Free download from www.hsrcpress.ac.za Figure 5.1). known, ofwhichageneroushandfulhavebeenpublished with colourillustrations(see materials andcarefulnessofexecutionarecopiestheQur’an. Atleasttwodozenare intheregion,finesttermsofbothquality But ofallmanuscriptsproduced religious affairs,includingaSufitreatisedated1858. commerce writteninversetoaidmemorisation.Stillothermanuscriptsdealwith these textsareinprose,butafewcontainpoetry, suchasonewiththelawsof Others, suchasachronicleoftheSonghayEmpiredated1809,arehistorical.Most contain scientifictexts,oftenembellishedwithdiagramstoaidinunderstanding. script, whichcouldbeexecuted withvaryinglevelsofcompetenceandperformance. manuscript iswritteninacontrolled, practisedanduniformhandclosesttothe‘ideal’ they areallwellexecuted,withcolourenhancingboth text andillumination.Each Like theothers,theseQur’anmanuscriptsshowarangeof writingstyles,butingeneral Congress inWashington DCin2005. of manuscriptsfromtheMammaHaidaraMemorialLibraryheldat These writtendocumentscoveravarietyofsubjects,asshownbyrecentexhibition only brieflyontheinternet. last fewcenturies.Mostofthesediscoveriesaresorecentthattheyhavebeendescribed which preservelargecachesofhithertounknownmanuscripts,somemadethereinthe Scholars arejustuncoveringtheextraordinaryrichnessoflocallibrariesinTimbuktu The historyofArabiccalligraphyinWest Africaisastorythatbeginningtounfold. Sheila SBlair in West Africa Arabic calligraphy CHAPTER 5 3 1 2 Some, suchasanastronomicaltextdated1733, 4 ARABIC CALLIGRAPHYINWESTAFRICA Qur’an madeinWest Africa. typical manuscriptofthe opening pageoftextfroma Figure 5.1(opposite):The 59 Free download from www.hsrcpress.ac.za of execution are copiesoftheQur’an. quality ofmaterials andcarefulness the region, interms thefinest ofboth Of allthemanuscripts produced in 60 THE MEANINGSOFTIMBUKTU faces left.Theconnectedfinal typically exaggeratetheends oftheletters,especially lacking thefinalnotchtypicalofeasternscripts.Inaddition, Maghribicalligraphers ta/za are orthographic.IntheMaghrib,forexample, reversed fromthepositionstheyholdin(newer)easternsystem.Otherdifferences different (andolder)systemofalphanumerics,inwhichthepositions to thealphabet.Arabicspeakers(or, moreprecisely, writers)intheMaghribusea distinguished foursubtypesofMaghribi,allsharingcertaincharacteristics.Somerelate of roundscripts,withanobliquecut. of thereedandtrimmed,sincetimeIbnMuqla(886–940)introduction Characteristics ofWest AfricanArabicscript letters suchas or overlappingstrokes.Incontrast,flowingstrokesandligaturesbetweenunauthorised draw onlyoneortwolettersatatime,andthuswithinwordsthereareoftentinyspaces slope, asarethesmallstrokesindicatingshortvowels.Maghribicalligrapherstypically mentary horizontalstrokes.IntheEast,bycontrast,singlewordsareoftenwrittenona Maghribi scriptisposedonaflatbaseline,withdiacriticalmarksaddedincomple- Differences inmaterialsandtechniqueseemtohaveengendereddifferencesaspect. seminal articleonMaghribiscript,thestyleusedinMaghrib,orIslamicWest. This scriptisoftendubbed‘Sudani’,anamecoinedin1886byOctaveHoudas is tooutlinethesalientcharacteristicsof‘ideal’ArabicscriptusedinWest Africa. Using thesepublishedmanuscripts,especiallycopiesoftheQur’an,ourfirsttaskthen alif differ fromthosetypicaloftheroundscripts.InMaghribi script theverticalstrokesfor a singlelettercanassumefourorfivedifferentshapesonthe samepage.Theshapesalso In addition,theshapesofindividuallettersinMaghribiscript showmorevariation,as thuluth they areintheEast,withasingledotbelow eastern Islamiclandssincemedievaltimes.Suchadifferencein strokes usedintheroundhandsknownasSixPensthathavebeenpopular used intheMaghribhavesofter, morecurvededgesthanthetauter, sharper-edged Still otherdifferencesrelatetothewaysthatcalligrapherspentheirstrokes.Thestrokes ta marbuta move it. thicks andthinsthroughtheamountofinkonpenspeedwithwhichthey tips aretrimmedwithabluntorroundedendthatgivesroundoutline.Theycontrol tionally useareedpen,calligraphersintheMaghribsliceintoflatslatswhose to thedifferenceinpens:althoughcalligrapherseverywhereIslamiclandstradi- , lam are ellipticalratherthantriangular, asistypicalofroundscripts, and smooth, . and 6 By contrast,calligraphersintheEastuseapencutfromfullcircumference are oftendotlessorunpointed. ta/za alif are oftencurved,notrigidlystraight,andhavealargedot or serifthat to lam are characteristicoftheSixPensusedinEast,notably alif descends below the baseline. The bodies of descends belowthebaseline.Thebodies 7 fa and above fa and sin qaf , sad qaf are pointeddifferentlythan . Final , lam ductus , mim fa , qaf is probablydue and sin , nun and nun , sad . sad ya 5 and and He are Free download from www.hsrcpress.ac.za that today isoftendividedintoeastandwest. that today of Saharo–SahelianlandacrossmiddleAfricafromtheAtlantictoRedSea,aregion (literally, thelandofblackpeople),traditionallyusedtodesignatebroadswath It seemstohavebeenpredicatedontheuseofterm‘Sudani’asinBiladal-Sudan Houdas’s choiceofSudaniforthefourthsubtypeMaghribiscriptwasalsoconfusing. Cordova andisnowpreservedinRabat,Morocco. region. is notsurprisinggiventhemovementofbothpeopleandmanuscriptsthroughoutthis Husayn ofBorno. al- ibn al-Qadi 1834), forexample,waspenned byascribenamedSayrallahforMalam Africa, copiesoftheQur’an.TheimageinFigure5.2,dated 8 Rabi‘ I 1250 (15 July Let usbeginwiththefinestandbestpublishedmanuscripts thatcanbeassignedtoWest Characteristics ofQur’anicmanuscripts manuscript, asinacopyofworkontraditions, which heassignedthem,andtwostylesweresometimescombinedinthesame these stylesofscript,whiledifferent,arenotdistincttothegeographicallocations round andelegantscript.Houdas’s choiceofnameswasinmanywaysunfortunate,for small, compactandjerkyscript;Fasi(fromFezinsouthernMorocco),alarge, script thatresembledtheroundscriptsusedinEast;Andalusi(fromAndalusia),a designated asQayrawani(fromQayrawan,thecitynowinTunisia), asmooth,even edge. HoudasdistinguishedthisheavySudaniscriptfromthreeothersubtypesthathe thicker horizontalanddiagonalones,achievedbyusingthepenalongitsverticalchisel show greatervariationbetweenthickandthin,withthinnerverticalstrokessetnextto guished thesubtypeSudanibyitsheaviness.Itslettersarethickerandblacker. Theyalso These featurescharacteriseallfoursubtypesofMaghribiscript,butHoudasdistin- kinds ofinformationthatstillneedtobegatheredtestthese preliminaryhypotheses. cultural significanceofwritinginWest Africa.Alongtheway, Ishallalsosuggestthe was popular. Finally, Ishallconcludewithmoregeneral considerationsaboutthe establish achronologicalandgeographicalframeworkaboutwhenwherethisscript fromWestdelineate characteristicsofthe‘ideal’scriptandtypicalcodex Africaandto manuscripts outwardstothelargergroupofsimilarbutundatedexamplesinorder Qur’an, thespecificreadingoftext.Ishallworkfromfewdatedandlocalised basis ofnotonlyscript,butalsoformatanddecorationaswellas,inthecase made intheeasternBiladal-Sudan.Suchregionaltraditionsmaybeestablishedon to distinguishmanuscriptsoftheQur’anandothertextsmadetherefrom usedinthewesternhalfofthisbroadbelt,andonemygoalsistosetoutmethods script of Africa, notalwaysbychoice.Theyoftentookmanuscriptswiththem.Thus,thecopy transcribed in1172–73. Shihab al-akhbar 9 Scholars suchasIbnRushdorKhaldunmovedaboutAndalusiaandNorth 11 produced inValenciaproduced wasread16yearslateratthe GreatMosqueof Many ofthesamefeatures,with somevariations,canbeseenina 8 Such interminglingofstylesinanyonecentreproduction 10 This chapterconcentratesontheArabic Shihab al-akhbar (The MeteorofNews), ARABIC CALLIGRAPHYINWESTAFRICA 61 Free download from www.hsrcpress.ac.za Rabi‘ I1250(15July1834). of Bornoandcompletedon8 for Malamal-Qadiibnal-Husayn of theQur’ancopiedbySayra Figure 5.2Loose-leafmanuscript 62 THE MEANINGSOFTIMBUKTU llah flap securedbyplaitedleatherthongs. from Nafi‘, manuscript. Thetext,identifiedinatleasttwocasesasthe reading transmittedbyWarsh writing, althoughthenumbercanvaryanywherefrom14 to20,evenwithinthesame measures ontheorderof15by10centimetres.Eachpage typically contains15linesof approximately 23by17centimetres.Thewrittenareavaries, butanaveragesurface is copiedonsome400to500separatesheetsofhand-trimmedpaper, eachmeasuring The textinatypicalQur’anmanuscriptmadeWest Africa(seeFigures5.1and5.2) enhance portability. preserve themanuscriptfromimpurityandprotectitevileye,butalsousedto wrapped aroundthebinding.Thewallet,inturn,isheldaleathersatchel,saidto is oftenpointedorogivalandcanbeheldinplacebyacowrieshellleatherthong rather wrappedaroundit,withtheflapfoldedonoutside(seeFigure5.3).The manuscripts heldinatooledleatherwalletthatisnotattachedtothetextblock,but Ghassan Shakercollections(numbers6and73,respectively).Allareloose-leaf handful ofsimilarmanuscripts,mostthemundated,includingcopiesintheNourand in redand height withinthelineisalmost uniform,suchthat Certain letterformsaredistinctive. Thelettersthemselvesaresquat,andthewritten titles aretypicallywritteninred,withmarkingsbrownish-black (seeFigure5.1). al-wasl , asonopeningpagesoftheQur’anmanuscriptseenbyNadia Abbott. 14 hamzat al-qat‘ is pennedinbrownish-blackink,withvowels, 12 Made ofgoatskin,thesatchelusuallyhasashoulderstrapand marked withayellowdot.Greenisusedsparinglyfor 13 fa’/qaf is almostastall sukun and shadda 15 alif Chapter marked or hamzat lam , Free download from www.hsrcpress.ac.za ‘seven’ ( known as nisf Qur’an. ‘ parts, indicatedwithrectangularpanelscontainingtheletters division ofthetext(seeFigure5.2)intosixtieths( indicated byvarioustypesoffilledcircles.Similarmarginal ornamentsindicatethe pyramids ofthreeyellowcirclesoutlinedinred.Groups offiveandtenversesare verses intheseWest AfricanmanuscriptsoftheQur’anaretypically dividedby suggests thattheyellowisprobablyorpiment(Arabic brown, red,yellow, andoccasionallygreen.ExaminationofthemanuscriptinLeeds of simplegeometricalshapespaintedinthesameearthcoloursusedtocopytext: These Qur’anmanuscriptsfromWest Africaaretypicallydecoratedwithillumination on apackage.Unwritten as intheLeedsQur’an(seeFigure5.1).Medial as intheNourmanuscriptQur’an(no.7).Itcanalsobeelongatedtofilloutline, the sameheightasinitial Maghrib, notonlyformanuscriptilluminationbutalso for dyingskins. vermillion ( red: red wouldbeusefulasdifferentsubstanceswereusedinvarious regionstoproduce used elsewhereintheMaghribandmentionedbyIbnBadis. , one-half)and al-sab Ayn khatam al-ahzab zanghafr is large. ‘). Placesofprostrationaremarked withsimilardesignscontainingthe tha ) wastypicalintheEast,whereascochinealcommon inthe (for Sad alif thumn is asmooth,toothlesslozengethatsometimesquitelarge, are sometimesindicatedbycircles inscribedwiththeword is addedasathinredslash. ba , one-eighth).Divisionsofthetextintosevenparts in the basmala ha that beginsallbutonechapterinthe is writtenflatonthelinelikeabow hizb zarnih asfar ), furthersubdividedintoeight 16 ba Further testingonthe (one-fourth), ), anarsenicsulphide 17 Individual nun (for ARABIC CALLIGRAPHYINWESTAFRICA plaited leatherthongs. strap andaflapsecuredby satchel usuallyhasashoulder portability. Madeofgoatskin,the evil eye,butalsousedtoenhance impurity andprotectitfromthe preserve themanuscriptfrom held inaleathersatchel,saidto binding. Thewallet,inturn,is thong wrappedaroundthe by acowrieshellandleather in ogival andcanbeheld The flapisoften the flapfoldedonoutside. rather wrappedaroundit,with attached to the textblock,but wallet thatisnot leather are manuscripts West Africa,manyloose- Qur’an inLeedsUniversity. In satchel fromthecopyof Figure 5.3Typical bindingand held inatooled pointed or place leaf 63 Free download from www.hsrcpress.ac.za 64 THE MEANINGSOFTIMBUKTU the turnoffifteenthto sixteenthcentury. Thecolophontothebilingual Qur’an Colophons suggestfurtherthatthescribaltraditionexisted inWest Africa atleastfrom eighth lineoftextonregularpages. on folio1btofillthebottomofpage,spacethatwould havebeenoccupiedbythe examples, thedecorationisaddedwithsimplegeometric shapes inearthcolours,used like pursedlips.Verses aremarkedwitha pyramid ofthreeballs.Likethesmaller Borno in1834(seeFigure5.2). eighteenth ornineteenthcentury. Atleastoneisdated:thecopymadefor Most ofthesesmall-format,loose-leafQur’anmanuscriptscanbeattributedtothe Abbott, thistypeofrecitationissaidtobecharacteristicSufisectsinNorthAfrica. letter shapessuchas shorter –tails,horizontaldiacriticalmarks,unusualpointing for baseline andsharetheclassicMaghribipointingshape, withswooping–though a handthatsharesmanyfeatureswiththeMaghribistyle.Lettersareposedonflat the areaofsmallermanuscriptsandhaseightwidelyspacedlinestextwrittenin perhaps madeinlatercenturies.Itislarger(32x23cm).Eachpagethereforetwice In format,thebilingualmanuscriptdiffersfromtypicalWest Africanexamples the formercapitalofBornoEmpiredestroyedbylocalFulanisin1808. inBirniN’gazargamu, similar onesthathehadseeninnorthernNigeriawereproduced October 1669).BivarconcludedthatthisbilingualQur’anmanuscriptandthree Qurtubi, whosecolophonsaysthatitwascompletedon1JumadaII1080(Sunday27 The marginsarefilledwithseveralcommentaries,includingalengthyonebyal- a dialectofKanuristillspokenbypartstheBornopopulationaroundLakeChad. Maiduguri inNigeria(seeFigure5.5). manuscript thatcanbeattributedtotheareaisoneexaminedbyADHBivarat accepted bytheMalikischoolarethusmarked. word Figure 5.4)includesafinalfoliodatedRamadan1100(June1689). the BibliothèqueNationalecontainingfragmentsfromdifferentmanuscripts(see Some manuscriptsmayevendatefromtheseventeenthcentury. in Acompositecodex should berepeatedinrecitationeachtimethatitoccurstheQur’an. repeated asmany11times,withtheaddedinstructionthatthiswordorphrase examined byAbbott,themarginalnotesconsistofawordorphrasethatistobe techniques, atopicalsubjectinregionwithstrongoraltradition.Inthemanuscript in eachchapter. Othernotesgivealternatereadingsandinstructionsonrecitation Some supplysupplementaryinformationaboutthenumbersofverses,wordsandletters Several manuscriptsalsocontainmarginalnotesinthesameredscriptasheadings. that wasmanufacturedbythefirmofAndreaGalvinisinceseventeenthcentury. materials: theyarecopiedonpaperwatermarkedwiththedistinctive sajda . InthemanuscriptexaminedbyAbbott,forexample,10of11prostrations alif often withaclubfoot,flat 20 In mostcaseswecandatethemanuscriptsby 23 It hasinterlinearglossesinaformofKanembu, 18 sad , kaf with adiagonalbar, and fa’ 22 and The oldestQur’an 19 qaf tre lune According to , andtypical , paper qadi dal of 21 Free download from www.hsrcpress.ac.za en routefromhishomeinWest Africa to Tunis. Tim Stanleyhassuggestedthatthe scribemighthavemovedtoTunis or was spelling. w-z-k the medinathere.Thecolophonaddsthatscribewrote itinthevillage( was inTunis nearBabSuwayqah,whichcanbeidentifiedasagateinthenorthwall (see Figure5.2)wasmadeforthe manuscripts withKanembuwouldhavebeenused.TheQur’an manuscriptdated1834 can beconnectedwithBornoandtheregionaroundLake Chadwherethebilingual colophon andthosethatdoaresomewhatconfusing.Some oftheQur’anmanuscripts ofthesemanuscriptsisdifficult,forfewcontaina Localising theplaceofproduction Sites ofproduction as earlythelastquarteroffifteenthcentury. with Kanembugivesthegenealogyofcalligrapher, whosefamilyhadlivedinBorno , repeatingthenameofsettlement,village qadi of Borno,butthecolophonreportsthatscribe 24 w-z-q , withadifferent balad ) of ARABIC CALLIGRAPHYINWESTAFRICA recitation techniques. readings andinstructionson Othernotesgivealternate letters. numbers ofverses,wordsand mentary informationaboutthe headings. Somesupplysupple- notes inthesameredscriptas manuscripts alsocontainmarginal mentary byal-Qurtubi.Several in Kanembuandmarginalcom- the Qur’anwithinterlinearglosses Figure 5.5(right)Manuscriptof (June 1689). folio datedRamadan1100 different textsincludingafinal containingfragmentsfrom codex Figure 5.4(left)Composite 65 Free download from www.hsrcpress.ac.za 66 THE MEANINGSOFTIMBUKTU for the region comprising modern-day Tunisiafor theregioncomprisingmodern-day andwesternAlgeria. unexplained letters Muhammad ibnMika’ilFatima,whosenameonceincludesthe city withmanyspringsnearTunis. Marginalnotesgivethenameofcalligrapheras city ofQariyanorQariya.Abbottfoundthatal-BakrimentionedQariyaasasmallhill- Two signaturesinthemanuscriptexaminedbyAbbottstatethatitwaswritten closely relatedtodevelopmentsintheEast. Furthermore, thestylethatdevelopedintenth-centuryTunisia wasdifferent,more Bivar designatedtheWest Africanscript Maghribi, butscholarshavedebatedwhichothersubtypewastheimmediatesource. The distinctivescriptusedintheseWest Africanmanuscriptsclearlyderivesfrom Sudan, whencethemanuscriptmadeitswaytoLagos,whereitwaspurchasedin1935. Muhammad, whosesignaturewasthencopiedbysomeoneinthesouthernBiladal- that themanuscriptwasacopyofanolderonepennedbyabove-mentioned ‘Abdallah ibnMuhammad(seeFigure5.6). specifically acopytranscribedin975(1568)fortheSharifan sultanofMorocco,Mawlay from Qur’anmanuscriptsmadeinWest Africa(seeFigures5.1and5.2) andMorocco, the Maghribiratherthaneasternstyle.To seethis,wecancomparetypicalpages Sad many characteristicswiththewesternMaghribistyleused in MoroccoandAndalusia. The scriptusedintheQur’anmanuscriptsfromWest Africa,bycontrast, sharesmany, certainly inQayrawan,showsmanycharacteristicsofeasternscripts,suchas cited thestatementbygreatNorthAfricanhistorianIbnKhaldun,writing notably atQayrawanandMahdiyya. delicate andflowinghandwhichhadreplacedthestylesusedearlierinNorthAfrica, amore who reportedthatMuslimcalligraphersfleeingfromAndalusiaintroduced home ofthe Islam andmanyotherfeaturestotheSahel,nevercontrolledIfriqiya,presumed diagonal bar. Bothhaveamedial tails andflatdiacriticalmarks, heavy angular Almoravids duringtheirconquestsoftheUpperNigerregion.Hedistinguishedthis style ofscriptwasalsopreservedsouththeSaharainSahel,broughtthereby designating theregionofsouth-westernTunisia intheSahara.Bivararguedthatold preserved onlyinafewtownstheJarid,wordliterallymeaningpalmsandterm ranging fromhistoricaltopalaeographic. Though ingenious,Bivar’s argumentsareultimatelyunsatisfactoryforavarietyofreasons, called Andalusi. phrase describinghimasacraftsmanwhopaintsordraws( bump andmedial is writtenwithoutafinaltooth,asintheMaghribistyle,and medial ‘ifriqi ‘ifriqi ha script, althoughtheymighthaveimportedmanuscriptsfromthere. ta-sin script fromathinnerandmoreflexiblehandthathe,likeHoudas, shaped likeafigure8thatdescendsbelowthebaseline. after thesecondMuhammadandtwicecontainsanon-Arabic alif ha that sitsonthebaselinelikea bowandaverylarge with aclubfoot, 26 The oldscripts,IbnKhalduncontinued,were ‘ifriqi 27 32 The Almoravids, who introduced Maliki The Almoravids,whointroduced Both scriptsaredistinguishedbyswooping , meaningfromIfriqiya,theArabicname 29 A legaltextcopiedin1015,almost dal yasawara like pursedlips, ). Abbottconcluded 25 As evidence,he ha also follows kaf 30 sad c with a with a .1375, 31 28 Free download from www.hsrcpress.ac.za Figure 5.6ManuscriptoftheQur’an copiedin975(1568)fortheSharifansultanofMorocco,Mawlay ‘AbdallahibnMuhammad. ARABIC CALLIGRAPHYINWESTAFRICA 67 Free download from www.hsrcpress.ac.za Sahih Figure 5.7CopyofBukhari’s 68 dated 1419. THE MEANINGSOFTIMBUKTU 807 (March1405). endowed bytheHafsidrulerAbu’l-FaristoQasbaMosqueofTunis inRamadan North AfricatothekingsofAragon–Catalonia. shown byararecacheof162letterswrittenvariousMuslimrulersSpainand (see Figure5.5)circlesaroundthetext,epistolarytraditionusedinAndalusiaas used furthernorthinMoroccoandAndalusia.ThecommentarythebilingualQur’an Features oflayoutusedinWest AfricanmanuscriptsoftheQur’analsocontinuethose initial West AfricanQur’anand othermanuscriptsalsorelatestotraditionsfurthernorth. The long traditionthere,foundalso intheCordovanQur’anof1143.Theillumination style usedinthewesternMaghrib.Thepyramidofthreeballs, forexample,ispartofa The decorationofWest AfricanmanuscriptsoftheQur’analsoshows featuresofthe Dala’il al-khayrat and itcontinuedtobeuseduntilthenineteenthcentury, asshownbycopiesofthe many otherexamples,forawell-knownQur’anmanuscript madeatCordovain1143, Maghrib longafterithadbeenabandonedinthewest.Such aformatisused,among on Saturday, a bookoflitaniesandprayerswiththenamesMuhammad andlitaniestoberecited bilingual Qur’anmanuscript.Similarly, religiousmanuscriptsfromWest Africa,suchas continues inacircletofillthepage,samekindofcircularformatasKanembu IV (theCeremonious)ofAragon,forexample,beginsinthehorizontallinesbutthen 745 (17September1344)thatwaswrittenbyYusuf I,NasridrulerofGranada,toPeter ba in the 35 use thesmallsquareformatthatremainedcommonin thewestern in theBerlinMuseumandShakercollection. basmala 33 . NeitherofthesefeaturesisfoundinaQur’anmanuscript 34 The textononedated10Sha‘ban 37 36 Free download from www.hsrcpress.ac.za Malian capital,Qur’ancaseswerebroughtandthewholewasread. Bukhari’s collection, forexample,weremadeinMorocco,tojudgefromthestyleofacopyal- manuscripts werealsoimportedtoWest intheKati Africa.Theoldestcodices shipped toWest forlocalcopies. Moroccan Africawheretheyprovidedthemodels tionally bysewingtogethernarrowstrips. panels arestandardon probably transcribedatFezinthesixteenthorseventeenthcentury. Rights oftheChosenOne)incollectionMalamNagwamatseSokotowas Iyad ibnMusa’s and bestowedthemonfamilyfriends. Production mayhavebegunasearly asthesixteenthcentury,Production andincreasedgradually availabilityofmaterials,Westincreased theirownmanusc Africans began toproduce With theincreasingprevalenceofawritten–ratherthananoraltraditionand memorised theQur’an. area in1353,mentionedthatthepeopleofWalata regularlystudiedreligiouslawand conversion ofrulerstoIslam.TheMoroccanglobetrotterIbnBattuta,whovisitedthe in West Africa.Arabicmanuscriptswereclearlyreadandappreciatedtheresincethe We canthereforeposethefollowingoutlinefordevelopmentofArabiccalligraphy The developmentofArabiccalligraphyinWest Africa found nearGao. Arabic calligraphytosurvivefromwesternAfricacompriseagroupoftombstones Western inthe area.Theearliestexamplesof Maghribiscripthadlongbeenthemodel Atlas. the lastverseofChapter6(folio81b)toaZemmouraflatweavefromMiddle Morocco. We cancompare,forexample,apagefromtheLeedsQur’anmanuscriptwith decoration ofthelargerpanelsresemblestextilepatternsseenonBerberrugsfrom presented bookstotheirrivals,theOttomans. popular asofficialgifts.Illustrationsshowus,forexample, thatSafavidembassiesoften Marinid rulerAbual-Hasan.Theseembassiesmaywellhave broughtbackbooks,long kings ofMalisentmembersthe‘ the manuscriptswereimported,probablyfromMorocco.IbnBattutanotedthat For practicalreasons,notablythelackofpaper, itislikelythatintheseearliercenturies the endowmentofQur’anmanuscriptsforpublicreading. construction ofmosquesthroughouttheregionmaywellhavebeenaccompaniedby from Toledo toWest Africa. it waspurchasedintheSaharanoasisofTuwat in1467whilethepurchaserwasenroute North toWest Africa.AnoteinonemanuscripttheFondoKa’ti Librarystatesthat 38 Such patternsofdiagonals,zigzagsandstrapworkarrangedinrectangular Sahih (Authentic) transcribedin1419(seeFigure5.7). 40 al-Shifa bi-ta‘rifhuquqal-mustafa At leastfourseemtohavebeencarvedatAlmeríainAndalusiaand bogolanfini 43 He alsotellsusthatforthefeastheldinhishonour 46 Pilgrims tooprobablybroughthomecopiesoftheQur’an , thedischarge-dyedmudclothsmadeinMali,tradi- ulama 39 47 to Fezandexchangedembassieswiththe 45 Scholars alsobroughtmanuscriptsfrom (Healing bytheRecognitionof 41 Similarly, acopyof 42 44 ripts. The ARABIC CALLIGRAPHYINWESTAFRICA 69 Free download from www.hsrcpress.ac.za 70 THE MEANINGSOFTIMBUKTU in thefifteenthandsixteenth. shown bybothsignaturesandpigmentanalysis. in IranandtheEastfromtwelfthcenturyMaghribshortlythereafter, as by Abbottsuggeststhatbothwerethesame.Incontrast,thesebecamespecialisedtasks scribeandilluminator,between andindeedthenoteinQur’anmanuscriptexamined are addedinvariousdirectionsandplaces.Thereisnoindicationofadivisionlabour are notruled,andthenumberoflinesvarieswithinasinglemanuscript.Marginalnotes thanaformalschoolwithsetrules.Thepages was moreamatterofhomeproduction Various inWest featuresofformatanddecorationalsoindicatethatproduction Africa major exportoftheregion. elsewhere intheMaghrib.Suchanabsenceissomewhatironic,giventhatgoldwasa are alsolocal,andthereisnouseofgold,ahallmarkfanciermanuscriptsproduced preserve thenibforaslongpossible.Theinksandpigmentstextillumination nib becameincreasinglybluntoverthepages,showingthatscribewantedto too wereexpensive.Brockett’s closeexaminationofthecopyinLeedsshowsthat one whocopiedtheKanembuQur’anwereanxioustouseeverysurfaceavailable.Pens that werepartoftheworkshoppractice. elaborate floralarabesquestypicalofeasternmanuscriptsrequire cartoonsortemplates repertory, patternsthatcouldbeworkedout directlyonthesurface.Incontrast, African manuscriptsalsocomprisessimpledesigns,often drawnfromthetextile even Arabicscript–wasoften oralandvisual(ratherthanwrittenkinetic),often as in theopeningyearsofthirteenthcentury, butadistinctivestyleofscript,known in theIslamiclands:India.ThesultansofDelhiestablishedIslamasstatereligion style ofscript.Thisscenariobearscomparisonwithwhatoccurredatanotherborderland eighteenth andnineteenthcenturiessuchthatwecantalkofadistinctiveWest African Pordenone andelsewhereintheVeneto. Arabicmanuscriptsbecamecommoninthe notably newchronicles,andtheavailabilityofEuropeanwatermarkedpaperfrom in theseventeenthcenturyduetoanincreasebothdemandforwrittenworks, Qur’an (seeFigure5.1),forexample,usesthreedifferenttypesofpaper. cut fromlargersheets,withvariouskindscombinedinthesamemanuscript.TheLeeds very muchalocalaffair. Thematerialswereexpensive.importedpaperwasoften inWestLooking atthemanuscriptsthemselvesshowsusthatproduction Africawas the horseman, butthemanuscriptalsohastwofoliosofheavierpaperwatermarkedwith nasib examined byAbbottiscopiedmainlyonpaperwatermarkedwiththeArabicphrase if notimpossibletoidentifyindividualhands. ofatraditiontheremakesitdifficult with specimensofspecificscripts.Thecodification from mastertopupilbyinstructioninorganisedschools, written manuals,andalbums bihari tre lune , thenameBeniaminoArbibwritteninRomancharacters,andfigureofa , datesonlytotheveryendoffourteenthcenturyandbecamewidespread . Theexpenseofthepaperisclearfromlayoutaswell.Scribessuch 48 51 In theEast,canonsofcalligraphywerepassed 52 In West Africa,bycontrast,learning– 50 The illuminationoftheseWest 49 The one ya Free download from www.hsrcpress.ac.za Shawwal 1162(September–October1749)andonceinZanzibar. The scriptslantsdistinctlytotheleft,afeaturealsofound in aQur’anmanuscriptdated shapes witheasternstyles,notablymedial different. Itderivesfromtheregularroundscriptknownas The scriptinthesetwoQur’anmanuscriptsfromtheeasternBiladal-Sudanisalso mation inpublishingaQur’anmanuscript,particularlyonefromtheselatercenturies. taught throughtheuseofwritingboards. a readingthatwaswidespreadonlyintheeasternBiladal-Sudan. difference isthereading:LeedsmanuscriptcontainsthatofBasranAbu‘Amr, collection dated17Ramadan1296(August1879)(seeFigure5.8). oftheSudan,asinacopy inLeedsdated1881(ms.619)andonetheShaker Republic be abletodistinguishthemfrommanuscriptscopiedfurthereastinwhatisnowthe Despite thevarietyofhandsusedtocopyQur’anmanuscriptsinWest Africa,wemay deviation fromany‘ideal’West Africanscriptandmorevarietyofindividualhands. 22 cm).Italsosharesfeatureswithmanuscriptsinthedistinctive the Shakercollection(seeFigure5.8),oneassociated withZanzibarislarger(33x Africa. distinguished fromthatofNafi‘viaWarsh, areadingthatispopularinLibyaandWest Maghribi scriptusedinNorth Africa.CopyistsinWest Africausedamoreformalvariety In short,thescriptusedinmanuscriptsfromWest Africaformsadistinct subgroupofthe beginning, middleandend. India, suchasanupperandlowerlineinlargerscript illuminatedpagesinthe 56 Identifying thereadinginanindividualmanuscriptisthereforeessentialinfor- 53 ha Hence, itisnosurprisethattheregreater written asafigure8ratherthanflatbow. naskh . Itsharescertainletter 57 Like theexamplein bihari 55 This textcanbe 54 script usedin One major ARABIC CALLIGRAPHYINWESTAFRICA in 1879. in theeasternBiladal-Sudan Muhammad ibnAhmadMusa Qur’an copiedbyal-HajjAhmad Figure 5.8Manuscriptofthe 71 Free download from www.hsrcpress.ac.za 72 THE MEANINGSOFTIMBUKTU substyles ofcalligraphy. African scriptsdeservemoredetailedstudy, especiallygiventheexistenceofnumerous to thevigoroustraditionofIslamthathasflourishedthereinlastcenturies.West the edges,ArabicscripttypicalofWest Africaisenergeticandlively, atestament Though lesspolishedthanthescriptsperfectedinEastandsomewhatrougharound with adecidedslanttotheright,buthassamelettershapesandpositiononline. other manuscriptswithhistoricalandscientifictexts.Itisoftenwrittenmorehurriedly, of the‘ideal’scriptformanuscriptsQur’an,butsamestylecanbeseenin 9Abt 14:64). 19 Abbott (1949: 64). 18 Abbott (1949: 155–156). 17 Déroche (2000: note23). Brockett(1987: 16 63). Abbott(1949: 15 45);andtheoneinSt Petersburg This isthecasewithmanuscriptinLeeds(seeFigure5.1);Brockett (1987: 14 number73). number115);Safwat(2000: James(1980: 13 87). 309andfigures86, SeealsoDéroche (2000: 12 235), Ms. Chicago(Or. Library, ThemanuscriptwasformerlyintheNewberry number21). QuaritchCatalogue(1995: 11 Biladal-’issubdividedintoeasternandwestern. inwhichthearticle ‘Sudan, (1960), SeeforexampleGibbetal. 10 chapter6). seeBlair(2006: On thispoint, 9 looser Thetextistranscribedinthelarger, number77). BibliothèqueRoyale1810;illustratedinDodds(1992: Rabat, 8 also number 6), 114–115andfigure34);Guesdon& Vernay-Nouri (2001: seeDéroche(2000: Forexamplesofthepen, 7 Onthis, MythankstoMuhammadZakariyawhosuppliedthisluciddescriptionofthepensused intheMaghribtoday. 6 see Déroche(1994). Foranappraisalofhiswork, Houdas(1886). 5 IfollowthedefinitiongivenbyMichaelGullickinintroductiontohisarticleonscript Volume 28of Turne Byscript, 4 London–seeBayanietal. twoQur’anmanuscriptsfrom West Africa intheNourcollection, forexample, Thereare, 3 seehttp://www.loc.gov/exhibits/mali/. Fortheexhibition ‘Ancient manuscriptsfromthelibrariesin Timbuktu’, 2 athttp://www.saharanstudies.org/projects/kati/of thearticleonKatiLibrary oronebytheUniversity forexample, See, 1 NOTES Ptoyne l 95 number67). 1995: (Petrosyan etal. Probasco; hisbookplateisdated1December1890. which acquireditfromthecollectionofHenry Fasi andthemarginalnotesinsmaller Andalusi. reproduced inBlair(2006). heremainsamasteroftraditionalstyles. as onmanyotheraspectsofcontemporary Arabic calligraphy, 19). (1993: seeKhan asappliedto Arabic writingonpapyrifromtheearlyperiod, developed byNoamChomskyforlinguistics, Ontheterms ‘competence’ and ‘performance’, differenthands. buttheyhadvery Elizabeth Ibothwroteitalicletters, MichelangeloandQueen Gullickusedtheexampleofitalic: whataparticularindividualwrites. distinguished fromahand, graphic representationofnotationsorlettersthealphabet.’ A scriptisthereforeahypotheticalmodel;itcanbe asaconsistent Scriptsareidentifiableandtheirparticularfeaturesenumerated, 303)– ‘system orstyleofwriting. (1996: number67]). [1995: StPetersburg(numberC-1689;Petrosyanetal. of Sciences, number73)andoneintheRussian Academy others includemanuscriptsintheGhassanShakercollection(Safwat2000: Colourreproductionsof numbers334–343). beenpublished– see Déroche(1985: have butnoillustrations has 10, TheBibliothèqueNationaleinParis 115). numbers94, 1599)havebeenpublished;James(1980: and onebinding(ms. 1594) butillustrationsofonlyonedoublepage(ms. numbers131and239–242), see (1967: Arberry ownsfive: lands, oneofthelargestrepositoriesQur’anmanuscriptsoutside Islamic inDublin, TheChesterBeattyLibrary the 1940s. OneoftheearliesttobepublishedwasexaminedbyNadia Abbott (1949)inChicago for whichseeBrockett(1987). note1, ThebestpublishedmanuscriptisthecopyinLeeds’illustratedFigure5.1, MaghribiorIfriqi’, gives alistofothersimilarmanuscripts. ‘TheQur’anic scriptof Western Sudan: Tim Stanley’s essaythere, 7). numbers6, (1999: Oslo onthelibrariesof Timbuktu athttp://www.sum.uio.no/timbuktu/index.html. r Free download from www.hsrcpress.ac.za 1O h s fpprcron n h ifrn ye fdsgs seeBloom (2001). Onthe useofpapercartoonsandthedifferenttypesdesigns, 51 thataQur’ancodexcopiedintheMaghribthirteenthorfourteenth forexample, Spectrographicanalysisshowed, 50 48). Brockett(1987: 49 chapter9). Blair(2006: 48 asmall standardOttomancopyoftheQur’anthatwaspresentedto ‘Abd al-Kaderbyhisfatherwhen forexample, See, 47 availableathttp://www.saharanstudies.org/projects/kati/. TheFondoKa‘tiLibrary, 46 bytheSafavidambassador notablybooks, thedouble-pageillustrationshowingpresentationofgifts, forexample, See, 45 4:957). IbnBattuta(1993: 44 4:951). IbnBattuta(1993: 43 plateIII). Bivar(1968: 42 http://www. ThemanuscriptisillustratedontheprojectspageofSaharanStudies Association: Hofheinz(2003). FK36, 41 Sauvaget(1949). 40 Mali(3) Textiles. See Turner (1996), 39 (1994). (1980);Pickeringetal. ManyexamplesoftheseflatweavesareillustratedinFiskeetal. 38 acollectionofprayersforMuhammadcomposedbytheMoroccan Thetext, number71). Kröger(1991);Safwat(2000: 37 number75). A6755;Dodds(1992: ms. IstanbulUniversityLibrary 36 number39). arabe6869;Guesdon& Vernay-Nouri (2001: ms. BibliothèqueNationale, Paris, 35 AlarcónySantón&GarcíadeLinares(1940); Valls iSubirà(1978). 34 numbers305–308). 389–92;Déroche(1985: ms. BibliothèqueNationale, Paris, 33 80);Blair(2006: figures79, 108–110);Safadi(1978: number50);Lings(1976: BL1405;Lings&Safadi (1976: London, 32 Bivar’s identificationofthisscriptas 31 32). (1999: ReproducedinBayanietal. 30 see For theoriginsofMaghribiscriptanddifferencebetweenthatusedin Tunisia andthoseusedfurther west, 29 (1960). seetheentriesfor ‘Murabittun’ and ‘Maritanniya’ inGibbetal. Onthe Almoravids andthisarea, 28 33–34). (1999: SeethecriticismsbyStanleyinBayanietal. 27 2:286). IbnKhaldun(1967: 26 Bivar(1968);Brockett(1987)acceptedBivar’s argument. 25 32). (1999: SeealsoStanley’s essayinBayanietal. number115). QuaritchCatalogue(1995: 24 moreearly thecataloguingofcollectionsinthisregionwillundoubtedlybringtolight Asinsouth-east Asia, Bivar(1960). 23 Smallerthanthetypical West African example(20x15cm)andcopiedon ‘oriental’ paper, number334). Déroche(1985: 22 SeealsoJonathanBloom’s chapterinthisvolume. Walz (1988). 21 number21). QuaritchCatalogue(1995: 20 eoaini lefo h oeepnielps(éoh 00 152–153). decoration inbluefromthemoreexpensive lapis(Déroche2000: butmarginal number302])haddiacriticalmarks doneinbluemadefromazurite, 6935;Déroche[1985: ms. (BN, century figure3). number1); Déroche (2004: 7252;Guesdon& Vernay-Nouri (2001: BNms. he hadreturnedfromthepilgrimagein1827;Paris, figure308). 53b–54a;reproducedinBlair&Bloom(1994: fol. A3595, ms. Library fromacopyofLoqman’s Shahquli toSelimIIin1567, saharanstudies.org/projects/. chapter12). SeeBlair(2006: waspopularfromtheMaghribtosouth-east Asia. Sufi al-Jazuli, 13). figures 12, examples. to matchnamesmentionedintextswithextant ifnotimpossible, itisdifficult, without datedandidentifiedexamples, toidentifyearly scholars haveencounteredintrying Arabic scriptsonthebasisofreferences inIbnal-Nadim’s Déroche (1999). seealso Werner (2003). OntheMauritaniancollections, times. pre-colonial mainly, impressive quantityandrangeof Arabic writingrepresentativeofabroadsweep West Africa in, reunitean andanopportunitytofinally internetaccesstothesecollectionentries, for easieradditionofnewmaterial, willallow describedathttp://test.atlas.uiuc.edu/amms/ammsinfo.html#acks, Thenewerthirdversion, Illinois. and Evanston, Timbuktu, Paris, Niger, Mauritania, version 2databaseincluded19000recordsfrom6collectionsinBoutilimit, AMMS Manuscript ManagementSystem(AMMS)toprovideanonlinecatalogueofmanuscriptsinthe West Sahel. African as the CCStewartattheUniversityofIllinoisUrbana-Champaigne initiatedaprojectknown Arabic In1987, manuscripts. it isprobablyfromtheeasternBiladal-Sudan. ‘ifriqi on thebasisofIbnKhaldun’s useofthenameposessameproblemthat Shahnama-yi selimkhan oei 51 sabl Topkapi Palace done in1581;Istanbul, Fihrist : ARABIC CALLIGRAPHYINWESTAFRICA 73 Free download from www.hsrcpress.ac.za 74 THE MEANINGSOFTIMBUKTU 7Nu olcinQR0;Byn ta.(99 number5). (1999: NourcollectionQUR706;Bayanietal. 57 ReadingsoftheQur’an;Brockett(1988). seeDammenMcAuliffe(2001), Forthevariousreadings, 56 74–75andfigure12). IdentifiedinCook(2000: 55 éoh 19)O odse e ciue ahéie.In A-C Binebine(Ed.) Houdasetlesécrituresmaghrébines. Déroche F(1994)O. Déroche F(1985) Dammen McAuliffeJ(Ed.)(2001) Cook M(2000) In A Rippin(Ed.) 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() 56–57 5(1): Al-Andalus xiiinctlge sasb LSitcosi&SCroi Lugano: EssaysbyMLSwietochowski&SCarboni. Exhibition catalogue. Nouveaux mélangesorientaux 4 123–141 14: ae fpreto:Islamicpaintingsandcalligraphyfrom Pages ofperfection: odn World ofIslamFestival Trust London: 46:2–16 54(6): uemFrIlmsh us:Bri,StaatlicheMuseen Berlin, Museum FürIslamischeKunst: odnCeyCae HaliPublications/NearEastern Art London/Chevy Chase: rnltdb oeta,15.NwYr:Bollingen New York: 1958. Translated byFRosenthal, ard EmpresaNacionaldeCelulosasSA Madrid: dtdb ay TheNasserDKhalili Edited byJRaby. ai:Ecoledeslanguesorientales Paris: . otiuin yCBec Kuala Contributions byCBresc. xiiinctlge World of Exhibition catalogue. Bernard QuaritchCatalogue xod Oxford Oxford: ARABIC CALLIGRAPHYINWESTAFRICA 75