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Violence in and Games: A Sociological Perspective Dr. Namarta Vadhera, Assistant Professor, Department of Sociology and Social Anthropology, Punjabi University, Patiala Abstract Society is a web of relationships and there are certain norms and values which makes the society intact. When there is a violation of the norms, values, rules and regulations of the society that phenomenon of violation is known as deviance. Society is composed of many social institutions and sports is one of the social institutions of the society. In sports and games an individual has to follow certain rules and regulations and if that is not followed that is counted as unethical. There are certain deviant activities in sports and violence is one of them. involves the execution of behaviors that cause harm and happen out of the rules and regulations of sports. Currie (2000) defines violence in sports as “physical assault that is intended to cause physical pain or injury to another player (or , coach, game official etc.), where such harmful actions bear no direct relationship to the rules and associated competitive goals of the ”. Violence in sports results in aggressive behaviors and there are some games and sports where the frequency and severity of violence brings the destruction in the society. Violence in sports often stems from the players, other people among them being parents, media, coaches, and fans have contributed to the epidemic of violence in sports. This paper is an attempt to highlight how violence occurs in the sports, what are different theoretical aspects related to violence in sports and different types of violence that a player is indulged into. Keywords: deviance, violence, sports, society, norms, rules etc. Introduction Violence in sports involves the execution of behaviors that cause harm and happen out of the rules and regulations of sports. Currie (2000) defines violence in sports as “physical assault that is intended to cause physical pain or injury to another player (or fan, coach, game official etc.), where such harmful actions bear no direct relationship to the rules and associated competitive goals of the sport”. Violence in sports includes aggressive behaviors that are not related to the purposes of the given sport. Although violence in sports often stems from the players, other people among them being parents, media, coaches, and fans have contributed to the epidemic of violence in sports presently (Abdal-Haqq, 1989).

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Violence in sports and games has been registered since the age of Roman, but violence occurred at the audience is not yet be likened to conduct violence happened in sports of football this time (Canter, 1989; in Haley and Johnston, 1995:4). Violence in football at the beginning of its development is a fight that happened between villages in medieval times, in which opposing groups have to move the ball made of the skin to a place that is guarded by a group of his opponent. The form of the sport of professional football modern was created around 1840. In the beginning it was invented football sport, competition with use of violence is already familiar, so about a period of 1880, violence involving the audience often happens (Walvin, 1986; in Haley and Johnston, 1995:4). Violence in sports can be undertaken by spectators or by players. According to a wide range of research studies, spectators can incite or reflect sports violence based on the cues that they are given by players, other spectators, cheerleaders, and coaches. In the norm, spectators obtain a sense of self confidence and social identity from their teams. This causes them to emulate the behaviors of these players in order to show identification. It is the connection with a given team that creates group unity between the players, fans, and coaches hence they perceive opposing teams as being enemies. The perception of other teams as enemies promotes hostility towards the enemy groups and the hostility extends to supporters, geographical location, ethnicities, and the alleged social class (Abdal-Haqq, 1989). Apart from the spectators, players can also be involved in violent behaviors during or after the game. Violence in sports by players is often vented on opposing players. As stated by the social learning theory, it is the reinforcements and punishments at hand that in one way or the other influence the occurrence or the absence of violence in sports. When violence in sports is punished, there is a low likelihood of the same violence being repeated. For example, in February 2, 2000 in Gm Place, , a cowardly swing was made by Marty McSorley who hit the head of Donald Brashear from behind using a stick. The issue was negatively perceived since Marty was an elite athlete hence his loss of cool through violence in the field was punished by being suspended from the league for the longest time in history of sports confederation. Such incidences reduce cases of violence in sports because players are encouraged to avoid aggressive behaviors and do not create negative cues to spectators or fans (Currie, 2000). In other cases, violence in sports can result from verbal abuse by players, parents, coaches, and fans when they do not like moves by the other teams’ fans, players, and coaches. These abuses

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make the opposing teams or supporters angry and eventually release their anger through violence. An example is when fans chant racist chants; the verbal abuse against the opponents augments frustration and forms a stage for violence to occur. Therefore, the loyalty that the fans, players, coaches, and parents have towards a team can prompt them to verbally abuse the supporters of the opposing team and consequently engage in violent behaviors (Jamieson & Orr, 2009). The mass media can encourage rough and violent play by giving violent plays more airtime compared to other normal plays (Currie, 2000). By using television, radio, newspapers, and magazines, they inform the public about issues surrounding sports and even glamorize famous players. The media may also expose the viewer to information on how to control and curb violence in sports. On the other hand, the media can show sports and violence related to sports. Consequently, children access examples of sports violence which they may emulate. Some of the commentaries may provide the viewers with descriptions that suggest a link between excitement and violence (Abdal-Haqq, 1989). For example, the airtime the media gives to World Federation (WWF) portrays that violence is upheld. Violence is always present in WWF (whether real or fake) and when such behaviors are supported by the media, it suggests to the fans that violence is alright. For example, a cage wrestling match between Mick Foley and the Undertaker depicted how the media has the power to promote violence in sports because the participants engaged in intensively aggressive acts that eventually caused harm to Mick Foley (Currie, 2000). Sports as a Catharsis for Violence Violent sports are a stage for cathartic aggression in that athletes are able to unleash violence in a more controlled environment against other athletes who have agreed to accept the rules of a sport and the violent conditions of the game. In one scientific research study, the belief that observing violent sports leads to a reduction in aggressive urges was examined, and it was found that those with a high level of involvement in aggressive sports can lower their level of aggression (symbolic sport catharsis), particularly if the sport is viewed in person. Acts of aggression in sport, however, are potentially driven by egoistic thinking. In other words, aggression may not take place for the purpose of providing others with pleasure, but for the purpose of providing oneself with pleasure. Players who compete in violent sports may have an affinity for violence and thus are attracted to violent sports. It could be argued that some persons are violently predisposed and are simply attracted to violent sports. Cycle of Violence in Sports

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There is a need to look beyond sports to understand underlying factors that contribute to the creation and support of aggressive and violent games. For instance, masculinity is thought to be a contributing factor. Historically, boys generally have been raised to be tough and manly. Demonstrations of toughness might include winning schoolyard fights or remaining stoic in the face of physical pain. Violent sport is one avenue that exists for boys and men to explore and demonstrate their toughness. Team moral atmosphere is also strongly related to athlete aggression. Stephens found that team norms—an important aspect of moral atmosphere— were the strongest predictor of a player’s likelihood to play aggressively. When coaches and teammates condone and show support for aggressive or violent behavior, such behavior is more likely to occur. Team culture may also be a factor that influences athletes to commit acts of violence outside of sport. Coakley asserts that common targets of such violence include women and others in the community who publicly challenge an athlete’s “assumed status and privilege,” what he referred to as “hubris.” (p-173) Violence in sports is deeply rooted in locker rooms, coaching staffs, and administrations. It frequently continues after athletes retire from competition and assume leadership roles with sport teams and organizations. When they accept positions as coaches, sport managers, and broadcasters, many former players continue supporting the same violent tendencies they experienced as participants. Violence in sports is an epidemic that is triggered by the involvement of diverse groups of people including the media, fans, parents, coaches, and the players themselves. Violence in sports can occur in various ways. Theories have been proposed to explain their occurrence i.e., psychological, biological, and social learning theories. (Abdal-Haqq, 1989) Theories for Violence in Sports Basically, there are three theories that have been proposed to explain violence in sports. These theories are the biological theory, the psychological theory, and the social learning theory. Biological Theory Biological theory suggests that violence is a fundamental inherent human behavior. It is on the basis of this theory therefore that sports have been perceived to be a socially suitable way through which humans can discharge violence that has been built up in them (Abdal-Haqq, 1989). The theory articulates that sport is an acceptable way for athletes to release steam or aggression that has been pent-up. The theory upholds the need for people to engage in sports because it helps them

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vent out aggression. However, as it regards to violence in sports, the theory is of the opinion that it is the innate feelings of aggression in people that prompts them to engage in violence behaviors hence violence in sport is one of the ways that human beings use to release the vent up aggression within them (Currie, 2000). Psychological Theory The psychological theory holds that violence is caused by dissatisfaction. That is, violence results from the effect of a situation. For that reason, frustration is generated when the person is blocked from achieving a certain goal. In sports particularly, frustration can result from dubious calls made by the sports officials, inability to make a certain play, injuries that cause interference with best possible performance, boos from spectators, or jeering by players or coaches (Abdal-Haqq, 1989). The act of violence in sports is thus attributed to the socialization process that has been undertaken on athletes and their perception of aggression. This means that the occurrence of violence in sports is dependent on the emotions that have been created in the minds of the athletes especially by coaches. For instance, in the case where a coach emphasizes winning and nothing less, frustration may accrue when the players do not achieve this aim triggering the occurrence of violence. For that reason, the psychological state created in the minds of the players is fundamental to the prevention or occurrence of violence in sports (Jamieson & Orr, 2009). Social Learning Theory The Social Learning theory on the other hand suggests that violent behavior results from learning. According to the theory, persons learn new behaviors through modeling and also through modeling by the use of punishments and rewards. In sports, the young players perceive their sports heroes as role models and as a result, they imitate their behaviors. At the same time, coaches, team mates, and parents may also be taken to be role models and may depict support for violent playing styles. Therefore, violence in sports can occur due to young sports persons imitating the behaviors of their role models which may suggest aggression (Abdal-Haqq, 1989). Jamieson and Orr (2009) point out that one of the major social influences in sports include coaches. Coaches depict the values and skills of sports that are esteemed by youngsters and that is why they tend to imitate these values and skills. Primarily, within any given social environment, actions that are exhibited are usually motivated by others and the social circumstances present. In terms of leadership and role models, the behaviors they hold up are the behaviors that will be imitated by those that they lead.

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Therefore, children will imitate the virtues or the vices as they are executed by coaches. In the case where violence is portrayed by coaches, then the possibility of violence in sports is enhanced. Four Different Levels of Violence in Sports Some experts have identified four different levels of violence in sports, each of which increases in intensity of aggression and violence toward other players. On the similar grounds the most frequently used typology of ‘on the field violence’ among players was developed by Mike Smith, a Canadian sociologist (1983; see Young, 2000, 2002a). Smith also identified four categories of violence associated with playing sports: a. Brutal body contact. b. Borderline violence. c. Quasi –criminal violence. d. Criminal violence. 1. Body Contact The first type of sports violence is body contact, which is often accepted as a normal part of many contact sports, such as tackles in football, punching in and body checks in hockey. Players know that body contact is a part of these sports, and everyone expects that this type of 1/3 body contact will occur. Even though body contact sometimes leads to injuries and can be quite brutal, athletes are expected to initiate body contact in these sports in order to successfully play the game. 2. Borderline Violence These acts are not normal parts of a contact sport; rather, they are illegal tactics that players often use to play “dirty” or get back at an opponent for a perceived slight. Borderline violence might include the outbreak of a fistfight in hockey or a sharp elbow throw while playing soccer. This is an act which does violate the official rules of a sport, but is still considered enough of a routine and normalised occurrence to be dealt with within the confines of a given match or game – such as a late tackle in rugby union These moves are not technically allowed, but players often utilize them in order to intimidate their opponents. These actions have become an expected part of contact sports. The concerns of this type of violence are the impact it may have on children watching the sport and observing the violence played over and over by the ‘Media.’ The Children may copy this activity, or imitate it, or just become non-sensitive to violence. 3. Quasi-Criminal Violence

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This type of sports violence is considered unacceptable and includes actions that violate the formal rules of the game. These violations can lead to game penalties, such as suspensions and even expulsions. Cheap shots and flagrant fouls can potentially hurt other athletes, and so game officials will punish players who take such actions, mass brawling in team games – a match might be cancelled and fines or bans imposed, but the event would not necessarily lead to the criminal prosecution of those involved 4. Criminal Violent Behavior The final level of sports violence involves criminal violent behavior, which clearly not only violates the rules of a game, but also violates the law. No athlete should sanction such behavior, and it is clearly outside the norm of even the roughest contact sport. An example of a criminal act might be a premeditated assault on a player using a hockey stick as a weapon. Table: Violent Episodes Committed by those in the Sports Environment: (Lynn M, (2009:6 - 7): Role Incidences Player Drugs use, domestic battery, weapon possession, sustaining and giving injuries, fighting, temper tantrums, illegal gambling, attacking rival player, obscene gesture, altercations, violating conduct code, sideline clearing brawls, throwing pitches, being robbed, disorderly conduct, flagrant fouls, murder, driving while intoxicated, involved in shootings, arguing call and spitting seeds, vandalism and destruction of property, pranks, illegal dog fighting, lack of respect for referees, hazing, accidental injury, intentional injury, off-field conduct, larceny, kicking opposing player, improper on-court conduct. Coach Brawls, harassment, sexual harassment, sexual assault, being stalked, physical assault and battery, threatened, vandalism, attacking fans, bribing player to keep autistic child from

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playing three innings as required by league, criticism of official, fired over dirty play, decking opposing player, hazing, coercion of playing through injury, off-field conduct and hitting players. Referee/official Game fixing, unnecessary technical , baiting players, protected by French government actions, incompetence and inconsistency. Fan/spectator Illegal acts, pelting players with debris, kidnapping, attacking school coach, grabbing professional player and choking, burning couches and mattresses, streaking, charged in brawling, allowing hazing rituals, stalking, off-field conduct, bribery, intimidation of referees, death over jersey, killed by police, killed by stampede, assault, threatening and detainment of officials. Volunteer Theft, hazing, hacking information from French doping lab, cheerleader trampled by football team. Administrator Reschedule of practices due to fires, acts of omission and commission, mismanagement, Maneuvering and manipulation, permitting continuance of discrimination, making unacceptable remarks and perpetuating inequality. Parent/guardian/family Manslaughter, beatings, permitting hazing, poisoning players, murder contract, stalking, pressure, child abuse, threatening, bribing,

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buying coaches, promoting inappropriate conduct and permitting inappropriate conduct. General citizen Terrorism, hazing, permitting illegal acts, murder, shooting, hero, suicide of former player, killed by robbers, bombing at Olympics. Business associate Trainer released from prison, shoving, rigging and making improper payments to player. Criminal/terrorist Stray bullets, using field for terrorism, threatening large gatherings of sport enthusiasts. Typologies of Sports-Related Violence Dunning’s Typology Violence is then conceptualised by Dunning as a set of balances between ritual/non-ritual, legitimate/illegitimate, armed/unarmed, physical/psychological, intentional/accidental, instigative/reactive and instrumental/expressive components (Dunning, 2008 [1983]). For Dunning, each act of violence is a blend of these intertwined polarities. Pappas et al (2004) Pappas et al (2004) examined the relationship between ‘on-ice’ and ‘off-ice’ violence in . Guilbert (2004) Guilbert spells out a rough list of those types of violence he believes to be most common in sports: In the field of ‘competitive sporting events’ (Bourdieu, 1980) violence in many forms may be observed. Physical violence (brawls, assaults, blows, falls), verbal violence (abuse, threats, protests), psychological violence (war of nerves, harassment, moral breakdown – ‘blowing a fuse’ as the phrase goes) and cheating (game fixing, corruption, match-rigging, taking of performance- enhancing drugs) are the most frequent forms of violence. (2004, 46) Guilbert (2004) further classified violence in sports into three categories: ‘Hard Violence Sports’, ‘Soft Violence Sports’ and ‘Sports Where Violence Does Not Exist or is hidden’. In-Game Violence

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In-game violence is violence that occurs during the course of play, such as the use of violent tactics to harm opposing players or fights that break out between players. Peripheral Violence Peripheral violence in sports can be loosely described as violence that is related to a sporting event but is not directly part of the game itself and does not involve fighting among players. It occurs at all levels of sports and athletics, from youth leagues to professional leagues, and also includes the practice of hazing. Examples of peripheral violence include violence between players and fans, fans fighting with other fans, post-game rioting, and violent hazing. Post-Game Rioting Post-game rioting that breaks out in neighborhoods surrounding sport facilities or college campuses is destructive, dangerous, and gives sports as well as local communities a bad name. It often involves setting fires, overturning cars, and fighting in the streets. Although post-game riots seem to occur most frequently following championship games, they sometimes occur after rivalry games or any other regularly scheduled game. Many times, the people involved are not even sport fans; they are people from the area who take a perverted pleasure in celebrating or partying in a destructive manner. Over the years, riots have taken place in major sports cities following professional championships. Societal Effects Sports violence does not operate in a vacuum. The proposition that sports violence has a detrimental effect on society is well documented in psychological and sociological studies. The problem of violence in sport often has caused the disorder and unrest in society (William, 1989:9). In Seasons of Shame: The New Violence in Sports, Robert Yeager describes a study conducted regarding the impact of sports violence on children: “Three physicians . . . singled out television sports for its strong tendency to foster an ‘Evel Knievel’ syndrome in kids. ‘Televised violence,’ they noted, ‘especially during sporting events and news reporting,’ is increasingly implicated in imitative and aggressive behavior by children.” A similar study focusing on young hockey players yielded equally disconcerting results, concluding that “viewing aggressive media models in hockey, and perhaps sports in general, does appear to have a systematic long-term impact on the behaviour of amateur players of different ages.” The pernicious effect of sports violence on the human psyche is not limited to children. A sociological nexus also exists between violence among sports participants and violence among

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spectators. This point is tragically illustrated in the recent conviction of parent Thomas Junta, who beat Michael Costin to death in front of both men’s children after a disagreement between the two about violent play in their sons’ youth hockey game. Neal (1976; in Snyder and Spreitzer, 1989: 234) narrated that “violence is regarded as a threat to society or subsystems in society. It involves a condition of fear, threat, and changing the usual pattern of relationships.” More specifically, Smith (1983; in Snyder and Spreitzer, 1983:234) explained that “more specifically, violence in sport violates the norms and rules of the contest, threatens lives and property, and usually cannot be anticipated by the person affected.” Preventing Violence in Sports There are a number of ways through which violence in sports can be prevented. Coaches and physical educators are the group of people who are in the best position to curb violence in sports by helping to create positive thoughts in sports. Coaches should encourage players to contribute to the success of the team by allowing them to participate in decision making and listening to their feedback about the team. (Abdal-Haqq, 1989). Coaches are role models especially for the young athletes, their behavior in the field contributes significantly to the shaping of the fans’ and players’ behaviors. (Wingate, 2008). Integration of values that encourage intervention into sports curriculum: strategies that encourage moral development will produce improved or modified behaviors towards sportsmanship. Therefore, inculcation of positive values among players will enhance positive attitude among players and spectators and hence reduce violence in sports (Abdal-Haqq, 1989). Coaches and physical educators can involve parents by educating them on the activities and objectives of co-curricular activities and how to be vigilant on aggressive behaviors. In addition, parents can be informed on how they can encourage their children to have positive attitudes towards competition (Abdal-Haqq, 1989). During socialization, the team players and their parents will develop a close relationship that will enable them work together as a team and prevent cases of violence since they will be supporting one team and not an individual child (Wingate, 2008). By initiating the use of fan penalties, violence in sports can be reduced because the measure ensures that the behaviors of the fans are kept constantly in check. Just as referees in normal plays use yellow cards as a warning sign to the players for extreme fouls e.g. use of bad language or ferocious tackles, the fans can as well be assigned a yellow card if the fans are unruly and when

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the unruly behavior continues, the fans can be given a red card and be automatically forfeited from watching the game (Wingate, 2008). Conclusions Violence in any form destroys the dynamics of games. Violence in sports is the depiction of aggressive behavior against the rules and regulations of a particular sport. Violence in sports can be in the form of verbal abuse, threats, or physical injury executed by players, spectators, coaches, parents of young players, and fans or triggered by mass media. Violence in sports is a deviant activity and it leads to normlessness in the society. The norms, values, rules, regulations of the games are ruptured due to violence and even the system and sub-system of the society gets worsened. However, there are measures that can be implemented to prevent violence in sports such as involvement of parents, fan penalties, putting sports in viewpoint, provision of positive role models and integration of values that encourage intervention into sports curriculum. Athletes, coaches, administrators, and fans must come together and acknowledge the violence surrounding sports and collaborate on ways to reduce or eliminate it. It is the moral responsibility of everyone involved in sport to create a safe environment for the enjoyment of participants and spectators alike. By understanding the factors that contribute to unnecessary violence, sporting communities can take proactive steps to safeguard their environment and preserve its integrity. From a teleological perspective, abiding by the rules that govern the game, including those that prevent violence, reinforce the values of respect and honor for the game. The integrity of the game is maintained when rules are well thought out and are adhered to by everyone involved. References  Coakley, J. Jay. 1990. Sport in Society: Issues and Controversies. Mc Graw-Hill Education  Lal, D. C. 2006. Sports and Society. Sports Publication: New Delhi  McPherson, Barry.D; James E. Curtis; and John W Loy. 1989. The Social Significance of Sport-An Introduction to the Sociology of Sport. Human Kinetics Books: U.S.A.  Schwartz, E. Stephen and Vogler C. Conrad. 1993. The Sociology of Sport- An Introduction. Prentice Hall: New Jersey  Singh, Yadvinder. 2005. Sociology in Sports. Sports Publication: New Delhi  Snyder, Eldon E. and Elmer A. Spreitzer. 1983. Social Aspects of Sport. Prentice Hall: New Jersey  Solanki, Vivek.2009. Handbook of Sports Sociology. Khel Sahitya Kendra: New Delhi

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Internet:-  Violence in Sports: It Matters To Your Children. Internet Source. file:///H:/violence%20in%20sport/lifeopedia.comViolence%20in%20Sports%20It%20M atters%20To%20Your%20Children.pdf  Effects of Violence in sports. Internet Source. https://www.ukessays.com/essays/psychology/effects-of-violence-in-sports-psychology- essay.php?vref=1  Irawan, Rana. 2014. Sport Violence on the Field and Off the Field. Retrieved October, 24, 2019 From. file:///H:/violence%20in%20sport/PAPERASEANSPORTUNIVERSITY_ROMAIRAW AN.pdf.  Matthews, R. Christophes and Channon. Alex. Understanding Sports Violence: Revisiting Foundational Explorations. Retrieved October, 22, 2019 from. file:///H:/violence%20in%20sport/42558150.pdf  Media Smarts. 2012. Violence in Sports. Retrieved October, 27, 2019 From. file:///H:/violence%20in%20sport/Lesson_Violence_Sports.pdf  Warren, Lan. 1993. Violence in Sport: Some Theoretical and Practical Issues in the Australian Context. Retrieved November, 1, 2019 From. file:///H:/violence%20in%20sport/af5b718b2bc3b7036cb3b81f3e946441a9af.pdf.  Yates, Jeff and Gillespie. William. 2014. The Problem of Sports Violence and the Criminal Prosecution Solution. Retrieved November, 3, 2019 from. file:///H:/violence%20in%20sport/SSRN-id698041.pdf.

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