Idiograma humano normal

Continue Normal human somatic cells have 46 : 22 pairs of analog chromosomes or autosom (chromosomes 1 to 22) and two sex chromosomes. This is called the diploid number (2n). Women have two X chromosomes (46,XX), while males have X and Y (46,XY). Germ cells (eggs and sperm) have 23 chromosomes: one copy of each autosome plus a same-sex . This is called the haploid number (n). Each parent is inherited from one chromosome from each autosomal pair and sex chromosome. Mothers can only contribute the X chromosome to their sons and daughters, while parents can contribute either X (for their children) or Y (for their daughters). Normal 550 and 650 bands of of chromosomal anomalies Although chromosomal abnormalities can be very complex, there are two main types: numerical and structural. Both types can occur at the same time. Numerical anomalies are associated with the loss or enlargement of one or more complete chromosomes and can affect both autosomes and sex chromosomes. Cells that have lost chromosomes have monosy assy for this chromosome, while those with additional chromosomes show for the chromosome involved. Typically, the loss of a chromosome in humans has a greater impact than an increase, although it can also have serious consequences. Almost all autosoom leads to death shortly after conception, and few allow birth. The most common autosoom numerical anomaly is Down syndrome or trisomy 21. Individuals with trisomy on chromosomes 13 or 18 may also survive before birth, but are more severely affected than those with Down syndrome. Interestingly, people with a condition called triloidia, which has an additional copy of all chromosomes (69 in total), can sometimes live to be born, although they usually die during the neonatal period. Another general rule of vision is that the loss or gain of an autosome has more serious consequences than that of the sex chromosome. The most common anomaly of the sex chromosome is the monosomy of Turner's X chromosome (45.X) or syndrome. Another fairly common example is Klinefelter syndrome (47.XXY). Although there are significant differences in each syndrome, affected individuals often lead fairly normal lives. Sometimes a person carries an additional chromosome that cannot be identified by the strip pattern; they are called marker chromosomes. The introduction of FISH techniques has been a great highlight in identifying these marker chromosomes. Structural anomalies are associated with changes in the structure of one or more Chromosomes. They can be incredibly complex, but for this discussion we'll focus on the three most common types: Removals associated with the loss of material from a single chromosome. The consequences are usually serious, as there is a loss of genetic material. Investments occur when two incisions are made within the same chromosome, the intermediate segment rotates 180 degrees (back) and reunites, forming a chromosome that structurally altered the sequence. There is usually no risk of problems for the person if the investment is of family origin (i.e. it was inherited from a parent). There is a slightly higher risk if it is a de novo (new) mutation because some key gene sequences may have been interrupted. Although the carrier of investment may be perfectly normal, it has a slightly higher risk of producing an embryo with a chromosomal imbalance. This is because the inverted chromosome is having difficulty mating with its normal colleague during meiosis, which can lead to uneven cross-section that will produce gametes with unbalanced derivative chromosomes. Translocations involve the exchange of material between two or more chromosomes. If translocation is mutual (balanced), the risk of problems for a person is similar to the risk of investment: usually zero if it is familiar and slightly higher if de novo. Problems arise when translocation, from a balanced parent, leads to gametes that do not contain both translocation products. When such a gamer is combined with a normal gamete from another parent, the result is an unbalanced embryo that is partially monosymic for one chromosome and partially trisomic for another. Numerical and structural anomalies, in turn, can be divided into two main categories: the constituents, the ones with which they are born and acquired, which occur as secondary changes to other diseases, such as cancer. Sometimes people who have both normal and abnormal cell lines are located. These people are called mosaics and in the vast majority of cases the abnormal cell line has a numerical chromosomal abnormality. Structural mosaics are very rare. The degree to which a person is clinically affected usually depends on the percentage of abnormal cells. Conventional cytogenetic analysis usually involves testing at least 15 or 20 cells to rule out any clinically significant mosaic. These are just some of the most common anomalies found in the laboratory. Since the number of anomalous possibilities is almost infinite, it must be Cytogenetic analyst to detect and interpret any chromosomal abnormalities that may occur. Examples of chromosomal abnormalities Click on any of the following references to see examples of numerical and structural chromosomal abnormalities found in the Dynacare laboratory: Example 1: Down Syndrome, a common numerical anomaly. Example 2: U-turn on chromosome 10. Example 3: Removing chromosome 16. Example 4: Translocation between chromosomes 2 and 15. Example 5: Translocation between chromosomes 5 and 8. Example 6: Thin reversal on . Example 7: Interstitial removal on chromosome 7. Example 8: Unbalanced translocation between chromosomes 13 and 14. This image shows each normal human chromosome compared to its idiogram, or G-stripe map; it's an internationally agreed scheme for lane patterns. a return to the Cytogenetic review of the (except the idiogram) is a chromosomal model of the expressed through a code established by the convention that describes the characteristics of its chromosomes. Since they are usually associated in the clinic area, the concept of karyotype is often used to refer to a cariogram, which is a diagram, photo or pattern of chromosomes of a metaphassic cell ordered in accordance with their morphology (metacentric, submetacentric, telocentric, sublocentric and acrocentric) and the size that characterize and represent all species. The kariotype is typical of each species, as is the number of chromosomes; a person has 46 chromosomes (23 pairs because we are diploid or 2n) in the nucleus of each cell organized into 22 autosomal pairs and 1 sexual pair (XY male and XX woman). Each hand was divided into zones and each zone, in turn, in stripes and even stripes in sub-bands, thanks to marking methods. However, it may be the case in humans that there are other models in karyotypes, which is known as chromosomal aberration. Chromosomes are classified into 7 groups, from A to G, based on their relative length and position of the centrifier, which determines their morphology. Thus, the human karyotype is formed as follows: Group A: The chromosome pairs 1, 2 and 3 are located. They are characterized by very large chromosomes, almost metacentric. In particular, 1 and 3 metacentrics; 2 submetacentric. Group B: Chromosomal pairs 4 and 5 are found. These are large, submetacentric chromosomes (with two very different hands in size). Group C: Chromium-atomic pairs 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, X. These are submetacentric medium chromosomes. Group D: Couples found 13, 14 and 15. They are characterized by medium aerocentric chromosomes with satellites. Group E: Chromosomal pairs 16, 17 and 18 were found. These are small chromosomes, metacentric 16th and submetacentric 17 and 18. Group F: Chromosomal pairs 19 and 20 were found. These are small, metacentric chromosomes. Group G: Chromosomal pairs 21, 22 found. They are characterized by small and acrobatic chromosomes (21 and 22 with satellites). Numerical and structural anomalies can be analyzed with a karyotype, which would be very difficult to observe with the help of Mendeley genetics. Requirements for the study of the karyotype of the First and the intermediate, the highest conditions of sterility must be preserved. In addition, you need to accomplish the following: the cells must be in division. To do this, it is better to incubate the sample in the presence of mitosis, causing products (mitogens), as is the case with phytogemoagglutinin. Cells should stop in promethafase using colchicine, which prevents the polymerization of microtubules of the mitochondrial spindle. In order to achieve a good chromosomal separation, cells must undergo osmotic shock. This uses a hypotonic medium (0.075M KCl), which leads to an increase in cell volume. The cells must be fixed. Chromosomal staining should be done to make them identifiable. Coloring Study of karyotypes is possible because of staining. Usually a suitable dye is applied after the cells have been stopped during cell division with a colchicine solution. For humans white blood cells are the most commonly used because they are easily induced to grow and divide into tissue culture. Sometimes observations can be made when the cells do not divide (interface). The sex of the newborn fetus can be determined by observing the cells on the interface (see Amniotic puncture and Barra corpuscle). Most (but not all) species have a standard karyotype. People usually have 22 pairs of autosomal chromosomes and a pair of genital chromosomes. Normal karyotype for women contains two X chromosomes called 46 XX, and a male X chromosome and one Y chromosome called 46 XY. Any change in this standard karyotype can lead to developmental abnormalities. Several chromosomal methods of banditation are used in cytogenetic laboratories. In this sense, the method of staining kinacrin strips stands out. It was the first to be used, requiring fluorescence of the microscope, although its use is no longer as widespread as that of giemsa bands (G-bands). To produce these G-stripes, the is applied partially digest chromosomal proteins with trypsin. Reverse bands (R-stripes) require heat treatment and invert the normal black-and-white pattern seen in the No and G ranges. There are other dyeing methods, such as bands C and NOR (the area of nucleolear organizers), staining the last specific areas of the chromosome. Thus, the C-bands paint a composite heterchromatin, which is usually located next to the centurion, and the NOR spot marks the satellites and stems of the aerocentric chromosomes. High-resolution bands include staining chromosomes in prose or early metaphase (prometase) until maximum condensation is achieved. Chromosomes in prose and prommetafase are more elozes than chromosomes in metaphase; for this reason, the number of observed bands for a set of chromosomes increases from 300-450 to almost 800. This allows you to detect less clear anomalies that are not usually visible with normal stripes. To obtain this type of bands, you need to add another requirement to implement the karyotype. It is a component used in chemotherapy, methotrexate, which together with colchicine is added before staining. The method of studying the karyotype of peripheral blood intake and separation of white blood cells (T-cells) incubation in the presence of mitosis-inducing products (mitogens) such as phytocytemoaglucinin. Mitogens are added to cells, so they grow properly to form a monolayer. They then gather by separating them from the flask scraper. Stopping mitosis in metaphasse (using colchicine, which interferes with the polymerization of the mitotic microtubules of the spindle). Both the step of adding mitogens and adding colchicine are critical steps to study the karyotype. I pass through a hypotonic environment that causes cells to swell deposit drop preparation between the portal and the lid (on which pressure is done to disperse chromosomes) Fix, paint and photograph the rupture of the nucleus (10-15; 30 in the mosaic). They look at 10 to 15 nuclei because there can be many false positives because we have added mitogens (so the cells divide quickly and hastily) and colchicin, which can cause mutations and abnormalities in chromosomes. If 10-15 nuclei are not the same it may be related to these substances or because we are in front of the mosaic organism (so we need to look at more nuclei) there are currently collection devices and analysis programs that automatically develop the karyotype with data obtained. It is necessary to count at least 12-25 cells in metaphass. This is because if, for example, the nuclei count is missing chromosome 21, it could be a mosaic and the rest of the cells may have this chromosome. Another option, and more likely, is that it is the effect of adding mitogen, since this compound changes the normal cell division process, in favor of aneurysm. The last option may be to overlap chromosomes, and when analyzing a karyotype, only one chromosome is considered when there are actually two chromosomes. For all these reasons, you should take into account at least 12-15 metaphase cells, which are strongly separated in the holder. The classic Karyotype solution Giemsa is often used as a coloring (specifically for groups of DNA phosphates) for the color of chromosomal strips (G-stripes), less common is the use of quinacridine dye (joins Adenosine-Timin rich regions). Each chromosome has a characteristic strip pattern that helps define it. Chromosomes are arranged so that the short arm of the chromosome is turned to the upper and long arm to the bottom. Some karyotypes call hands short p and long q. In addition, different regions and painted subregions receive numerical designations depending on the position in which they are in relation to these chromosomal weapons. For example, Cree du Chat syndrome involves the removal of chromosome 5 in the short arm. Written as 46, XX, 5p. The critical area for this syndrome is the removal of 15.2, which is written as 46.XX, of (5) (p15.2) The spectral kariotype of the male karyotype. Spectral analysis of karyotypes (or SKY) is a molecular technology of cytogenetics, which allows simultaneously to study and visualize 23 pairs of chromosomes. Fluorescently marked probes are made for each chromosome by labeling chromosomal-specific DNA with different fluorophores. Because there is a limited number of spectrally different fluorophores, the combination labeling method is used to generate different colors. The spectral differences generated by the combine marking are oedged and analyzed using an interferometer added to the fluorescent microscope. The image processing program then assigns the pseudo-color of each combination spectrally differently, allowing color chromosomes to be displayed. This method is used to detect chromosomal structural aberrations in cancer cells and other pathologies when striped with Giemsa or other methods are not accurate enough. Such methods will improve and the diagnosis of chromosomal aberrations in prenatal cytogenetics, as well as cancer cells. Digital karyotype digital karyotype is a method used to quantify the number of copies of DNA on a genomic scale. It is a genome-specific sequence of DNA loci that are isolated and listed. This method is also known as virtual karyotype. Observations on karyotype chromosomes undergo large differences in their size throughout the cell cycle, from very low seal (interface) to very compaction (metaphase). The difference in position of the center. Differences in the main number of chromosomes can occur due to successive movements that remove all genetic material from the chromosome, causing it to be lost. Differences in the variety and distribution of heterhoromatic regions. Heterohroromatin is an inactive form of condensed DNA located mainly on the periphery of the nucleus, which is strongly colored, taking a darker color than chromatin. Variations of these chromosomes are common: Between the sexes. Between gamers and the rest of the body. Among the population. Geographical differences. Levitsky's story was the first to define karyotype as a phenotypic aspect of somatic chromosomes, as opposed to their gene content. This concept continued to be studied with the works of Darlington and White. Research and interest in the study of karyotype have raised the question: how many chromosomes are contained in the cell of human diploids? In 1912, Hans von Winiwarter demonstrated that humans have 47 chromosomes in spermatogon and 48 in hijacking, concluding the mechanism of sexual definition XX/XO. Years later, in 1922 von Winiwarter was unsure whether the chromosome number man was 46 or 48. This required a deeper study to answer this question. Cultural cells were used. Pre-processed cells in hypotonic solutions, which leads to the spread and increase in the size of chromosomes. With a solution of colchicine stop the process of mitosis in metaphase. It took until the mid-1950s what it was when it was accepted that a person's karyotype included only 46 chromosomes. In large monkeys, the karyotype is 48 chromosomes, so it was explained that the chromosome 2 of humans was formed by a fusion of hereditary chromosomes, thereby reducing their number. The diversity and evolution of the karyotype Although DNA replication and DNA transcription are highly standardized in eukaryotes, the same cannot be said for their karyotypes, as they are highly variable between species chromosomes and in a detailed organization, despite the fact that they were built with the same macromolecules. This change provides the basis for a number of studies that could be called evolutionary cytology. In some cases, there are even significant differences in species. In a 2000 review, Godfrey and Masters conclude: In our vision, it is unlikely that a particular process will be able to independently rely on the wide range of karyotype structures that are observed. But used in conjunction with other phylogenetic data, karyotypic division may help explain the dramatic differences in diploid numbers between closely related species that were previously unexplained. Changes during development Over time, some organisms eliminated the presence of certain components of their nucleus as well as heterhoromatin. Removing the chromosome; In some species (flies) chromosomes are removed during development. Reducing chromatin; In this process (in some coppods) part of the chromosomes is thrown into some cells. It is a process where the genome is carefully organized, where new telomeres are organized and constructed and where some regions of heteroromatin are lost in Ascaris suum, all precursors of somatic cells experience a decrease in chromatin. X-inactivation; The inactivation of the X chromosome is carried out in the early development of mammals. In placental mammals, inactivation is random between two Xs, but in marsupial it is the paternal X chromosome that is inactive. There are times when there are times when some chromosomes are abnormal, so it is a disorder for a new offspring. The number of chromosomes in each series An example of variability between closely related species is that of muntjac (a mammal in the cervid family living in India and southeast Asia), which was researched by Kurt Benirschke and his partner Doris Wurster, where they showed that the diploid number of Chinese muntlocc (Muntiacus reevesi) turned out to be 46 and all teentric. When the Kariotype of the Indian Muntjak was studied, they saw that the female had 6 and the male had 7 chromosomes. They just couldn't believe what they saw. They were silent for two or three years because they thought something had gone wrong with their growing tissues... But when they got a couple more samples, they confirmed their findings. The number of chromosomes in the karyotype between unrelated species is extremely variable. The lowest record belongs to Nematode Parascaris univalens, where Haploid n s 1; The highest rate may be somewhere among ferns, with the tongue of the fern adder Ophioglossum ahead with an average of 1,262 chromosomes. The highest record for animals may be among the short-nosed sturgeon Acipenser brevirostrum with 372 chromosomes. The existence of supernumed chromosomes or B means that the number of chromosomes can vary even within the same population. (The supernumed chromosome is located in the place of normal chromosome 21. The formula for this triple chromosome may be XXY or XYY). : the number of receptors in polyploid karyotype (more than two sets of analog chromosomes in cells) occurs mainly in plants. It is of great importance in the evolution of these according to Stebbins. The proportion of plants with polyploid flowers is 30-35%, and in the case of herbs - a much higher value, about 70%. Polyploidy in lower plants (ferns and psylotals) is also common. Some fern species have reached polyploid levels well above the highest known levels in flowering plants. Polyploidy in animals is much less common, reaching values in some groups. Cases of triloid embryos and fetuses (69, XXX) and even tetraploids (92, XXXX) have been reported in humans, resulting in a significant percentage of natural abortions; in rare cases of newborns with this chromosomal burden, their life expectancy did not exceed a few days after delivery due to various changes in all their organs. Endopolipoididia occurs when adult tissue in cells is no longer separated by mitosis, but the nuclei contain more original somatic chromosomes. In many cases, endodyploid nuclei contain tens of thousands of chromosomes (cannot be accurately calculated). Cells do not always contain exactly multiples (forces of two), so the increase in the number of chromosomal sets caused by reproduction is not entirely accurate. This process (especially studied in insects and some higher plants) can be a development strategy to increase the performance of tissues that are very active in biosynthesis. This phenomenon occurs sporadically through the kingdom of eukaryotes from the simplest to the man; It is diverse and complex, and serves differentiation and morphogenesis in many ways. See paleopolipoidia to study the duplication of ancient karyotypes. The term aneuloidium is mainly used when the number of chromosomes varies in the population of the crossing of species. It can also be used in closely related species. Classic examples of plants are the genus Crepis, where the hampoid number (haploid) forms a series of x-3, 4, 5, 6 and 7; and Crocus, where each number from x to 3 to x x 15 is represented by at least one species. Data of different types show that the trends of evolution went in different directions, in different groups. Closer to home, the big monkeys have 24x2 chromosomes where humans have 23x2. Human chromosome 2 was formed from a mixture of ancestral chromosomes, reducing their number. Aneurloidi is not usually considered a ploid, but rather sleepy, such as trisomy or monosomy. Aneoploids are called as follows: the number of times it is repeated is accompanied by the word opia, followed by the number of chromosomes involved. The origin of this mutation may come from non-disinclination in meiosis I or II. These anomalies may be numerical (the presence of additional chromosomes) or structural (translocation, large-scale investment, removal or duplication). Numerical anomalies, also known as , refer to changes in the number of chromosomes that can lead to genetic diseases. Aneurloidi can often be seen in cancer cells. Only monosomy and trisomy are possible in animals, as zerosomy is fatal in diploid individuals. Structural anomalies often stem from errors in homologous recombination. Both types of anomalies can occur in gametes and therefore will be present in all cells in the affected person's body, or it can occur during mitosis and lead to separate genetic mosaics that have normal and abnormal certain cells. Human Chromosomal Anomalies: Turner Syndrome, where there is only one X chromosome (45, X or 45 X0) of Klinefelter syndrome, occurs in males, also known as 47 XXY. This is caused by the addition of the X chromosome. Edwards syndrome caused by trisomy (three copies) chromosome 18. Down syndrome caused by chromosomal 21 trisomy. Patau syndrome caused by trisomy on chromosome 13. Trisomy 8, 9 and 16 were also found, although they do not usually survive after birth. There have been no human cases of trisomy on chromosome 1, since they all end up in natural abortion and are not born. There are some disorders that stem from the loss of one piece of chromosome, including: Cri du Chat (cat meowing), where there is a short hand on chromosome 5. The name comes from a cry caused by a newborn resembling a cat meowing because of a malformation of the larynx. Syndrome that is caused by the loss of part of the short arm of chromosome 1. Angelman's Syndrome; In 50% of cases, there is no segment of the long arm of chromosome 15. These chromosomal abnormalities can also occur in cancer cells of a genetically normal person. A well- documented example is the , or so-called Philadelphia translocation, which is a genetic abnormality associated with chronic myeloid leukemia (HLC). This anomaly affects chromosomes 9 and 22. 95 percent of patients with chronic myeloid leukemia have this abnormality, while the rest have mysterious translocations invisible to drugs using the G-band method or other translocations that affect another or other chromosome in the same way as chromosomes 9 and 22. Parts of the two chromosomes, 9 and 22, exchange their positions. The result is that part of the Breakpoint cluster gene (BCR) on chromosome 22 (area q11) merges with part of the ABL gene on chromosome 9 (area q34). The ABL gene takes its name from Abelson, the name of the leukemia-causing virus precursor protein similar to the one produced by this gene. Nomenclature Since 1995, various symbols have been used to describe an anomaly of a particular chromosome or karyotype, following rules introduced by ISCN (International Nomenclature System of Human Cytogenetics). That is, the chromosomal formula reflects a simplified description of the karyotype. The chromosomal formula records the total number of chromosomes (including sex chromosomes), followed by a comma, followed by sex chromosomes. If there is numerical or structural autos aberrations, they are then written after another comma. When there is a mosaic, that is, two or more different populations of cells coexist, the karyotypes corresponding to each are written by a divided bar; first you write one with multiple chromosomes and then consistently the highest number of chromosomes. Some of the symbols and abbreviations used to describe karyotypes are: p: short arm chromosomes. q: Long arm of the chromosome. In: Profit from the full chromosome. -: loss of the full chromosome. Telmer. p (): Ring chromosome. In brackets, we bind the chromosome. :removal. In the first brackets, we put the chromosomes on which the removal takes place, and in the second, where the removal takes place. ins: insert. dup: duplication. inv : U-turn. In the first brackets we put chromosomes on which the reversal occurs, and in the second end of the inverted segment. t: translocation. FRAGMENT IS a DNA that is not known where it comes from and is labeled with the name of a marker chromosome. Dic: dicentric chromosome. dn: Chromosomal aberration was not inherited from parents, but originated de novo. h: erchromatinin area. i: isochromoma, i.e. chromosome, which has two equal hands, or two p hands, or two hands 1. .ish: Karyotype studied by FISH. Mat: reargula chromosomes of maternal origin. Pat: Re-rule of the paternal chromosome. psu dic: pseudo-dyntic chromosome, i.e. on which only one of the central centers is active. three: trisomy. trp: three times the part of the chromosome. Examples of chromosomal formulas Euploid numerical aberrations: the total number of chromosomes multiple haploid number. 69,XXY: abnormal karyotype, with 69 chromosomes (triploids), 2 X chromosomes and one Y chromosome. Aneploid numerical aberrations: the total number of chromosomes is not multiple haploid numbers, i.e. there are one or more chromosomes smaller or larger. 45.X: monosomy, which has 45 chromosomes with one X chromosome. It's typical of person with Turner syndrome. 47.XXY or also 47,XY, X: a person with an additional X chromosome (Klinefelter syndrome), which causes a person not to develop secondary sexual characteristics. 47, XX, No.21: Woman with Down syndrome. Mosaic: The existence of several different populations of cells in the same person. 45,X/46,XY mosaic with two cell lines, one with 45 chromosomes and one X and one with 46 chromosomes, X and Y. Structural aberrations are those in which one or more chromosomes change their own structure by adding or losing genetic material, by changing its shape or stripe pattern. These changes are called reorganizations and are always associated with chromosomal breakdowns. In the chromosomal formula, the type of reorganization with the appropriate acronym should be specified after the total number of chromosomes followed by a comma. 46,X,i (X): 46 chromosomes, with normal X chromosome and isochrom X. 46,XX,del (7) (q1q3): A woman with a delight from group 1 to range 3 q arm chromosome 7. 47, XX, sea: A woman with a DNA fragment who doesn't know where he's from. 46,XY,inv (11) (p11p15): male with inversion in chromosome 11, from p11 to p15 group. See also glossary of chromosomal aberration associated with the genomic chromosome mutation of the human human genome Cytogenetics of human Cytogenetics plants Cytogenetics Links - White MJ D. 1973. Chromosome. 6th, Chapman and Hall, London. Gustashaw K.M. 1991. Chromosome spots. The ACT Cytogenetics Laboratory Guide 2nd Ed, ed. MJ Barch. Association of Cytogenetic Technologists, Raven Press, New York. Lisa G. Schaffer, Nils Tommerup ISCN 2005: An A system of human cytogenetic nomenclature. Switzerland: S. 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Endopolioploids and politicization in differentiation and evolution: to understand the quantitative and qualitative change of nuclear DNA in ontogynia and phylognia. Elsevier, Nueva York. Stebbins, G. Ledley Jr. 1972. The chromosomal evolution of higher plants. Nelson, London. p18 - Iddo J.V. and et al. Origin of the human chromosome 2: generic telomere-telomere synthesis. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 88: 9051-5. Sitogenetics Lasica and Biology de los Cromosomas. Monograph No 20, Program Regional de Desarrollo Cient'fico y T'cnol'gico, Departamento de Asuntos Cient'fios, Seecretaria General de la OEA. Solari A J (2011) Genetics Humana: fundamentos y aplicaciones en medicina. Capetulo 17. Editorial Panamericana. ISBN 9789500602693 Tres Stepsas en la History de la Sitogenetics Clenica Laboratory ADN, Fertilidad y Paternidad y Datos: 189967 Multimedia: Cariotypes Obtenido de idiograma humano normal masculino. idiograma humano normal feminino. o que é idiograma humano normal

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