Museum & Heritage Management in the New

MUSEUM & HERITAGE MANAGEMENT IN THE NEW ECONOMY

an address to THE HUMANITIES AND SOCIAL SCIENCES SUMMIT 26-27 JULY 2001, Canberra

IAIN McCALMAN

Introduction: Cultural Yet the very governments that fund these Heritage — Public Good and institutions as agents of public good underval- Economic Agent ue them as agents of economic growth. Like cultural institutions more broadly, CHOs are here is no disputing that museums, art still seen predominantly as part of a worthy Tmuseums, heritage organisations, and but essentially hobbyist and elitist publicly- archives are valued highly in Australia. funded ‘welfare’ sector, or as a ‘natural’ by- However much lobby groups or governments product of human society that requires no might disagree about what constitutes worth- conscious planning or stimulation. Above all, while cultural heritage and about how that governments and economic planners have heritage should be presented, there is broad failed to appreciate CHOs as dynamic contrib- consensus about its importance to national utors to the new information-based, globally- psychic health. In a climate of diminishing influenced, knowledge economies of the state provision for public culture, we have just twenty-first century. witnessed a major investment by the Global knowledge economies are generally Commonwealth Government in a new defined by their focus on performance in three National Museum of Australia. seminal areas: education, research and devel- This kind of investment derives from a opment, and information and communica- bipartisan appreciation of the value of cultur- tions technologies. Collectively, these areas al heritage organisations as agents of public comprise the OECD-defined index for invest- good. Major cultural heritage organisations ment in knowledge. (CHOs) are seen by most governments as necessary to modern democracy. They enable a The Humanities and Social Sciences Summit multi-ethnic population of citizens to partici- was held at the National Museum of Australia, pate in evolving new senses of national iden- 26-27 July 2001. It was convened to provide a tity out of a diversity of experiences, values platform for public discussion on the role of and traditions. There is a realisation across the the humanities and social sciences in today’s spectrum of Australian politics — witnessed economy. The Summit was sponsored by the in the Centenary of Federation celebrations Higher Education Division of the Department around the country — that our population has of Education, Training and Youth Affairs, and differing historical heritages, and that these was convened by the Academy of the Human- heritages must be retrieved, cherished, and ities, Academy of Social Sciences, Dean of Arts, renegotiated if we are to maintain Australia as Sciences and Humanities and the Business a cohesive democracy with an appropriately Higher Education Round Table. Further info at healthy sense of civility and social respons- http://www.anu.edu.au/cce/humanities ibility.

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The Commonwealth Government’s recent longer be in a position to participate in build- innovation plan, ‘Backing Australia’s Ability’, ing this new knowledge matrix of the future. seeks to institute comprehensive and long- Our economic competitors are not making the term policies to stimulate our development as same mistake. a global knowledge economy capable of Take the relevant examples of Britain, competing in the markets of the future. Many Singapore and New Zealand, where similar of the proposals in the innovation action plan processes of policy-making for innovation are are excellent. It is impossible to underestimate under way. In the British Government’s Green the importance of stimulating new skills, ideas Paper, ‘Culture and Creativity’, stress is laid on and commercial initiatives through research ‘the key role that culture and creativity play in and development alliances between universi- the government’s educational and industrial ty, government and private industry. But why policies’. ‘Culture and Creativity’ acknowl- has this process been confined to science and edges the importance of the cultural sphere as technology? By implication CHOs are viewed a sector of the economy that continues to neither as productive industries in need of experience vigorous growth in Britain and research and development nor as sources of throughout the globe. But it also recognises intellectual innovation and experiment on that cultural research and development con- which our future competitive knowledge stitutes an essential catalyst of future innova- economy will depend. tion: ‘creative talent will be crucial to our ‘Backing Australia’s Ability’ singles out individual and national economic success in biotechnology and agribusiness as crucial the economy of the future’. nodes for research and development invest- It is a truism that a spirit of innovation and ment, but says nothing, for example, about experiment is difficult to inculcate. Otherwise encouraging the growth of cultural and social everyone would do it. Recent research in informatics in the knowledge society of the Singapore identifies the neglect of the human- future. Cultural informatics encompasses the ities as the ingredient hampering an otherwise human application of the information revolu- highly sophisticated knowledge society from tion. It is defined as the interdisciplinary study taking a lead in innovation. Investment in of information content, representation, tech- science and technology alone has failed to nology and applications, and the methods and generate the intuitive, pluralistic and multi- strategies by which information is used in dimensional modes of thinking necessary to organisations, cultures and societies. In the twenty-first-century innovation. United States, Canada and Europe, cultural Historians and economists have long informatics is a burgeoning field for govern- debated what it was that gave British society ment, university and private industry invest- the innovatory psychology to trigger the first ment. industrial revolution in the mid-eighteenth Museum and heritage management has century. Most scholars now agree that, what- been in the vanguard of developing this new ever else was involved, the open, critical spir- knowledge form. In the United States, Europe it that sprang out of Nonconformist religious and parts of Asia, CHOs are fast integrating and educational culture played a crucial role with information management systems to gen- in shaping the first industrial generation of erate both theoretical and applied innovations entrepreneurs and inventors. In short, cul- in cultural informatics. This is manifested in ture, science and technology were part of a new degree programs, expert conferences, and holistic mix, without which intellectual com- research collaborations with heritage institu- bustion would not have occurred. tions, technology industries and universities. No wonder, then, that Tony Blair asserted Australia has also achieved a great deal, but in his stunningly successful recent election without conscious investment we will soon no campaign: “For too long arts and culture have

6 IAIN McCALMAN Museum & Heritage Management in the New Economy

Portrait of Captain James Cook by John Webber (c1752-1793), oil on canvas. Collection: National Portrait Gallery, Canberra. Purchased 2000 by the Commonwealth Government with the generous assistance of Robert Oatley and John Schaeffer. Photo: David Reid. stood outside the mainstream, their potential an enormous diversity of forms outside the unrecognised by government. That has to more familiar ones of museums, art museums, change, and … it will … In the twenty-first and archives, including historical theme century, we are going to see the world increas- parks, science and technology centres, house ingly influenced by innovation and creative museums, memorial and commemorative minds. Our future depends on creativity.” institutions and interpretation centres. Plenty of people visit them. The 1. Museums and Heritage organ- Australian Bureau of Statistics survey of atten- isations as Culture Industries dance at Selected Culture/Leisure Venues in April 1999, indicated that total attendance at Recognition that culture is big business, is museums is in excess of sixteen million people not new; neither is it new to point out that per year and the figure is slightly higher for art changing patterns of consumption and rising museums. Around 20 per cent of the Aust- real incomes are fostering a growth in demand ralian population aged fifteen and over had for cultural goods and services through the visited a museum at least once in the industrialised world. But it is worth reaffirm- previous year, and among these is a very high ing this basic economic case in the more percentage of school age children — the specific context of museum, art museums, and consumers and innovators of the future. heritage organisations. Tourism Attendances The figures of Australian museum atten- First we need to note that there are a lot of dance climb to between 60 and 70 per cent these cultural heritage institutions: research of when international tourists are polled, a vital- three years ago shows that there were then ly important economic indicator given that more than 1700 such public institutions across tourism is now the world’s largest industry. Australia. Moreover, these institutions took Around 700 million people travel the world

7 Humanities Research Vol. 8 No. 1, 2001 every year and economists predict that at the when he announced a ten-year plan to posi- present rate of growth this figure will reach a tion Sydney as a major intellectual and arts staggering 1.6 billion people by 2020. centre. Under Premier Kennett Victoria also Moreover, it is relevant to note that cities and embarked on an unprecedentedly high level of regions containing world heritage listings are expenditure on museums, art museums and the most popular tourist destinations. CHOs. Such cities become places where those Last year more than 600,000 people visited with the highest disposable incomes want to the Australian War Memorial in Canberra, live and to raise their children. and the figures are on target to exceed that considerably this year. Similarly, official Education Industries estimates of likely attendance at the new Culture industries, particularly the muse- National Museum of Australia fell far short of um and gallery sector, play a vital educative actual attendance figures which are over role in establishing the mutual cultural under- 450,000 already (figures as at 26 July 2001). standings and connective tissues for develop- Even considered on a more modest local ing international trade and business markets. and regional scale, museum and heritage insti- Schools in Queensland have for some time tutions constitute an astonishing source of fostered the teaching of Asian languages as a actual and potential economic vitality for core part of the curriculum in order to under- communities, councils, businesses and tourist pin consumer and business relations of the bodies. Arresting the decline of the bush has future. Likewise, the Asia-Pacific Art Triennial to be among our most serious national con- at the Queensland Art Gallery has drawn many cerns. Local museum and heritage activity can thousands of Queenslanders into new under- provide additional sources of community standings and connections with modern Asian income and employment, diversify vulnerable societies and cultures. Conversely, the inter- economies, and strengthen local identity and national reputation of this Triennial exhibi- morale. tion and festival as the premier global forum of Research undertaken in 2000 on three his- modern Asian art has brought a new respect torical mining towns, Maldon in Victoria, for and understanding of Australia throughout Burra in South Australia, and Charters Towers the Asia-Pacific region. in Queensland, showed that visitors spent $102-164 each day in the towns and surround- Global and Regional Markets ing regions, adding $2-4.5 million to the Our economic competitors have shown annual gross regional product. Or, to take themselves well aware of cultural heritage another relevant example, income generated activities as agencies of long-term social diplo- in Australia last year from the sale of macy and trade development, which is why Aboriginal crafts, many of which were chan- countries such as Sweden, France, Holland, nelled through museum and heritage outlets, Portugal and Belgium are investing heavily in was in excess of $200 million. rebuilding heritage in Asia, especially South East Asia, Vietnam and East Timor. Disturbingly, Civic Infrastructure Australia’s relative disregard of the impor- Museums and heritage organisations are tance of cultural heritage diplomacy in favour also a key element of the hidden infrastructure of engagements motivated by short-term or that gives modern cities a competitive edge instant trade benefits, has produced a situation when seeking to attract international busi- where we are being sidelined from such her- nesses to locate and relocate. This is one rea- itage initiatives. A new Europe-Asia League son that Singapore funds them generously and for cultural heritage has recently been found- this presumably lay behind the thinking of ed that explicitly excludes Australia. It also New South Wales Premier Bob Carr in 1997 seems likely that the UNESCO proposal to

8 IAIN McCALMAN Museum & Heritage Management in the New Economy build a new national museum of East Timor museum and heritage professionals. It is cus- will be undertaken in cooperation with tomarily published by heritage organisations, Portugal rather than Australia. An undervalu- in collaboration with university researchers, ing of the role of heritage in rebuilding com- through the medium of scholarly presses, on- munities and nations could lead us to squander line publications, specialist journals and the the good will that has been built up through like. other forms of aid and diplomacy. Research into Communicative and 2. Cultural Heritage organisa- Learning Processes tions: Innovation and the New economy As interpreters, as well as preservers, of heritage significance, CHOs have also had to The fact that a number of CHOs in develop theoretical and applied research Australia have managed to become key sites of expertise into how these diverse audiences innovative research and development in spite experience and process heritage information of a disadvantaged funding climate highlights and images. CHOs are in the business of hav- the folly of excluding them from the enhanced ing constantly to discover and tell stories in benefits of government research and develop- ways that appeal to consumers already ment programs such as ‘Backing Australia’s schooled in sophisticated information process- Ability’. Of course, museums and heritage es. As a result CHOs have become vital com- organisations have long possessed some spe- ponents of the educational infrastructure of cialised research dimensions, but these have modern industrialised countries. By compari- grown and diversified as CHOs have moved son with most educational institutions their beyond their traditional roles as collectors, remit is also exceptionally wide. They must preservers, and custodians of material culture reach and retain audiences from the very into interpreters, teachers, and popular dis- young to the elderly, from those with tertiary seminators of diverse cultural products. qualifications to those with none at all, from those who speak English as their first language Mapping the Character and Needs of to those who do not, from international Heritage Consumers tourists wanting instant histories to specialist For a start, CHOs have had to pioneer local audiences looking for reflections of their research into the nature of museum publics. particular experiences. Proposed museum exhibitions are now sub- jected to intensive preliminary consultation Social Applications for Information Technologies and trial among cross-sections of the public, using a variety of polling techniques and com- CHOs find themselves at the forefront of parative international research data. Publicly- developing human uses for new information funded heritage organisations have to justify and multimedia technologies, particularly in their existence and measure their success the customising of software applications and through their ability to attract mass audiences the development of useful content for these within a highly competitive leisure economy. technologies. Today, the collections of muse- This has forced them to develop sophisticated um, libraries and heritage organisations are calibrations of the ethnic, age, class, gender, likely to be digital as well as material, and and religious characteristics of their potential their audiences may live thousands of miles audiences, as well as understandings of the from the physical space where the institution communicative processes needed to reach and is located. Web portals, narrow and broadband retain them. This type of research has become broadcast facilities, and video, film and print part of the body of disciplinary theory and productions have become as important as the practice that must be absorbed by modern display cabinets of old. Partnerships with

9 Humanities Research Vol. 8 No. 1, 2001 industries and university researchers to gener- The South Seas Project is funded by a ate new methods of communicating their Strategic Partnership with Industry Research stories have become commonplace. and Training grant (SPIRT) and is a collaboration of scholars, curators and technicians A few examples: from the ARC Special Research Centre for The Discovery Centre of the CSIRO, the Cross-Cultural Research at the ANU, the Powerhouse Museum in Sydney and the Australian Centre for Science, Technology National Museum of Australia have collabo- and Heritage in Melbourne, and the National rated with advanced computing specialists Library of Australia. These researchers are from the Australian National University’s developing a networked hypermedia ency- Super Computer facility to develop new muse- clopaedia of ocean voyaging and cross-cultur- um applications for the virtual reality immer- al encounter in the age of Enlightenment that sion system known as ‘The Wedge’, designed at the same time disseminates via the internet and built at the ANU. The National Museum the library’s unique manuscripts, maps and collaboration, for example, has produced the visual materials on the Pacific voyages of brilliantly creative ‘kSpace’, where children Captain Cook. In the process, researchers from six to fourteen are encouraged to have had to pioneer new forms of software create cities or motor vehicles of the future. application capable of generating stable and After designing their prototypes on a series of touch screens, children can see their inven- reliable standards of documentation and of tions projected in a dazzlingly colourful 3D absorbing future data increases without dam- virtual reality theatre. This innovative project aging the overall coherence and integrity of has also been linked into national and state the project. The result will be both a highly educational curricula in a way that demon- innovatory educational product and a set of strates the dynamic integration of the cultural information tools that can be applied to a wide heritage and educational sectors. variety of other hypermedia uses.

‘kSspace’ at the National Museum of Australia. Photo: George Serras © National Museum of Australia 2001

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A systematic series of information and Powerhouse Museum to explore how youth of multimedia research and development proj- Middle Eastern and Asian backgrounds evolve ects are also under way in a new Consortium their sense of identity within contemporary for Research and Information Outreach popular culture. As well as helping to counter- (CRIO), which brings together a complemen- act disabling negative values and perceptions tary synergy of museum curators, information of ethnic migrant youth, this project develops experts and researchers from the National a series of practical youth training and Museum of Australia, the Australian National employment outcomes. University, and the Australian Institute of A similar series of research and develop- Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Studies. ment heritage collaborations at the University One of the first fruits of this collaboration, an of South Australia aim to reinvigorate eco- innovative CD Rom application called People nomic and civic infrastructure in rural South of the Rivermouth, will be displayed at this Australian towns and communities. The summit. It presents complex anthropological University’s Australian Architecture Archive research into kinship patterns and customary and History Research Group are involved in a life of an aboriginal community at Maningrida series of projects with local museums and in Arnhem Land, in ways that impart vivid, heritage organisations to develop visitors cen- multi-sensual viewer understandings. Its tres and architectural innovations for Broken unique multimedia template will be used to Hill and for Aboriginal communities at develop a further range of ‘virtual exhibitions’ Warburton. They are also undertaking her- centred on the origins and development of itage surveys for the towns of Woomera, Eden spectacle, multimedia and special effects in Park and Mitcham. Europe, Australia and Asia. Cultural Researc\h Precincts Urban and Rural Civic Environments One aim of such projects is to build, in A different type of applied research project areas where cultural and civic infrastructure is is being pioneered by the Institute of Cultural relatively thin, a new type of blended cultural Research (ICR) in Sydney. Combining research precinct. This seeks to link universi- researchers and experts from the University of ties, CHOs, and tourist and other businesses so Western Sydney, the University of Technol- as to create research and entertainment con- ogy, Sydney, and the Migration Heritage sortia. Out of these institutional clusters, new Centre of New South Wales, the ICR has economic and culturally dynamic synergies are developed collaborations with a variety of cul- being generated. Research experiments and tural heritage institutions and local govern- productive economic and social outcomes are ment agencies to enrich the social life and treated as mutually interactive. Tourism stimulate the civic infrastructures of Sydney’s becomes a magnet to other activities. newer migrant communities and precincts. Decades ago, the social wastelands of One of these, undertaken with the Art London’s Financial City area in the East End Gallery of New South Wales (AGNSW), is and Docklands were revitalised by building a developing an exhibition of Asian religious art series of cultural and heritage institutions as and culture in close consultation with local nodes of new economic and cultural activity. migrant communities in the inner West of Goldsmiths University, the Maritime Museum Sydney. Innovative in its combination of com- at Greenwich, the Museum of London and the munity and scholarly expertise, the exhibition Barbican cultural complex now routinely join also works to attract visitors from outside con- together in a series of economically and cul- ventional museum constituencies. turally productive relationships. Tourism and A second ICR project, ‘Generate’, works its penumbra of service industries now flourish with the Migration Heritage Centre and the in the district.

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Screens from the CD-Rom application ‘People of the Rivermouth’.

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Most Australian cities have evolved such done in concert with the explosive forces of cultural research precincts quite unconscious- globalisation. ly in areas where CHOs and Universities hap- Museums, art museums and CHOs have pen to be physically contiguous, particularly long cultivated international relationships when these locations are also attractive to through their need to negotiate international tourists. Networks of cultural institutions, loans and exchanges, to repatriate or share key businesses and university research bodies clus- cultural heritage items, and to collect items of ter together around Circular Quay in Sydney, national heritage that have been dispersed along the south riverbank of Brisbane and abroad. Melbourne, along the Torrens River near the In the past decade, however, an awareness University of Adelaide and in the Freemantle of the need to develop international linkages docklands of Western Australia. for the pursuit of research has led to a much Most recent of such precincts is the Acton more systematic and integrated process of Peninsula in the ACT, where this summit is international dialogue and cooperation taking place and a national research cluster is between universities and CHOs. The linchpin being consciously developed. Here we find of this process has been the international colocated such institutions as the National Consortium of Humanities Centres and Museum of Australia, the Australian Institute Institutes (CHCI), administered from Harvard of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander University under the directorship of Professor Studies, ScreenSound Australia, the Learned Marjorie Garber. This US-based but interna- Academies of Science, the Social Sciences tionally focused organisation gathers together and the Humanities, and the ANU’s a huge network of university humanities cen- Humanities Research Centre, Centre for tres, private funding foundations and CHOs. Cross-Cultural Research, Asia Pacific School Membership includes the Getty, Smithsonian, of Economics and Management and new Field, and Huntington Museums, and the National Europe Centre. This dynamic cluster Ford, Getty and Rockefeller Foundations. The of heritage, teaching and research bodies is CHCI coordinates information exchanges, beginning to work together, on the pattern of develops joint policy initiatives, brokers the Smithsonian on the Mall in Washington national and international collaborations, and DC, to develop a series of intermeshed research lobbies government and funding bodies. and development initiatives that will generate In 1999, on the initiative of the ANU’s innovatory research, mount joint educational Humanities Research Centre, assisted by and training programs, and attract a variety of Griffith University and the Queensland Art tourist constituencies. One aim will be to Gallery, the CHCI convened its annual disseminate this research to national publics conference in Brisbane, the first time it has through electronic and broadcasting portals, gathered outside the USA. Building on the and to attract private investment capital into success of this meeting, an Australian the area so as to stimulate further innovation. Consortium of Humanities Centres and Institutes, has been founded to develop inter- International Research and national and national research, funding and Development Initiatives teaching collaborations between university CHOs have also shown themselves acutely and public CHOs. aware of the need to look outwards beyond Already this has produced several collabo- Australian national horizons to engage in rative global R&D projects. One of the most intellectual collaborations, exchanges and dia- ambitious will link the Humanities Research logues of an international and transnational Institute for all ten campuses of the University kind. It is a truism that the building of new of California in the USA, with James Cook knowledge economies in the future must be University, the Humanities Research Centre,

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ANU, and the National Museum of Australia. Conclusion The project ‘Peoples and Places’ proposes to In the new global, information-based, focus on urgent common problems of environ- knowledge economies of the future, the abili- mental heritage in rainforests and deserts of ty to be innovative both in generating Latin America, the United States and research and applying it for social use is more Australia. Such global collaborations and rela- important than at any other time since the tionships not only gather new sources of onset of the first industrial revolution in the expertise and funding for Australia’s nascent second half of the eighteenth century. Yet the knowledge economy, but enable us to keep in psychic and intellectual properties that gener- the forefront of the breathtaking pace of ate a creative, innovative, and critical culture change within global information environ- during times of bewildering social and techno- ments. logical change remain elusive. The governments of Britain, Singapore Integration of Science, Technology and Cultural Heritage Research and New Zealand, to take examples of clear relevance to Australia, have recently stressed s It is typical of such collaborations also, precious pioneering spirit of innovation. whether national or international, that no Australia needs it. sharp distinction is drawn between cultural, IAIN McCALMAN scientific and technological research. The above initiative, for example, has already Acknowledgements engendered linkages with the Rainforest and My thanks to Lindy Shultz, Christine Clark and Reef Cooperative Research Centre in Cairns Caroline Turner for their help in researching and and Townsville, as well as a variety of ANU preparing this paper. faculty involved in arts, computing, forestry, geology and resource management research, and, of course, with the full spectrum of scientific, cultural and environmental curatorial References staff of the National Museum of Australia. Agenda for the Knowledge Nation: Report of the The report of November 2000, Knowledge Nation Taskforce (Canberra: Chifley ‘Knowledge, Innovation and Creativity’, Research Centre, 2001). commissioned by the Ministry of Research Australian Bureau of Statistics, Attendance at Selected Science and Technology in New Zealand, Cultural Venues, Australia, Apr. 1999, Cat. No. 4114.0 stressed that innovation and creativity are (Canberra: ABS, 1999). complex social and cultural processes that Australian Bureau of Statistics, ‘Culture and cannot be achieved without close arts-science Recreation: Centenary Article - Accounting for linkages and convergences. The idea that Audiences in Australian Museums’, in Year Book Australia, 2001, (Australia Now series) (Canberra: innovation and creativity can be fostered in a ABS, 2001). society by cordoning off the cultural from the technological and scientific spheres was seen Australian Bureau of Statistics, Culture and Recreation: Museums and Art Museums, (Australia Now series) as both unrealistic and myopic. The report (Canberra: ABS, 1999). states, “One sign of this convergence is the increasing use of ‘creativity’ in scientific and Australia Council, ‘The Arts in Australia: Some Statistics’ (internet resource, 2001 - technological contexts; another is the use of http://www.ozco.gov.au/resources/snapshots/ ‘industry’ and ‘product’ in arts contexts.” statistics.html).

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‘Backing Australia’s Ability: An Innovation Action Reference Group for the Australian Academy of the Plan for the Future’, executive summary (internet Humanities, Knowing Ourselves and Others:The resource, 2001 - http://www.innovation.gov.au/iap/ Humanities in Australia into the 21st Century, Vol. 3: policy_launch/templates/brochure.doc). Reflective Essays (Canberra: Australian Research Council Discipline Research Strategies, 1998). Conference Proceedings 2000:Heritage Economics, Challenges for Heritage Conservation and Sustainable Margaret Seares, ‘National Press Club Address’ (inter- Development in the 21st Century (Canberra: Australian net resource, 2001 - http://www.ozco.gov.au/issues/ Heritage Commission, 2001). events/pressclub.html Mark Considine, et al., The Comparative Performance of Successful Tourism at Heritage Places: A Guide for Australia as a Knowledge Nation: Report to the Chifley Tourism Operators, Heritage Managers and Communities Research Centre (Canberra: Chifley Research Centre, (Canberra: Australian Heritage Commission, 2001). 2001). David Throsby, Economics and Culture (Cambridge: The Hon. Dr D.A. Kemp, Knowledge and Innovation: A Cambridge University Press, 2001). Policy Statement on Research and Research Training C. Turner, J. Webb and R. Devenport, (eds), Beyond (Canberra: AusInfo, 1999). the Future:The Third Asia-Pacific Triennial of Gillian Koh and Ooi Giok Ling, State-Society Relations Contemporary Art (exhibition catalogue) (Brisbane: in Singapore (Singapore: Institute of Policy Studies and Queensland Art Gallery, 1999). Oxford University Press, 2000). Caroline Turner, (ed), Tradition and Change: Leisure and Change: Implications for Museums in the 21st Contemporary Art of Asia and the Pacific (Brisbane: Century (Sydney: Powerhouse Publishing, 2000). University of Queensland Press, 1993). National Museums: Negotiating Histories: Conference Proceedings (Canberra: National Museum of Australia, 2001). New Zealand. Ministry of Research, Science and Technology, ‘Knowledge, Innovation, and Creativity: Designing a Knowledge Society for a Small, Democratic Country’ (internet resource, 2000- http://www.morst.govt.nz/publications/humanz/ Humanz.htm).