Index

abuss (Asomiya Bhasa Unnati All Kaibarta Women’s Asso- Sadhini Sabha), 161, 169, 172, ciation, 217 218 All Assam Muslim Students Asso- Adibasi (original dweller), xiv, 87, ciation, 170 235, 273. See also Baganiya Allen, B. C., 94, 144, 210 Agarwala, Chandrakumar, 91, 154 All Trade Union Congress, Agarwala, Haribilas, 90–91, 160, 235 161, 171 Ambari temple complex, 51–52 Agarwala, Jyotiprasad, 91, 161, 225, Andaman islands, 133 230–32 Anderson, Benedict, 1, 153–54 Agarwala, Navrangram, 89–90, 230 Anglo-Burmese wars, 3, 27, 29, 32; Ahom Association, 219–21 East India Company and, 120; , 27, 69, 119, 127; Gurkhas in, 93 Bengal trade with, 53–57; capital Anglo- War (1814–16), 93 of, 134; genealogies of, 60, 225; Anglo-Oriental Society for the Sup- Moamoria revolt in, 130; pression of the Opium Trade, 158 Mughal Empire and, 2, 3, 53–55, Anthropological Survey of India, 119; Muslims in, 99; revivalist 67 attempts of, 217–26; spiritual Aristocracy. See Élites leaders of, 128–30 Arnold, David, 13 Ahom Sabha (organization), 219– Aryanism, 164, 196–200, 205–10, 20 213. See also Indo-Aryans Alam, Muza√ar, 179 asl (Assamese Students’ Literary Albert College (Calcutta), 153 Club), 154, 158–59, 169 Alcohol, 64, 160, 161, 199, 210; Asom Bilasini (periodical), 145, 170 campaigns against, 10–11, 148, Asomiya (newspaper), 91, 162, 168, 212; élites’ view of, 68, 155, 164; 170, 229 Nepali traders of, 94, 95 Asomiya Bhasa Unnati Sadhini Ali, Munshi Rahmat, 159 Sabha (abuss), 161, 169, 172, Ali, Zalkad (Safi Saheb), 100 218 All Assam Kaibarta Association, Asomiya language, 8, 86, 90, 200– 215 201, 204, 218; Bengali and, 182–

Downloaded from http://read.dukeupress.edu/books/book/chapter-pdf/654534/9780822394396-013.pdf by guest on 26 September 2021 Asomiya language (continued) Association, 32 87, 190–91, 193; dialects of, 134, Auckland, Lord, 47 154, 173, 183–87, 203; education Aulia, Ghiyasuddin, 54 in, 188; films in, 91, 230–31; Auniati , 138–41, 144, 156, Kachari and, 213; as lingua franca, 166, 169–70 135; literature in, 91, 147–48, 154– Aurangzeb (Mughal emperor), 53 57, 168–69; nationalism and, 161, Babu class, 163, 166 173–74, 183–87, 203; as o≈cial Baganiya (people of the garden), 5, vernacular, 150, 177–78, 183–87, 86–87, 236, 273. See also Adibasi 192–96, 202–3, 219; origins of, Bahadur, Tegh, 53 197–98; riots over, 191; Sanskrit Bahi (periodical), 170, 175 and, 9, 173, 184–88, 192–94, 197, Baillie, Hugh, 56 199; Sufi songs in, 54 Bailung worship, 221 Asomiya literature, 180–83, 196, Bairagis (customs o≈cials), 56 199, 203; anthology of, 194–95; Ballantyne, Tony, 6, 164, 196 audience for, 170–71, 185; canon Bangals, 50, 53, 57–59, 97, 195, 273 of, 173; historiography and, 223– , 16, 20, 104, 237–38, 33; history of, 186, 193–95; print 240 culture and, 135, 145, 150, 168– Banking, 87–89, 91, 95, 102 71, 185, 194 Baptist missionaries, 25, 43–45; Asomiya Lorar Mitra (Dhekial Phu- Asomiya language and, 177, 183– kan), 185 85, 192; failures of, 136–37, 143, Asomiya Musalman Yuva San- 145; Gosains and, 141; Great milan, 195–96 Rebellion of 1857 and, 133; Asom Sahitya Sabha, 169, 203, opium regulations and, 65, 156; 219–20, 223 print culture of, 47, 65, 120, 134– Asom Tara (periodical), 145 37, 141–42, 145; schools of, 151, Assam Association, 219 153, 193, 202; Singpho vs., 41. Assam Bandhu (periodical), 50, 97, See also Missionaries 190 Barahis, 60 Assam Chah Mazdoor Sangh Barbhandar Barua, Maniram, 13, (acms), 235 42, 45–46, 121; on jati, 205–6; Assam Company, 32, 34; Chinese on opium, 155, 156; revolt of, 47, recruits of, 36–40, 71; Kachari 127, 132–33; on slavery, 126–27 strike of, 70; native workers of, Barker, Cyrus, 136 39–41, 45–47, 63 Barthakur, Kumudeswar, 227 Assamese Students’ Literary (asl) Barua, Bholanath, 91, 194–95 Club, 154, 158–59, 169 Barua, Bisturam Datta, 167 Assam Forest Regulations (1891), Barua, Durga Prasad Majumdar, 94 163 Assam Labour and Emigration Acts Barua, Golap Chandra, 60 (1901, 1915), 77 Barua, Gunabhiram, 4, 128, 145, Assam Literary Association, 169, 152; Assam Buranji of, 48, 164, 203, 219–20, 223 170, 197–98; careers of, 190, 193, Assam Mihir (newspaper), 128 197; education of, 150; on Assam News Press, 170 opium, 158–59; on race, 209; as Assam Railways and Trading Com- social reformer, 164 pany, 80–81

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Downloaded from http://read.dukeupress.edu/books/book/chapter-pdf/654534/9780822394396-013.pdf by guest on 26 September 2021 Barua, Harakanta, 121, 137–39; harvest festival, 96, 216–17, career of, 131, 132, 149; educa- 227 tion of, 149–50, 153, 154; on Bijulee (periodical), 169, 170 Great Rebellion of 1857, 133; on Black fever, 86, 101, 158–59 slavery, 126, 127 Bodo Kachari people, 20, 67, 203, Barua, Hemchandra, 166; as dra- 207–14; political activism of, matist, 156–57, 159, 172; as lex- 212, 220, 221–22, 238; region of, icographer, 192, 193, 195 xvii. See also Kachari people Barua, Jagannath, 159–60, 167 Bongalis, 50, 53, 57–59, 97, 195, Barua, Khongiya, 167 273 Barua, Manik Chandra, 219 , Bolinarayan, 152, 164–66, Barua, Mathuramohan, 219 190 Barua, Piyoli, 133 Bora, Lambodar, 151, 152 Barua, Prafulla Chandra, 59–60 Bordoloi, Rajani Kanta, 224 Barua, Rahman, 60 Bordoloi, Rudram, 167 Barua, Sankar Chandra, 168 Borendra Anusandhan Samiti Barua, Upendra Nath, 152, 158–59 (organization), 223 Barua, Uttam Chandra, 98 Brahma sect, 129, 211, 213, 238 Beadon, Cecil, 137–40 Brahmaputra valley, 80, 94; ecology Behal, Rana, 14 of, 78; history of, 51–57; land Bengali language, 204; Asomiya leases in, 85–86; lingua franca of, and, 182–87, 190–91, 193; 135; missionaries of, 134–37, dialects of, 135, 154; literature in, 143, 145–46; Muslims in, 99– 180–83, 186; newspapers in, 165; 104; rice cultivation in, 26; after as o≈cial vernacular, 135, 177, separation from Bengal, 123–25; 178, 184; plays in, 98; Sanskrit travel in, 1–3 and, 173, 184, 186, 193–94, 197; Brahmins, 51, 197, 205–6; Ahom standardization of, 188–89 Association and, 221; in British Bentinck, William, 12, 29, 34–37 service, 45; Sanskrit and, 179; Betal nuts, 55, 216 sharecropping and, 166. See also Bezbarua, Dinanath, 147, 172 Caste system Bezbarua, Lakshminath, 147, 162; Brahmo Samaj sect, 98, 152, 165, marriage of, 152; pseudonym of, 174 175; on tea planters’ abuses, 165– Brahmottar (religious endowment) 66; Vaishnavism and, 174–76; lands, 125, 128 writings of, 154, 174–75, 190, Brajabuli language, 173 225, 230, 231 Bronson, Miles, 135, 142–43; Bhagavat Purana (scripture), 171 Asomiya language and, 177, 192, Bhakats (monks). See Monasteries 193 Bharat Sangcharak (newspaper), Brown, Nathan, 13, 25; on Asomiya 124 language, 184; on Gosains, 141; Bhasa. See Languages on tea plantations, 44–45 Bhasani, Maulana, 103 Bruce, Charles, 30, 31, 38, 40, 44, Bhutan, 30, 50, 55, 121 71 Bhuyan, Surya Kumar, 170–71, Bruce, Robert, 31 223–24 , 93, 175 Bihar, 75, 182; dialects in, 135, 154; Buranjis (chronicles), 137, 182–83, famine in, 74; history of, 173 186, 197, 223–24

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Downloaded from http://read.dukeupress.edu/books/book/chapter-pdf/654534/9780822394396-013.pdf by guest on 26 September 2021 Bureaucracy, 120, 121–24, 143, 163; Censorship, 165. See also Print education for, 189, 191; Gosains culture and, 138–41, 144, 171–72; lan- Census-taking, 49, 122–23, 172, guage policies and, 179–85. See 206 also Service gentry Chaitanya (saint), 172 Burma, 240; Ahom trade with, 55; Chakrabarti, Kunal, 52 Assam invasions by, 3, 27, 29, 32, Chaliha, Tara Prasad, 229 42, 119–20, 149–50; Bengal and, Changkakati, Radhanath, 219 120; Konbaung regime in, 27; Chantra samaj (student commu- language of, 134; missionaries in, nity), 153 44, 134; rice cultivation in, 60; Chargola walkout (1921), 84 United Kingdom vs., 3, 27, 29, Charlton, Andrew, 30 32, 93, 119–20 Charter Acts (1813, 1833), 28, 34, Butler, John, 64, 122, 144, 214 37 Charua Muslims, 101–2 Cachar district, xvi, 81, 84, 119, Chatterjee, Kumkum, 224 123. See also Kachari people Chatterji, Suniti Kumar, 194 Calcutta, 7–8; Agricultural and Hor- Chattopadhyay, Dakshinacharan, 165 ticultural Society of, 13; educa- Chevalier, Jean Baptiste, 56 tional facilities of, 147–48, 152– Chidananda Press, 170 55; Hindu School of, 1, 152, 185; China, 158, 162, 208; Assam trade publishing in, 169–71, 181; Royal with, 55, 122; migrant workers Botanical Garden in, 27, 29 from, 35–38, 70, 71; Opium Calcutta New Press, 171 Wars of, 64–65; rice cultivation Calcutta University, 191, 194 in, 60; tea cultivation in, 28–32 Campbell, A. C., 157 Cholera, 79, 81, 100 Campbell, George, 72–73, 205 Chotanagpur migrant workers, 72– Canning, Lord, 137 75, 83–84 Carey, William, 186 Choudhury, Sonaram, 198–200 Caribbean colonies: manumission Chronicles (buranjis), 137, 182–83, in, 124; tea workers from, 71, 73, 186, 197, 223–24 75 Chutias, 221–22, 228 Carnegie, John, 79 ‘‘Civilizing mission’’: of East India Carr, Tagore and Co., 32, 47 Company, 27, 165; language Carter, George, 133 standardization and, 180; of mis- Cash, 33, 62–63, 74; communal sionaries, 136–37 lands and, 40; ‘‘native’’ workers Civil service, 120, 121–24, 143, 163; and, 39–41; transition to, 121– education for, 189, 191; Gosains 22, 127 and, 138–41, 144, 171–72; lan- Caste system, 45, 49, 50; Ahoms in, guage policies and, 179–85. See 217–22; babus in, 163; e√ects of also Service gentry education on, 128, 153; jati and, Clark, Edward, 145 207; missionaries on, 145–46; Coal mining, 32, 75, 80–81 race and, 59, 66, 164, 196–200, Cohn, Bernard, 139–40 205–8; status taboos and, 126; Comaro√, Jean, 144 tribal groups and, 67; untouch- Communist Party, 84, 168; theatre ables of, 74, 215; Vashnavite sects group of, 231; unions a≈liated and, 129. See also Élites with, 235

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Downloaded from http://read.dukeupress.edu/books/book/chapter-pdf/654534/9780822394396-013.pdf by guest on 26 September 2021 Coolies, 36, 71–80, 236–37; babus Dhekial Phukan, Haliram, 4, 119; vs., 163; cholera among, 79, 81; as on Doms, 214; on education, Doms, 215; etymology of, 73; 150; as interpreter, 181; writings intoxicants used by, 155, 156, 158, of, 181–83, 195, 197–98 160, 164; living conditions of, 81– people, 67 82, 164–66, 168; missionaries of, Dhubri (), 80 202; population of, 49, 83, 85–86; Dialects, 134–35, 154, 173, 183–87, prejudices against, 76, 164; 193–94, 203 rebellions by, 70, 84; women, 216– Dibrugarh, xvii, 80, 88–89, 101, 17. See also Slavery; Workers 219, 230 Cooper, Frederick, 237 Dom people, 155, 214–17 Copley, Antony, 142 Dramatic Performances Act (1876), Cornwallis, Lord, 57 165 Corvée, 33, 121, 125, 129. See also Drayton, Richard, 13, 28, 43 Taxes Driberg, J. J. S., 158, 159 Cotton, Henry, 82, 84 Drug abuse. See Opium Cotton College (Guwahati), 152, Duariya Baruas (revenue farmers), 153, 221, 223 56 Crawfurd, John, 65 Dubhashis (interpreters), 181 Crole, David, 83 Dundas, W. C. M., 95–96 Crystal Palace, 32 festival, 96 Curzon, Lord, 101, 123 Dutta Baruah, Harinarayan, 171, 175 Dakhinpat satra, 129, 140–41, 144, Dutt, R. C., 152 166 Dangariyas (great men), 42, 120, East India Company, 25–31, 56– 130–31, 155 57, 121–23, 218; Burmese vs., 3, , xv, 19, 31, 96 120; ‘‘civilizing mission’’ of, 27, Darrang district, xvi, 66, 90, 94, 165; government takeover of, 100, 123 137; during Great Rebellion of Das, Labanya Prabha, 217 1857, 132, 133; language and, Das, Rajabala, 232 135, 179–80, 183–85; mission- Dasgupta, Anindita, 98 aries and, 43–45, 134; opium Datta, P. K., 15, 212 trade of, 28, 64–65; Singpho vs., Davidson, Captain, 121 41–42; slavery and, 124–28 Davis, Mike, 6 Eaton, Richard, 51 Deb, Pitambar, 212, 216 Edgar, John, 81–82 Deb, Raja Radhakanta, 29 Education, 8–9, 97–98, 163; of ‘‘Depressed Classes,’’ 213, 216, 221 Assam élites, 147–54, 189; for Devi, Pragyasundari, 152 civil service jobs, 189, 191; colo- Devotional texts, 156–57, 171–76, nial, 150, 152, 179–80; demo- 181–82, 193, 195 graphics of, 150–51; in English, Dharma Prakash Press, 145, 169–71 150, 177, 185, 189, 204; language Dhekial Phukan, Anandaram, 1–3, and, 183–86; missionary schools 56, 122, 150; as advocate of for, 151, 153, 193, 202; modern- Asomiya, 183–87, 193; education ization and, 147–48, 153–54, of, 152; writings of, 4, 14–15, 188, 212–13; religious taboos 47–48, 185–87, 190 and, 152; student housing for,

index 315

Downloaded from http://read.dukeupress.edu/books/book/chapter-pdf/654534/9780822394396-013.pdf by guest on 26 September 2021 Education (continued) 216; civil disobedience and, 231; 148, 151–53; textbooks for, 164, opium trade and, 92, 161; 193, 195, 197, 228; traditional, women’s rights and, 230. See also 149–50; tuition for, 153; urban- Nationalism ization and, 149–55 Ganguli, Dwarkanath, 165 Eley, Geo√, 9 , 146, 151, 198, 208; Élites, 42–43; alcohol use by, 68, education of, 193; missionaries 155; British supported by, 47–48, of, 202; region of, xvi 123, 164; Burmese invasions and, Genealogies, 50–51, 59–61, 196– 120; decline of, 130–31; Dom, 200, 206–8, 225 214–15; East India Company Gentry. See Élites allied with, 121; education of, Ghar Jeuti (periodical), 229 147–55, 189; genealogies of, 50– Ghosh, Kaushik, 71 51, 59–61, 196–200, 206–8, 225; Ghosh, Prasanna Chandra, 219 imperial policies and, 138; lan- Globalization, of tea trade, 29–32, guages of, 135–36, 178, 180–81, 120, 162–63, 234–36 188, 192, 204; literary patronage , 101, 119, 123; by, 169, 182–83; mauzadars education in, 203; map of, xvi; from, 89, 90; missionaries and, publishing in, 170 136; Muslim, 45, 99, 102, 131; Gohain Barua, Padmanath, 99, 203; opium use by, 62, 64, 155, 160; Ahom revivalism of, 218–20; prejudices of, 76, 163–64; service education of, 150, 151, 153, 154; gentry and, 120, 131–34; slavery on opium, 219; writings of, 168– and, 125–28, 206; spiritual, 128– 69, 191, 225, 226 30; as tea entrepreneurs, 165–68; Gond people, 67, 74 union, 235. See also Caste system Gordon, George, 29, 36 Elliott, Charles, 201 Goriya people, 155, 206, 207 Endle, Sidney, 66, 67, 210 Gosains, 89, 120; British admin- English schools, 150, 177, 185, 189, istrators and, 138–41, 144, 171– 204 72; criticisms of, 172, 174; dur- Ethnic violence, 20, 238–41. See also ing Great Rebellion of 1857, 132, Race 133; Moamoria, 130; monas- teries of, 128, 129, 138–41; Fakir, Azan, 54 opium cultivation and, 156; Par- Famines, 6, 74, 92 batiya, 97, 130; print culture of, Farwell, Nidhi Levi, 192 144–45, 169–70; service gentry Festivals: Durga Puja, 96; harvest, and, 132, 144; tea planters and, 96, 216–17, 227; Jaymati Utsav, 167. See also Monasteries; 228–29 Vaishnavism Fiji, 75 Goswami, Duttadeb, 139 Financing, 87–89, 91, 95, 102 Goswami, Hemchandra, 154, 169, Fishmongers, 155, 214–17 191, 195, 203 Forrester, Duncan, 142 Goswami, Manu, 15 Forsyth, Charles, 83 Goswami, Tirthanath, 220–21 Fortune, Robert, 36 Goswami, Utsavananda, 157 Gait, Edward, 60, 193, 205, 209 Government of India Acts (1909, Gandhi, Mahatma, 47, 168 1919), 215, 220 Gandhian nationalism, 10–11, 103, Great Exhibition (London, 1851), 32

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Downloaded from http://read.dukeupress.edu/books/book/chapter-pdf/654534/9780822394396-013.pdf by guest on 26 September 2021 Great Rebellion of 1857, 47, 93, Hunter, W. W., 94, 205 127, 132–33, 140 Hutton, J. H., 92, 95 Grierson, George, 67, 193 Indentured workers, 74, 77, 81–86, Gri≈th, William, 30–31, 37 126; emancipation of, 128; slav- Guha, Amalendu, 51, 125 ery and, 75–76, 140; women as, Guha, Ranajit, 12–13 125, 128. See also Coolies; Guha, Sumit, 59 Workers Gupta, Ranajit Das, 14 India General Steam Navigation Gurdon, P. R. T., 193 Co., 80 Gurkhas, 93, 95–96 Indian Forest Act (1920), 94 Guwahati, 80, 98, 182; Beadon’s Indian National Congress, 84, 168, visit to, 138; Cotton College at, 204, 230 152, 153, 221, 223; English Indian National Trade Union Con- school of, 150, 185; Girls’ Col- gress (intuc), 235 lege of, 232; Indian National Indian People’s Theatre Association Congress at, 168; map of, xvii; (ipta), 231 markets of, 88–89; missionaries Indian Tea Association, 166 in, 136, 146; publishing in, 170; Indigo plantations, 33, 72, 165 slavery in, 127; temple complex Indo-Aryans, 217–23; languages of, at, 51–52; as trading center, 55 178, 180, 193–94; migrations of, Haats (markets), 45, 86, 88–89 49–52; races of, 67; religion of, Habermas, Jürgen, 9–10 52; rice cultivation by, 26. See also Haji, Maulvi Muhammad Shah, Aryanism 100, 195 Indo-European languages, 180, Hajo mosque, 54, 55, 100. See also 193, 197–98. See also Languages Muslims Inland Emigration Act (1893), 77 Hamilton, Francis Buchanan, 56, 87 Inner Line Restrictions (1873), 61, Hardiman, David, 91–92 202 Hastings, Warren, 57, 179–80 intuc (Indian National Trade Hazarika, Ali, 60 Union Congress), 235 Hazarika, Dutiram, 43 Isaka, Riho, 225 Health care: by missionaries, 202; Jadugiri (black magic), 53. See also by native doctors, 147, 163; Witchcraft opium use in, 155–56, 158–60 Jagat Seth bankers, 87 Hindavi, 178, 179, 199–200 Jati, 50, 90, 100, 205–7, 219, 225. language, 173, 184, 187, 200 See also Caste system , 205–7, 210; Assamese, Jatiyo unnati (national progress), 148, 172–76, 196–200. See also 219 Caste system; Vaishnavism Jaymati (Ahom princess), 224–27; Hindu School (Calcutta), 1, 152, annual festival for, 228–29; film 185 about, 230–31 Hitasadhini Press, 170 Jenkins, Francis, 33–34, 41, 65; on Hitopadesa, 170 decline of élites, 130–31; on Hodgson, Brian, 66–67, 72, 198, Kacharis, 68, 69 201, 208–9 Jikir (Assamese Sufi songs), 54, 99 Holroyd, Captain, 133 Jinnah, Muhammad Ali, 103 Home, Gagan Chandra, 165 Jogini Tantra, 52

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Downloaded from http://read.dukeupress.edu/books/book/chapter-pdf/654534/9780822394396-013.pdf by guest on 26 September 2021 Jonaki (periodical), 154, 170, 194, Kenya, 236 198 Keot caste, 197 Jones, William, 179–80, 197 Khakhlari, Jadunath, 213 , 55, 88; map of, xvii; mis- Khamti, xvii, 30. See also Singpho sionaries in, 136; publishing in, people 170, 171; Sarvajanik Sabha of, , 221–22; 159–60; tea plantations of, 167 among, 202; language of, 202, Joshi, Sanjay, 9–10 203; region of, xvi, 94, 202 Judson, Adoniram, 44 Kirtan (devotional song), 156–57 Jumla, Mir, 54 Koch Bihar, xvi Jute cultivation, 101 , 67, 213 Kolarian people, 67, 73; Chris- Kachari Community Association, tianity among, 146; rebellion of, 213 71–72 Kachari people, 58, 66–67, 69, 71, Konbaung regime, 27 221; education of, 151; intoxi- Konwar, Kushal, 168 cants used by, 68, 159; kings of, Kshatriya caste, 220 209, 213; language of, 194; racial Kuleshov, Lev, 231 notions about, 72–73, 197–98, Kulke, Hermann, 53 206–14; on tea plantations, 70, Kumaon tea, 31 83. See also Bodo Kachari people; Kunwari, Padmabati, 131 Cachar district Kyd, Robert, 27 Kachari Students Association, 212 Kaibartas, 214–17, 220 Lahiri, Nayanjot, 51 Kakati, Banikanta, 194 Lakhimpur district, xvi, 66, 94, 123, Kala-azar, 86, 101, 158–59 215 Kalicharan Brahma, 211, 213 Lalung people, 198, 208 Kalika Purana (scripture), 52, 182 Land grants, 34–35, 85, 102–3; caste, 45, 46, 90, 197, 207 religious endowment, 125, 128 Kamakhya shrine, 52, 96, 130, 182 Land leases, 85–86; labor shortages Kamalabari Satra, 174 and, 126; mauzadars and, 121– , 52, 53 22; monasteries and, 129; service Kamrup district, xvi, 66, 94, 123; gentry and, 131–32, 166–67 jute cultivation in, 101; labour Languages, 182, 191, 200; dialects unrest in, 126; language of, 180, of, 134–35, 154, 173, 183–87, 194–95; monasteries in, 132 193–94, 203; East India Com- Kamrup Research Society (Kamrup pany and, 135, 179–80, 183–85; Anushilan Samiti), 223 of élites, 135–36, 178, 180–81, Kanauj, 60 183–85, 192, 204; English Kaniyar Kirtan (play), 156–57, instruction and, 150, 177, 185, 159, 172 189, 204; Indo-European, 180, Karen people, 44, 134 193, 197–98; interpreters of, 181; Kashmir, 30, 45 lingua franca, 135; linguistic sur- Kaviraj, Sudipta, 57, 206, 224, 225 veys, 67, 193; missionaries and, Kayasthas, 45 134–35; modernization and, Kaya traders, 90; banking by, 87– 188–89; philology, 180, 186; race 89, 91, 95, 102; in opium, 62, 88, and, 9, 67, 178, 180, 196; riots 92. See also Marwaris over, 191; standardization of,

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Downloaded from http://read.dukeupress.edu/books/book/chapter-pdf/654534/9780822394396-013.pdf by guest on 26 September 2021 150, 177–78, 183–87, 190, 192– Meehan, Johanna, 9 95; tribal, 193–94, 199, 201–4 , 204 Laos, 60 Metcalf, Thomas, 14 Latour, Bruno, 27 Methodist missionaries, 202 League of Nations, 162 Migrant workers: Caribbean, 71, Lees, William Nassau, 82, 85, 166 73, 75; Chinese, 35–38, 70, 71; Legislative Council of Assam, 220 cholera among, 79, 81; Leishmaniasis, 86, 101, 158–59 Chotanagpur, 72–75, 83–84; Leopold, Joan, 196 Malay, 35–37, 40; Mauritian, 71, Lloyd, Captain, 138–39 73, 75; Nepali, 92–96; transport Lushai Hills, xvi, 200 of, 79–81. See also Coolies; Lyell, Charles, 201 Workers Mikir people, 69, 151, 159, 198 MacCosh, John, 43, 48 Mills, A. J. Mo√at, 34, 46, 185; on Mackay, David, 27 opium trade, 65, 88; slavery in MacLeod, Roy, 27 Assam and, 126–27 Madras, 143 Mills, J. P., 92, 95 Magic, 6, 50, 53, 141, 144 Mining, 32, 75, 80–81 Mahabharata, 48 Miri people, 155, 198, 224 Mahasingh Rai Meghraj Bahadur, Mishing people, 68, 94, 166, 221 87 Missionaries, 25, 210; Asomiya lan- Mahila Samiti (Women’s Associa- guage and, 177, 183–85, 192; tion), 162, 230 Bengali, 165; failures of, 136–37, Mahishya Vaisya, 215 143, 145; Great Rebellion of Malaria, 42; monsoons and, 39–40; 1857 and, 133; print culture and, opium use for, 155, 158–59; 47, 65, 120, 134–37, 141–42, 145, resistance to, 67, 83 180, 202; schools of, 151, 153, Malay migrant workers, 35–37, 40 193, 202; Singpho vs., 41; tea Manipur, 43, 215; maps of, xvi, plantations and, 43–45, 165; xvii; people of, 221–22 Welsh, 151, 202. See also Baptist Marathi language, 173, 206, 207 missionaries Marriage customs, 154, 157, 174, Mitra, Dinabandhu, 165 212. See also Women Mizo Hills, 202 Marshall, P. J., 120 Moamoria sect, 130 Marwaris, 49, 63, 87, 89–92, 236; in Modernization, 57–58; education opium trade, 62, 88, 160. See also and, 147–48, 153–54, 212–13; Kaya traders language use and, 188–89; print Masters, J. W., 38 culture and, 184–85; race theo- Matri-bhasa, 178, 180–83, 188–91, ries and, 205–8; tea plantations 194–96, 200 and, 164–65, 168, 234–36 Mau (periodical), 164, 165 Mohammad, Sheikh Danish, 167 Mauritian migrant workers, 71, 73, Mohapatra, Prabhu, 14 75 Mohurir (play), 163 Mauzadars (revenue collectors), Mohurirs (supervisors), 76, 83, 142, 33, 89, 90, 195; abuses by, 122, 163 167; education of, 149; income Mokhutis (grazing camps), 94 of, 121; rights of, 132 Monasteries, 129, 132, 176; Chris- , 67, 208 tian missionaries and, 134; cor-

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Downloaded from http://read.dukeupress.edu/books/book/chapter-pdf/654534/9780822394396-013.pdf by guest on 26 September 2021 Monasteries (continued) sionaries and, 145; missionaries ruption in, 151, 172, 174; impe- of, 202; political activism of, rial policies and, 138–39; lands 221–22; racial notions of, 197– endowed to, 125, 128; literary 98; on tea plantations, 39 patronage by, 169; opium culti- Nathan, Mirza, 26 vation and, 140, 156–57. See also Nationalism, 219, 238–39; Asomiya Gosains language and, 161, 173–74, 183– Monetized economy, 33, 62–63, 87, 203; Gandhian, 10–11, 92, 74; communal lands and, 40; 103, 161, 216, 230, 231; histo- ‘‘native’’ workers and, 39–41; riography and, 222–33; jati and, transition to, 121–22, 127 207 Mongolia, 30 Nepal, 240; British control of, 29, ‘‘Mongoloid’’ people, 198, 201, 209, 93; graziers from, 49, 94–96, 204, 213, 221 236; Gurkhas from, 93, 95–96; Morans, 60, 205 migrants from, 92–96; tribal Morris-Suzuki, Tessa, 241 groups of, 67 Mother-tongue, 178, 180–83, 188– Neufville, Captain, 121 91, 194–96, 200 Ningroola (chief), 41 Mughal Empire, 26, 179; Ahom Non-Regulation system, 123, 124 kingdom and, 2, 3, 53–55, 119; Nowgong district, xvi, 123 Kaya traders in, 87; opium O’Hanlon, Rosalind, 145 smokers of, 155 Oil reserves, 32 Murarichand College (Sylhet), 152 Opium, 29, 148, 162; as cash crop, Muslim League, 100, 103 33, 62–63, 156; East India Com- Muslims, 49, 101, 103–4; in Ahom pany’s trade in, 28, 64–65; kingdom, 53–55; Christian mis- Gandhian nationalists on, 92, sionaries and, 136, 145; élite, 45, 161; imported, 156–58; Kaya 99, 102, 131; female icons for, traders of, 62, 88, 92; in litera- 228; genealogies of, 60; print cul- ture, 156–57, 159; medical views ture and, 212–13; racial notions of, 155–56, 158–60; missionaries’ of, 205–7; Sufi, 54, 99, 100, 130; view of, 65, 156; monasteries youth groups of, 195–96 and, 140–41; Nepali traders of, Mustard, 33, 62, 89 95; Phulanguri uprising over, 70; Mymensingh district, xvi, xvii, 100– prices for, 62–63, 158; regulation 103, 236 of, 65, 156–62, 219; users of, 62– Na-Asomiya Muslims, 103 65, 155–59; work ethic and, 63– Nadia, 97, 130 65 Nadiyals, 214–15 Orissa, 135, 153, 154 Naga Hills district, 2, 58, 95–96, Orsini, Francesca, 9–10, 169 145, 200, 222; education in, 152, Orunodoi (periodical), 47, 136, 137, 193, 203; map of, xvi 141–45, 171; on language use, Nagaland, 20, 204 187–89, 192–93; on opium reg- Nagaon, 63, 88–89, 167; mission- ulations, 65, 156; successor of, aries in, 136; publishing in, 170 154, 202 , 58–59, 223; alcohol Pal, Bipan Chandra, 153 use by, 68; colonial perceptions Pan- movement, 99–100. See of, 61; genealogies of, 60; mis- also Muslims

320 index

Downloaded from http://read.dukeupress.edu/books/book/chapter-pdf/654534/9780822394396-013.pdf by guest on 26 September 2021 Paramhansa, Sibnarayan, 211 ‘‘aboriginal,’’ 151, 206, 235; Parbatiya Gosains, 97, 130 anthropometry and, 201; climate Parvati (goddess), 181 and, 37, 63, 68; élite genealogies Patronage, literary, 157, 168–71, and, 50–51, 196–200; ethnic vio- 182–83, 194. See also Print culture lence and, 20, 238–41; as expla- Peal, Samuel, 83, 158 nation for slavery, 206; jati and, Pegu, Rinku, 102–3 207; language and, 9, 67, 178, Persian empire, 137 180, 196; ‘‘Mongoloid,’’ 198, 201, Persian language, 53–54, 55, 177, 209, 213, 221; ‘‘primitivism’’ and, 183; literary uses of, 180; Sanskrit 31, 66–67, 72, 203–4, 231; tea and, 179–80 planters and, 166–68; tribal peo- Phalke, Dadasaheb, 231 ples and, 67, 72–73, 197–98; Pharmacy Act (1868), 158 workers and, 37, 66–71. See also Philip, Kavita, 43 Caste system Philology, 180, 186. See also Radhika, Santi, 217, 228 Languages Rahima, Sati, 228 Phukan, Majindar & Co., 168 Railways, 80–81, 101 Phule, Jotiba, 206 Rajah, M. C., 213 Physiocratic ideas, 12, 28 Rajasthan, 87, 89, 92 Pilgrimages, 50, 55, 97, 182; Muslim, Ramayana, 60, 212 54, 100; ‘‘secular,’’ 1, 6, 153–54 Ramsden, A. R., 76 Pitt, William (the Younger), 27 Rebellion of 1857, 47, 93, 127, 132– Plantation Labour Act (1951), 235 33, 140 Poddar, Ramdayal, 89 Religious endowments, 125, 128 Presbyterian missionaries, 151 Rice, 52; communal land for, 40; Presidency College (Calcutta), 153 irrigation technology for, 60; ‘‘Primitivism,’’ 31, 66–67, 72, 203– varieties of, 26, 62; workers’ 4, 231 wages in, 162 Prinsep, William, 13, 32, 45, 47 Rice beer, 68, 155, 161 Print culture, 10, 89, 184; Asomiya Ripon College (Calcutta), 153 literature and, 91, 147–48, 154– Risley, Herbert, 67, 201, 205, 206 57, 168–71, 185, 194; Bengali lit- River Steam Navigation Co., 80 erature and, 181, 212–13; of Cal- Robb, Peter, 12–13 cutta, 148; censorship and, 165; Robinson, John, 56 of devotional texts, 156–57, 171– Robinson, William, 135, 184 76, 181–82, 193, 195; Doms and, Rosaldo, Michelle, 228 215–16; financing of, 157, 168– Rowlatt, Captain ??, 64 71, 185, 186, 194; of Gosains, Roy, Acharya Prafulla Chandra, 161 144–45; linguistic studies and, Royal Botanical Garden (Calcutta), 180, 186; of missionaries, 47, 65, 27, 29 120, 134–37, 141–42, 180, 202; Rupnath Brahma, 211 periodicals and, 141–45, 165–66, Sadhana (periodical), 170, 195–96 170, 175, 190, 229; scripts and, Sadhani, Sati, 228 150, 202 Sadiya, 41–44, 134 Punjab, 14, 143 Sadullah, Muhammad, 103 , 208 , Yasmin, 217–18 Race, 76, 205, 207–12, 214; Saikiani, Chandraprabha, 161–62, 232

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Downloaded from http://read.dukeupress.edu/books/book/chapter-pdf/654534/9780822394396-013.pdf by guest on 26 September 2021 Salimullah, Nawab, 100 festival of, 228–29; map of, xvii; Salt, 54–56, 62, 88 missionaries in, 134–35, 143; Samachar Chandrika Press, 181 opium use in, 156; publishing in, Sandikai, Aideo, 213 170; slavery in, 127; schools of, Sanjibani (periodical), 165 151; tea plantations of, 167 Sankardeb (saint), 128, 148, 172– Silk trade, 33, 55, 56, 88 76; writings of, 157, 217 Simon Commission, 220, 222–23 Sankardeb Samaj (organization), Singh, Ram, 53 174 Singha, Kandarpeswar, 133 Sanskrit, 48, 50, 52–53, 181–82; Singha, Purandar, 42–43, 45; under Aryanism and, 196, 197; Asomiya British control, 121, 122; Bur- and, 9, 173, 184–88, 192–94, 197, mese invasions and, 120; 199; Bengali and, 173, 184, 193– Kachairs and, 68 94; inscriptions in, 51; Persian Singha, Rudra, 54, 56 and, 179–80; ritual use of, 177, Singha, Siva, 54 179; script of, 135 Singpho people, xvii, 30, 40–41, Santhal rebellion (1855–56), 71–72 134, 234 Sarkar, Sumit, 10, 15, 212 Sinha, Pradip, 153 Sarkar, Tanika, 230 Sita (goddess), 60, 212, 227–28 Sarma, Benudhar, 88, 162 Skaria, Ajay, 66 Sarma, Debeswar, 167 Slavery, 32, 56, 71; abolition of, Sarma, Sarbeswar, 195 124, 128, 130; East India Com- Sarma, Someswar, 76 pany and, 124–26; indentured Sati (virtuous wife), 217, 227–28 workers and, 75–76, 140; racial Satpatha Brahmana, 51 notions of, 206; sharecropping Satras. See Monasteries and, 62, 126, 130, 166; tea planta- Satyagraha (passive resistance), 231 tions and, 164–65; terminology Schiebinger, Londa, 27 of, 125. See also Coolies Sconce, Captain, 141 Smallpox, 100 Scott, David, 33, 65, 138; on British Society for the Progress and annexation, 119–21; Guwahati’s Regeneration of the Asomiya English school and, 150; land Language (abuss), 161, 169, allotments by, 93–94; on slavery, 172, 218 125–27 Society for the Propagation of the Scott, Walter, 224 Gospel (spg), 65, 66, 151, 210. Sen, Samita, 14, 77 See also Missionaries Service gentry, 209; among Bodos, Stowe, Harriet Beecher, 165 211–12; education of, 149–50, Substance abuse. See Alcohol; 189, 191; élites and, 120, 131–34; Opium as intelligentsia, 144; land leases Sufism, 54, 99, 100, 130 and, 131–32, 166–67. See also Sugar plantations, 71, 73, 75, 77 Bureaucracy; Élites Sukapha (king of Ahom), 60 Shahi, Hussain, 53 Swanson, O. L., 145–46 Sharecropping, 62, 126, 130, 166 Sylhet district, 152; Assam annexa- Shillong, xvii, 98, 162, 202, 203 tion of, 123–24, 191; jute cultiva- Shore, John, 57 tion in, 101–2; maps of, xvi, xvii; Sibsagar, 78, 123, 210, 218; as part of East Pakistan, 103–4; Beadon’s visit to, 139; Jaymati people of, 88, 98–99, 104

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Downloaded from http://read.dukeupress.edu/books/book/chapter-pdf/654534/9780822394396-013.pdf by guest on 26 September 2021 Tagore, Debendranath, 152 Tezpur, 151; Assam Students’ Con- Tagore, Dwarkanath, 13, 32, 47 ference at, 161; Graziers’ Associa- Talish, Shihabuddin, 54–55 tion of, 96; map of, xvii Tamulians, 66–69, 72 Thailand, 60, 122, 234 Taxes, 56, 122; corvée and, 33, 121, Thapar, Romila, 53 125, 129; functionaries for, 121, Tharu, Susie, 226 143; Kaya traders and, 87–88; Tibet, 30, 50, 55, 134 labor shortages and, 126; mon- Timber trade, 32, 62, 91, 94, 194 etized economy and, 33; Tinidiniya Asomiya (newspaper), Nadiyals and, 215; on opium, 65, 215–16 158, 160, 219; Phulanguri upris- Tirtha yatra, 50, 55, 97, 182; Mus- ing over, 70; on tea, 28 lim, 54, 100; ‘‘secular,’’ 1, 6, 153– Tea, 148, 155, 164–66; fair-trade, 54 234; price of, 32; processing of, Transport of Native Labourers Act 167–68; taxes on, 28; varieties of, (1863), 75, 77 29, 31, 71; wild, 29–31; workers’ Trautmann, Thomas, 196 wages in, 162–63 Trevelyan, Charles, 44 Tea Committee (1834), 29–31, 36, Tribal groups, 58, 87, 187, 235; 41 Christianity among, 146; defini- Tea Districts Emigrant Labour Act tion of, xiv; jati and, 207; lan- (1932), 77 guages of, 193–94, 199, 201–4; Tea Districts Labour Association, literacy among, 213; ‘‘noble sav- 75, 83 age’’ myth and, 231; opium use Tea plantations, 3–8, 19, 25; British among, 155; political activism of, support of, 124; business organi- 221–22; racial notions of, 67, 72– zations for, 166; Chinese 73, 197–200, 206–9, 213–14. See migrants and, 35–38, 70, 71; also Jati colonialism and, 12–16, 28–29; Tribal League, 221 land grants for, 34–35, 85; land ‘‘Turanians,’’ 68–69, 72, 198–99, leases for, 85–86, 131–32, 166– 209 67; in literature, 164–65; living Turks, 53, 60, 119, 179, 207 conditions on, 81–82, 164–66, Unionization, 84; of graziers, 96; of 168; missionaries and, 43–45, tea workers, 168, 235 165; modernization and, 164–65, United Liberation Front of Assam 168, 234–36; nationalization of, (ulfa), 20, 237, 239 235–36; supervisors on, 45, 76, Upadhyay, Chabilal, 96 82–83, 142, 163; unionization Upapurana, 52 and, 168, 235; women on, 75–77, Urbanization, 149–55 83, 216–17; workers for, 66–78, language, 184, 185, 187 140, 162–68, 209 Utsav: Durga Puja, 96; harvest, 96, Tea trade, 25, 33–37, 35; entrepre- 216–17, 227; Jaymati, 228–29 neurship in, 166–68; feasibility of, 122–23; globalization of, 29– Vaishnavism, 54, 55, 89, 90; caste 32, 120, 162–63, 234–36; taxes system and, 214; élite status of, on, 28 128–34; during Great Rebellion ‘‘Tea Tribes,’’ xiv, 87, 235, 273 of 1857, 132, 133; initiation cere- Temperance campaigns, 10–11, mony for, 129; Kacharis and, 148, 212; opium and, 157, 158 210; opium in, 155–57; revival

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Downloaded from http://read.dukeupress.edu/books/book/chapter-pdf/654534/9780822394396-013.pdf by guest on 26 September 2021 Vaishnavism (continued) Christian publications for, 136; of, 148, 173–76; Sankardeb and, in chronicles, 225–27; ‘‘femi- 128, 148, 157, 172–76; sects of, nine’’ virtues of, 200, 216–17, 129, 130; Sufis and, 99, 130; texts 226–28; as indentured workers, of, 171–75, 181; theater of, 156– 125, 128; magazine for, 229; mar- 57. See also Gosains; Monasteries riage customs and, 154, 157, 174, Vamsavali, 50–51, 59–61, 196–200, 212; opium use among, 155, 156, 206–8, 225 159, 162; rights of, 230, 232–33; Varna. See Caste system sati and, 217, 227–28; on tea Varua, Bisturam, 212 plantations, 75–77, 83, 216–17 Vedantism, 174, 210 Workers, 61–62, 64–65; Chinese Victoria (queen of England), 137, migrant, 35–38, 70, 71; inden- 140, 228 tured, 74–77, 81–86, 125–26, Vidyapati (poet), 173 128, 140; land leases to, 85–86; Vidyaratna, Ramkumar, 165 legal protections for, 81–82; ‘‘native,’’ 39–41; racial ideas Wade, J. P., 57 about, 37, 66–71, 206; regulation Wallich, Nathaniel, 29, 30, 41 of, 74–77, 83–84; shortage of, Warren, James, 36 63, 126, 130; supervisors of, 45, Wastelands Rules, 32 76, 82–83, 142, 163; wages for, Weissalisa chronicles, 120 68, 70, 77, 83, 158, 162–63. See Wellesley, Lord, 28 also Coolies; Migrant workers Welsh, Captain, 57, 62 Workers Breach of Contract Act Welsh missionaries, 151, 202 (1859), 70 White, Captain, 121 Whiting, Samuel, 136 Yandaboo Treaty (1826), 121 Williamson and Magor Group, 47, Yuvaraj, Ghanakanta, 131, 137–38 167 Zamindars (landlords), 12, 150, Wilson, H. H., 122 169 Witchcraft, 6, 50, 53, 141, 144 Zomia network, 241 Women: associations for, 162, 230;

324 index

Downloaded from http://read.dukeupress.edu/books/book/chapter-pdf/654534/9780822394396-013.pdf by guest on 26 September 2021