NO. 2 VOL. 2/ JUNE 2017

http://dx.doi.org/10.222.99/arpap/2017.17 as an Icon: A Study in Context of Public Rhetoric

MUNIRA LOKHANDWALA

ABSTRACT Language influences people, people influence language. It is Received: 12 March 2017 Accepted: 05 April 2017 argued by some that culture is ‘reconstituted through language’ Published: 14 June 2017 Language is socially constructed, and depends on the meanings people attach to it. Because language is not rigid and changes Corresponding author: depending on the situation, the very usage of language is Munira Lokhandwala Department of English and rhetorical. Public rhetoric refers to discourse both within a group Research Centre of people and between groups, often centering on the process by Abeda Inamdar Senior which individual or group discourse seeks membership in the College of Arts, Science & Commerce, Pune larger public discourse. Public rhetoric can also involve rhetoric Affiliated to Savitribai Phule being used within the general populace to foster social change Pune University, Pune, and encourage agency on behalf of the participants of public India Email: rhetoric. muniralokhandwala22@gm As a segment of society, images can also function in the realm ail.com of public rhetoric as photographs. Photographic images recreated

as such are extremely important and function as icons. As a version of public rhetoric, iconic images serve to compose meaning and persuade an audience to respond in some way.

India’s association with the greatest freedom fighter in the 21st century, continued even after the death of Gandhi in 1948. Gandhi is seen on currency notes, in government offices in

framed pictures, as statues in public places like streets and

gardens, in museums, in tourist memorabilia. The list goes on. The question often arises as to the phenomenon of the emergence of Gandhi as an icon not just at the national level but also

international. This paper will examine the various iconic images of Gandhi that influenced the society at the time and is etched in public

memory as a social rhetoric. The richness of the Gandhi icons Vol. 2 No. 2 June 2017 | 71

become highly marked for their public rhetoric. The icon of Gandhi sitting at the spinning wheel is a case in point. This paper will explore the conventional icons that Gandhi is traditionally associated with as well as the emerging modern ones. The paper will try to examine the social change that was brought about by the emergence of Gandhi as an Iconic leader. Keywords: Discourse, Icon, Photographic Images, Rhetoric, Social change

INTRODUCTION Rhetoric Rhetoric is a technique of using language effectively and persuasively in spoken or written form. It is an art of discourse, which studies and employs various methods to convince, influence or please an audience. As a subject of formal study and a productive civic practice, rhetoric has played a central role in the European tradition. Its best known definition comes from Aristotle, who considers it a counterpart of both logic and politics, and calls it "the faculty of observing in any given case the available means of persuasion.

Public Rhetoric Public rhetoric refers to discourse both within a group of people and between groups, often centering on the process by which individual or group discourse seeks membership in the larger public discourse. Public rhetoric can also involve rhetoric being used within the general populace to foster social change and encourage agency on behalf of the participants of public rhetoric. However from the high esteem that it had in the times of Aristotle and Plato through the ages, the term Rhetoric has been reduced to refer to pejoratively- to political rhetoric. Consequently instead of triggering a public debate and exposition of intelligent thought, it was taken very casually. Thus the emergence of a public rhetoric that was brought about by the icon of a frail, scantily clad man from Gujarat has to be viewed from the perspective in which the political rhetoric has lost a lot of its sheen.

Ethos, Pathos, Logos The modes of persuasion, often referred to as ethical strategies or rhetorical appeals, are devices in rhetoric that classify the speaker's appeal to the audience. They are: ethos, pathos, and logos. Aristotle's Rhetoric describes the modes of persuasion thus: Persuasion is clearly a sort of demonstration, since we are most fully persuaded when we consider a thing to have been demonstrated. Of the modes of persuasion furnished by the spoken word there are three kinds. 72 |

Ethos: Persuasion is achieved by the speaker's personal character when the speech was so spoken as to make us think him credible. Pathos: Secondly, persuasion may come through the hearers, when the speech stirs their emotions. Logos: Thirdly, persuasion is effected through the speech itself when we have proved a truth or an apparent truth by means of the persuasive arguments suitable to the case in question.

Visual Rhetoric Visual rhetoric is the fairly recent development of a theoretical framework describing how visual images communicate, as opposed to aural, verbal, or other messages. Visual rhetoric generally falls under a group of terms, which all encompass visual literacy. Purdue Owl defines visual literacy as one's ability to "read" an image. In other words, it is one's ability to understand what an image is attempting to communicate. The visual rhetoric is an important element to increase the effectiveness of the process of information exchange. In fact Visual Rhetoric helps to get messages across to audiences in a persuasive way.

Image as an Icon Photographic images can function in public rhetoric as icons of public culture. According to Robert Hariman and John Louis Lucaites in No Caption Needed: Iconic Photographs, Public Culture, and Liberal Democracy, iconic images “work in several registers of ritual and response.” Public interpretations and influences of iconic photographic images manifest themselves as visual representations, or delivery of rhetoric. How these images function in public depends on the features of the specific image, the Vol. 2 No. 2 June 2017 | 73

motivation for the image, and the responses from the public sphere. The attempt in this paper is to understand the impact of the visual combined with the oral rhetoric. The phenomenon of the influence of on the masses is analysed. Undoubtedly there were great speakers and intellectuals on the Indian political scene in the time which Gandhi prevailed. The emergence of Gandhi as the single most influential mover of the masses was phenomenal, the type of mass appeal matched by none other in the history of India. Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi (1869-1948) was the preeminent leader of the Indian independence movement in British-ruled India. Employing nonviolent , Gandhi led India to independence and inspired movements for civil rights and freedom across the world. The honorific Mahatma applied to him first in 1914 in South Africa is now used worldwide. In common parlance in India he is often called and Gandhiji. He is also called the ‘Father of the Nation’.

Gandhi’s Rhetoric Gandhi was always a soft speaker. But he was not at all hesitant in putting forth his thoughts on any particular issue. Audacious speech was his specialty. It has often been stated that Gandhi’s impact on the people he met and spoke to was simply electrifying. These people were not just freedom fighters and politicians, writers and thinkers; there were among them slum dwellers and villagers, farmers and labourers, little-educated people and illiterates. But Gandhi wasn’t a populist, saying what he thought his audience would like to hear; he was on the contrary quite capable of saying things or doing things that were rather incomprehensible to the people at large or were considered unacceptable, which may not be surprising since he was a great deal more than the leader of a freedom movement; he was a social reformer too.

Evolution of Gandhi as an Icon of Epic Proportions Aristotle says that if a person would like to master the art of communication, he should be able to reason logically, analyze human character, and understand human emotions. These three factors: character, logical thinking and rousing emotions among audience are seen in the pragmatist Mahatma Gandhi. His speeches gathered masses of people united to desired action. This resulted in Gandhi's three national wide mass movements like non-cooperation in 1920, Civil Disobedience in 1930 and Quit India in 1942 making him a mass communicator and national leader. This characteristic forced the British to negotiate with Gandhi and represent India 74 |

at the Round Table conferences. His astute negotiations were seen at the time of partition. His reach and leadership was untainted by desire of political office and chose to continue his social mission and his valorization subsequent to his death through an assassin’s bullets. The combination of his own persona as well as his astute reading and handling of socio-political factors led Gandhi to become an Icon of Epic proportions.

METHODOLOGY The Researcher has used a number of images that contribute to creation and continued sustenance of Gandhi as an Icon. Possibly the most globally famous Indian cultural icon, Mahatma Gandhi was important to the movement for Indian independence from the British through non-violent resistance. These images have been categorized under various categories. It is necessary and to understand the creation of the Gandhi icon.

Pre-Independence Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi (Mahatma Gandhi) had been a prominent leader of the Indian nationalist movement in South Africa. During these protests, Gandhi had perfected the concept of which gave him success in South Africa. Gandhi accomplished this through extensive use of non-violent protest, such as boycotting, protest marching, and by him and his followers. Gandhi returned to India on 9 January 1915, and initially Gandhi's ideas and strategies of non-violent civil disobedience initially appeared impractical to some Indians and Congressmen. Gopal Krishna Gokhale, a veteran Congressman and Indian leader, became Gandhi's mentor. Gandhi's ability to inspire millions of common people became clear when he used Satyagraha during the anti-Rowlatt Act protests in Punjab. Gandhi's vision would soon bring millions of regular Indians into the movement, transforming it from an elitist struggle to a national one.

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Non-Co-operation Movement This is an iconic image of Mahatma Gandhi. He is seen using his spinning wheel.

The self-rule movement as late as 1918 was an elitist movement. Gandhi changed that and made it a mass movement. From 1920 to 1922, Gandhi started the Non-Cooperation Movement and first propagated the use of and Indian materials and goods as alternatives to those shipped from Britain. It also urged people to boycott British educational institutions and law courts; resign from government employment; refuse to pay taxes; and forsake British titles and honours. This movement resulted in the . The Spinning wheel was used to challenge the hegemony of British mill- made cloth. Spinning wheels were freely distributed to anyone who was willing to spin their own cloth and this iconic image of the great leader went a long way in the call for Swadeshi movement becoming a mass movement that shook the textile market of the British in India.

Salt March Gandhi undertook his most famous campaign, a march of 388 kilometres from Ahmedabad to Dandi to protest against British taxes on salt. Gandhi and thousands of his followers broke the law by making their own salt from seawater (at the Gulf of Khambhat). It took 24 days for him to complete this march. The Dandi March launched the civil disobedience movement (from 1930 to 1931), and it attracted attention across the world through the media, rallied participation of many Indian people, and had a "profound cultural resonance". The Dandi March not only united the Indian people but also exposed the facade of the British Empire and, eventually, the British Imperial power was shaken. Eventually, the Dandi March was looked at as the turning point in India's struggle for self-rule. One of the unique features of Gandhi clad in a dhoti and walking with a stick is the association with the .

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Quit India Movement The was a civil disobedience movement launched at the Bombay session of the All-India Congress Committee or more simply by Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi (Mahatma Gandhi) on 8 August 1942, during World War II, demanding an end to British Rule of India. Gandhi made a call to Do or Die in his Quit India speech delivered in . This show of defiance by a frail father of the nation electrified the people. No other leader before or after Gandhi has had the people responding to his Rhetoric in such a way. He struck a chord in young and old, men and women, rich and poor, strong and weak. This was the first time that women joined the mass movement in such large numbers. Following Gandhi’s call for civil disobedience on August 8, 1942, the Mahatma along with all the leaders were imprisoned, leaving the movement leaderless. In the absence of any organized structure, people engaged in the most daring and spontaneous acts of protest against British rule. An aspect of the movement that is rarely spoken about is the way it encouraged women to come out of the thresholds of their homes and raise their voice against British rule. With majority of the men behind bars, women took to the streets, raising slogans, holding public lectures and demonstrations and even making and transporting explosives

Post-Independence At the time of Independence, Mahatma Gandhi was almost 78 years. The physical stress (from long fasts, travel) and psychological stress (from a 50 year public life convincing Indians) had taken its toll. Gandhi was confident that the vast legion of leaders were capable of leadership and he would continue to mentor. The Mahatma was completely disillusioned by the partition communal riots. But most importantly Gandhi was always interested at the grassroots. He never held national level posts for long and always went back to its roots. He found himself more connected to a common villager than the suited lawmakers. Most importantly, Mahatma continued to lead (although Vol. 2 No. 2 June 2017 | 77

in no official rule) and helped avert a massive civil war in the Eastern side of India. With just his physical presence he saved the lives of millions from religious riots on the eve of India's partition. Tragically, 5 months after partition, Gandhi was assassinated. He continues to be an icon of peace, passive resistance influencing the minds and social fabric not only of India but also internationally.

International Icon Gandhi: An Apostle of Peace We often see the image of Gandhi with a halo around his head. It is a throwback to the austere life he lived and the sustenance of his principles and ideals in the face of tremendous difficulties. A reflection of the life he lived and died in a social cause. Thus in the post-colonial era Gandhi’s image is a visual rhetoric for the essence of his beliefs steeped in values of peace and non-violence. Gandhi: Champion of Passive Resistance

Gandhi: Anti-Apartheid Icon:

Nelson Mandela the leader of the South African Freedom struggle looked with the highest esteem at Gandhi and propagated the use of the weapon of Non-violence to fight Apartheid. As Gandhi scholar David Hardiman points out, however, Mandela never ceased regarding Gandhi as an inspiration, and, in fact, saw as an integral part of the movement. Mandela learned from Gandhi the essential virtues of forgiveness and compassion, values that served him and his country very well on his assumption to power. 78 |

Gandhi: Inspiration for Civil rights movement: Martin Luther King Jr

The philosophy and practices of Mahatma Gandhi had a deep impact on Martin Luther King. Deeply influenced by the works of Gandhi, King made the struggle for civil liberty for African- Americans in the USA his sole motto. His weapons: faith in God and nonviolence. “From my background I gained my regulating Christian ideals", he later said, “From Gandhi, I learned my operational technique".

Gandhi’s Sartorial Style

Gandhi's discarding of Western fashion was his loudest cry on behalf of colonized humanity and the zenith of his search for sartorial significance, writes Peter Gonsalves, a teacher of social sciences at a Paris university, in his book Clothing for Liberation. Gandhi's decision to reduce his conventional clothing to a mere waist-covering dhoti transformed him into an international icon, he writes. According to Gonsalves, the unclothing of the Mahatma was his loudest cry on behalf of colonized humanity. "It was the zenith of his search for sartorial significance. Hence, in his own person, wedged between the clash of two great civilizations, he pursued an exceptional strategy to speak to an Empire that was too stubborn to listen, on behalf of the millions who spoke through their nakedness and their tears,". In September- December, 1931, Gandhi attended the Second Round Table Conference in London wearing open-strapped slippers notwithstanding the changes in the autumnal climate and the onset of winter. He insisted on wearing the loincloth because it was the 'symbol of his mission'. It was a symbol in two senses: to reveal his sincere solidarity with the poor of India whom he represented, and Vol. 2 No. 2 June 2017 | 79

to show how imperialism had impoverished his country. "Millions of Indians own nothing in the world but that little strip of cloth which preserves them from disgrace. I am not leading a 'back to the loin cloth' movement. We have been in these straits ever since the British have ruled India." It is therefore unlikely that Churchill - at the head of a government determined to safeguard and propagate the 'greatest empire on earth' - understood the full significance of his own remark. He was inadvertently stating, albeit sarcastically, what Gandhi was already striving hard to be: a 'half-naked fakir' intent on becoming a perfectly integrated human being.

Gandhi: Lives On India has venerated and eulogized the greatest statesman in Indian History in several ways: 1. Currency notes Gandhi is probably by far, the most recognizable Indian, both within and outside India and is arguably the most non-controversial choice to be put up on currency notes. This current series was introduced in 1996.

2. Stamps

3. Statues/ Memorials Around 70 countries have Statues and memorials of Mahatma Gandhi which speaks volumes of the widespread appeal and impact of this simple man clad in a poor farmer’s attire.

4. Films No one has filmed Gandhi’s life with so much authenticity as has Sir Richard Attenborough. Gandhi was released in India on 30 November 1982, in the United Kingdom on 3 December, and in the United States on 6 December. It 80 |

was nominated for Academy Awards in eleven categories, winning eight, including Best Picture. Richard Attenborough won for Best Director, and Ben Kingsley won for Best Actor. Audiences around the world loved the film.

CONCLUSION

The inference is that Gandhi has touched our lives and continues to do so. This is the pervasive influence of an Icon of Epic proportions. The image of Gandhi has become an inseparable part of the public discourse. The visual representation certainly plays an important role in sustaining of an ideology. It transcends languages which is noteworthy because India is a land of many languages and Gandhi spoke just 3. The Rhetoric of Gandhi was so pervasive that it transcended not just national but also cultural boundaries. Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi was not just a freedom fighter. A man who became known as the father of an entire nation, Gandhi was and remains an inspiration to the world. A preacher of truth and non-violence, Gandhi gained recognition across the globe for his sayings, his actions, his life. His pivotal role in the Indian independence struggle makes him one of the most important personalities in the world. It is therefore not surprising that people from several nations look up to him, respect him and build monuments in his honor. Perhaps one communicates with a wider and a more diverse audience if one talks the language of peace and harmony, rather than the language of discord and hatred. The language of peace and harmony brings to mind the possibility of a humane society; it reassures people of each section of a pluralistic society; it expresses an affirmation that everyone has a rightful place in the society irrespective of one’s religion, language or any other similar identities. The United Nations has declared 2nd October, the birthday of Gandhiji, as “International Day of Non-violence and Peace.” It follows that the world even today finds his message completely relevant and worth researching and remembering.

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1988. New Delhi: Namedia Foundation.

Fischer, L. 1994. The life of Mahatma Gandhiji (Third Impression). New Delhi: Harper Collins. Gupta, L.N. 1998. Cross-cultural Communication: Global Perspective. New Delhi: Concept. Gupta, V. S. 2012. Mahatma Gandhi and Mass Media. Retrieved on 7th September 2012 from the World Wide Web: http://www.mkgandhi.org/mass_m edia.htm Murthy D.V.R. 2010. Gandhian Journalism: Is it Relevant Today? New Delhi: Kanishka Publishers. Nanda, B. R. 2012. Gandhi: The Editor. Retrieved on 6th September 2012 from the World Wide Web: http://www.mkgandhi.org/articles/ g_editor.htm Seetaram, K.S. 1991. Culture and Communication: A World View. Mysore: Associated Printers. Vilanilam, J.V. 2005. Mass Communication in India: A Sociological Perspective. New Delhi: Sage Publications.