Horn of africa history pdf

Continue Hartford Web Publishing is not the author of documents in the World Historical Archives and does not assume to validate their accuracy or authenticity or to release their copyrights. History of the as a whole History of the region Afar History of the Republic of History of Eritrean History of the Federal Democratic Republic of History Jamhuuriyadda Soomaaliya () The history of the Republic of Sudan Geeska Africa redirects here. For the Somali-language newspaper, see Geeska Afrika (newspaper). Peninsulas in East Africa include Djibouti, , Ethiopia and Somalia Horn of AfricaCountries and Territory Sovereign States (4) Djibouti Eritrea Ethiopia Somalia Unclaimed states (1) Demonym(s) Horner Africa Barbari (historical) Abyssinian (historical) Puntite (historical) Cushite (historical) Major regional organization Arab League Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa Community of Sahel-Saharan States Intergovernmental Authority on Development Population122 .618.170 (2016 est.) Area1,882,757 km2Play native language Amharic Somali Tigrinya Oromo Afar Tigre Sidamo Wolaytta Main foreign working language (widely taught) Arabic (joint official in Somalia, Djibouti, Somaliland & Muslim liturgical language) France (joint official in Djibouti) Italy (formerly in Eritrea and Somalia) Christian, traditional faith, Judaism (formerly in Ethiopia, has largely migrated to Israel)Time zoneUTC +03:00Currency Ethiopian Birr Somali Shilling Eritrean Nakfa Somaliland Shilling CapitalsAddis Ababa (Ethiopia)Mogadishu (Somalia) Asmara (Eritrea)Djibouti(city) (Djibouti) PPP)$247,751 billion (2016)($2,020 per capita)Total GDP (nominal)$102.057 billion (2016)($832 per capita) Horn of Africa (Amharic: የአፍሪካ ቀንድ, romanized: .abbreviated hoa) is a peninsula in Africa. [2] [3] It is located along the southern side of the and stretches hundreds of km to the Gulf of Aden, the Somali Sea and the Guardafui Channel) :(اﻟﺮن اﻟﻔﻔﺮﻳﻘﻲ :yäafrika qänd, Somali: Geeska Afrika, Tigrinya: ቀርኒ ኣፍሪቃ, romanized: q'ärnī afīrīqa, Arabic This area is the easternmost projection of the African continent. Referred to in ancient and medieval times as the land of Barbara and Habesha,[5][6][7] the Horn of Africa shows the regions containing the countries of Djibouti, Eritrea, Ethiopia, and Somalia. [8] [3] [2] It covers about 2 Mm2 (770 thousand sq mi) and is inhabited by about 115 million people (Ethiopia: 96.6 million, Somalia: 15.4 million, Eritrea: 6.4 million, and Djibouti: 0.81 million). Regional studies of the Horn of Africa are conducted, among others, in the field of Ethiopian Studies as well as Somali Studies. This Name has been known by various names. The ancient Greeks and Romans referred to it as Regio Aromatica or Regio Cinnamonifora because of aromatic plants or as Regio Incognita because of its uncharted territory. In ancient and medieval times, the Horn of Africa was referred to as Bilad al Barbar (Land of Berbers). [6] It is al-qarn al-'afrīqī, in Oromo Gaaffaa Afriikaa, and in اﻟﺮن اﻟﻔﺮﻳﻘﻲ also known as the Somali peninsula or, in Somali, African Geeska, Jasiiradda Soomaali or Gacandhulka Soomaali. [9] In other local languages, it is called the Horn of Africa or Horn of Africa: in amharic የአፍሪካ ቀንድ yäafrika qänd, in Arabic Tigrinya ቀርኒ ኣፍሪቃ q'ärnī afīrī Horn of Africa name is sometimes abbreviated as HoA. Quite commonly it is referred to simply as the Horn, while the population is sometimes referred to as the Horn of Africa. [11] Sometimes the term Horn of Greater Africa is used, either to be inclusive of the northeastern African neighbors or to distinguish the broader geopolitical definition of the Horn of Africa from the narrower definition of the peninsula. [12] Certain media outlets and scholars may define the region as the Abyssinian Peninsula. [13] Further historical information: Sub-Saharan Africa • Horn of Africa, and the African • Prehistoric Horn of Africa According to the Southern Deployment scenario, the Southern route of african migration occurred in the Horn of Africa via Bab el Mandeb. Today in the Bab-el-Mandeb strait, the Red Sea is about 12 miles (20 kilometers) wide, but 50,000 years ago it was much narrower and sea level 70 meters lower. Although the strait is never completely closed, there may be islands in between that can be reached using a simple raft. The 125,000-year-old middens shell has been found in Eritrea,[14] indicating early human diets including seafood obtained by beachcombing. Ethiopia's earliest stone-tipped projectile finds date back more than 279,000 years in combination with existing archaeological, fossil, and genetic evidence, isolating the region as a source of modern culture and biology, and it is considered a place of origin for mankind. [16] Ethiopian and Eritrean agriculture established the earliest known use of teff grass seeds (Poa abyssinica) between 4000–1000 BC. [18] Teff is used to make flatbread injera/taita. Coffee also originated in Ethiopia and has since spread into beverages around the world. [19] Main article: , D◌ුmt, Aksumit Empire, and Sesea More information: Ethiopian history, Eritrean history, and The region consisting of northern Somalia, Djibouti, the Red Sea coasts of Eritrea and Sudan is considered the most likely location of the ancient known land as Punt (or Ta Netjeru, meaning land of God), which first mentions dates to the 25th century BC. [20] The rock art in the Adi Alauti cave around Qohayto at 5000 BCE Pre-Axumite Temple of Mariam Wakino at Qohayto D◌mු t is a kingdom located in Eritrea and northern Ethiopia, which existed during the 8th and 7th centuries BC. With its capital possible in Yeha, the kingdom developed irrigation schemes, using plows, growing millet, and making iron tools and weapons. After the fall of D-1mt in the 5th century BC, the highlands began to be dominated by smaller successor kingdoms, until the revival of one of these kingdoms during the 1st century, the Aksumite Kingdom, which was able to reunite the area. [21] Stela Raja Ezana di Aksum, a symbol of aksumit civilization. The Aksum Kingdom (also known as the Aksumite Empire) was an ancient state located in the highlands of Eritrea and Ethiopia, which flourished between the 1st and 7th centuries AD. A major player in trade between the and Ancient India, aksum rulers facilitated trade by mining their own currency. The country also established its hegemony over the declining Kingdom of Cush and regularly entered the politics of the kingdoms of the Arabian peninsula, eventually extending its control over the territory with the conquest of the Himyarite Kingdom. Under Ezana (fl. 320–360), the became the first major kingdom to adopt Christianity, and was crowned by Mani as one of the four great powers of its time, along with Persia, Rome and China. Ancient trading centers in the Horn of Africa and the Arabian peninsula according to periplus of the Erythraean Sea of Northern Somalia are important links in the Horn, connecting the region's trade with the rest of the ancient world. Somali sailors and merchants were the main suppliers of frankincense, myrrh and spices, all of which were valuable luxuries for the Ancient Egyptians, Phoenicians, Mycenaeans, Babylonians and Romans. [22] The Romans began referring to the region as Regio Aromatica. In the classical era, some of Somalia's thriving city-states such as Opone, Mosylon and also competed with sabaean, Parthia and Axumites for the rich Indo-Greco-Roman trade. [24] The birth of across the coast of the Red Sea horn means that local merchants and sailors living in the Arabian Peninsula are gradually under the influence of a new religion through their converted Arab Muslim trading partners. With the migration of Muslim families from the Islamic world to the Horn in the early centuries of Islam, and the peaceful conversion of local populations by Muslim scholars in the following centuries, the ancient city-state eventually transformed into Mogadishu Islam, , , Barawa and Merka, which were part of barbara civilization. [26] Mogadishu is known as the Islamic City[27] control the East African gold trade for several centuries. [28] Middle Ages and Early Modern Era Main article: Adal Sultanat, Ajuran Sultanate, Warsangali Sultanate, Showa Sultanate, Ifat Sultanate, Geledi Sultanate, , Mogadishu Sultanate, Aussa Sultanate, Majeerteen Sultanate, and Hobyo Sultanate More information: History of Africa • Horn of Africa Ruins of in Zeila During the Middle Ages, some , including Adal Sultanate, Ajuran Sultanate, Warsangali Sultanate, Zagwe dynasty, and Geledi Sultanate. The Showa Sultanate, founded in 896, is one of the oldest local Islamic countries. It is based in the former Province of in central Ethiopia. This polity was replaced by the around 1285. Ifat is inducinate from its capital in Zeila in northern Somalia and is the easternmost district of the former Shewa Sultanate. [29] The Adal Sultanate was a medieval multi-ethnic Muslim country based in the Horn region. At his height, he controlled most of Somalia, Ethiopia, Djibouti and Eritrea. Many of the region's historic cities, such as Amud, Maduna, Abasa, Berbera, Zeila and , flourished during the golden age of the kingdom. This period left many courtyard houses, , temples, and walled cages. Under the leadership of rulers such as Sabr ad-Din II, Mansur ad-Din, Jamal ad-Din II, Shams ad-Din, General Mahfuz and Ahmad ibn Ibrahim al-Ghazi, Adalite's forces continued the struggle against the , a campaign historically known as the Conquest of Abyssinia or Futuh al Habash. The Sultanate of Warsangali was an empire centered in the northeast and in parts of southeastern Somalia. It was one of the largest sultanates ever established in the region, and, at the height of its power, included the region and part of the northeastern Bari region of the country, an area historically known as Maakhir or Maakhir Beach. The Sultanate was founded in the late 13th century in northern Somalia by a group of from the Warsangali branch of the Darod clan, and ruled by descendants of Gerad Dhidhin. A fortress in Gondershe, an important city in the medieval Ajuran Sultanate through strong central government and an aggressive military attitude towards the invaders, the Ajuran Sultanate succeeded in countering the Oromo invasion of the west and portuguese attacks from the east during the Gaal Madow and Ajuran-Portuguese Wars. Trade routes dating back to the ancient medieval period and the beginning of Somali maritime enterprises were also reinforced or re-established, and the state left a vast architectural legacy. Many of the hundreds of destroyed castles and fortifications that adorn somalia's landscape today associated with Ajuran engineers,[30] including many pillar tomb fields, necropolises and destroyed cities built during that era. The royal family, the House of Gareen, also expanded its territory and established its hegemonic rules through a combination of war, trade relations, and skilled alliances. [31] The Zagwe dynasty ruled many parts of modern Ethiopia and Eritrea from about 1137 to 1270. The dynastic name comes from the Cushitic-speaking Agaw people of northern Ethiopia. From 1270 onwards for centuries, the Solomonic dynasty ruled the . Lalibela churches were carved by the Zagwe dynasty in the 12th century. In the early 15th century, Ethiopia attempted to make diplomatic contact with European governments for the first time since the Aksumite period. The letter from King Henry IV of England to Emperor Abyssinia survived. [32] In 1428, Emperor Yeshaq sent two messengers to Alfonso V of Aragon, who sent a return envoy who failed to complete the journey home. [33] The first ongoing relationship with the European country began in 1508 with Portugal under Emperor Lebna Dengel, who had just inherited the throne from his father. [34] This proved to be an important development, as when Abyssinia was the target of attacks by Adal General sultanate and Imam Ahmad bin Ibrahim al-Ghazi (called Gurey or Grañ, both left-handed), Portugal helped the Ethiopian emperor by sending weapons and four hundred men, who helped his son Gelawdewos defeat Ahmad and rebuild his rule. [35] The Abyssinian–Adal war was also one of the first proxy wars in the region when the , and Portugal sided with the conflict. King Fasilides Castle in Gondar when Emperor Susenyos moved to Roman Catholicism in 1624, years of rebellion and civil unrest followed resulting in thousands of deaths. [36] Jesuit missionaries have offended the Orthodox faith of local Ethiopians. On 25 June 1632, Susenyos' son, Emperor Fasilides, declared the country's religion to return to Ethiopian Orthodox Christianity, and expelled Jesuit missionaries and other Europeans. [37] During the late 18th and early 19th centuries the Yejju dynasty (more specifically, the Warasek) ruled northern Ethiopia changing the official language of the Amhara people to Afaan Oromo, including in the Gondar court which was the imperial capital. Founded by Ali I of Yejju several successive descendants of him and Abba Seru Gwangul ruled with their armies coming from mainly their clan of Yejju Oromo tribe as well as Wollo and Raya Oromo. [39] The Hobyo Cavalry Sultanate and the fortress of the Geledi Sultanate were Somali managed by the Gobroon dynasty, which ruled parts of the Horn of Africa during the 18th and 19th centuries. Founded by Ajuran Ibrahim's army which has defeated various Ajuran Empire and founded the House of Gobroon. The dynasty reached its peak under the successive governments of Yusuf Mahamud Ibrahim, who successfully consolidated Gobroon's power during the Bardera war, and Sultan Ahmed Yusuf, who forced regional powers such as the Empire of Oman to pay their respects. The Majeerteen Sultanate (Migiurtinia) was another prominent Somali sultanate based in the Horn region. Ruled by King Osman Mahamuud during his golden age, he controlled much of northeastern and central Somalia in the 19th and early 20th centuries. Polity has all the organs of a modern state that are integrated and maintain a strong trading network. It also enters into agreements with foreign powers and exerts strong centralized authority on the domestic front. [41] Most of the sultanate's territory today is adjacent to the autonomous Puntland region in northeastern Somalia. [42] The Sultanate of Hobyo was a 19th-century Somali kingdom founded by Sultan Yusuf Ali Kenadid. Initially, Kenadid's goal was to seize control of the neighboring Majeerteen Sultanate, which was then ruled by his cousin Boqor Osman Mahamuud. However, he was unsuccessful in this effort, and was eventually forced into exile in Yemen. A decade later, in the 1870s, Kenadid returned from the Arabian Peninsula with a group of Hadhrami musketeers and a group of loyal lieutenants. With their help, he succeeded in establishing the kingdom of Hobyo, which would rule much of northeastern and central Somalia during the early modern period. [43] Modern history Main articles: First Italo-Abyssinian War, Second Italo-Abyssinian War, East African Campaign (World War II), East Africa Italy, and Regional Administration Somali Campaign Building in Asmara In the period after the opening of the Suez canal in 1869, when European powers scrambled over territory in Africa and tried to establish a coal station for their ship, Italy On January 1, 1890, Eritrea officially became an Italian colony. In 1896 further Italian attacks on horns were expressly stopped by Ethiopian forces. But in 1936, Eritrea became the East African province of Italy (African Orientale Italiana), along with Ethiopia and Somaliland Italy. In 1941, Eritrea had about 760,000 inhabitants, including 70,000 Italians. [44] The Commonwealth armed forces, along with ethiopia's patriotic resistance, expelled the Italians in 1941,[45] and took over the regional government. The Uk continued to manage the region under the UN Mandate until 1951, when Eritrea was in federation with Ethiopia, in accordance with UN resolution 390(A) and under the prompting of the United States adopted in December 1950. Map of Africa in 1909. The Horn region is the easternmost projection of the African continent. Important Eritrea, due to the coastline of the Red Sea and and resources, was the main cause of the federation with Ethiopia, which in turn led to the annexation of Eritrea as ethiopia's 14th province in 1952. This was the culmination of a phased takeover process by the Ethiopian authorities, a process that included a 1959 decree setting the compulsory teachings of Amharic, Ethiopia's primary language, in all Eritrean schools. A lack of attention to eritrea's population led to the formation of the independence movement in the early 1960s (1961), which erupted into a 30-year war against successive Ethiopian governments that ended in 1991. After a UN-supervised referendum in Eritrea (dubbed UNOVER) in which Eritreans voted strongly for independence, Eritrea declared independence and gained international recognition in 1993. [46] In 1998, a border dispute with Ethiopia led to the Eritrean-Ethiopian War. [47] Placing Menelik in Djibouti City from 1862 to 1894, the land north of the Bay of in modern-day Djibouti was called and ruled by Somali and Afar , the local authorities with which France signed various treaties between 1883 and 1887 for the first time to gain a foothold in the region. [49] In 1894, Léonce Lagarde established a permanent French government in djibouti and named the region Côte française des Somalis (), a name that continued until 1967. In 1958, on the eve of neighboring Somalia's independence in 1960, a referendum was held in the region to decide whether to join the or remain with France. The referendum turned out to support continued relations with France, in part because of a combined yes vote by the s sizeable Afar ethnic group and the European population. [51] There were also reports of widespread vote rigging, with France expelling thousands of Somalis before the referendum reached polling stations. [52] The majority of those who voted no were Somalis who strongly supported joining a unified Somalia, as had been proposed by Mahmoud Harbi, Vice President of the Council of Governments. Harbi was killed in a plane crash two years later. [51] Djibouti finally gained its independence from France in 1977, and Hassan Gouled Aptidon, a Somali politician who had campaigned for a yes vote in the 1958 referendum, eventually ended up as the country's first president (1977–1999). [51] In early 2011, Djiboutian nationals took part in a series of protests against the long-serving government, which was linked to larger Arab Spring demonstrations. Unrest finally subsided in April this year, and Djibouti's ruling People's Rally for Progress party was re-elected to office. Ahmed Gurey (Ahmad bin Ibrihim al-Ghazi), somali imam who invaded Abyssinia in the 16th century Dervish Mohammed Abdullah Hassan succeeds in rebuking British Britain four times and forced him to retreat to the coastal area. [53] Due to this successful expedition, the Dervish State was recognized as an ally by the Ottoman Empire and Germany. Turkey also named Hassan Emir of the Somali state,[54] and Germany promised to formally recognize any territory dervishes would acquire. [55] After a quarter of a century of holding The British at bay, the Dervishes were finally defeated in 1920 as a direct consequence of Britain's new policy on aerial bombardment. [56] As a result of this bombing, the former Dervish territory was transformed into a patronage of England. Italy faced similar opposition from the Sultan and the Somali army, and did not gain full control of parts of modern Somalia until the Fascist era in late 1927. The occupation lasted until 1941, and was replaced by the British military administration. Northern Somalia will remain a protector, while southern Somalia will be a trustee. The unity of the two regions in 1960 formed the Republic of Somalia. A civilian government was formed, and on 20 July 1961, through a popular referendum, a new constitution first drafted the previous year was ratified. [57] Due to its long-standing relationship with the Arab world, Somalia was accepted in 1974 as a member of the Arab League. [58] During the same year, the country's former socialist government also presented the Organization of African Unity, the predecessor of the African Union. [59] In 1991, the broke out, which saw the collapse of the federal government and the emergence of many autonomous police, including the Puntland government in the northeast and Somaliland, a self-recognized sovereign state internationally recognized as somalia's autonomous region,[60] in the northwest. Somalis then return to local forms of conflict resolution, whether secular, Islamic or customary law, with provisions to appeal all sentences. The Federal Transitional Government was created in 2004. [61] The Federal Government of Somalia was established on 20 August 2012, along with the end of TFG's provisional mandate. [62] It represents the country's first permanent central government since the start of the civil war. [62] Somalia's Federal Parliament serves as the legislative branch of the government. [63] Haile Selassie's reign as emperor of Ethiopia was the best known and perhaps most influential in the nation's history. Modern Ethiopia and its current borders are the result of significant territorial reductions in the north and expansion to the east and south towards its current borders, due to some migration, commercial integration, treaty and conquest, especially by Emperors Menelik II and Ras Gobena. [64] From the central province of Shoa, Menelik set out to subdue and enter the 'land and from The South, East and West became a kingdom. [64] He did this with the help of the Shewan Oromo ras Gobena militia, beginning to expand his empire to the south and east, expanding into areas that had not been held since the invasion of Ahmad ibn Ibrihim al-Ghazi, and other areas that had never been under his control, resulting in the current Ethiopian border. Menelik had signed the Wichale Treaty with Italy in May 1889, under which Italy would recognize Ethiopian sovereignty as long as Italy could control a small area in northern Tigray (part of modern Eritrea). [67] In return Italy, was to give Menelik a weapon and support him as emperor. [68] Italy used the time between the signing of the treaty and its ratification by the Italian government to further expand their territorial claims. Italy began a state-funded resettlement program for landless Italians in Eritrea, which increased tensions between Eritrean and Italian farmers. [68] The conflict erupted at the Battle of Adwa on 1 March 1896, where Italian colonial forces were defeated by Ethiopia. [69] The early 20th century in Ethiopia was marked by the reign of Emperor Haile Selassie I, who came to power after Iyasu V was overthrown. In 1935, Haile Selassie's forces fought and lost the Second Italo-Abyssinian War, after which Italy annexed Ethiopia to Italy's East Africa. [70] Haile Selassie then appealed to the League of Nations, delivering an address that made him a worldwide figure and magazine's Time Man of the Year 1935. [71] After Italy's entry into World War II, British troops, along with Ethiopian Patriot fighters, liberated Ethiopia on the course of the East African Campaign in 1941. [72] , ethiopia's capital since 1886. Haile Selassie's reign ended in 1974, when the Soviet-backed Marxist-Lennis military junta Derg, led by Mengistu Haile Mariam, deposed him, and founded a one-party communist state, called the Ethiopian People's Democratic Republic. In July 1977, the War broke out after the government of Somali President Siad Barre attempted to incorporate somalia's predominantly populated Ogaden region into Pan-Somali . In September 1977, the Somali army controlled 90% of Ogaden, but was later forced to withdraw after the Ethiopian Derg received assistance from the Soviets, Cubans, South Yemen, East Germany[73] and North Korea, including about 15,000 Cuban combat troops. In 1989, the Tigrayan People's Liberation Front (TPLF) joined other ethnic-based opposition movements to form the Ethiopian People's Revolutionary Democratic Front (EPRDF), and eventually succeeded in overthrowing dictator Mengistu's regime in 1991. Transitional government, consisting of the House of Representatives 87 and guided by a national charter that serves as a constitution, then established. The first free and democratic elections took place later in 1995, when Ethiopia's longest-serving Prime Minister Meles Zenawi was elected to office. Like other countries in the Horn region, Ethiopia maintained its historically close ties with countries in the Middle East during this period of change. [74] Zenawi died in 2012, but his Ethiopian People's Revolutionary Democratic Front (EPRDF) party remains ethiopia's ruling political coalition. The geography and climate of the Horn of Africa is seen from NASA's Space Shuttle in May 1993. The orange and brown colors in this image show a mostly arid to semiarid climate. The Horn of Africa is almost the same as equatorial and Tropical Cancer. It mainly consists of mountains lifted through the formation of the Great Rift Valley, a gap in earth's crust that extends from Turkey to Mozambique and marks the separation of African and Arab tectonic plates. Largely mountainous, the region emerges through faults resulting from the Rift Valley. Geologically, the Horn and Yemen once formed a single landmass about 18 million years ago, before the Gulf of Aden rift and separated the Horn region from the Arabian Peninsula. [76] The Somali plate was bounded to the west by the East African Rift, which stretched south from junction three in the Afar Depression, and the underwater continuation of the rift extending south offshore. The northern boundary is Aden Ridge along the coast of Saudi Arabia. The eastern boundary is the Central Indian Ridge, the northern part also known as Carlsberg Ridge. The southern boundary is the Southwest Indian Ridge. Vast glaciers once covered the Simien and Bale Mountains but melted at the beginning of the Holocene. The mountains descend in large cliffs to the Red Sea and more steadily into the Indian Ocean. Socotra is a small island in the Indian Ocean off the coast of Somalia. It measures 3,600 km2 (1,390 sq mi) and is yemeni territory. The horn's lowlands are generally arid regardless of their proximity to the equator. This is due to tropical mons season winds that deliver seasonal rains to the Sahel and Sudan blowing from the west. As a result, they lost moisture before reaching Djibouti and Somalia, with the result that most horns receive little rainfall during the rainy season. Horn of Africa. NASA Imagery In the mountains of Ethiopia, many regions receive more than 2,000 mm (80 in) per year, and even Asmara receives an average of 570 mm (23 in). This rainfall is the only source of water for many areas outside Ethiopia, including . In winter, northeast trade winds provide no moisture except in mountainous areas of northern Somalia, where rainfall in late autumn can produce annual totals as high as 500 mm On the east coast, strong upwelling and the fact that winds blow parallel to the coast mean annual rainfall can be as low as 50 mm (2 in). The climate in Ethiopia varies greatly between regions. It is generally hotter in the lowlands and temperate in the highlands. In Addis Ababa, which ranges from 2,200 to 2,600 m (7,218 to 8,530 ft), maximum temperatures are 26 °C (78.8 °F) and a minimum of 4 °C (39.2 °F). The weather is usually sunny and dry, but short rain (belg) occurs from February to April and heavy rain (meher) from mid-June to mid- September. The Danakil Desert stretches across 100,000 km2 of arid terrain in northeastern Ethiopia, southern Eritrea, and northwestern Djibouti. The area is known for its volcanoes and extreme heat, with daily temperatures of more than 45°C and often surpassing 50°C. It has a number of lakes formed by lava flows that stem some valleys. Among them are Lake Asale (116 m below sea level) and Lake Giuletti/Afrera (80 m below sea level), both of which had cryptodepressions in the Danakil Depression. Afrera contains many active volcanoes, including Maraho, Dabbahu, Afdera and Erta Ale. [77] In Somalia, there is not much seasonal variation in the climate. Hot conditions apply throughout the year along with periodic mons season winds and irregular rainfall. Average daily maximum temperatures range from 28 to 43 °C (82 to 109 °F), except at higher altitudes along the east coast, where the effects of cold offshore currents can be felt. Somalia has only two permanent rivers, Jubba and Shabele, both of which begin in the Ethiopian Highlands. [79] Oryx beisa beisa ecology is found throughout the Horn of Africa About 220 mammals are found in the Horn of Africa. Among the threatened species in the region, there are several antelope such as beira, dibatag, silver dikdik and Speke deer. Other outstanding species include Somali wild buttocks, desert warthogs, hamadryas baboons, Somali pygmy gerbils, ammodile, and Speke pectinators. Grevy's zebra is a unique wild equid in the region. There are predators such as spotted hyenas, striped hyenas and African leopards. Endangered painted hunting dogs have a population in the Horn of Africa, but the pressure from human exploitation of habitats along with warfare has reduced or issued these canids in the region. [80] Some important bird species of the Horn are black boubou, golden-winged grosbeak, Warsangli linnet, and Djiboutian spurs. The Horn of Africa has more endemic reptiles than any other region in Africa, with a total of more than 285 species and about 90 species found exclusively in the region. Among the endemic reptile genera, there are Haackgreerius, Haemodracon, Ditypophis, Pachycalamus and Aeluroglena. Half of this genera found in Socotra. Unlike reptiles, amphibians represented in the region. There are about 100 species of freshwater fish in the Horn of Africa, about 10 of which are endemic. Among the endemic, Somali blind barbs living in Caves and Somali cave fish can be found. Myrrh, a common resin in the Horn estimated to be about 5,000 species of blood vessel plants found in the Horn, about half of which are endemic. Endemism is most developed in Socotra and northern Somalia. The region has two endemic plant families: Barbeyaceae and Dirachmaceae. Among other remarkable species, there are cucumber trees found only in Socotra (Dendrosicyos socotrana), Bankoualé palms, yeheb nuts, and Somali cyclamen. Due to Africa's semi-arid and arid climate horns, drought is not uncommon. They are complicated by climate change and changes in agricultural practices. For centuries, pastoral groups in the region have observed careful rangeland management practices to mitigate the effects of drought, such as avoiding overgrazing or setting aside land only for young or sick animals. However, population growth has put pressure on limited land and caused these practices to no longer be maintained. Droughts in 1983–1985, 1991–92, 1998–99 and 2011 have disrupted a period of gradual growth in livestock numbers, leading to a decline of between 37% and 62% of the cattle population. Initiatives by ECHO and USAID have successfully recaptured hundreds of hectares of grassland through rangeland management, leading to the formation of the Dikale Rangeland in 2004. [81] Demographics, Ethnicity, and language More information: Cushitik people, Habesha Peoples, List of African ethnic groups • Horn of Africa, List of African countries by population, and African writing system • Indigenous writing system A woman from Horn of Africa carries her earthenware water jug In addition to sharing the same geographical endowment, the Horn of Africa countries are, in large part, linguistically and ethnically related together,[1] convincing of complex patterns of interconnectedness between different groups. [82] The two main macro groups in the Horn are the Cushitic people who speak Cushitic traditionally centered in the lowlands and the Ethiopian Highlanders who are based in the highlands. The main Afroasiatic language spoken in Ethiopia. According to Ethnologue, there are 10 individual languages spoken in Djibouti (two natives), 14 in Eritrea, 90 in Ethiopia, and 15 in Somalia (Somalia being the only indigenous population). [83] Most people in Tanduk speak the Aphasiatic language of the Cushitic or Semitic branches. The first included oromo, spoken by in Ethiopia, and Somalis, spoken by Somalis in Somalia, Djibouti and Ethiopia; including Amharic, spoken by the Amhara people in Ethiopia, and Tigrinya spoken by the Tigrayans in Eritrea and and Other Afroasitic languages with a large number of speakers include Cushitic Afar, Saho, Hadiyya, Sidamo and Agaw, as well as Semitic Tigre, Arabic, Gurage, Harari, Silt'e and Argobba. [84] In addition, the Omotic language is used by the Omotic community that inhabits the southern region of Ethiopia. Among these phrases are Aari, Dizi, Gamo, Kafa, Hamer and Wolaytta. [85] Languages belonging to the Nilo-Saharan and Niger-Congo families were also used in some areas by the Nilotic and Bantu ethnic minorities. These languages include the Nilo-Saharan languages Me'en and Mursi spoken in southwestern Ethiopia, and the Kunama and Nara idioms used in some parts of southern Eritrea. In the river and littoral regions of southern Somalia, Bajuni, Barawani, and Bantu groups also speak niger-Congolese variants of Swahili and Mushunguli. [86] The Horn has produced many indigenous writing systems. Among them is the manuscript Ge'ez (ግዕዝ Gəaəz) (also known as Ethiopic), which has been written for at least 2000 years. [88] This is an abugida manuscript originally developed to write the Ge'ez language. In speech communities that use it, such as Amharic and Tigrinya, the script is called fidäl (ፊደል), which means script or alphabet. Osmanya wrote the manuscript for centuries, the Somali sheikh and sultan used the Wadaad script (Arabic version of the alphabet) to write. In the early 20th century, responding to a national campaign to complete the writing script for the (which had long since lost its ancient script[89]), Osman Yusuf Kenadid, a Somali poet and remote cousin of Sultan Yusuf Ali Kenadid of the Hobyo Sultanate, designed a coptically sophisticated alphabet called Osmanya (also known as soomaali Osmanya: ) because it represented the Voice of Somalia. [90] Although no longer an official writing script in Somalia, Osmanya scripts are available in the Unicode 10480-104AF range [from U+10480 – U+104AF (66688–66735)]. Somali writer Nuruddin Farah has also garnered praise for being perhaps the most famous writer ever to come out of the Horn of Africa. After publishing many short stories, novels, and essays, Farah's prose has earned him, among other awards, the Premio Cavour in Italy, the Kurt Tucholsky Prize in Sweden, and in 1998, the prestigious Neustadt International Prize for Literature. In the same year, the French edition of his novel Gifts also won the St. Malo Literature Festival prize. [91] Cultural and architectural arts More information: Prehistoric art • Horn of Africa, African Architecture • Horn of Africa, and African Architecture • Horn of Africa 2 North Stelae Park in with King Ezana's Stele at the centre. The Great Stele lies broken. Ethiopian art is famous for ethiopia's ancient traditions Christian iconography stretches back to 7th-century AD frescoes. [92] Somali architecture includes the Fakr ad-Din , built in 1269 by Fakr ad-Din, the first Sultan of Mogadishu sultanate. [93] Ethiopia is famous for its ancient churches, such as the UNESCO World Heritage Site of Lalibela. [94] More information: African music • North Africa and the Horn of Africa Ethiopian highland music uses a unique capital system called qenet, where there are four main modes: tezeta, bati, ambassel, and anchihoy. [95] The three additional modes are variations above: tezeta minor, bati major, and bati minor. [96] Some songs take their name, such as tezeta, a memorable song. [95] In the field of technology, the Great Stele of Axum, more than 100 feet (30 m) long, is the largest single stone ever presented in the ancient world. [97] The Tablet Religious Chapel at the Church of Our Lady Zion allegedly houses the original Ark of the Covenant. The world according to the Mosaic account (map 1854) Most of the population in the Horn of Africa follows one of the three main Abrahamic faiths. These religions have had long adherence and this territory is shown in mosaic accounts. The ancient Axumite kingdom produced coins and stelae associated with the discs and crescent symbols of the god Ashtar. [98] The kingdom later became one of the earliest states to adopt Christianity, following the conversion of King Ezana II in the 4th century. The carving of the 13th-century Fakr ad-Din Mosque built by Fakr ad-Din, mogadishu's first Islamic Sultan was introduced to the coast of northern Somalia from the beginning of the Arabian peninsula, shortly after hijra. The Al-Qiblatayn Mosque, two Zeila dates back to the 7th century, and is the oldest mosque in Africa. [99] In the late 9th century, Al-Yaqubi wrote that lived along somalia's northern coast. [101] He also mentioned that the Kingdom of Adal had a capital in the city,[101][102] indicating that the Adal Sultanate with Zeila as its headquarters dates back to at least the 9th or 10th centuries. According to I.M. Lewis, this politics was governed by the local Somali dynasty, which also ruled over the equally well-established Mogadishu Sultanate in the littoral Benadir region to the south. Adal's history of this founding period will be marked by a succession of battles with neighboring Abyssinia. [102] Islam was introduced to the region from the beginning of the Arabian peninsula, shortly after hijra. At Muhammad's urging, a group of persecuted Muslims had fled across the Red Sea into the Horn. There, Muslims were given protection by King Aksumite Aṣḥama the son of Abjar. [103] In addition, Judaism had a long presence in the region. Kebra Negast (King's Book of Glory) related to The Israelites arrived in Ethiopia with Menelik I, who is said to be the son of King Solomon and Queen Sheba (Makeda). The legend tells that Menelik as an adult returned to his father in Jerusalem, and then stayed back in Ethiopia, and that he brought with him the Ark of the Covenant. [104] Today's Israeli beta primarily follows Orit (from Oraita Aram - Torah), which consists of the Five Books of Moses and the books of Joshua, Hakim and Ruth. A number of ethnic minority groups in southern Ethiopia also adhere to traditional religions. Among these belief systems is the recognition of the Surma Nilo-Saharan people against the god of heaven Tumu. Sports Bekele vs Farah, London 2012, Olympic Games In the modern era, The Horn of Africa has produced several world-renowned sports personalities, including long-distance runners such as world record holder Kenenisa Bekele and Derartu Tulu, the first Ethiopian woman to win an Olympic gold medal and the only woman to have twice won Olympic 10,000-meter gold in the short history One of the region's most successful runners is Haile Gebrselassie[106] who was recognized as the Athlete of the Year in 1998 by the International Association of Athletics Federations (IAAF). As well as numerous gold medals at various events, Gebrselassie achieved 15 world and world records in long and medium distance running, including marathon world records in 2007 and 2008. Somali athlete Abdi Bile became world champion when she won the men's 1500m at the 1987 World Championships in Athletics, running the final 800m race in 1:46.0, the fastest 800m final of any 1,500-metre track race in history. Eritrea has set up a Tour of Eritrea cycling event. In recent years, the Somali diaspora has produced a soccer star in Ayub Daud, a midfielder who played for Juventus in The Italian Serie A. Zahra Bani, a Somali-Italian javelin thrower, has garnered attention with her performances that have so far seen her adopt Italy's silver medal at the 2005 Mediterranean Games, as has Mo Farah, the Somali-British athlete who took gold for Great Britain which she adopted in the 3000m at the 2009 European Championships in both the 10,000m and 5,000m at the 2012 London Olympics. Coffee Beans Economy from Ethiopia According to the IMF, in 2010 the Horn of Africa region had a total GDP (PPP) of $106.224 billion and a nominal $35.819 billion. Per capita, GDP in 2010 was $1061 (PPP) and $358 (nominal). [107] [108] [109] [110] The region's state relies heavily on several major exports: Ethiopia's economy: Coffee is 80% of total exports. Somalia's economy: Bananas and livestock make up more than 50% of total exports. More than 95% of cross-border trade in the region is unofficial and undocumented, carried out by cattle trafficking herders. [111] Unofficial live trading camels, sheep, and goats from Ethiopia are sold to other countries in the Horn and the wider East African region, including Somalia and Djibouti, generating an estimated total value of between US$250 and US$300 million per year (100 times more than the official figure). [111] The trade helped lower food prices, increased food security, eased border tensions and promoted regional integration. [111] However, there are also risks due to the unregulated and undocumented nature of this trade at risk, such as allowing the disease to spread more easily across national borders. In addition, the government is unhappy with the loss of tax receipts and foreign exchange receipts. [111] Most of the Horn countries' trade relationships are with Middle Eastern countries. In 2011, an event organized by the Center for Arab Research and Policy Studies in Doha, Qatar, devoted several days of discussion to the ways in which countries in the Horn region and the adjacent Arabian peninsula can further strengthen these historically close economic, social, cultural, and religious ties. [112] See also portal Geography portal Africa Incense Route Operation Survival Freedom - Horn of Africa Silk Road Sub-Saharan Africa National history: History of Eritrean History of Somali Sultanate of Somalia and kingdom: Ajuran Adal Empire Ak Empire Ethiopia Empire Aussa Sultanate Dervish State Of Harar If Sultanate Royal Gomma Kingdom Gumma Kingdom Jimma Kaffa Macrobians Majeerteen Sultanate Mudaito Dynasty Punt Hobyo Sultanate Mogadishu Sultanate Shewa Sultanate of The Shewa Dynasty Geledi Walashma Records Zagwe Dynasty ^ a b c Sandra Fullerton Joireman , Institutional Changes in the Horn of Africa, (Universal Publisher: 1997), p.1: The Horn of Africa includes the countries of Ethiopia, Eritrea, Djibouti and Somalia. These countries have similar people, languages, and geographic endowments. ^ a b Encyclopædia Britannica, inc, Jacob E. 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