Women’s economic empowerment in the Arab region: How chronic development challenges and the global crises triggered people’s revolutions By Kinda Mohamadieh 2011 Edition About the author:

Kinda Mohamadieh is the Programs Director at the Arab NGO Network for Development (ANND) in . She holds degrees in economic law and public affairs from universities in Beirut, Lausanne and Los Angeles, with a focus on international development and nonprofit management. She specializes in international trade and development, social and economic policies, and youth unemployment in the Arab region, as well as human rights monitoring.

Coordinator: Alejandra Scampini Editors: Diana Aguiar and Natalie Raaber Proofreader: Kate Miller Final proofreader: Ana Inés Abelenda Designer: Diego García Pedrouzo Production: Lynn O’Rourke

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Women’s economic empowerment in the Arab region: How chronic development challenges and the global crises triggered people’s revolutions By Kinda Mohamadieh 2011 Edition

Introduction

The impacts of the global economic While Arab governments2 (like crisis on the Arab region, many governments in developing compounded by the impacts of countries) denied the implications 3 the existing food, energy and of the crisis, the peoples of the climate crises, have come at a region reacted to the growing time when the region has already stress on their economic and social been facing major development conditions through protests that challenges, including increasing erupted in 2008 in various Arab levels of poverty, unemployment, countries and have been on-going. and inequality. These development Throughout countries like , challenges are rooted in – and stem , , , , from–a disconnect between the , and others, people’s economic growth models adopted upheavals and protests took new by countries in the region and the dimensions during 2010/2011. development needs of a given The protests reflect the continued country. Indeed, as surges in oil resistance to an accumulation of prices and migrant remittances political oppression, coupled with have led to documented economic severe and consistent violations dividends in several Arab countries, of economic and social rights development and equity indicators that stem from shortcomings in in those same countries appear to the adopted development model, have stagnated. While the various widespread corruption, and lack analyses of the crisis’s impact on of accountability. It is clear that the markets in the region differ, citizens strains resulting from the crisis FOOTNOTES have felt the impact of the multi- have added to the deterioration of 1 - More on the levels and nature of eco- dimensional crisis acutely, through, conditions at the national levels. nomic growth achieved in the region is for example, the price hikes in addressed in the next section. 2 - Arab countries include 22 countries food and energy prices. Moreover, At the centre of the development embodied under the umbrella of the the crisis has resulted in a loss of challenge in the Arab region is League of Arab States, and including: Al- hope in job creation and poverty the inability to achieve effective geria, Bahrain, Djibouti, Egypt, , Jor- dan, , , Libya, , eradication, which many were levels of economic participation , , , , Saudi hoping to see as a result of years of by women in various Arab Arabia, , Syria, Tunisia, , Yemen, Comoros, and Somalia. economic growth in the region.1 economies; this is associated with Kinda Mohamadieh

obstacles women face on the social, witnessed in areas such as crises that deepened post-2008 and political, and cultural fronts. Indeed, and , that progress has – on are still ongoing in the world. Within women in the region entered the the whole – not been reflected into this context, the paper examines global crises while already suffering higher economic participation and/ gender gaps and from deteriorated conditions and or political representation. disparities in Arab countries. It high exclusion on these various also reflects on women’s role at the fronts. While some progress on the This paper discusses socio- centre of the people’s revolutions human development indicators and economic challenges in the Arab and uprisings witnessed in the Arab in closing gender gaps has been region and the impacts of the global region since the end of 2010.

Economic growth detached from development needs: A chronic socio-economic challenge in the Arab region

Arab countries exhibit diverse making has been increasingly Wealth creating policies have lacked economies, between Gulf absent from public spheres in redistribution interventions, leading countries that are mostly oil- these countries. This absence is to increasing inequality, witnessed producing and exporting, middle partly due to political repression particularly between urban and income countries that exhibit and limitations on public rural areas and between men and relatively open markets engaged participation in shaping policies, women. Social protection remains with the world economy, and least as well as the preoccupation of scarce in Arab countries, and is developing countries. During many opposition political parties primarily available to government the past few decades, Arab and civil society groups in the employees (Tzannatos, Haq and governments in non-oil producing struggle for their right to exist Schmidt 12). Moreover the major countries have increasingly given (Abdel Samad and Mohamadieh). role of oil in the economies of the weight to aid flows, foreign direct region has significantly influenced the 4 investment, trade liberalization, Arab countries have been characteristics of these economies and remittances in designing witnessing growth in GDP since and their role vis-à-vis citizens’ rights. various policy choices, while 2003, whereby they registered 7.3 oil producing countries have percent GDP growth rate in 2003 In oil producing and exporting continued to depend on income compared to 3 percent in 2002. This countries, the dominance of from oil exports (Mohamadieh continued throughout 2004, 2005, oil and the profit it generates and Peirce). In this context, the and 2006, where Arab countries – supporting the core of the international financial institutions registered an average growth rate welfare system – often came (IFIs) have played a major role of 7.3 percent, 8 percent, and 6.6 at the expense of vibrant in shaping economic and social percent respectively (Joint Arab economic, social, and political policies in various Arab countries. Economic Report 2010). According systems that reflect democratic Resisting and contesting foreign- to the Joint Arab Economic Report participatory processes and applied conditionalities on (2009) that is published by the Arab respect for citizens’ rights. In economic and social policy- Monetary Fund, the percentage of such economies where unearned GDP growth rate achieved by Arab income from oil dominates, while FOOTNOTES countries in 2008 was around 6.6 the productive role of the citizens percent, up from 5.2 percent in 2007. remains marginal, the citizen 3 - When calculated in reference to the Yet, this growth in GDP did not help relation to the state and to the national poverty lines, poverty averages around 30 percent in least developing address poverty or unemployment process of securing their rights Arab countries, such as Comoros, Sudan, levels.3 This is due to the fact that to public services and social Djibouti, Yemen, Mauritania, and Palestine, and around 20 percent in Egypt, 13 percent economic growth has not been protection becomes closer to in Jordan, 11.4 percent in Syria, 9 percent fueled by productive activities, but a charity process rather than a in Morocco, and 8 percent in Lebanon. rather has depended on oil revenues, healthy citizenship. In addition, Source: Arab joint economic report 2009, produced by the Arab Monetary Fund. real estate investments, returns from the politics of oil – including Whereas, the global MDG report 2010 the tourism sector, and foreign aid. foreign interests in maintaining shows that level of poverty in the region of West Asia and North Africa is the lowest oil supplies from Arab countries – among other regions, but with a rising The lack of comprehensive rights- has often resulted in the support trend between 1990 and 2005 (6 percent based policy making in Arab of undemocratic regimes by major in West Asia increasing from 2 percent in 1990 and 3 percent in West Asia decreasing countries has contributed to the world powers. Overall, problems form 5 percent in 1990). This calculation is disconnect between economic in governance systems and the based on the one-dollar a day calculations. growth and development challenges. centralization of political and Women’s economic empowerment in the Arab region: How chronic development challenges and the global crises triggered people’s revolutions

economic power have prevented economic achievements/ gains Box 1: Unemployment in the Arab region from being translated into progress in development, both in oil producing as well as On the employment front, the creating enough jobs for all those oil importing countries of the Arab labour markets are already unemployed in the Arab region. The economic characterized by low employment and North Africa (MENA)8 is marginalization from which the to population ratios and a estimated to require around 88 majority of citizens suffer in the broad informal sector. The low million new jobs. Arab region is amplified among employment to population ratio women, who face barriers is attributed to very low rates The level of unemployment among at several levels, including the of participation by women and young people (reported around 21.5 economy, society, and . young people in labour markets percent in 2010 by IL O), which (Tzannatos, Haq and Schmidt). is deeper among young women The international crises, with According to ILO 2010 Preliminary (reported around 33.3 percent in their economic and development Estimate, employment to population 2010 by ILO), was a major factor dimensions, aggravated existing ratios stood at around 46 percent in among the political, economic, and development challenges. Between Arab States during 2007 compared social problems that led towards 2008 and 2009, different Arab to 59 percent in South Asia, 61 peoples’ mass mobilizations and countries witnessed regress in percent in Latin America and the revolutions in many Arab countries. growth levels (except Yemen and Caribbean, 65 percent in Sub- Djibouti). The percentage GDP Saharan Africa, 69 percent in South Unemployment in the Arab region did growth in the Arab countries as a East Asia, and 71 percent in East not significantly increase as a result whole averaged around 1.8 percent Asia. These rates did not vary much of the global crisis – particularly in in 2009, down from 6.6 percent in during 2010 (qtd. in Tzannatos relation to what was experienced 2008.4 Overall, it can be noted that and Schmidt 4).6 In addition to in other regions. Still, countries the crisis had greater impacts on this low level of participation in of the region witnessed a certain countries that are more dependent labour markets, unemployment rise in unemployment and return on factors of growth that tend to stands very high in Arab countries. of migrant workers from aboard, 5 fluctuate more so, such as oil, foreign Unemployment levels rose at times in addition to rising unemployment direct investment, aid, tourism, and of significant economic growth, in receiving countries (including remittances. These include middle- reflecting a structural problem in the Gulf countries). Youth in the Arab income Arab countries (such as economic growth policies adopted region were the hardest hit: youth Jordan, Lebanon, Syria, Tunisia, in the region and their ability to had highest unemployment levels Egypt, Morocco, Algeria5) and the address development challenges in society. However, the severity of Gulf countries (such as United Arab such as employment and poverty. the problem before the crisis was Emirates, Bahrain, , On average, unemployment stood compounded by the deteriorating Oman, Qatar, and Kuwait), more so at 14 percent in 2009, reaching quality of jobs as a result of the than the least developing countries up to 40 percent in countries like crisis, in addition to higher levels (such as Yemen, Sudan, Djibouti). Sudan and Yemen, compared of discouragement and drop out Countries nonetheless returned to the average of 5.7 percent from the labour market, especially to higher growth in 2010, due worldwide (Joint Arab Economic among women and young people particularly to the relative insulation Report 2009 and 2010 p.v). This (Tzannatos, Haq and Schmidt 12). of some countries in the region sets the number of unemployed at Gender specific considerations in from global markets and low levels 17 million (Shakouri), in addition to employment policies were absent of market capitalization, in addition widespread informal employment. from the discussions of labour to the cushion of surplus liquidity If we add the projected 20 million policies in Arab States, both that oil-producing countries had new entrants into the labour force nationally and regionally, both pre previously accumulated (Joint Arab between 2000 and 2020,7 then and post the crisis. Economic Report 2010).

FOOTNOTES from 5.6 percent in 2008 to 2.8 percent in a lot of disparities among Arab countries. 2009, in Tunisia from 6.3 percent to 3.1 percent 7 - Nabli Silva- Jauregni and Johansson 4 - According to the Joint Arab Economic respectively, and in Egypt from 7.2 percent to De Silva (2007); referenced by ESCWA Report (2010), growth in the Gulf Cooperation 4.7 percent respectively; Source: Chapter two study 2009 “Women control over Economic Council (GCC) countries decreased from an of the Joint Economic Report 2010. Resources and Access to financial average of 5.3 percent between 2006 and 5 - is considered an oil exporting resources”. 2008 to 0.1 percent in 2009. Other middle country and oil returns have supported in 8 - There is no standard definition of the income Arab countries witnessed such cushioning Algeria from the crisis. MENA region; it usually is used to cover all shrinking in growth; in Jordan growth shrank 6 - It is worth noting that these averages hide Arab countries plus Iran and Israel. Kinda Mohamadieh

On Government responses to the crises

The series of crises have left Kuwait) took measures to loosen Haq and Schmidt 10). Jordan, differentiated impacts on Arab monetary policies and increase Tunisia, and Morocco provided countries and, accordingly, a liquidity, while some took further liquidity injections. Together with differentiated impact on women monetary measures like insuring Egypt, these countries decreased in those countries. Governments banks’ assets and injecting money interest rates (Joint Arab tried to stabilize the situation into banks (Joint Arab Economic Economic Report 2010, p.217). by increasing government Report 2010, p.210). Middle-income Tunisia and Egypt undertook a expenditures and expanding countries were relatively less package of interventions, including subsidization programs. Several impacted in their financial sectors; increasing public spending and ILO specialists have noted that they were, however, relatively stimulation of economic growth “there have been relatively few more impacted in terms of exports, through investing in infrastructure, new measures in the Arab region remittances, employment, foreign providing support to private sector that can be readily identified as direct investments, and tourism. entities, as well as export support policy responses to the crisis…” Egypt and Jordan suffered a and subsidization. Jordan, Syria, (Tzannatos, Haq and Schmidt). significant decrease in bank and Morocco increased public The ILO adds that it is difficult lending to the private sector spending on public projects (Ibid.). to disentangle crisis response during 2008 and 2009 (Joint As witnessed in other regions, the measures from measures that Arab Economic Report 2010, gender dimensions of these crises were already planned, and difficult p.214). Some countries (including were overlooked (Social Watch to generalize among 22 Arab Jordan, Lebanon, Syria, Tunisia, Report 2010), thus not bringing countries given the lack of data Egypt, Morocco, and Mauritania) anything new to the existing lack and diversity of the countries. took measures on the fiscal and of gender-sensitive and women’s monetary fronts. However, tax rights-focused policies as well It can be said that all Gulf countries reductions were not done in a as other social and rights-based (United Arab Emirates, Bahrain, way that favored employment considerations in policy making 6 Saudi Arabia, Oman, Qatar, and intensive sectors (Tzannatos, processes.

Gender gaps and employment disparities in the Arab region: A situation exacerbated by the global crises Gender gaps in the Arab region in the Arab region, one needs react to the specific implications take on various faces. The 2005 to consider that this region – of crises on women.10 Moreover, Arab Human Development Report like all other regions – is not domestic legal frameworks and (AHDR) entitled “Towards the homogeneous: economies differ as discriminatory laws, in addition to Rise of Women in the ” to the social, political and cultural patriarchal practices, have locked identified gender inequality as one contexts. Indeed, there is not a women into stagnant conditions in of the most significant obstacles single prototype of a in the Arab region. This in turn has to human development in the Arab the Arab region; women’s political, contributed to limiting spaces for region. The 2005 AHDR noted economic, social, and cultural instigating policy responses to the that stereotypical gender roles conditions vary considerably. crises that take into consideration are deeply entrenched, limiting the challenges facing women. women’s employment and decision- Reflecting larger problems making opportunities, which are with statistics collections and The following section will focus still the lowest in the world.9 development studies, Arab countries on gender gaps at the employment lack gender-disaggregated data level in the Arab region, and the When discussing the implications and considerations, which makes impacts left by the global crises of the economic crisis on women it more complicated to follow and on this front.

FOOTNOTES ESCWA and the League of Arab States particular and citizens on a wider base from (October 2009) that “the absence of statistics the negative effects of such phenomena… 9 - See as reference and analysis related to the effect of recent many Arab countries lack statistics and data http://arabstates.undp.org/subpage.php?spid=10 global phenomena on women, such as the segregated by gender, which complicates the 10 - Indeed, it was noted in the consolidated international financial crisis, world food crisis process of identifying, analysing and finding Report on the Implementation of the Beijing and climate change, prevents governments appropriate solutions for problems faced by Platform for Action: +15; published by the from defining policies to protect women in women”; p. 7. Women’s economic empowerment in the Arab region: How chronic development challenges and the global crises triggered people’s revolutions

Box 2: The situation of female domestic workers in the Arab region Words of Wissam Al Saliby, human rights researcher and blogger: http://ethiopiansuicides.blogspot.com

Many of the foreign female a woman – and to welcome workers in the Gulf countries are her in a family environment. employed as domestic workers. In effect, though, coupled with The situation of female migrant racism against African workers domestic workers in the Arab and the lack of adequate State countries keeps making world protection, the sponsorship news headlines, under the titles of system creates vulnerability and abuse, slavery, death and suicide.11 makes exploitation much more likely. In 2010, Qatar considered In most Arab countries, domestic scrapping the sponsorship workers are required to have system.12 Yet, despite human a local sponsor, to whom their rights reports recommending FOOTNOTES legal residency is tied. The reforms in the legal system for sponsorship creates dependency employment of female domestic 11 - The Guardian. “Nepali Slaves in the which, in Arab societies, is workers in the Arab world, no Middle East” April 2011. justified by the need to “protect” tangible progress has been noted 12 - Top News. “No more sponsorship system in Qatar.” 2010. the domestic worker – typically (Human Rights Watch 2010).

On employment disparities

As noted above, unemployment constitute only 33.3 percent of the countries such as Qatar and the levels in the Arab region remain labour force, which is significantly United Arab Emirates are based 7 among the highest in the world and lower than other regions (Khalaf on the inclusion of foreign female the most pressing economic and 12). Despite this low level of workers and do not reflect the development threat from which participation, unemployment empowerment of female nationals both men and women suffer. The remains high among women and (see Box 2 for more on the Arab countries have the lowest specifically among young women problematic conditions of foreign share of females in the work in the region. The ILO 2010 female domestic workers). force across the world, while Preliminary Estimateregistered female unemployment remains around 16 percent unemployment Limited benefit from new access to higher than male unemployment, among women in 2010, rising to education: The overall stagnation and gender wage disparities are 33.3 percent among young women, of the markets as a result of the significant (UNDP and Regional compared to overall rates of 10 crisis, and the limited ability to Bureau for Arab States 56). percent, and 25 percent among create jobs, have left women Moreover, the ILO highlighted in young persons at large (qtd. in unable to benefit from new access 2009 that the largest gender gap in Tzannatos, Haq and Schmidt to education achieved in some vulnerable employment as a share 4). For example, in Egypt and countries of the region. While of total employment exists in the Jordan, young males experience young women’s unemployment MENA countries, where women unemployment rates around 10 might not appear to be statistically are predominantly located and percent while young females face rising, this is due to the fact that absorbed by the informal sector rates of unemployment in excess women, especially young women, (Social Watch 2010). of 40 percent (Social Watch 2010, are often fast to exit from the p.11). These conditions lock women labour market or get absorbed in Participation in labour markets and in higher levels of economic unpaid jobs in family businesses unemployment: The share of the dependency and lead to disparities (Tzannatos, Haq and Schmidt, female population participating in in social protection (where social p. 3 and 6). It is worth noting the labour force did not increase protections exist). Moreover, these an analysis of 66 developing significantly between 2000 and statistics often do not reflect countries over the period between 2007 (Khalaf). In 2008, the ILO the access (or lack thereof) to 1985 and 2006 by the OECD, noted that despite a 7.7 percent jobs for women nationals in Arab which found that women’s labour increase in the number of women countries. For example, the rise supply is counter-cyclical (qtd. in the labour force, women still in employment witnessed in Gulf in World Bank presentation). Kinda Mohamadieh

Low income respond Given these conditions and the to economic crisis by sending limited diversification of economic women to work, thus unskilled activities in the region, women are women with lower education expected to face greater obstacles increasingly end up in the informal in accessing or transitioning into sector or in vulnerable jobs. new economic sectors. However, highly educated women tend to drop out of jobs in periods Income gaps and income poverty: of lower economic activity. Gender gaps are reflected in the levels of accrued income, access to Concentration of women’s paid jobs or those jobs in the higher employment in agriculture: Women’s salary brackets, and access to employment in the Arab region social security. Moreover, income is highly concentrated in the poverty reflects a strong gender agricultural sector. Globally, the dimension in the Arab countries. share of women in paid employment Indeed, female-headed households outside the agricultural sector has have a higher incidence of poverty continued to increase (albeit slowly) than male-headed households and reached 41 percent in 2008. (Social Watch 2009, p.33). This But this percentage is as low as situation has worsened as a result 20 percent in the MENA countries, of the crisis particularly because as reflected by the 2010 UN the main hit to employment in the MDGs Review Report. In fact, the Arab region has been more on the MENA region was the only region quality and level of vulnerability of where women’s employment in the jobs rather than on the number agriculture increased significantly of jobs, which was already very low. in the last decade, from 33 percent of total female employment in 1996 Persistent gaps on the educational 8 to 39 percent in 2006 (World Bank front: Aside from disparities in 2009). The agricultural sector employment, wages, and poverty suffered a decline during the levels, gender gaps also appear crisis, specifically in North African in education, health, access to countries, which can be linked to political positions and policy a reduction of agricultural exports making circles, as well as (Tzannatos, Haq and Schmidt, participation at the family level p.7). This placed increased and control of personal decisions. stress on women’s employment Human development indicators opportunities and source of have shown though that progress income, thus increasing the has been made on education, incidence of poverty among them. specifically on primary enrolment The concentration of women’s rates (World Bank 2010).14 For employment in this sector reflects example, the ratio of female to the broader shortfalls they face male primary enrolment in MENA in terms of access to education, countries is 97 percent. However, health care services, and social these average achievements do FOOTNOTES security. To compound this, the not apply to all Arab countries. crisis left countries even less able Moreover, this progress in 13 - This lack of parity was reflected in studies to spend on education and health, enrolment remains partial, given that showed for example that in Lebanon 64 percent of male entrepreneurs who finance and thus with lower possibilities that school completion rates their own operations had access to bank of effectively addressing such among girls remain low. Indeed, loans compared with 48 percent of female shortfalls. In addition, inadequate females are still more likely to drop entrepreneurs, and 45.7 percent of males in Egypt versus 14.6 percent of females. Source: investment in rural infrastructure out of school than males in almost World Bank Report: “The Environment for and limited access by women all MENA countries (Ibid.). For Women’s in the Middle East and North Africa Region”. to land and credit persist. With example, significant gender gaps 14 - Progress is registered as well on the limited economic and financial persist in secondary and tertiary health fronts, in female life expectancy and maternal mortality rates. Source: World Bank. resources in the region, women school enrolment in Morocco “Bridging the Gap, Improving Capabilities and are expected to have less access to and Yemen (Ibid.). Dropout rates Expanding Opportunities for Women in the financing from the private sector, increase as the level of education Middle East and North Africa Region.” 2010. mirroring an existing trend.13 increases. Women’s economic empowerment in the Arab region: How chronic development challenges and the global crises triggered people’s revolutions

Education not translating into in social perceptions have taken decent jobs. These factors also economic empowerment: Even a set back. On the other hand, supersede the attributes of when higher education is attained, women in oil-producing Gulf discriminatory laws, failure to quality education is not necessarily countries are often relatively less implement the non-discriminatory guaranteed (ILO 2009), nor is active economically than in other legislation that already exists, in securing a decent job or livelihood Arab countries, despite significant addition to the lack of awareness (a dimension of economic progress on the education front. and demand by women of their empowerment). This problem has The state maintains a welfare own rights. Indeed, it was noted been exacerbated by the crisis. model in these countries with in an official report on the Women with recently acquired high subsidization to citizens. implementation of the Beijing access to more and better education, Consequently, the crisis has not Platform of Action+15 that “despite accompanied by certain margins of – relatively speaking – impacted the legislative reforms implemented acquired freedoms and changes heavily on the conditions of women in many Arab countries, there is a in social perception to women’s nationals in these societies. prevailing gap between legislations role in some Arab countries, are and reality given the constant facing higher barriers to entering Contributing to these gender gaps negative cultural ; the job market as a result of the is a combination of , stereotyped images of women and crisis. Women from some Arab the role of conservative religious men; unfair distribution of their countries, who were employed as approaches in law and civic life, tasks within the family, domestically foreign workers in Gulf countries, and cultural stereotyping. These and beyond; contradictions between were often forced to return home factors have resulted in a strong laws, where these exist, and the due to loss of jobs in the receiving psychological barrier among Arab everyday reality; and the social country. Many are from middle populations regarding women’s acceptance of discrimination and income Arab countries such as participation in the public sphere , which lead Lebanon, Egypt, and Jordan. Within (Sabbagh). This supersedes and to the inflexibility or even regression such a context, opportunities to amplifies the negative attributes of acquired concepts related to claim progress on the education associated with the existence of equality” (ESCWA and the League front and certain limited changes market barriers to, for example, of Arab States 2009, p,6). 9 Concluding remarks: Women at the centre of people’s mobilizations in quest of political, economic, and social rights and equality

The global crises have injustices that women have been forms of dependence, and thus contributed to exacerbating an facing have been at the heart of the higher levels of participation in already deteriorated context development problems in the region. the public sphere, and the ability in the Arab region, a context to achieve greater political voice that has been characterized While women share the burden of and representation. Access to by political repression, lack of the overall challenges in the region, education and job opportunities democracy, economic and social their situation is additionally – grounded in the framework marginalization, high inequalities, burdened by social, cultural, of decent work – are necessary and rights violations. This context and religious norms. The global entry points for economic has been embodied by neoliberal crises have put further stress independence. This cycle is models and formulas promoted and on these conditions. Overall, definitely hindered as a result adopted in the Arab region, as is the economic pressures placed of the crisis. However, crisis the case in many other developing on women and the setbacks in responses by the governments regions and countries. It was often regards to their economic rights in the Arab region did not show associated with high levels of hinder the process of achieving a willingness to learn lessons corruption and centralization of progress on the political and civic from the past and undertake the economic resources (Abdel Samad rights fronts. Indeed, economic needed gender-sensitive policy and Mohamadieh 2011). Within independence is an essential reforms and other social and this context, the economic, social, factor for achieving more rights-based considerations in and political marginalization and freedom for women from various policy-making processes. Kinda Mohamadieh

Box 3: Reflection from Mrs. Afaf Merhi - The Egyptian Association for Civic Engagement in Cairo

Since the beginning of 2011, which freedom, democracy and when women acquired the right various Arab countries witnessed human dignity are respected. to run for elections and to vote in the mobilization of millions of Egypt – until the elections in 2005 citizens behind calls for change; Despite that, we still have not women’s participation in political women participated side to side witnessed real reforms in terms life remained among the lowest with men. They all called for of women’s rights in the Arab rates of political participation in a cease of political repression countries. On the contrary, the Arab region and the world. and for the fall of dictatorships, there are signs indicating the as well as systemic reforms. possibilities of regression from In regards to economic Both men and women suffered certain achievements resulting challenges, women’s participation under dictatorship regimes, from years of struggle by women in the labour force remains very whilst women’s conditions were in the region, under the pretext low, while discrimination in exacerbated due to discriminatory that those achievements were access to jobs is evident, thus laws and severe gender undertaken by the previous leading to high unemployment inequalities, in addition to violence regimes and should be scrapped. among women. Moreover, the against them in public and private In parallel to the marginalization private sector tends to hire spaces. Accordingly, women of women in the process of women in specific jobs with lower were actively participating in the democratic reform, religious wages than men. This situation nation-wide street mobilizations, fundamentalists have started is amplified due to the lack of and presenting new visions for calling for invalidating some laws commitment by Arab countries their nations, whether in Tunisia, that secure women’s rights, such to international labour standards, Egypt, Yemen, Libya, Bahrain, as marriage and divorce related along with the adoption of social Jordan, Syria, or other Arab laws, and the law related to women and economic policies that led to 10 counties. Women wanted to quota that aims at promoting an increase in unemployment and participate in the evolution of a women’s political participation. lack of sustainable rights-based new era for Arab countries in One can note that since 1956 – development.

The long period of unmet active in various forms of social Women’s role took various forms: necessary reforms compounded and political networks. They some women organized at the with the stress of the global crises presented models of change that industry and labour union levels, saw the region climax towards were built on common work and others engaged their families a series of people’s revolutions solidarity across the various and took their children to the and uprisings that erupted since social factions and groups. Women mobilizations, while others were the end of 2010. These were an were central to these people’s core to the youth groups active accumulation of the efforts and mobilizations. In various cases, on pushing the mobilizations struggles of various societal whether Tunisia, Egypt, Yemen, through social media tools. Along factions and civil society groups, Bahrain, Libya, Syria, Morocco side various civil society groups, including non-governmental and other countries, women women’s groups offered support organizations (NGOs), women’s were not only a support to the to the people’s protests in various groups, labour unions, opposition mobilizations but also organized forms (see Boxes 3, 4, and 5 for political parties, and citizens at the heart of the mobilizations. more information). Women’s economic empowerment in the Arab region: How chronic development challenges and the global crises triggered people’s revolutions

Box 4: Liberation…together with the other half of society or never By Dr. Souad Triki from Tunisia; University Professor and activist with the Association of Tunisian Democratic Women

Once again, women have played a divisions prevail, whereby women two women take part in the major role in the revolutions and are confined to the private sphere. interim government, heading the mobilizations that the Arab region is They are marginalized from ministries of women and health. currently witnessing. So is the case political participation and decision- in my county Tunisia, and this is not making. Thus, a separation wall is Yet, the women’s movement in strange to the history of humanity established between the majority Tunisia and their supporters in or to the history of the people’s of active women that took part in the democratic movement have liberation movements in the Arab leading the revolutions and the new been able to pass the principle of region. Women participated as leadership post the revolution that gender parity among candidates direct victims and martyrs as they becomes male-dominated. Women in the electoral process as a took part in the demonstrations and are thus rendered marginalized in reform project that was adopted marches. They encouraged their the transition process. by the Commission planning the sons and daughters to be part of upcoming constituent assembly the change and stood in face of fire Tunisia saw the establishment vote (planned for July 2011). shots to bury their children whom of the first Personal Status Law they lost in the process of building (1956) in the Arab region, declared This step is historical in Tunisia the revolutions. polygamy unlawful, raised the legal and unprecedented in the Arab age of marriage, recognized civil region. Various social progressive But past experiences reveal that in marriage and divorce, and enabled and democratic groups work to post revolution periods, in which many rights that were considered enforce this step in the national new governance systems and highly progressive in its time and legislation, so as to preserve power relations are established regional context. However today it and not fall back from it. and the organization of the new in Tunisia, there is a tendency to However, the struggle of women 11 leadership takes place, often marginalize women from decision- continues, especially with the rise women’s role and contribution making. As a result there is only of fundamentalist groups post is marginalized. Accordingly, 18 percent women in the “High the revolution, who exploit the women are forced to depart from Commission for the Defense extremist religious discourse as the public sphere, in which they of the Revolutions’ Objectives, a political tool, thus threatening made the change together with Political Reforms, and Democratic the democratic transition and the men. The traditional patriarchal Transition”. Moreover, only protection of women’s rights.

While Arab governments missed social. These revolutions, along process of reforms on the the opportunity to seek genuine with peoples’ movements in other political as well as the economic, reforms at the time of the global Arab countries like Libya, Yemen, social, and cultural fronts and the crises, now is the time for Syria, and Bahrain, were triggered establishment of a new economic genuine change to take place. by factors of economic and social and social model that reflects Both revolutions in Tunisia exclusion and quickly built up to the development challenges of and Egypt have demonstrated mass mobilizations with political the region, prioritizes citizens’ the interlinkages between the demands. Accordingly, the way rights, and tackles exclusion political, the economic, and the forward entails a comprehensive on all fronts. This of course Kinda Mohamadieh

applies to women’s rights and civil society groups have faced the relatively not as active in addressing progress in the region. Indeed, challenge of protecting the reforms the implications of the global addressing women’s participation acquired thus far and preventing economic and development policies at the economic level cannot be a retreat from the process of on their national context, nor did detached from the overall reform democratic change. They should they actively tackle and investigate of the economic and development continue to pressure for further the policy responses to the global models adopted in the region. reforms. Moreover, these groups crises. Today, they have a major role Systemic revision of policies for face the challenge of shifting from a in ensuring that reforms integrate empowerment of women ought defensive position to a more proactive concepts of justice, human rights, to be integrated into the overall role in public life, thus elaborating and non-discrimination, and equality. revision of development policies promoting alternatives on all fronts: Furthermore, they face the challenge and efforts towards poverty the political, social, and economic. of ensuring that women’s rights eradication, employment creation, are at the centre of the undertaken and educational reform. Women’s groups in the Arab region reforms, including constitutional and have often not been vocal on other legislative reforms, as well as During the current transition period, economic rights as much as political other political, economic, social, and women’s groups along with other and civic rights. Indeed, they were cultural reforms. 

Box 5: Reflection by Mrs. Fawziya El Khawaja, Human Rights activist from Bahrain

There is no doubt that women martyrs have fallen during and not the regime that has been have a prominent and active the escalation of the conflict, undemocratically ruling and role in any social or political while others were arrested oppressing people’s rights for 12 mobilization in society. Since and tortured. But this did not more than three decades. the Tunisian and the Egyptian stop them; they continued revolutions that broke out in their efforts and intensified In Bahrain, some civil society December 2010 and January their participation both in the organizations called for the 2011 respectively, followed by mobilizations, as well as in formation of a feminist group peoples’ mobilizations in Libya raising awareness. under the name of “Women and the rest of the Arab world, for Bahrain” that tries to defy we have been witnessing Despite this momentum and political, sectarian, and social women’s evident and committed this remarkable participation, divides that have been promoted participation in these mass women face many challenges in the Bahraini society, through movements. This participation rooted in the traditional religious focusing on re-enforcing national went beyond participation in views to their role, such as cohesion and social unity. protests and sit-ins, to the views towards the use of the planning and promotion of veil and their interaction with Women are no longer isolated the mobilizations, through men in the public sphere. For from societal changes; they electronic and other means example, in Yemen, the president have been an integral part of of communication, like press, raised the issue of traditions and the revolutions and uprisings television and radio. participation of women along in the Arab region, which will with men in protests and sit-ins, definitely contribute to women’s Women’s role is active and as if the role of women was the and men’s emancipation and influential. Several female main problem facing the country freedom from oppression. Women’s economic empowerment in the Arab region: How chronic development challenges and the global crises triggered people’s revolutions

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New from AWID is this 2010 edition of the brief series: Impacts of the Crisis on Women´s Rights: Sub regional perspectives. We are excited to present an update, by region, to the exceptional research conducted in 2009 on the impact of the global financial crisis on women’s rights. This update provides relevant new data, testimonies, and voices from women activists on the ground. Each case presents an opportunity to unpack the in-depth challenges faced by different women in diverse contexts while examining possible policy solutions from a feminist perspective. This work takes us on a journey to help us think beyond the financial crisis and its implications, and start reflecting about the new world being created. At AWID we believe these studies contribute to building and supporting women’s movements.

Brief 1: The impact of the crisis on women in Latin America By Alma Espino and Norma Sanchís

Brief 2: Impact of the global crisis on women in developing Asia By Jayati Ghosh

Brief 3: Women of the Pacific and the global economic crisis By Karanina Sumeo

Brief 4: Impacts of the global economic and financial crisis on women in Central Asia By Nurgul Djanaeva

Brief 5: The Impact of the Deepening Economic Crisis on Women and Gender Equality in Western Europe By Wendy Harcourt and Lois Woestman

Brief 6: The Impact of the Crisis on Women in Eastern Europe By Eva Charkiewicz

Brief 7: The Global Economic Crisis and Gender Relations: The Greek Case By Lois Woestman

Brief 8: : The Continued Need for Social Sector Stimulus By Rania Antonopoulos and Taun Toay

Brief 9: The Impact of the Deepening Economic Crisis on Women in Eastern and Southern Africa By Zo Randriamaro

Brief 10: The Impact of the Global Economic Crisis on Women and Women´s Human Rights Across Regions By Nerea Craviotto

Brief 11: Women´s economic empowerment in the Arab region: How chronic development challenges and the global crises triggered people´s revolutions By Kinda Mohamadieh

These publications can be found on the AWID website: www.awid.org This publication is part of AWID’s initiative: Influencing Development Actors and Practices for Women’s Rights (IDeA) that seeks to contribute to advancing feminist understandings of the relationship between development and women’s rights issues with a particular focus on the aid effectiveness agenda and the Financing for Development process at the UN.