The Forgetting Curve and Learning Algorithms
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A Queueing-Theoretic Foundation for Optimal Spaced Repetition
A Queueing-Theoretic Foundation for Optimal Spaced Repetition Siddharth Reddy [email protected] Department of Computer Science, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14850 Igor Labutov [email protected] Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14850 Siddhartha Banerjee [email protected] School of Operations Research and Information Engineering, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14850 Thorsten Joachims [email protected] Department of Computer Science, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14850 1. Extended Abstract way back to 1885 and the pioneering work of Ebbinghaus (Ebbinghaus, 1913), identify two critical variables that de- In the study of human learning, there is broad evidence that termine the probability of recalling an item: reinforcement, our ability to retain a piece of information improves with i.e., repeated exposure to the item, and delay, i.e., time repeated exposure, and that it decays with delay since the since the item was last reviewed. Accordingly, scientists last exposure. This plays a crucial role in the design of ed- have long been proponents of the spacing effect for learn- ucational software, leading to a trade-off between teaching ing: the phenomenon in which periodic, spaced review of new material and reviewing what has already been taught. content improves long-term retention. A common way to balance this trade-off is spaced repe- tition, which uses periodic review of content to improve A significant development in recent years has been a grow- long-term retention. Though spaced repetition is widely ing body of work that attempts to ‘engineer’ the process used in practice, e.g., in electronic flashcard software, there of human learning, creating tools that enhance the learning is little formal understanding of the design of these sys- process by building on the scientific understanding of hu- tems. -
Spaced Learning Strategy in Teaching Mathematics Ace T
International Journal of Scientific & Engineering Research, Volume 8, Issue 4, April-2017 851 ISSN 2229-5518 Spaced Learning Strategy in Teaching Mathematics Ace T. Ceremonia, Remalyn Q. Casem Abstract—Students’ low mastery of the lesson in Mathematics is one of the alarming problems confronted by Mathematics teachers. It is in this light that this study was conceptualized to determine the effectiveness of spaced learning strategy on the performance and mastery of DMMMSU Laboratory High School students (Grade 7) in Mathematics. This study used the true experimental design, specifically the pretest-posttest control group design. The main instrument used to gather data was the pretest-posttest which was subjected to validity and reliability tests. It was found out that the experimental and control groups were comparable in the pretest and posttest. Comparison on their gain scores revealed significant difference with the performance of the experimental higher than the control group. It was also found out that the effect size of using the spaced learning strategy was large. This indicates that the intervention is effective in increasing the performance and mastery of high school students in Mathematics. It is recommended the use of the Spaced Learning Strategy to improve the performance of the high school students in Mathematics. Index Terms— basic education, effect size, mathematics performance, spaced learning strategy. —————————— —————————— 1 INTRODUCTION 1.1 Situation Analysis results, such as the 2003 TIMSS (Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study), the Philippines ranked 34th out uality education is reflected on the exemplary outputs and of 38 countries in HS II Math and ranked 43rd out of 46 countries Q outstanding performances of students in academics and in HS II Science; for grade 4, the Philippines ranked 23rd out of 25 related co-curricular activities (Glossary Education Reform, participating countries in both Math and Science. -
Variational Deep Knowledge Tracing for Language Learning
Variational Deep Knowledge Tracing for Language Learning Sherry Ruan Wei Wei James A. Landay [email protected] [email protected] [email protected] Stanford University Google Stanford University Stanford, California, United States Sunnyvale, California, United States Stanford, California, United States ABSTRACT You are✔ buying shoes Deep Knowledge Tracing (DKT), which traces a student’s knowl- edge change using deep recurrent neural networks, is widely adopted in student cognitive modeling. Current DKT models only predict You are✘ young Yes you are✘ going a student’s performance based on the observed learning history. However, a student’s learning processes often contain latent events not directly observable in the learning history, such as partial under- You are✔ You are✔ You are✔ You are✔ standing, making slips, and guessing answers. Current DKT models not going not real eating cheese welcome fail to model this kind of stochasticity in the learning process. To address this issue, we propose Variational Deep Knowledge Tracing (VDKT), a latent variable DKT model that incorporates stochasticity Linking verb Tense ✔/✘ Right/Wrong Attempt into DKT through latent variables. We show that VDKT outper- forms both a sequence-to-sequence DKT baseline and previous Figure 1: A probabilistic knowledge tracing system tracks SoTA methods on MAE, F1, and AUC by evaluating our approach the distribution of two concepts concerning the word are: on two Duolingo language learning datasets. We also draw various understanding it as a linking verb and understanding it in interpretable analyses from VDKT and offer insights into students’ the present progressive tense. 3 and 7 represent whether stochastic behaviors in language learning. -
The Spaced Interval Repetition Technique
The Spaced Interval Repetition Technique What is it? The Spaced Interval Repetition (SIR) technique is a memorization technique largely developed in the 1960’s and is a phenomenal way of learning information very efficiently that almost nobody knows about. It is based on the landmark research in memory conducted by famous psychologist, Hermann Ebbinghaus in the late 19th century. Ebbinghaus discovered that when we learn new information, we actually forget it very quickly (within a matter of minutes and hours) and the more time that passes, the more likely we are to forget it (unless it is presented to us again). This is why “cramming” for the test does not allow you to learn/remember everything for the test (and why you don’t remember any of it a week later). SIR software, notably first developed by Piotr A. Woźniak is available to help you learn information like a superhero and even retain it for the rest of your life. The SIR technique can be applied to any kind of learning, but arguably works best when learning discrete pieces of information like dates, definitions, vocabulary, formulas, etc. Why does it work? Memory is a fickle creature. For most people, to really learn something, we need to rehearse it several times; this is how information gets from short‐term memory to long‐ term memory. Research tells us that the best time to rehearse something (like those formulas for your statistics class) is right before you are about to forget it. Obviously, it is very difficult for us to know when we are about to forget an important piece of information. -
Learning Efficiency Correlates of Using Supermemo with Specially Crafted Flashcards in Medical Scholarship
Learning efficiency correlates of using SuperMemo with specially crafted Flashcards in medical scholarship. Authors: Jacopo Michettoni, Alexis Pujo, Daniel Nadolny, Raj Thimmiah. Abstract Computer-assisted learning has been growing in popularity in higher education and in the research literature. A subset of these novel approaches to learning claim that predictive algorithms called Spaced Repetition can significantly improve retention rates of studied knowledge while minimizing the time investment required for learning. SuperMemo is a brand of commercial software and the editor of the SuperMemo spaced repetition algorithm. Medical scholarship is well known for requiring students to acquire large amounts of information in a short span of time. Anatomy, in particular, relies heavily on rote memorization. Using the SuperMemo web platform1 we are creating a non-randomized trial, inviting medical students completing an anatomy course to take part. Usage of SuperMemo as well as a performance test will be measured and compared with a concurrent control group who will not be provided with the SuperMemo Software. Hypotheses A) Increased average grade for memorization-intensive examinations If spaced repetition positively affects average retrievability and stability of memory over the term of one to four months, then consistent2 users should obtain better grades than their peers on memorization-intensive examination material. B) Grades increase with consistency There is a negative relationship between variability of daily usage of SRS and grades. 1 https://www.supermemo.com/ 2 Defined in Criteria for inclusion: SuperMemo group. C) Increased stability of memory in the long-term If spaced repetition positively affects knowledge stability, consistent users should have more durable recall even after reviews of learned material have ceased. -
Serial Position Effects and Forgetting Curves: Implications in Word
Studies in English Language Teaching ISSN 2372-9740 (Print) ISSN 2329-311X (Online) Vol. 2, No. 3, 2014 www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/selt Original Paper Serial Position Effects and Forgetting Curves: Implications in Word Memorization Guijun Zhang1* 1 Department of Foreign Languages, China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing, China * Guijun Zhang, E-mail:[email protected] Abstract Word memorization is important in English learning and teaching. The theory and implications of serial position effects and forgetting curves are discussed in this paper. It is held that they help students understand the psychological mechanisms underlying word memorization. The serial position effects make them to consider the application the chunking theory in word memorization; the forgetting curve reminds them to repeat the words in long-term memory in proper time. Meanwhile the spacing effect and elaborative rehearsal effect are also discussed as they are related to the forgetting curve. Keywords serial position effects, forgetting curves, word memorization 1. Introduction English words are extraordinarily significant for English foreign language (EFL) learners because they are the essential basis of all language skills. As Wilkins said, “...while without grammar very little can be conveyed, without vocabulary nothing can be conveyed” (Wilkins, 1972). Effective word memorization plays a significant role in the process of vocabulary learning. Researchers have and are still pursuing and summarizing the effective memory methods. Schmitt, for example, classified vocabulary memory strategies into more than twenty kinds (Schmitt, 1997, p. 34). However, it is hard to improve the efficiency of the vocabulary memory in that different students remember the huge amount of words with some certain method or methods that may not suit them. -
VAASAN AMMATTIKORKEAKOULU VAASA UNIVERSITY of APPLIED SCIENCES Degree Programme in Information Technology
Klim Skuridin SPACED REPETITION CLOUD WEBAPP IN JAVA EE AND GOOGLE MATERIAL DESIGN Information Technology 2016 VAASAN AMMATTIKORKEAKOULU VAASA UNIVERSITY OF APPLIED SCIENCES Degree Programme in Information Technology ABSTRACT Author Klim Skuridin Title Spaced Repetition Cloud WebApp in Java EE and Google Material Design Year 2016 Language English Pages 42 Name of Supervisor Pirjo Prosi The aim of this thesis project was to develop a web application using Java with deployment on Amazon Web Services cloud platform within an Elastic Computing 2 VM instance. The developer aims to help users learn new information using the Spaced Repetition principle. The main tools of the project include Java/JSP for back-end development, Twitter Bootstrap framework for front-end development, GitHub Version Control System for code management, MySQL for app data per- sistence, Tomcat server for deployment and Eclipse IDE for coding the back-end. Keywords: Java, WebApp, AWS, Spaced Repetition, Bootstrap, GMD 3(42) CONTENTS 1. INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................ 6 2. PROJECT BACKGROUND & DESCRIPTION ............................................. 8 2.1 Project Description.................................................................................... 8 2.2 Application Algorithm .............................................................................. 9 2.3 Relevant Technologies ............................................................................ 11 3. ANALYSIS & DESIGN ................................................................................ -
Osmosis Study Guide
How to Study in Medical School How to Study in Medical School Written by: Rishi Desai, MD, MPH • Brooke Miller, PhD • Shiv Gaglani, MBA • Ryan Haynes, PhD Edited by: Andrea Day, MA • Fergus Baird, MA • Diana Stanley, MBA • Tanner Marshall, MS Special Thanks to: Henry L. Roediger III, PhD • Robert A. Bjork, PhD • Matthew Lineberry, PhD About Osmosis Created by medical students at Johns Hopkins and the former Khan Academy Medicine team, Os- mosis helps more than 250,000 current and future clinicians better retain and apply knowledge via a web- and mobile platform that takes advantage of cutting-edge cognitive techniques. © Osmosis, 2017 Much of the work you see us do is licensed under a Creative Commons license. We strongly be- lieve educational materials should be made freely available to everyone and be as accessible as possible. We also want to thank the people who support us financially, so we’ve made this exclu- sive book for you as a token of our thanks. This book unlike much of our work, is not under an open license and we reserve all our copyright rights on it. We ask that you not share this book liberally with your friends and colleagues. Any proceeds we generate from this book will be spent on creat- ing more open content for everyone to use. Thank you for your continued support! You can also support us by: • Telling your classmates and friends about us • Donating to us on Patreon (www.patreon.com/osmosis) or YouTube (www.youtube.com/osmosis) • Subscribing to our educational platform (www.osmosis.org) 2 Contents Problem 1: Rapid Forgetting Solution: Spaced Repetition and 1 Interleaved Practice Problem 2: Passive Studying Solution: Testing Effect and 2 "Memory Palace" Problem 3: Past Behaviors Solution: Fogg Behavior Model and 3 Growth Mindset 3 Introduction Students don’t get into medical school by accident. -
Where Companies Go Wrong with Learning and Development by Steve Glaveski
REPRINT H055J1 PUBLISHED ON HBR.ORG OCTOBER 02, 2019 ARTICLE BUSINESS EDUCATION Where Companies Go Wrong with Learning and Development by Steve Glaveski This article is made available to you with compliments of EGN for your personal use. Further posting, copying, or distribution is not permitted. BUSINESS EDUCATION Where Companies Go Wrong with Learning and Development by Steve Glaveski OCTOBER 02, 2019 GREGOR SCHUSTER/GETTY IMAGES Organizations spent $359 billion globally on training in 2016, but was it worth it? Not when you consider the following: • 75% of 1,500 managers surveyed from across 50 organizations were dissatisfied with their company’s Learning & Development (L&D) function; COPYRIGHT © 2019 HARVARD BUSINESS SCHOOL PUBLISHING CORPORATION. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. 2 • 70% of employees report that they don’t have mastery of the skills needed to do their jobs; • Only 12% of employees apply new skills learned in L&D programs to their jobs; and • Only 25% of respondents to a recent McKinsey survey believe that training measurably improved performance. Not only is the majority of training in today’s companies ineffective, but the purpose, timing, and content of training is flawed. Learning for the Wrong Reasons Bryan Caplan, professor of economics at George Mason University, and author of The Case Against Education, says in his book that education often isn’t so much about learning useful job skills, but about people showing off, or “signaling.” Today’s employees often signal through continuous professional education (CPE) credits so that they can make a case for a promotion. L&D staff also signal their worth by meeting flawed KPIs, such as the total CPE credits employees earn, rather than focusing on the business impact created. -
Useful Links for Language Learners
Useful Links for Language Learners All these links are for free resources that can help language learners. Some of these resources have paid options, but you do not have to sign up for the paid option to utilize their resources and learn a new language! Duolingo: This is a language teaching app that uses a combination of spaced repetition, game style learning and motivation, stories, and tips to share grammar, pronunciation, and cultural differences related to the language. Do not forget to explore the site beyond the lessons or you may miss out on some of what Duolingo has to offer. Forvo: This is a library of language audio clips. That is to say, native speakers say words in their language and share them at Forvo. Others can listen to those clips. If you create an account, you can also download the clips for non-commercial use (i.e. studying). If you are making your own digital flashcards, this can be a very useful site to visit. Google Images: This is like regular Google, but it searches primarily for images. This is useful for language learners, because doing an image search for a word in a foreign language can visually show how that word is perceived. It may show you an unexpected meaning or nuance that a simple translation cannot share; for instance, the Italian word ‘ragazzo’ could be translated into English as ‘boy’, but doing an image search will mostly reveal teenage boys, with a few smaller boys interspersed, giving a better understanding of the word. In addition, doing searches for vocabulary can help you to form memories related to vocabulary words, making you more likely to remember them in the future. -
Celebrating 40 Years of TLT Feature Article My Share
The Language Teacher http://jalt-publications.org/tlt Celebrating 40 years of TLT Feature Article My Share An Edited Version of the First Eight Classroom ideas from Gary Henscheid, 3 13 1,000-Word Frequency Bands of Nick Caine, Douglas Perkins and Adam the Japanese-English Version of the Pearson, and Richard Buckley Vocabulary Size Test Stuart McLean, Tomoko Ishii, Tim Stoeckel, Phil Bennett, and Yuko JALT Praxis Matsumoto TLT Wired 18 Young Learners Readers’ Forum 20 Book Reviews Brain-Friendly Learning Tips for 22 9 Teaching Assistance Long-Term Retention and Recall 26 The Writers’ Workshop Jeff Mehring and Regan Thomson 28 Dear TLT 30 SIG Focus: School Owners’ SIG 33 Old Grammarians 35 The Japan Association for Language Teaching Volume 40, Number 4 • July / August 2016 ISSN 0289-7938 • ¥1,900 • TLT uses recycled paper EASY-ENGLISH ADVENTURES WITH 8 DIFFERENT ENDINGS 2015 ELTon Nomination for Best Learner Resource 2015 Language Learner Literature Award Winner 2015 Language Learner Literature Award Finalist 2016 Language Learner Literature Award Finalist “Entertaining and educational” -LLL Awards Judge AWARD-WINNING GAMEBOOK SERIES・MADE IN JAPAN・IDEAL FOR EXTENSIVE READING ALSO SELF-STUDY・TIMED READING・LITERATURE CIRCLES・DISCUSSION TASKS・MORE! BUT DON’T JUST TAKE OUR WORD FOR IT. READ ONE NOW, FREE, ONLINE: Scan the QR code and Try it in class! There’s no catch! be reading in seconds Well, okay... it’s a limited time offer - but when it ends, all you need to do is join our newsletter, and you’ll still get access to a free online book! Newsletter: http://eepurl.com/P8z45 http://goo.gl/z8GUhS Print available from englishbooks.jp. -
The Indirect Spaced Repetition Concept Louis Lafleur Ritsumeikan University
Vocabulary Learning and Instruction Volume 9, Issue 2, August 2020 http://vli-journal.org The Indirect Spaced Repetition Concept Louis Lafleur Ritsumeikan University Abstract The main goal of this research is to systemize, build, and test prototype software to demonstrate Indirect Spaced Repetition (ISR) as a viable concept for Second Language Vocabulary Acquisition (SLVA). ISR is designed around well-founded spaced repetition and SLVA principles. Most importantly, it is based on Nation’s (2001) recommendation to consider all three tiers of word knowledge (meaning, form, and func- tion/use) and subsequent 18 aspects of word knowledge for a more bal- anced approach in teaching and learning vocabulary. ISR prototype software was achieved in the conceptual phase of the research. The re- sulting prototype flashcard software was given an in-depth trial for a period of 2 weeks by seven university students. Participants were given a post-project survey to evaluate ISR software (ISRS) under four cat- egories: enjoyment, usefulness, usability, and general consideration. Post-test survey findings showed above-average satisfaction and consid- eration to use such software in the future. However, these findings also revealed that some areas could be further improved, such as addressing some hardware/software issues (e.g., IT infrastructure problematics and lag) and integrating gamification elements (e.g., performance feedback/ reports). Keywords: Vocabulary learning, (Indirect) Spaced Repetition, (Spaced) Interleaving, 18 aspects of word knowledge, Computer Assisted Language Learning (CALL) 1 Background Spaced Repetition is often mistaken as a new concept as the term is often asso- ciated with recently published study software and applications. In many cases, these programs fail to give credit to the founders of the spaced repetition system (SRS).