real thought, not an abstract cognitive issue. processes of the simulated situation (DiCamillo,

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& Gradwell, 2013). A third way of understand- fosters the development of empathy for alter- ing the UNMs is as simulation models; these native perspectives and ideas, as well as previ- are a replica or operational model of reality, ously unknown points of view, in this way the which seeks to recreate a situation. By doing so, participants increase their understanding and it is possible to know the process of choosing the that of others. The role of role-playing in UNMs involved actors and learn from said processes has been highlighted in previous research, pay- (Díaz, 2016; Patterson, 1996). These models ing attention to its usefulness as a pedagogical allow participants to learn about realities that tool (Agarwal, 2014, Chasek, 2005, Kempston, & are different to their national reality, and also Thomas, 2014). allow them to contrast problems and possible A subject that is highly practiced in the solutions, making it possible to find new ways UNMs is the process of cross-cultural under- to resolve international situations based on dia- standing, as well as the practice of the diplo- logue, consensus and peace (HMUN, s/F). matic protocol, including the processes of the From an educational approach, the UNMs simulated organisms, these issues generate an contribute positively to citizen education in the extremely valuable learning experience for the school, making a difference in terms of knowl- participants (Márquez Duarte, 2018; Obendorf, edge of public issues, from local to international & Randerson, 2012). The idea of cross-cultural level, their values and the motivation to exercise understanding refers to the understanding and citizen participation, this type of training is also empathy between people of different cultures, known as democratic schooling (Coviello, 2010; factors that foster tolerance, negotiation and Print, 2007). cooperation. Within this logic, cross-cultural For the purposes of this document, the understanding goes hand in hand with the vision following concept is used for the UNMs based on called “global citizenship”. Global citizen as a previous academic work (Márquez, 2017): “sim- focus, is one that consists in creating an aware- ulation” events of International Organizations ness in individuals of promoting a social change, (OI) and/or legislative bodies. In these models, without imposing a vision of how that change the participants represent the Ambassador of should be, this is achieved through the creation a country or NGO or a legislator, where they of safe spaces to analyze and experience other present an official position (result of a previous forms of think in others and interact with oth- investigation), with which, through dialogue, ers. It is about empowering individuals to have a debate, persuasion, they seek to reach a project more comprehensive and inclusive vision of the of resolution, the first stage being a worksheet. world, without imposing a vision (de Andreotti, As it is perceived by the presented defi- 2014). In such an internationalized outlook, nition, the participants of these simulations global citizenship has taken on great importance assume a specific role, with which they have to within the international society, favoring educa- play throughout the UNM. This characteristic tion with a global vision. means that the participants have to investigate Likewise, within environmental educa- the relevant information to be able to fulfill the tion, Rodríguez (2011) declares that the pro- assigned role and they can have an experience of cesses of socialization in the school generate greater learning within the simulation. This type awareness in students about the relationships of simulations have the distinction of being “role of the individual and their context; in this way play”. Role play simulations allow participants to the UNM, by the role of social interactions in it, put themselves in the place of others and have a becomes a constructivist pedagogical tool very broader view of the situations addressed. This useful in environmental education.

2. Method can be “Mexico considers that ...”, “We analyze the situation ...” 4. To speak, one must raise the As it has been previously addressed, in the placard and wait for the committee moderator to UNM, the participants represent a specific role, give you the floor. 5. The time limit for each par- in this case study, the participants were stu- ticipation is one minute (maximum), in the case dents of the master’s degree in education; envi- of reading positions it is two minutes. 6. In order ronmental education field (MECEA) of the to communicate between delegates, diplomatic National Pedagogical University (UPN) Unit notes are used, direct communication between 021 in Mexicali, Baja California, Mexico and delegates is not allowed, except for the simple represented the ambassador of a country. The caucus. 7. There are two main types of proce- students were informed about the committee to dures: moderated Caucus and simple Caucus. be simulated and the topic more than a month In the moderated caucus, the participants raise in advance, as well as the rules to be used in their placard for the moderator to give them the simulation. They were also asked to submit the floor. In the simple caucus, participants can an official position paper, based on a previous get up and talk with other participants more investigation on the subject and the specific role informally. 8. To approve a worksheet, a vote is of each of them. taken, which is approved by simple majority. 9. The simulated committee was UNESCO To approve a preliminary draft of a resolution, (United Nations Organization for Education, a vote is taken, which is approved by a qualified Science and Culture), which is one of the com- majority (2/3 parts). mittees of the United Nations (UN). As students The UNM was given a weight for the of environmental education, UNESCO was cho- qualification of the subject, so that the work and sen because it is the committee in charge of all effort put towards the UNM was reflected in the educational issues of the UN, and to focus their grades and that there was a greater incen- the exercise on their master, the topic of the sim- tive for the preparation of part of the students. ulation was: Relevance of environmental educa- Since there was a class with the group per week, tion within the framework of the 2030 agenda of with a duration of approximately 2 hours and the United Nations Organization. The group was 45 minutes, a full session was dedicated to ana- composed of seven adult students who had never lyze and discuss two academic articles about the participated in a UNM, and I served as modera- UNM as a pedagogical tool, so that the students tor du to being the group’s teacher. could understand the pertinence of the exercise The rules that were used in the simulation in their training, as well as so that they had a were as follows (it is worth clarifying that the more integral understanding of it. In that same rules may vary slightly from simulation to simu- session, the rules were explained, which the stu- lation, since this UNM was done in class, with dents already had written about a month before, an approximate time of two and a half hours in likewise, the countries that each of them would total, the rules were adapted in order to achieve represent in the simulation were distributed. the best performance in the specific context of This session was held three weeks before the the group): 1. Formal attire or, as the case may be, simulation. Two weeks after that session, approx- typical clothing of the country. 2. The language is imately half of a session (one hour and a half) formal and grandiloquent words are prohibited. was spent in clarifying doubts and performing a 3. The use of the 1st. person singular is forbid- simulation test so that the students were better den, that is, it is forbidden to say “I think”, since prepared for the exercise. The criteria that were a country or delegation is being represented not taken into account for the individual evaluation a single individual. The allowed form of language of the UNM participants were the official posi-

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tion document, the number of participations, were related to reach agreements, to know other the quality of the participants and the diplomatic points of view, to work collectively and know the behavior and adherence to the rules. OI processes. To perform the case study analysis, an One of the participants declares that entirely qualitative research model was used, “Something else that I found very interest- with a strong ethnographic approach (Creswell, ing was the contributions of the classmates, 2003), using participatory observation tools to know a little about the situation in China, (with the support of a field diary), as well as Brazil, Germany ... I realize that the perception semi-directive interviews. Some of the inter- of people is different” (Participant 1, personal views were conducted in person and others were interview). What was stated by participant 1 is done in writing, sent and received by email, on relevant to this research, since it is translated as dates after the UNM. Of the seven participat- the development of cross-cultural understanding ing students, six of them answered the interview capacity, which has been discussed before, and questions. is a valuable capacity for an educator, since the It is important to argue that the type of educator has to know how to interact and train study that was carried out is that of a clinical students from different cultures at the same time, subtype case study, since specific cases are ana- while generating empathy. Regarding the issue of lyzed in a limited fashion in a bounded situation, reaching agreements and working collectively: this type of study is used to analyze individuals “... I felt that some colleagues were going to have from complex groups (such as UNM), the valid- problems, but apparently it was not the case, ity lies in the intensive study of the cases (Gomm everything went very well, and I think I learned cited in Márquez Duarte, 2018). a lot, how to reach an agreement to reach an It is worth noting that traditionally the objective for the benefit of all” (Participant 2, UNMs are made for students of higher or upper personal interview). In this case, participant 2 secondary education. Previously, I participated highlights the cooperation that was developed by as an organizer in UNM at both levels, but this the participants, in a diplomatic manner, seeking case study constituted the first UNM carried out to make decisions for a collective benefit, with- at the graduate level, a factor that gives relevance out imposing ideas, through social interactions, to research and that has determined certain as previously discussed with the Constructivists results of the research. postulates, especially Vygotsky. Being able to dialogue and make decisions together are extremely 3. Analysis and results of the valuable personal and professional skills, especially as an educator, since being in front of a case study group is necessary to know how to mediate and The UNM was held in a session, dedicated entire- achieve an environment with the least possible ly to the exercise, with a duration of approxi- conflicts. mately two hours and 30 minutes. One of the questions that were asked to As first observations of the exercise it was the participants was about the concepts and/ perceived that the students dressed in formal or knowledge that they put into practice in the clothes, all read their official position; they had UNM, since, being in the second half of the good proposals and the discussion was diplo- master’s degree in environmental education, matic and respectful. Regarding the perceptions one of the main objectives was that they put in of the participants in general about the UNM, practice the knowledge obtained in the classes there were varied opinions, however, the gen- so far, in subjects related to environmental edu- eral topics that were mentioned by the students cation. In this topic the participants declared

that they put into practice their knowledge and One of the most important aspects of the preparation on environmental education, envi- UNM to analyze its usefulness and effective- ronmental impact, international cooperation, ness as a pedagogical tool with a constructivist the 2030 agenda, dialogue and protocol/rules approach is to know what capacities it fosters that are followed in OI and international sum- in the participants. In a previous investigation mits. Regarding this questioning, it is important (Márquez Duarte, 2018) it is proved that the to emphasize that dialogue (negotiation and UNM promotes a series of capacities in its par- tolerance), as well as following rules/protocols ticipants, so it was pertinent to know what capac- (discipline) are considered as capacities that can ities it fostered in the specific case of this research be developed by participating in UNM, which (students of the MECEA). In the aforementioned differ from knowledge, taking into account that research, that the UNMs can promote a total of capabilities are defined as follows: “The capacity 19 capacities were noted, these 19 capacities were of a person reflects the alternative combinations those indicated by the interviewed individuals that the person can achieve, and from which (18 students or university graduates). Since the he or she can choose a set” (Sen, 1993, p.31). case study of the present research is from a group That is, the capabilities are “the combination of adult graduate students, 15 capacities were of alternatives of the realizations that an indi- selected from which the participants could select vidual can accomplish to achieve his well-being those that they believe were promoted by the and achieve the desired development” (Márquez UNM. The following chart shows the capacities Duarte, 2018, p.50). indicated by the MECEA students:

Chart 1. Capacities fostered by students in MECEA students

Frecuencia Capacidades Frecuencia Capacidades Frecuencia Public speaking 5 Organization 2 Research 3 Cross-cultural Negotiation 4 Discipline 4 2 understanding Teamwork 4 Debate 5 Self-confidence 4 Tolerance 3 Formal language 6 Decision making 3 Working under Writing formal 2 1 Empathy 4 pressure documents Source: Own elaboration with results of the field work. The most popular skills developed among so this capacity building was transversal, not in the MECEA students were: the formal language, isolation between one or another capacity. followed by the ability to debate, as well as An important aspect about the UNM is speaking in public. On the ability to speak in the interaction of the participants, due to this the public, for example, one of the students points students of the MECEA were asked if they con- out: “To speak in public, in my opinion, one sidered that the interaction with the other par- requires prior knowledge, organization, disci- ticipants in the UNM had effects on their experi- pline, research and formal language” (Participant ence, indicating the reason for their response. It 3, personal interview). The student states that the should be noted that all the interviewees stated UNM fostered the ability to speak in public, and that the interaction in the UNM had an effect that in turn this capacity requires research capac- on their experience as participants. Some of ity, formal language, discipline and organization, the students’ responses about the effect of the interactions were: “Yes. The exercise allows us to

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see not only from our perspective, but also from preparation and the previous tests. They stated the other’s perspectives” (Participant 4, personal that they would have liked to have more sessions interview). “To perform the exercise, it required and more time to rehearse the UNM and prepare the collaboration of almost all participants; this better for their participation in it. led us to work as a team and with a proac- It is worth clarifying that it is considered tive attitude” (Participant 3, personal interview). (with the results obtained in the research) that “Yes, since it helped me to listen to the different the UNMs can function as an articulating exercise positions and situations that other nations are of an adequate training for educators, in this case living” (Participant 5, personal interview). environmental. To support this argument, the What the students refer to about the Delors report (1996) presents interesting postu- interaction is relevant to the research, since it lates; the report highlights the four pillars of edu- evidences the constructivist approach of the cation: learning to know, learning to be, learning UNM; as discussed in the state of the art, the to do and learning to coexist. Of the four pillars, solution of problems collectively, with a guide the pillar of learning to live with others/coexist is (in this case the moderator) is a clear example of special relevance for this research. In this pil- of the constructivist postulates, especially of lar, an education that allows to solve conflicts in Vygotsky. One of these postulates is the ZPD, a peaceful and harmonious way, promoting the which was previously discussed and materialized knowledge of others, is sought. This is difficult to in the simulation dynamics of the UNM, where achieve since a large number of individuals tend the learners themselves through dialogue, debate to belittle and have prejudices against those who and teamwork come to propose solutions to the are different from them, reacting with aggression defined problem, always with a guide (modera- to the “other” as a result of ignorance and fear of tor). Likewise, by touching on issues such as gen- that “other”. In the UNM, cross-cultural under- erating empathy, cross-cultural understanding standing is encouraged as discussed above. This and teamwork, which are useful and required capacity seeks empathy and harmonious coex- skills as a human being, as well as an educator, istence to avoid and resolve conflicts, therefore the UNMs constitute relevant pedagogical tools, helpiong the task of educators, especially by the especially as an environmental educator. In this pillars pointed out by Delors. regard it is important to highlight the symbolic interaction approach (Goffman, 2006), since 4. Conclusions it can be used as a basis to analyze the changes that the UNMs generate when modifying behav- The UNM carried out with MECEA students has ior (Márquez Duarte, 2018). This approach is been a pedagogical exercise with a constructivist explained as the role or roles that each one of us approach that has allowed us to study a specific adopts as individuals in certain scenarios and/or case of its application as an instrument to gener- situations. In the UNM the specific role of dele- ate learning and, above all, capacity development gate is assumed, which determines the behaviors, in its participants. Although the UNM have been knowledge and skills developed in the exercise carried out as an educational exercise with stu- and which, as Goffman states, are internalized in dents for some decades now, they are usually car- the individual, even if the UNM ends. ried out with students of high school and college, A final question asked to the students of so the case studied, being a group of graduate the MECEA was if they would change any aspect students, is a peculiar and interesting case that of the UNM to generate more learning/utility. yields clues and conclusions that contribute to At this point, most of the interviewees pointed knowledge in the field of education. out that what they would change is the time of

As it was seen in the previous section, the UNMs materialize as an “active” method (as pro- field work showed that the students declared posed by Freire), where students develop their having learned knowledge related to subjects of own consciousness through situations that are their study program (environmental education), posed by the educator, without the knowledge as well as the dynamics of the UNM, which, as or the specific point of view about the context previously discussed, has a strong constructiv- or the situation of the educator being imposed, ist focus. Beyond knowledge, the development since the educator only acts as a moderator, of skills that students declare to have obtained allowing the UNM to become a space where the in the UNM is extremely valuable. Among the students themselves generate awareness, skills most developed skills by the MECEA students and knowledge from their interaction and their are: formal language, debate, public speaking, own understanding, arriving at more compre- negotiation, empathy and teamwork. hensive and inclusive reflections, and constitut- As can be seen, developing a global and ing itself as a method that helps the participants intercultural awareness and citizenship, the to become agents of change. interactions between individuals and their con- Another consideration in the conclusion text, collectively finding solutions to problems, of this work is to recapitulate the importance as well as transforming themselves into agents of role play in the UNM and the ZDP from a of change are main points that are worked on in constructivist approach; As can be seen in the the UNMs and that have been addressed in this fieldwork section, the fact that the participants paper. Likewise, as discussed above, the UNMs had to represent specific roles (Ambassador of a are beneficial for the development of capacities country) and interact with others who also had such as cross-cultural understanding, global citi- roles generated knowledge and positive learning zenship, empathy, dialogue, negotiation, among in the students, supporting the discussion pre- others, which, as analyzed in the case study of sented in the previous section on how the UNM this research, are extremely important for an is a constructivist tool, following the postulates educator, and especially for an environmental of both Piaget and Vygotsky. educator, since what is promoted by the UNMs As final thoughts on the UNM, it is worth is in line with the environmental values that rep- highlighting that, in this case of study, although resent the essence of environmental education, the UNM lasted only 2 and a half hours (and a such as dialogue, plurality, empathy and coex- 15-minute break), it was possible to negotiate istence (Aguirre Ibarra, & Mata González, 2011, and write a worksheet, which is the outline of Rodríguez Pinson, 2011). a draft resolution document, so called because In this same line, it is worth highlighting in the UN resolutions are reached to attack the the usefulness of the UNM as a tool for the inte- problems in the international community. A clear gration of social interactions between individu- example of a draft resolution is the Declaration als in the school, as well as the development of as a result of the UN Sustainable Development critical awareness. Summit, from which emerged the 17 Sustainable On this subject it is important to return Development Goals (SDGs) in 2015. to the postulates of Freire analyzed in the state It is important to clarify that this research of the art: The UNMs, being a pedagogical tool has been a specific case study, so the results where awareness and critical capacity is devel- should not be generalized to apply to any other oped in individuals through dialogue, debate case study. However, this research serves as a basis and negotiation, allows learners to generate their for more research with more cases of study and own knowledge and understanding of social, greater resources (material, human and time), political and economic situations, so that the with the aim of continuing to analyze UNMs as

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a pedagogical method, from a constructivist and HMUN (s/f). HMUN: About Us. critical pedagogy approach. (https://bit.ly/2HhGfmn) (20-11-2016). Kempston, T., & Thomas, N. (2014). The Drama of International Relations: A South China Sea Bibliographical references Simulation. International Studies Perspectives, (4), 459-476. Agarwal, J. K. (2014). Impact of Model United 15 https://doi.org/10.1111/insp.12045 Nations Conferences on India’s Youth. Márquez, F. (2017). Los Modelos de Naciones Unidas, OIDA International Journal of Sustainable su cooperación trasnacional y la partici- Development, 7(8), 6. (https://bit.ly/2TUhVZu). pación ciudadana juvenil. Aguirre Ibarra, M. C., & Mata González, E. (2011). Muuch’ Xiímbal: (4), 193-226. La ética: Punto de encuentro de la educa- Caminemos Juntos, (https://bit.ly/2FvKd9l). ción ambiental y el ser profesional. Espiral, Márquez Duarte, F. (2018). Participación ciudada- Revista de Docencia e Investigación, 1(1), 55-66. https://doi.org/10.15332/erdi.v1i1.106 na juvenil en Baja California, México y Chasek, P. S. (2005). Power Politics, Diplomacy California, Estados Unidos: el caso de los . (M.A.). México: and Role Playing: Simulating the UN Modelos de Naciones Unidas El Colegio de la Frontera Norte, Tijuana, B.C. Security Council’s Response to Terrorism. Mata González, E., & Aguirre Ibarra, M. C. (2007). International Studies Perspectives, 6(1), 1-19. Desarrollo sustentable actual: una reconside- https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1528-3577.2005.00190.x ración desde la educación ambiental. Espíritu Coviello, A. (2010). When standardized test success científico en acción, 3(6), 26-34. represents survival: Creating opportunities Obendorf, S., & Randerson, C. (2012). The Model for democratic participatory development in United Nations simulation and the student as class 5-340 (PhD). Columbia University, New producer agenda. York. (https://bit.ly/2FwEgsM). Enhancing Learning in the Social Sciences, 4(3). (https://bit.ly/2Mf4Jvz). Creswell, J. W. (2003). Research design: Qualitative, Patterson, J. R. (1996). Model United Nations simula- quantitative, and mixed methods approaches (Vol. 4). CA: Sage Thousand Oaks. tions: An inquiry into active learning, role- de Andreotti, V. O. (2014). Soft versus critical glo- playing, and role identification as they impact participants’ sense of political efficacy (Ph.D.). bal citizenship education. Development edu- USA: Ann Arbor. (https://bit.ly/2RX0ud8). cation in policy and practice 3(1), 40-51. Print, M. (2007). Citizenship Education and Youth (https://bit.ly/2vMkGng). Participation in Democracy. British Journal of Delors, J. (1996). Los cuatro pilares de la educación. Educational Studies, 55(3), 325-345. En J. Delors (Ed.), La educación encierra un https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8527.2007.00382.x tesoro (pp. 91-103). Santillana. UNESCO. Rockwell, E. (1999). Historical Consciousness Díaz, U. D. (2016). Modelos de Naciones Unidas : and Critical Thinking: Reflections on an una herramienta para la cultura de Indigenous Movement. The Journal of paz (Licenciatura). Ciudad de México: (3), 23. Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México. Educational Foundations, 13 Rodríguez Pinson, M. C. (2011). Hacia una construcción DiCamillo, L., & Gradwell, J. M. (2013). To Simulate de ciudadanía ambiental en la escuela. or Not To Simulate? Investigating Myths Espiral, Revista de Docencia e Investigación, 1(1), 13-20. about Social Studies Simulations. The Social https://doi.org/10.15332/erdi.v1i1.102 Studies, 104(4), 155-160. Schunk, D. H. (1997). (6a ed.). https://doi.org/10.1080/00377996.2012.716094 Teorías del aprendizaje Pearson Educación. Freire, P. (1970). Pedagogia do oprimido (Vol. 21). Paz Sen, A. (1993). Capability and Well-Being. En M. e Terra. Nussbaum & A. Sen (Eds.), The quality of life Goffman, E. (2006). The presentation of self. Life as (p. 30). Oxford: Clarendon Press. theater: A dramaturgical sourcebook. Penguim (https://bit.ly/2VT0p9L). Random House.

Publication guidelines (Normas Editoriales)

Alteridad. Revista de Educación http://alteridad.ups.edu.ec/ p-ISSN:1390-325X / e-ISSN:1390-8642

Publication guidelines in “Alteridad”

1. General information 2. Scope and policy “Alteridad” is a bilingual scientific publication of 1.1 Theme the Universidad Politécnica Salesiana of Ecuador, published since January 2006 in an uninterrupted Original contributions in Education, as well manner, with a fixed biannual periodicity, special- as related areas: Didactics, Public Policies, ized in Education and its transdisciplinary lines Management of Schools, Edu-communication, such as Didactics, Public Policies, Management of ICT... and all interdisciplinary disciplines related Schools, Educomunication, ICT, among others. to the central theme. It is scientific journal, which uses the peer-review system, under double-blind review 1.2 Contributions methodology, according to the publication standards of the American Psychological Association “Alteridad” preferably publishes results of empir- (APA). Compliance with this system allows ical research on Education, written in Spanish authors to guarantee an objective, impartial and and / or English, as well as reports, studies and transparent review process, which facilitates the proposals, as well as selected state-of-the-art lit- publication of their inclusion in reference data- erature reviews. bases, repositories and international indexing. All works must be original, have not been “Alteridad” is indexed in the directory published in any medium or be in the process of and selective catalog of the Regional Online arbitration or publication. Information System for Scientific Journals of Latin America, the Caribbean, Spain and Portugal • Research: 5,000 to 6,500 words of text, (Latindex), in the Scientific Information System including title, abstracts, descriptors, REDALYC, in the Directory of Journals of Open charts and references. Access DOAJ and in repositories, libraries and • Reports, studies and proposals: 5,000 to specialized catalogs of Latin America. 6,500 words of text, including title, abs- The journal is published in a double ver- tracts, charts and references. sion: printed (ISSN: 1390-325X) and digital • Reviews: 6,000 to 7,000 words of text, inclu- (e-ISSN: 1390-8642), in English and Spanish, ding charts and references. Justified refe- each work being identified with a DOI (Digital rences, would be specially valued. (current Object Identifier System). and selected from among 70 works)

“Alteridad” has a biannual periodicity (20 articles per year), published in January and July and counts by number with two sections of five articles each, the first referring to a Monographic topic prepared in advance and with thematic editors and the second, a section of Miscellaneous, composed of varied contributions within the theme of the publication.

3. Presentation, structure and style of the manuscripts Texts will be presented in Arial 10 font, single line spacing, complete justification and no tabs or white spaces between paragraphs. Only large blocks (title, authors, summaries, descriptors, credits and headings) will be separated with a blank space. The page should be 2 centimeters in all its margins. Papers must be submitted in a Microsoft Word document (.doc or docx), requiring that the file be anonymized in File Properties, so that the author/s identification does not appear. These publication guidelines are based on the standards of APA 6: (http://www.apastyle.org/).

3.1 Structure of the manuscript

For those works that are empirical investigations, the manuscripts will follow the IMRDC structure, being optional the Notes and Supports. Those papers that, on the contrary, deal with reports, studies, proposals and reviews may be more flexible in their epigraphs, particularly in material and methods, analysis, results, discussion and conclusions. In all typologies of works, references are mandatory.

1. Title (Spanish) / Title (English): Concise but informative, in Spanish on the first line and in English on the second. A maximum of 80 characters with spaces are accepted. The title is not only the responsibility of the authors, changes being able to be proposed by the Editorial Board. 2. Abstract (Spanish) / Abstract (English): It will have a maximum extension of 230 words, first in Spanish and then in English. : 1) Justification of the topic; 2) Objectives; 3) Methodology and sample; 4) Main results; 5) Main conclusions. It must be impersonally written “This paper analyzes ..”. In the case of the abstract, the use of automatic translators will not be accepted due to their poor quality. 3. Descriptors (Spanish) / Keywords (English): 6 descriptors must be presented for each language version directly related to the subject of the work. The use of the key words set out in UNESCO’s Thesaurus will be positively valued. 4. Introduction and state of the issue: It should include the problem statement, context of the problem, justification, rationale and purpose of the study, using bibliographical citations, as well as the most significant and current literature on the topic at national and international level. 5. Material and methods: It must be written so that the reader can easily understand the development of the research. If applicable, it will describe the methodology, the sample and the form of sampling, as well as the type of statistical analysis used. If it is an original methodology, it is necessary to explain the reasons that led to its use and to describe its possible limitations. 6. Analysis and results: It will try to highlight the most important observations, describing, without making value judgments, the material and methods used. They will appear in a logical sequence in the text and the essential charts and figures avoiding the duplication of data.

Alteridad. 14(2), 266-276 279 280-284

7. Discussion and conclusions: Summarize the most important findings, relating the observations themselves with relevant studies, indicating contributions and limitations, without adding data already mentioned in other sections. Also, the discussion and conclusions section should include the deductions and lines for future research. 8. Supports and acknowledgments (optional): The Council Science Editors recommends the author (s) to specify the source of funding for the research. Priority will be given to projects supported by national and international competitive projects. In any case, for the scientific evaluation of the manuscript, it should be only anonymized with XXXX for its initial evaluation, in order not to identify authors and research teams, which should be explained in the Cover Letter and later in the final manuscript. 9. The notes (optional) will go, only if necessary, at the end of the article (before the references). They must be manually annotated, since the system of footnotes or the end of Word is not recognized by the layout systems. The numbers of notes are placed in superscript, both in the text and in the final note. The numbers of notes are placed in superscript, both in the text and in the final note. No notes are allowed that collect simple bibliographic citations (without comments), as these should go in the references. 10. References: Bibliographical citations should be reviewed in the form of references to the text. Under no circumstances should references not mentioned in the text be included. Their number should be sufficient to contextualize the theoretical framework with current and important criteria. They will be presented alphabetically by the first last name of the author.

3.2 Guidelines for references

Periodic publications

Journal article (author): Valdés-Pérez, D. (2016). Incidencia de las técnicas de gestión en la mejora de decisiones administrativas [Impact of Management Techniques on the Improvement of Administrative Decisions]. Retos, 12(6), 199-2013. https://doi.org/10.17163/ret.n12.2016.05 Journal Article (Up to six authors): Ospina, M.C., Alvarado, S.V., Fefferman, M., & Llanos, D. (2016). Introducción del dossier temático “Infancias y juventudes: violencias, conflictos, memorias y procesos de con- strucción de paz”[Introduction of the thematic dossier“Infancy and Youth:Violence, Conflicts, Memories and Peace ConstructionProcesses”].Universitas, 25(14),91-95. https://doi.org/10.17163/uni.n25.%25x Journal article (more tan six authors): Smith, S.W., Smith, S.L. Pieper, K.M., Yoo, J.H., Ferrys, A.L., Downs, E.,... Bowden, B. (2006). Altruism on American Television: Examining the Amount of, and Context Surronding. Acts of Helping and Sharing. Journal of Communication, 56(4), 707-727. https:// doi.org/10.1111/j.1460-2466.2006.00316.x Journal article (without DOI): Rodríguez, A. (2007). Desde la promoción de salud mental hacia la promoción de salud: La concepción de lo comunitario en la implementación de proyectos sociales. Alteridad, 2(1), 28-40. (https://goo.gl/zDb3Me) (2017-01-29).

Books and book chapters

Full books: Cuéllar, J.C., & Moncada-Paredes, M.C. (2014). El peso de la deuda externa ecuatoriana. Quito: Abya-Yala.

Chaprter of book: Zambrano-Quiñones, D. (2015). El ecoturismo comunitario en Manglaralto y Colonche. En V.H. Torres (Ed.), Alternativas de Vida: Trece experiencias de desarrollo endógeno en Ecuador (175-198). Quito: Abya-Yala.

Digital media

Pérez-Rodríguez, M.A., Ramírez, A., & García-Ruíz, R. (2015). La competencia mediática en edu- cación infantil. Análisis del nivel de desarrollo en España. Universitas Psychologica, 14(2), 619-630. https://doi. org.10.11144/Javeriana.upsy14-2.cmei It is prescriptive that all quotations that have DOI (Digital Object Identifier System) are reflected in the References (can be obtained at http://goo.gl/gfruh1). All journals and books that do not have DOI should appear with their link (in their online version, if they have it, shortened by Google Shortened: http://goo.gl) and date of consultation in the indicated format. Journal articles should be presented in English, except for those in Spanish and English, in which case it will be displayed in both languages using brackets. All web addresses submitted must be shortened in the manuscript, except for the DOI that must be in the indicated format (https://doi.org/XXX).

3.3. Epigraphs, Figures and Charts

The epigraphs of the body of the article will be numbered in Arabic. They should go without a full box of capital letters, neither underlined nor bold. The numbering must be a maximum of three levels: 1. / 1.1. / 1.1.1. A carriage return will be established at the end of each numbered epigraph. The charts must be included in the text in Word format according to order of appearance, numbered in Arabic and subtitled with the description of the content. The graphics or figures will be adjusted to the minimum number required and will be presented incorporated in the text, according to their order of appearance, numbered in Arabic and subtitled with the abbreviated description. Their quality should not be less than 300 dpi, and it may be necessary to have the graph in TIFF, PNG or JPEG format.

4. Submission process Manuscripts must be submitted only and exclusively through the OJS (Open Journal System), in which all authors must previously register. Originals sent via email or other interfaces are not accepted. The following two files must be sent together:

1. Title page and Cover letter (use official model), in which will appear: • Title (Spanish) / Title (English): Concise but informative, in Spanish on the first line and in English on the second. A maximum of 80 characters with spaces are accepted. The title is not only the responsibility of the authors, changes being able to be proposed by the Editorial Board. • Full name and surnames: Of each of the authors, organized by priority. Next to the names must follow the professional category, work center, email of each author and ORCID number. It is mandatory to indicate if you have the academic degree of doctor (include Dr. / Dra. before the name).

• Resumen (Spanish) / Abstract (English). • Descriptores (Spanish) / Keywords (English). • A statement that the manuscript is an original contribution, not sent or being evaluated in another journal, with the confirmation of the signatory authors, acceptance (if applicable) of formal changes in the manuscript in accordance with the rules and partial transfer of rights to the publisher.

2. Manuscript totally anonymized, according to the guidelines referred in precedence.

All authors must register with their credits on the OJS platform, although only one of them will be responsible for correspondence. No author can submit or have in review two manuscripts simultane- ously, estimating an absence of four consecutive numbers (2 years).