Implications of Black Coffee Twig Borer on Cocoa in Uganda

Implications of Black Coffee Twig Borer on cocoa in Uganda

G.H. Kagezi1, P. Kucel1, J.P. Egonyu1, G. Ahumuza1, L. Nakibuule1, J. Kobusinge1 and W.W. Wagoire1

1National Coffee Research Institute (NaCORI)/National Agricultural Research Organisation (NARO), P. O. Box 185 Mukono, Uganda

Author for correspondence: [email protected], [email protected]

Abstract

Cocoa (Theobroma cacao L.) is one of Uganda’s major cash crops. It is grown by 15,000-18,000 smallholder households on an estimated 20,000 hectares. Cocoa contributes about US$65 million annually to the country’s foreign exchange earnings. On account of its perennial nature and robust vegetative growth, cocoa harbors a wide range of insect pests which affect its production. Here, we report for the first time an outbreak of the Black Coffee Twig Borer (BCTB), Xylosandrus compactus (Eichhoff), a new pest on cocoa in Uganda. To determine its spread and impact, we surveyed 20 households in Bundibugyo, Kibaale and Hoima districts in January 2014. On each field, 10 cocoa trees were examined for BCTB infestation along a transect. Overall, more than half of the cocoa plantations, 13% of trees and 3.8% of primary branches were infested. At district level, Kibaale had the highest proportions of infested fields (100%), trees (30%) and primary branches (8.5%). The seriousness of BCTB prevalence is likely to complicate the current BCTB spray programme on coffee in the country.

Key words: Cocoa, Theobroma cacao, Xylosandrus compactus

Introduction pollinators and decomposers (Schroth and Harvey, 2007). It is, therefore, a key crop Cocoa (Theobroma cacao L.) is the sixth in eradicating extreme poverty as well as most important cash crop of Uganda ensuring environmental sustainability. (UBOS, 2012). It is grown by 15,000- However, due to its perennial and 18,000 smallholder households on an robust vegetative growth nature, cocoa estimated 20,000 hectares of land harbors a wide range of insect pests, scattered in central, mid-western and mid- including capsids, scales, mealybugs, eastern regions (Jones and Gibbon, 2011). caterpillars, and, pod and stem borers, In the 2012/2013 season, the country among others, that greatly affect its produced about 19,000 metric tonnes of production (Kayobyo et al., 2001). cocoa beans; fetching an estimated US$ Currently, the advent of a relatively new 65 million (Kimera, 2013). Also, being a but serious pest, the Black Coffee Twig perennial tree crop, cocoa plays many Borer (Hereafter referred to as BCTB), other ecological roles including Xylosandrus compactus Eichhoff atmospheric carbon sequestration and (Coleoptera: Curculionidae), has further conservation of useful fauna such as broadened the pest challenge on the crop 180 G.H. Kagezi et al. (Kagezi et al., 2014a, b, c, d). BCTB is a However, being a relatively new pest serious pest of coffee in Uganda (Egonyu in Uganda, there is generally limited et al., 2009; Kagezi et al., 2012, 2013a, b; information on biology, ecology, control and UCDA, 2012) and elsewhere (Burbano, the actual yield loss caused by BCTB on 2010), but also infests more than 224 other several host plants including cocoa and plant species in about 62 families coffee (Kagezi et al., 2012, 2013a, b, worldwide, including cocoa (Ngoan et al., 2014a, b, c, d). The objectives of this study 1976; Kagezi et al., 2012; 2013b, were therefore: (i) to determine 2014a,b). This pest thus poses a serious prevalence, damage and impact X. threat to both coffee and cocoa production compactus on cocoa production in the in Uganda, and therefore, calls for prompt cocoa agro-ecosystems, and, (ii) to assess comprehensive mitigation actions (Kagezi field and crop management practices that et al., 2013a,b, 2014a,b,c,d). could promote X. compactus infestation. Damage is caused by the female beetle by boring a characteristic pin-sized entry Materials and methods hole into the attacked seedlings and/or primary branches (twigs), causing them Study site to wilt and eventually die within a few The study was conducted in the Lake weeks (Ngoan et al., 1976). Therefore, Albert Crescent Zone (LACZ) in mid- the damaged plant parts do not bear fruits western Uganda in the cocoa growing resulting into loss of yields and hence, districts of Bundibugyo, Hoima and income (Egonyu et al., 2009; Kagezi et Kibaale, during January 2014. Bundibugyo al., 2012; 2013a). BCTB infestation has district is located 00o 27’N, 033o 11’E at been reported to be promoted by a number 1200 m above sea level (m.a.s.l) of bio-ecological factors including field (HLGSA-Bundibugyo, 2009); while and crop management practices (Kagezi Hoima district is situated 01°00'-2°00’N et al., 2014a,b). Research on coffee and 30°30'-31°45’E, 1158 m.a.s.l. (IFPRI, shows that BCTB infestation is higher on 2001). Kibaale district lies 00 o 58’N, 30 o plants grown under shade (Kucel et al., 59’E at 1130 m.a.s.l (HLGSA-Kibaale, 2011; Kagezi et al., 2013c) and on closely 2009). The region is characterised by planted, un-pruned or inadequately de- rainfall in the range of 800-1500 mm per suckered plants (Kagezi et al., annum and temperatures of 15-30 oC Unpublished data). These conditions (Adur, 2007). probably offer micro-environments that may favor development and completion Sample farm selection and data of its life cycle (Kucel et al., 2011; Kagezi collection et al., 2013c) and that of the associated In each district, at least three sub-counties ambrosia fungus (Wintgens, 2009). In were randomly selected and in each sub- addition, most of the shade tree and plant county, at least two parishes were also species commonly found in cropping randomly selected. A total of 20 cocoa systems are alternate host species for plantations were randomly selected for the BCTB; notably Albizia chinensis, study. In the selected parish, the sampled Maesopsis eminii and Markhamia lutea plantations were spaced at least 1 Km (Kucel et al., 2011; Kagezi et al., 2012, apart of each other. BCTB infestation was 2013b, 2014a,b). determined on 10 cocoa trees along a Implications of Black Coffee Twig Borer on cocoa 181 diagonal transect. The total number of the intensity of field and crop management primary branches as well as those infested in the sampled districts. In all districts, was determined. This information was >40% of the cocoa fields were both used to compute the percentage of weeded and mulched. In Bundibugyo and infested cocoa plantations, trees and Kibaale districts, at least 20% of the fields primary branches for each district. In were intercropped with coffee, the most addition, field and crop management as preferred host plant species for BCTB. well as the shade systems were assessed At least 40% of the cocoa fields in at plot level. Bundibugyo and Kibaale districts were both de-suckered and pruned. On the other Data analysis hand, 80% of the fields in Hoima were Before analysis, data on the number of neither de-suckered nor pruned. primary branches and the percentage of BCTB-infested primary branches were Cocoa agroforestry systems in the log(X+1) and arcsine transformed LACZ respectively in order to reduce non- Similarly, agroforestry systems have been normality and heterogeneity of variances. reported to favour BCTB infestation in These were then compared across the crop species. In Bundibugyo and Kibaale districts using analysis of variance districts, at least 70% of the cocoa (ANOVA) with general linear model plantations had low levels of shading, (GLM) procedure of Statistical Analysis whereas in Hoima district, 40% of the System (SAS) software (SAS Institute, plantations were either moderately or 2008). Means were separated by Tukey’s highly shaded (Fig. 1). Overall, 26 shade test at 5%. tree and shrub species were recorded in the cocoa systems in the region. Nile tulip Results tree (Markhamia lutea; 85%), and,

BCTB infestation on cocoa in the LACZ Table 1. Percentage of cocoa farms and trees Overall, more than 50% of the cocoa infested by the Black Coffee Twig Borer plantations, 13% of the trees and 3.8% of (BCTB), Xylosandrus compactus (Eichhoff) the primary branches in the study area (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) in the Lake Albert were infested by BCTB. The percentage Crescent zone (LACZ), Uganda of infested plantations, trees and primary branches varied significantly (p<0.05) District Infested Infested across the sampled districts. The highest cocoa farms cocoa trees percentage of infested plantations (100%), (%) (%) trees (30%; Table 1) and primary Bundibugyo 30.0 8.0 branches (8.5%; Table 2) were recorded Hoima 60.0 6.0 in Kibaale district. Kibaale 100.0 30.0

Field and crop management practices X2 38.9474 24.18 in the LACZ DF 2 2 Poor field and crop management have P value <.0001 <.0001 been reported to promote BCTB infestation in crop species. Table 3 shows Values >50% are in bold. 182 G.H. Kagezi et al. Table 2. Number of primary branches and those infested by the Black Coffee Twig Borer (BCTB), Xylosandrus compactus (Eichhoff) (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) in the Lake Albert Crescent zone (LACZ), Uganda

District Number of primary branches Infested primary branches (%)

Bundibugyo 1.1±0.2 (14.8±5.5) a 0.9±1.2 (3.1±13.7) b Hoima 1.1±0.2 (13.0±5.4) ab 0.7±0.5 (0.7±2.6) b Kibaale 1.0±0.3 (11.9±6.2) b 1.6±1.8 (8.5±17.9) a

CV 16.91 125.65 P value 8.07** 7.93**

Same letters within a column indicate means (after log(X+1) and arcsine transformation respectively) are not significantly different by Tukey’s test (*P<0.05). Values in parenthesis are the untransformed means.

Table 3. Field and crop management practices on cocoa farms in the Lake Albert Crescent zone (LACZ), Uganda

Intensity of management practice District

Bundibugyo (%) Hoima (%) Kibaale (%)

Weeding Low 0 0 20 Moderate 20 40 40 High 80 60 40 Mulching Low 10 0 20 Moderate 10 0 20 High 80 100 60

Intercropped with coffee Yes 40 0 20 De-suckering No 30 80 20 Low 30 0 20 Moderate 40 20 60

Pruning No 10 80 0 Low 30 0 4 Moderate 60 20 40 High 0 0 20

Values >50% are in bold Implications of Black Coffee Twig Borer on cocoa 183

Figure 1. Intensity of shade systems in cocoa plantations in the Lake Albert Crescent zone (LACZ), Uganda. avocado (Persea Americana), umbrella However, research later confirmed tree (Maesopsis eminii) and jackfruit presence of BCTB-characteristic damage (Artocarpus heterophyllus; 40%) were symptoms on the wilting branches and the commonest species (Table 4). small stems (Kagezi et al., 2014c, d). This is in agreement with findings of studies Discussion conducted elsewhere (Subaharan et al., 2008). The Black Coffee Twig Borer (BCTB), Our results showed that the percentage Xylosandrous compactus Eicchoff is a of BCTB-infested cocoa plantations, trees relatively new pest in Uganda. It was and primary branches varied significantly initially reported on Robusta coffee (P<0.05) across the districts (Tables 1, 2); (Egonyu et al., 2009) but, currently it is with the highest infestation being recorded known to attack more than 40 plant species in Kibaale district. This is in line with the in Uganda including cocoa (Kagezi et al., results of a survey conducted in the region 2012, 2013b, 2014a, b, c). In Uganda, in 2012/13 which showed higher BCTB was first observed infesting cocoa infestation levels of BCTB on coffee in on seedlings in screen-house experiments Kibaale compared to other districts in the at the National Coffee Research Institute LACZ (Kagezi et al., 2013a). This finding (NaCORI), Kituza in 2011 (Kagezi et al., could in part be attributed to the recent 2012; 2013b). Subsequently, in December high levels of deforestation in Kibaale 2013, extension staff in Harugale sub- district, owing to increase in human county, Bundibugyo district reported population (Christensen and Jensen, 2011). severe wilting of cocoa, attributing it to This could have led to the depletion of Verticillium wilt (Kayobyo et al., 2001). alternative host plant species for BCTB 184 G.H. Kagezi et al. 5 15 10 10 10 10 10 15 20 85 40 40 0 0 0 0 0 0 5 0 5 0 5 0 5 20 20 15 40 60 60 0 0 5 0 0 5 0 0 0 0 5 0 0 0 5 0 0 0 0 0 40 20 20 20 20 100 0 0 0 5 0 0 0 e in bold 0 0 0 0 10 10 20 1010 20 10 10 10 10 10 10 20 20 30 40 20 30 30 20 30 20 40 30 20 20 20 20 90 30 40 40 40 40 40 40 50% ar > alues V Muyati Ntasesa, ngwabuzito Muvule Mucungwa Mukunyu Nsogasoga Peera Muringa Kalwenda Mutuba Mukebu - Mugavu Musasa Munazi Muyembe Papaali Gasiya Mululuza Musambya Ovakeddo Luwawu Ffene Musizi Kasana Kifabakazi Local name (Luganda) Bundibugyo Hoima Kibaale Overall (%) African Plum escent zone (LACZ), Uganda. eak T t Cr tinkwood, vocado Alber Umbrella tree Red S African Citrus Sycamore fig, Fig-mulberry Castor oil Guava Horseradish tree Silky oak Natal Fig, Back-cloth Fig Mringaringa Bottlebrush - Jumping seed tree African oil palm Mango Paw paw A Cassia Bitter leaf Nile tulip tree Sandpaper tree Jackfruit Umbrella tree Acacia, whistling thorn African tulip tree . . g . Beauv Lam. P .) C.C. Ber . Common name H. Perrier ahl. L. Pax elw Mill. A. Cunn. ex R.Br L. (DC.) Irwin & Barneby L. (Benth.) K.Schum. Engl. V Lam. Hochst. Oliv (L.) Osbeck (W L. spp. obusta amygdalina Delile spp. evillea r ernonia erminalia mantaly T Cordia africana Ficus natalensis Ricinus communis Milicia excelsa Prunus africana Callistemon Gr Albizia coriaria Ficus sycomorous Psidium guajava Carica papaya Sapium ellipticum Citrus sinensis Moringa oleifera V Mangifera indica Elaeis guineensis Persea americana Maesopsis eminii Ficus exasperata Markhamia lutea Senna spectabilis Artocarpus heterophyllus Acacia Spathodea campanulata ees (%) observed in the cocoa systems Lake Scientific name Tr able 4. Combretaceae Boraginaceae Moraceae Euphorbiaceae Moraceae Rosaceae Myrtaceae Proteaceae Fabaceae Moraceae Myrtaceae Caricaceae Euphorbiaceae Rutaceae Moringaceae Family Asteraceae Anacardiaceae Arecaceae T Lauraceae Rhamnaceae Moraceae Bignoniaceae Fabaceaea Moraceae Fabaceae Bignoniaceae Implications of Black Coffee Twig Borer on cocoa 185 from the wild, thus causing the beetle to but also to the 15,000-18,000 smallholder seek for new ecological niches on cocoa householders who derive their livelihood (Kekeunou et al., 2006). In the natural from various cocoa activities along the forests, pest damage is generally limited value chain (Jones and Gibbon, 2011; (Nair et al., 1986). However, Kimera, 2013). In addition, this pest deforestation destroys the ecological threatens to roll back efforts by the niches contributing to the rupture of the government and the private sector to existing stable biological balance and revamp cocoa production in the country favours the pest population outbreak (Kimera, 2013; Kagezi et al., 2014c, d). (Kekeunou et al., 2005). BCTB has been This outbreak is also likely to complicate reported to attack a number of forest tree the Uganda Coffee Development and shrub species in Uganda (Kagezi et Authority (UCDA)-led BCTB spray al., 2012, 2013b, 2014a, b) and elsewhere campaign on coffee in this region (Kagezi (Ngoan et al., 1976). However, this pest et al., 2014c, d). seems not to be highly host specific in its Field management practices may natural mixed-forest habitat, and it is only create variations in conditions that might when it finds special conditions of favour or disfavour multiplication and concentrated cultivation that it tends to development of various insect pests become a pest (Browne, 1961). Secondly, including BCTB (Kucel et al., 2009; recently, the Uganda Coffee Development Kagezi et al., 2014a, b). Our results Authority (UCDA) and local extension showed that the cocoa fields in all districts have been spearheading an extensive were generally weeded as well as strategy of using cultural combined with mulched. Weeding and mulching suppress chemical measures to control BCTB on weeds which would have competed with coffee in the region. This could have led cocoa plants for nutrients, space, moisture to a change in its ecological niche from and light (Nair, 2010); at the same time coffee to cocoa (Kekeunou et al., 2006). mulching also improves moisture retention Consequently, the emergence and/or in the system (Wintgens, 2009). This resurgence of BCTB in Uganda poses a promotes plant vigor and therefore may very serious threat not only to coffee help in improving the ability of the cocoa (Egonyu et al., 2009; Kagezi et al., trees in resisting BCTB infestation or 2013a,b, 2014a,b), but also to cocoa recovering from infestation (Jones and production (Kagezi et al., 2014c,d). This Johnson, 1996). Research shows that therefore calls for comprehensive plants are usually most susceptible when mitigation measures to be implemented they are stressed, for example, during before the situation gets out of hand. It times of drought when they are recieving should also be noted that the Lake Albert limited moisture and nutrients (Jones and Crescent Zone (LACZ) produces the bulk Johnson, 1996; Smith, 2003). In addition, of Uganda’s cocoa (ADC/IDEA, 1998, results of this study showed that at least 2000; Jones and Gibbon, 2011; Kimera, 20% of the cocoa were intercropped with 2013). This emphasizes the economic coffee in Bundibugyo and Kibaale districts importance posed by this pest to the whereas, all the cocoa in Hoima district country’s cocoa industry. The adverse had no coffee. This presents a lot of effects due to this pest will, therefore, not implications in regard to managing BCTB only be detrimental to the national coffers, since coffee is the most preferred host 186 G.H. Kagezi et al. plant species for the pest (Egonyu et al., et al., 2011; Kagezi et al., 2014a, b). In 2009; Kagezi et al., 2012, 2013b, 2014a, addition, the most observed tree species b). This implies that cocoa intercropped in this study (Markhamia lutea, Persea with BCTB-infested coffee is more likely Americana, Maesopsis eminii and to be invaded due to the proximity of the Artocarpus heterophyllus) have been source of infestation. reported to be some of the most preferred Crop management is also important in alternate host plant species for BCTB the bio-ecology of BCTB (Kagezi et al., (Kagezi et al., 2012, 2013b,c, 2014a,b,c,d). 2014a, b). Results of the present study In the light of the outbreak of BCTB showed that most (>70%) of the cocoa therefore, farmers need to make the right plants in Bundibugyo and Kibaale districts choice of the shade trees to be planted in were both de-suckered and pruned. their cocoa or coffee (Kagezi et al., However, in Hoima district, 80% of them 2013b, c). In addition, shade management were neither de-suckered nor pruned. should be carried regularly to preclude Research conducted in Uganda shows infestations or to serve as a cultural control higher BCTB infestation on coffee grown strategy to lessen damage by BCTB when under bushy conditions; that is, closely infestations are already present (Anuar, planted, un-pruned or inadequately de- 1986; Kagezi et al., 2013c). suckered plants (Kagezi et al., Unpublished data). These conditions Conclusion probably promote micro-environments that may favour development and completion Our study found extensive damage by of the life cycle of BCTB (Kucel et al., BCTB in cocoa fields for the first time in 2011; Kagezi et al., 2014a, b) as well as Uganda; with the highest infestation levels that of its associated ambrosia fungus being observed in Kibaale district. The (Wintgens, 2009). Thus, both practices outbreak of this pest therefore poses a help in removing excess stems, branches serious threat to cocoa production in and suckers (Kayobyo et al., 2001) which Uganda if no comprehensive mitigation would have created the above-mentioned measures are put in place. This might also conditions (Kagezi et al., 2014a, b). complicate the BCTB spray programme Shade systems have also been reported on coffee campaign in this zone. Thus, to promote its infestation on coffee there is a need to institute appropriate (Anuar, 1986; Kucel et al., 2011; Kagezi containment actions as well as derive an et al., 2013c), which could also be true appropriate research agenda to mitigate for cocoa. Our study showed that at least the pandemic. We therefore recommend 70% of the cocoa farms in Bundibugyo that a more comprehensive survey be and Kibaale districts were under low levels conducted in all major cocoa producing of shading; but 40% of the fields in Hoima zones to determine the actual national district were under high intensity shade. spread and impact levels. Also, the current As with bushiness, shadiness also offers UCDA implemented BCTB spray- favorable micro-environments for programme for coffee in the mid-western development of BCTB and its associated region should be re-evaluated in light of ambrosia fungus (Wintgens, 2009; Kucel these new developments on cocoa. Implications of Black Coffee Twig Borer on cocoa 187 Acknowledgement Impact of the black twig borer on Robusta coffee in Mukono and This study was funded by Government of Kayunga districts, central Uganda, Uganda (GoU) through the Coffee Journal of Animal and Plant Development Authority (UCDA). Sciences 2(4):163-169. HLGSA Bundibugyo. 2009. Higher Local References Government Statistical Abstract, Bundibugyo district. http://www. ADC/IDEA. 1998. A baseline survey on ubos.org/onlinefiles/uploads/ubos/ cocoa production in selected districts 2009HLG%20 Abstract_printed/ of Uganda. Final report for ADC/ Bundibugyo%20DLG%20Abstract%20% IDEA Project. 109 pp. 202009-final.pdf. Last accessed on ADC/IDEA. 2000. The situation of cocoa May 12, 2014. production in Uganda. First HLGSA Kibaale. 2009. Higher Local consultancy progress report for the Government Statistical Abstract, ADC/IDEA Project, CIRAD-Cocoa Kibaale district. http://www.ubos.org/ programme, Uganda. 19 pp. onlinefiles/uploads/ubos/2009_ Adur, S.E. 2007. Production HLG_%20 Abstract_printed/Kibaale characteristics: A case of smallholder %20District%202009%20Statistical%20 farmers in Hoima district, Uganda. Abstract%20_Edited_.pdf. Last African Crop Science Conference accessed on May 14, 2014. Proceedings 8:1323-1327. IFPRI. 2001. Background Information on Anuar, A.M. 1986. Observation on Masindi, Kabarole and Hoima damage by Xylosandrus compactus Districts. Prepared for Strategic in coffee as affected by shade and Criteria for Rural Investments in variety, MARDI Research Bulletin Productivity (SCRIP) project. 14(2):108-110. Kampala, Uganda: International Food Browne, F.G. 1961. The biology of Policy Research Institute. 11 pp. Malayan Scolytidae and Platypodidae. Jones, E.S. and Gibbon, P. 2011. Malayan Forest Records 22:255. Developing agricultural markets in Sub- Burbano, E.G. 2010. Developing a Saharan Africa: Organic cocoa in rural monitoring tool to understand the Uganda. Journal of Development seasonal dynamics and management Studies 47(10):1595-1618. techniques estimate a sampling plan for Jones, V.P. and Johnson, M.V. 1996. Xylosandrus compactus (Eichhoff) in Management of black twig borer on Hawaii. Ph.D. Dissertation. University coffee. Unpublished report to of Hawaii at Manoa, HI, USA. Governor’s Agriculture Coordinating Christensen, J. and Jensen, S.S. 2011. The Committee, CTAHR, University of tragedy of private forestry. Hawaii, Honolulu. Understanding deforestation of private Kagezi, G.H., Kucel, P., Egonyu, J.P., natural forests in Kibaale district, Kyamanywa, S., Karungi, J.T., Pinard, Uganda. MSc. Thesis. Aalborg F., Jaramillo, J., van Asten, P., Wagoire, University, Denmark. W.W. and Ngabirano, H. 2014a. Egonyu, J.P., Kucel, P., Kangire, A., Management of the Black Coffee Twig Sewaya, F. and Nkungwa, C. 2009. Borer, Xylosandrus compactus 188 G.H. Kagezi et al. (Eichhoff) in Uganda. 54th Inter- Kagezi, G.H., Kucel, P., Mukasa, D., van African Coffee Organisation (IACO) Asten, P., Musoli, P.C. and Kangire, Annual General Assembly and 2nd A. 2013b. Preliminary report on the African Coffee symposium. 17th-21st status and host plant utilization by the November 2014, Kampala, Uganda. Black Coffee Twig Borer, Kagezi, G.H., Kucel, P., Egonyu, J.P., Xylosandrus compactus (Eichhoff) Kyamanywa, S., Karungi, J.T., Pinard, (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) in F., Jaramillo, J,, van Asten, P., Wagoire, Uganda. Proceedings of the 24th WW. and Ngabirano, H. 2014b. A International Conference on Coffee review of the pest status and research Science, ASIC, San José, Costa Rica progress on the black coffee twig borer, November 11-16, 2012. pp. 1323- Xylosandrus compactus (Eichhoff) in 1326. Uganda. 25th International Conference Kagezi, G.H., Kucel, P., Nakibuule, L. and on Coffee Science (ASIC 2014), Kobusinge, J. 2014c. Back to office Colombia, 8th - 13th September 2014. report: Survey in the coffee-banana- Kagezi, G.H., Kucel, P., Egonyu, P.J., agroforestry systems of south-western Nakibuule, L., Kobusinge, J., Ahumuza, Uganda, December 12-23, 2013. 9 pp. G., Matovu, R.J., Nakendo, S., Luzinda, Kagezi, G.H., Kucel, P., Egonyu, J.P., H., Musoli, C.P., Kangire, A. and Ahumuza, G., Nakibuule, L., Chesang, B.F. 2013a. Impact and Kobusinge, J. and Wagoire, W.W. farmers’ coping mechanisms of the 2014d. Black Coffee Twig Borer, Black Coffee twig borer, Xylosandrus Xylosandrus compactus (Eichhoff) compactus (Eichhoff) (Coleoptera: on cocoa (Theobroma cacao L.) in Curculionidae) in Uganda. Uganda: A first report and its Proceedings of 11th African Crop implications. 2nd Biennial NARO Science Society Conference, 2013. Scientific Conference, 3rd–7th Kagezi, G.H., Kucel, P., Kobusingye, J., November 2014, Entebbe, Uganda. Nakibuule, L., Wekhaso, R., Ahumuza, Kayobyo, G., Hakiza, G.J. and Kucel, P. G., Musoli, P. and Kangire, A. 2013c. 2001. Cocoa (Theobroma cacoa). In: Influence of shade systems on spatial Mukiibi, J.K. (Ed.).Agriculture in distribution and infestation of the Black Uganda Vol. II. Fountain Publishers/ Coffee Twig Borer on coffee in CTA/NARO. pp. 462-486. Uganda. Uganda Journal of Kekeunou, S., Messi, J., Foahom, B. and Agricultural Sciences 14 (1):1-12. Weise, S. 2005. Impact of forest cover Kagezi, G.H., Kucel, P., Mukasa, D., van degradation on diversity and pest status Asten, P., Musoli, P. and Kangire, A. of grasshoppers in Africa. 2012. Pest status, damage and host International Forestry Review plant utilization of the Black Coffee 7(5):391. Twig Borer (BCTB), Xylosandrus Kekeunou, S., Messi, J., Weise, S. and compactus Eichhoff (Coleoptera: Tindo, M. 2006. Insect pests’ incidence Curculionidae) in Uganda. The 24th and variations due to forest landscape International Conference on Coffee degradation in the humid forest zone Science, ASIC. November 11-16, 2012, of Southern Cameroon: farmers’ San José, Costa Rica. perception and need for adopting an Implications of Black Coffee Twig Borer on cocoa 189 integrated pest management strategy. Florida. Annals of the Entomological African Journal of Biotechnology society of America 69(5):872-876. 5(7):555-562. SAS Institute. 2008. SAS/STAT Software: Kimera, J. 2013. Uganda sees its 2013/ Version 9.2, SAS Institute Inc., SAS 2014 cocoa output rising 26 percent. Campus Drive, Cary, North Carolina http://www.newvision.co.ug/news/ 27513. 649626-uganda-sees-its-2013-2014- Schroth, G. and Harvey, C.A. 2007. cocoa-output-rising -26 percent.html. Biodiversity conservation in cocoa Last accessed on February 02, 2014. production landscapes: an overview. Kucel, P., Egonyu, J.P., Kagezi, G. and Biodiversity and Conservation Musoli, P.C. 2011. Shade and varietal 16(8):2237-2244. effects on diversity and prevalence of Smith, V.E. 2003. Coffee twig borer insect pests of Robusta coffee in infestation increases in stressed plants. central Uganda. CAFNET end of West Hawaii Today. Sect A:30. project report. 10pp. Subaharan, K., Kannan, C., RohiniIyer Kucel, P., Kangire, A. and Egonyu, J.P. and Vidyasagar, P.S.P. 2008. Incidence 2009. Status and current research of shot hole borer, Xylosandrus strategies for management of the compactus Eichhoff on wilt disease coffee berry borer (Hypothenemus affected cocoa. Entomon 1:87-88. hampei Ferr) in Africa. ICO Seminar UBOS, 2012. Uganda Bureau of Statistics on the Coffee Berry Borer. http:// (UBOS). Statistical Abstract. June dev.ico.org/eventpdfs/cbb/ 2012. http://www.ubos.org/onlinefiles/ presentations /Kangire%20 NaCRRI. uploads/ubos/pdf%20documents/ pdf. Last accessed on November 24, 2012StatisticalAbstract.pdf. Last 2011. accessed on May 30, 2014. Nair, K.S.S., Mathew, G., Mohanadas, K. UCDA. 2012. UCDA’s guidance on the and Menon, A.R.R. 1986. A study of Coffee Twig Borer (CTB). Uganda insect pest incidence in natural forests. Coffee Development Authority KFRI Research Report 44. December (UCDA). http://www.agricultural 1986. 32pp. reviewonline.com/indexphp/ featured/ Nair, P.K.P. 2010. The agronomy and 68-featured/ 125-ucdas-guidance-on- economy of important tree crops of the the-coffee-twig-borerctb.html. Last developing world. 1st edition. accessed on July 14, 2012. Amsterdam, Boston, USA. 351 p. Wintgens, J.N. 2009. Coffee: Growing, Ngoan, N.D., Wilknison, R.C., Short, D.E., processing, sustainable production: A Moses, C.S. and Mangold, J.R. 1976. guide book for growers, processors, Biology of an introduced Ambrosia traders, and researchers, 2nd Edition. beetle, Xylosandrus compactus in Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH. 1040 pp.