Adult Education in a Polarizing World. Education for All: Status and Trends

DOCUMENT RESUME

ED 409 452 CE 074 397

AUTHOR Fiske, Edward B. TITLE Adult Education in a Polarizing World. Education for All: Status and Trends. INSTITUTION United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization, Paris (France). REPORT NO ISSN-1020-0908 PUB DATE 97 NOTE 51p.; Published for the International Consultative Forum on Education for All. PUB TYPE Reports Descriptive (141) EDRS PRICE MF01/PC03 Plus Postage. DESCRIPTORS Adult Basic Education; *Adult Education; *Adult Literacy; Case Studies; Comparative Analysis; Developed Nations; *Developing Nations; Economic Development; *Educational Needs; *Educational Trends; *Empowerment; Equal Education; Foreign Countries; Illiteracy; Needs Assessment; Parent Education; Self Actualization; Social Development; Trend Analysis; Womens Education IDENTIFIERS Brazil; Ecuador; India; Namibia

ABSTRACT Although the forces that are globalizing the economy, democratizing political life, and ushering in a knowledge society promise to improve humanity, they are also exacerbating the marginalization of individuals and the polarization of entire nations. Many individuals in developing nations are at risk of systematic exclusion from meaningful participation in economic, social, political, cultural, and other forms of human activity in their communities. Access to basic education must be deemed a basic human right and the means to empowerment, which is thekey to establishing and reinforcing democracy. Adult basic education and educated parents are keys to raising educated children; however, the limitationsof formal schooling as a way of achieving universal education should also be acknowledged. The costs of effective literacy and basic education programs for adults and young people compare favorably with the costs of primary education. Widespread basic education is a prerequisite for economic, social, and political development, as well as for personal development and empowerment. (Twenty-seven tables/figures are included. Appended are the following: a list of 10 data sources used to prepare the tables/graphs; list of countries constituting the 6 regions discussed; and a glossary. Contains 21 references.) (MN)

******************************************************************************** Reproductions supplied by EDRS are the best that can be made from the original document. ******************************************************************************** - _ _

U.S. DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION Offi e at Educational Research and Improvement uvrnener-vivic-v-- ED ATIONAL RESOURCES INFORMATION- CENTER (ERIC) I 0his document has been reproduced as received from the person Or organization _ originating it. CI Minor changes have been made to improve reproduction quality.

Points of view or opinions stated in this document do not necessarily represent official OERI position or policy.

PERMISSION TO REPRODUCE AND '- DISSEMINATE THIS MATERIAL HAS BEEN GRANTED BY

TO THE EDUCATIONAL RESOURCES Ii INFORMATION CENTER (ERIC) t Educatton---=--fcir All BEST COPY AVAILABLE Statitst,--anfrents/1997 2 ucakon a Polarizing World

Education for All Status and Trends/1997 3 This report is published by UNESCO for the INTERNATIONAL CONSULTATIVE FORUM ON EDUCATION FOR ALL, a global mechanism established to promote and monitor progress towards Education for All goals. The designations employed and the presentation of material in this report do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of UNESCO concerning the legal status of any country, territory, city or area or of its authorities, or concerning its frontiers or boundaries. Any part of Education for All: Status and Trends may be freely reproduced with the appropriate acknowledgement. For further information, please contact:

EFA Forum Secretariat UNESCO 7 Place de Fontenoy 75352 Paris 07 SP France Tel: (33) 01 45680890 Fax: (33) 01 45685629 E-mail: [email protected]

Editorial coordinationMichael LAKIN

Editorial assistant Ulrika PEPPLER BARRY

Principal authorEdward B. FISKE

Research consultantAgneta LIND

Statistics supervision ;- S. K. CHU

Statistics consultantHilaire MPUTU

Graphic design -- Sylvaine BAEYENS

LayoutPALIMPSESTE

Printing- GRAPHOPRINT

Cover photo: La Defense business district, Paris. Photo © C. Barry.

ISSN:1020-0908

Printed in France 4 BEST COPY AVAILAIRE Adult Education in a Polarizing World

Map of Adult Literacy Rates in 1995, 4

Filet:ate*

71711110.1rTM0 M

1FrattivIti The Threat of Marginalization Evidence of Marginalization, 9 The Roots of Polarization, 12 The Dangers of Polarization, 14 tRartx.Ilt Empowering Adults Basic Education as a Human Right, I7 Box A Students teach adults in Ecuador, 18 What is Adult Basic Education?, 18 The Importance of Educated Parents, 19 Box B Educated parents, educated children, 20 The Limitations of Schooling, 21 Box CSchooling, the leaky faucet, 22 liPart41116 Adult Basic Education in the World Today Adult Literacy and Illiteracy, 26 Progress During the 1990s, 27 Currents Investments in Adult Basic Education, 28 Box D Namibia: Literacy for citizenship, 30 Priorities of Donors, 31

RROINfa Why Invest in Adult Basic Education? The Economic Rationale, 33 Box E Brazilian workers learn to be heard, 34 The Social Rationale, 34 Box F India's total approach to literacy action, 35 Box G -The priority of women's literacy, 36 The Policial Rationale, 37 Personal Development and Empowerment, 38 7ciqPW (1

Statistical tables, 41 Annex I: Sources, 45 Annex 2: Composition of regions, 46 Annex 3: Glossary, 47 ADULT LITERACY RATES IN 1995

,^k.1.4

MI 0-49 % MI 50-69 % 1:2 70 -89 % 90-100 % NOT AVAILABLE

BEST COPY AVAILABLE 6

1.4 Adult Education in a Polarizing World 1Ce

Say "education", and most people think of but meeting the basic learning needs of children children in school an understandable and adults is certainly a necessary step in any reflex, but an incomplete image. Of course serious attempt to close the gaps and improve children are the primary target group for education, equity in human affairs. This report seeks to but yesterday's children today's adults also present the current situation and key trends in have learning needs. Nearly 23 per cent of adults adult basic education, as well as the rationale for today are unable to read or write or do simple increasing investment in it. arithmetical operations, and many more lack the A few cautionary comments are in order for basic knowledge and skills they need to be the reader. First, the available data concerning responsible parents, efficient workers and active adult education are generally quite limited and citizens. incomplete. Most of the data used in this report A year ago, at its mid-decade meeting in concern adult literacy which is an important Amman, Jordan, the International Consultative component and indicator of adult basic education, Forum on Education for All examined the results but not the whole story. Literacy data are largely of the global review of progress since the 1990 estimates based on decenniel census data, so the World Conference on Education for All. The reader should consider them as indicative of review revealed significant gains in the provision magnitudes, rather than accurate measures. of basic education in many countries during the Second, data on certain aspects are available 1990s. However, the Forum noted also several for only certain countries, so some of the graphics unfortunate shortfalls, including a widespread lack in the report apply to "selected countries" only, of support to out-of-school literacy and education but are nevertheless considered indicative of the programmes for adolescents and adults. situation or trends in many other countries. This third issue of Education for All: Status and Figures are sometimes given for the 48 "least Trends seeks to draw attention to this neglected developed countries" as a group, which is a sub- dimension of EFA and to underline its strategic set of the "developing countries", and figures importance in the world today a world shown for the latter include data for the former characterized a year ago by James Gustave Speth, unless indicated otherwise. Also, it should be administrator of the United Nations Development borne in mind that figures showing regional Programme, in the following terms: averages, or even national averages, often obscure significant inter- and intra-country variations. The world, on many fronts, is divided between Unfortunately, a general report of this nature rich and poor, between haves and have-nots, cannot go into such detail. Finally, except when between wealthy and the dispossessed. It has specific dates are indicated, all data shown are for become more polarized, both between countries and the latest year available (LYA) in the 1990s. within countries. If present trends continue, the global economy will be gargantuan in its excesses On behalf of the EFA Forum Secretariat, I wish and grotesque in its inequities. Vast inequality would to express our deep appreciation for the dedicated be the norm and instability and violence its efforts of Edward Fiske, the principal author, accompaniment Agneta Lind, research adviser, and Hilaire Mputu, statistical consultant, who worked with staff of A polarizing world? Not in the sense of Big the Secretariat and of UNESCO's Education Sector Powers confronting each other, but rather in and Division of Statistics to prepare this report. the sense of the growing gaps that divide people into distinct and unequal groups, some being marginalized while others remain in the mainstream of human activity. Michael Lakin What, then, is the place of adult basic Executive Secretary International Consultative Forum education in such a world? It cannot be.a panacea, on Education for All 7 rirg73. ""r21

414

4 I 7."'"'". 111-rt ------to, wr ...444 4 ;Ow.11C40 IOW. t . t I40.. IMO .1 it. h A -.. . - 1 1 :',--'1*.ito'r r VP;V:t't

- - 4,4` . .1 O,

- 9,40 r , . Hong Kong (Photo: UNESCO/Dominique Roger)

BESTCOPY8AVAI[ABLE Adult Education in a Polarizing World

ft[redmcCan

The 1990 World Conference on Educa- The society that mankind will tion for All, held in Jomtien, Thailand, put the concept of "education for all" on inhabit in the 21st Century is being the world's agenda and led to wide- shaped bynew and powerful spread commitment to the goal of "meeting basic learning needs" of all forces that include the globalization persons, whether they be children, youth or adults. Significant progress has of economic activity, the growing been made toward this goal during the importance of knowledgeas a 1990s. Most of this progress, however, has prerequisite for participation in taken the form of increased enrolments of children in formal schooling. While fundamental human activities and universal access to schooling is the increasing democratization of extending basic education to children is only part of the picture. Masses of illit- political systems. erate and poorly educated adults are still inadequately prepared to take their places in the emerging global society asparents,workers, andcitizens. Renewed attention to basic education for adults is thus necessary to stem the divisive and destructive forces of polarization and marginalization. The promise of such a society is world in which masses of people lack great. Globalization has the the tools to participate fully in the core This report discusses the current status potentialtobringdiverse activities of that society. Yet that may of basic education for adults in develop- human beings together in new and cre- be exactly thedirectionin which ing and industrialized countries, the ative ways. A knowledge-rich society humankind is moving on the eve of the trends that are shaping it, and the case contains the tools with which people 21st Century. The signs of marginaliza- for making further investments in this can address problems ranging from tion are evident in the growing gaps in strategic area. health and economic well-being to per- income, health care and other measures sonal fulfilment. Political democracy of human well-being between industri- can give oppressed peoples a greater alized and developing countries. Such voice in shaping their individual and gapsalsoexistwithinindividual collective destinies. nations, both rich and poor. Adult basic education refers to all forms Such promise will not be realized, how- Overcoming the marginalization of ever, if the benefits of these powerful large numbers of individuals and the of organized education and training that forces are restricted to a fortunate few polarization of whole societiesis an meet the basic learning needs of adults, while large numbers of people, and urgent task for the international com- including literacy and numeracy, as well as even whole nations, remain powerless munity. It will require concerted efforts the general knowledge,skills, valuesand on the sidelines. A world sharply on many fronts: political, diplomatic, attitudes that they require to survive, develop divided between "haves" and "have- social, economic, and... educational. note is a world that is neither efficient, One important element of such efforts their capacities, live and work in dignity, stable nor just. The emerging global is the provision of basic education to all improve the quality of their lives, make society cannot exist peacefully in a persons. informed decisions, and ... continue learning.

BEST COPY AVAg LAKE , r'-417- .ti +4 , ...il -sa,

..-- 44/ I,. , 1 , , V ., `,;1? * ,-

..cot :. '

, :

-e

L I.

.1 .Z ..-.1, : : ,..r...... ?"2111051%'° .{...... ,.'';'Ati' W i....i...... I. :., :'

---A tg" ": .':

.tr

;.,

Paris Metro, France (Photo: Vu distribution/Stanley Greene) Adult Education in a Polarizing World Part.

The faces of marginalized saline solution. They are the people are legion. They can faces of struggling farmers in be seen on homeless persons South Asia whose primitive sleeping in the subways of agricultural methods have Manhattan or under the not changed for generations, bridges of the Seine. They of reindeer herders in the arethe faces of African Russian Far East organizing children wasting away from to fight for mineralrights to diarrhea that could be the land they occupy, of prevented if only their oppressed minority groups desperate mothers knew around the world still denied how to put together a simplethe right to vote.

117

Marginalization occurs when is being concentrated in the hands of a Between industrialised people are systematically privileged few. Simultaneously, a grow- and developing countries excluded from meaningful ing proportion of humanity iseffec- Countries that have already achieved a participation in economic, social, politi- tively excluded from access to such comfortable level of economic develop- cal, cultural and other forms of human riches and from meaningful participa- ment are in a better position to take full activity in their communities and thus tion in the modern world. advantage of the forces shaping the are denied the opportunity to fulfil them- world of the 21st century, while other selves as human beings. When a critical countries are not. The industrialized mass of individuals and entire groups Evidence of countries provide schooling to virtually become marginalized,societyitself all children and have a rather small pool becomes polarized. While the marginal- Marginalization of illiterate adults, while the developing ization of even a single person is a countries as a group still fall short of human tragedy, the polarization of entire The forces of exclusion are at work providing universal primary schooling societies is both tragic and dangerous. within and between industrialized and and have a very large pool of illiterate developing nations alike. Evidence of and semi-literate adults. In other words, Yet, we appear to be moving toward a the resulting marginalization can be the "haves" are in position to get richer, world in which wealth of all kinds seen in the latest data on rates of liter- while the 'have-nots' are likely to get where the liv- economic assets, social capital, political acy, which correlate strongly with other poorer. Even in situations influence, know-how and information symptoms of marginalization. ing conditions of some developing

BEST COPYAVAIL-ABLE- _ - in a Polarizing World

FIGURE 1 . PERCENTAGE DISTRIBUTION OF THE WORLD'S LITERATE AND ILLITERATE POPULATION, 1980 AND 1995 mates that there are 20 million jobless 1980 1995 and 38 million poor in Western Europe. DEVELOPING DEVELOPED In 1995 there were also an estimated 9 COUNTRIES " <- COUNTRIES million illiterate adults in Europe, of 41% DEVELOPED COUNTRIES A whom two-thirds are women. 32 ' LITERATE Two recent surveys, the Young Adult POPULATION LiteracySurvey (YALS)andthe DEVELOPING National Adult Literacy Survey (NALS), COUNTRIES used direct measurement of skills to determine the extent of illiteracy in the LEAST DEVELOPED COUNTRIES United States of America. They found 4% LEAST DEVELOPED COU that less than five percent of Americans S% aged 21 to 25 could not read or write at all, but almost a quarter had problems LEAST DEVELOPED DEVELOPED COUNTRIES LEAST DEVELOPED DEVELOPED COUNTRIES reading texts that required more than COUNTRIES 3% COUNTRIES I% simple decoding. Similar studies in Can- 15 % ada came to similar conclusions [1]. A DEVELOPING COUNTRIES 4;) szx ILLITERATE 885 millions, The UNESCO Institute for Education, POPULATION based in Hamburg, Germany, recently

DEVELOPING published a comparative study entitled COUNTRIES Adult Education Participation in Industrial- 80% ized Countries,which presented data from Canada, Netherlands,Poland, Sweden, Switzerland and the United States [2]. The study concluded that an "explosion" of organized adult learning activities is now under way in industrialized countries, but that the benefits of countries are improving, the "haves" that rank among the "haves". The these activities are unevenly distributed. seem to be advancing even more rap- Organization for Economic Co-opera- Adult education services tend to cater idly, thus increasing the gap between tion and Development (OECD) esti- disproportionately to those who are them and the "have-nots".

Figure 1 shows that the least developed countries" are home to an ever-increasing proportion of the world's illiterate FIGURE 2. UNEMPLOYMENT RATE BY EDUCATIONAL LEVEL AND GENDER IN population. However, the positive news FIFTEEN EUROPEAN COUNTRIES is that they, together with the other LUXEMBOURG 0 developing countries, are also home to a 7 growing number of the world's literate GREECE adults. ri= AUSTRIA PORTUGAL Within industrialized countries" ICELAND Large numbers of people find them- DENMARK selves marginalized even within nations BELGIUM

NETHERLANDS LOWER SECONDARY UPPER SECONDARY SWEDEN II POST-SECONDARY ' The 48 "least developed countries" (LDCs) are a sub- UNITED KINGDOM set within the "developing countries". See glossary in Annex 3. FRANCE

GERMANY The "developed" or "industrialized" countries are those with relatively strong industrial economies. See glossary IRELAND in Annex 3. SPAIN

FINLAND

25 20 15 10 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 12° BEST COPY AVAILABLE Adult Education in a Polarizing World

FIGURE 3. PERCENTAGES OF ADULTS 25 YEARS AND OLDER WITH NO SCHOOLING IN RURAL AND URBAN AREAS, FORSELECTED COUNTRIES, 1990 CENSUSES ment rates that exist between countries CANADA in the developed world.

.12 POLAND 3 Within developing countries Marginalization is also a growing prob- ESTONIA 123 lem within countries that rank among '3 URBAN the "have-nots." In many developing BULGARIA RURAL 9 nations economic and other resources

ROMANIA S are concentrated in the hands of a rela- 10 tively small rulingelite.Efforts to

VENEZUELA 5 increase the social, economic and personal welfare of the citizens of such 24 BOLIVIA 38 nations sometimes have the unfortunate . 64 side effect of exacerbating existing dif- EGYPT ferences. For example, schooling often benefits persons living in urban areas PAKISTAN more than those in rural areas, in coun- 80 100 % 0 20 40 60 tries across the development spectrum, as illustrated in Figure 3.

The gender gap in educational opportu- already educated, already employed and with the exception of Greece, the inci- nity feeds other forms of polarization, younger rather than older. They also dence of unemployment in 15 European including disparities in the status of cater disproportionately to men, who countries declines as the level of educa- men and women. The marginalization are more likely than women to have tion rises. In Finland, for example, the of girls and women is a problem that their studies paid for by employers. unemployment rate among men with exists to some extent in virtually all only a lower secondary education is nations, but it is especially profound in The authors found that a "dual learning nearly three times that of men with the developing world and notably in society" is emerging in the countries post-secondary studies. The figure also rural areas, as seen in adult literacy rates studied. For better and for worse, parti- shows the wide disparities in employ- (Figure 4). cipation in adult education is a "cumu- lative social practice". The study found: "Just as the participants accumulate advantages, the adults who did not have FIGURE 4. ADULT LITERACY RATES (15 + YEARS) BY URBAN/RURAL AREA AND access to prolonged initial education BY GENDER FOR SELECTED COUNTRIES, LATEST YEAR AVAILABLE will tend to participate much less and

will have to overcome important socio- 7,1 EGYPT cultural barriers." , ' k oo INDIA A similar warning was issued by the ia RURAL report Lifelong Learning for All, prepared SUDAN for the January 1996 meeting of the URBAN OECD education ministers [3]. It noted UGANDA that the emerging "learning economy" is now accommodating a growing share of BOLIVIA the workforce in industrialized countries but added that "the divisions t-1 TURKEY between those who are included and I' those who are excluded are sharp and , CHINA could deepen. [...] In certain European countries more than half of the work- VENEZUELA ing-age population has received little education beyond primary schooling." YUGOSLAVIA The report observed: "Evidence shows that those people are at risk in changing PHILIPPINES labor markets." Figure 2 shows that, 40 60 80 100 % 100 % 80 60 40 0 0 20 Note: I. Egypt: data refer to Egyptian nationals only and exclude unemployed population. 2. Sudan: data refer to Northern States only and do not include homeless and/or nomadpopulation. 1 k`'in a Polarizing World

FIGURE 5.ADULT LITERACY RATES BY REGION AND GENDER, 1995 with various categories of "peripheral" FEMALE MALE employees. Some are well-educated employees who move in and out of the economic core, but many more are low- skilled and vulnerable to changes in the labor market.

The proportion of peripheral workers in the workforce in industrialized countries is growing, and gaps between the core and peripheral groups are widening because employers typically restrict

O/`-- c!,`c investment in additional training to c,0 gc. 07:1`' P.- el' SCNk their core employees. Writ large, this if,S) siCC' te. YV'' c,1* ,0 0? Q.v.\ \\* 4 ce SOv distinction between core and peripheral Vt56S workers has the effect of exacerbating the gaps between industrialized and developing nations. The industrialized countries organize economic activities so that their own workers constitute Figure 5 shows that adult literacy rates into a process of continual adaptationcore employees while services pur- in1995 varied widely among the and improvement of their skills in order chased in the global marketplace fall regions, with the differences between to compete effectively. This need is into the peripheral category. those for men and for women most pro- compounded by the changing work nounced inthe least developed coun- environment that favours flexible rather Knowledge-based society tries that already have a disproportion- than narrow job skills,flat organiza- Peter Drucker, an American writer on ate share of adult illiterates. tional structures, employee problem- management issues, has pointed out that solving and decision-making and consis- whereas the primary basis for wealth in tentfocusonqualityandclient earlier periods was labour, raw materials The Roots of satisfaction. Individuals and nations or access to capital, thekey resourcein vary widely in their capacity to respond today's world is knowledge. This has Polarization to these forces. led to the emergence of "knowledge workers", a category of workers that, he While the forces that are globalizing the Organizational changes in industrial- estimates, will make up a third or more economy, democratizing politicallife ized countries have a marginalizing, of the work force in the United States by and ushering in a knowledge society even polarizing, effect on the work- the end of this century. Drucker warned offer enormous promise for the better- force. A growing number of companies that "inequality based on knowledge is a ment of humanity, these same forces are relying on a relatively small number major challenge in today's emerging are exacerbating the processes that of well-trained "core" workers who are learning societies." underlie marginalization of individuals highlyskilled, work full-timeand and the polarization of whole nations. receive comfortable wages and benefits. Developing countries are particularly Companies supplement these workersvulnerable withtheemergence of Globalization of the economy We live in a world where not only goods and services, but also people, investment funds, technologies and TABLE I. ideas routinely move back and forth JANUARY 1986 JANUARY 1996 across national borders and where the 76 scope of even the most powerful indus- FREE COUNTRIES 56 19.55% trialized nations to make and enforce % OF WORLD POPULATION 36.27% decisions regarding their economic dei- PARTLY FREE COUNTRIES 56 62 tinies is increasingly circumscribed. 41.49% % OF WORLD POPULATION 23.29%

The climate of this global market-based NOT FREE COUNTRIES 55 53 economy is highly competitive, forcing 38.96% OF WORLD POPULATION 40.43% individuals, firms and entire nations Source: Freecom House 14 BEST COPY AVAILABLE Adult Education in a Polarizing World°

knowledge-based societies because a certain level of basic education is necessary to profit from additional training Al and knowledge acquisition. The problem is exacerbated by the emergence of new information technologies that constitute a structural break with the past and have disruptive effects that can be as uneven as they are profound. Invest- ment in new technologies can be expen- sive, thus widening the gap between countries that can afford to be connected to the information superhighway and those that cannot. When it comes to both the acquisition of knowledge and the mastery of information technologies, individuals with the necessary threshold of knowledge are in a position to gain more, while others are left out.

The likely impact of the global information economy on the poor is a topic of discussion at the Knowledge for Devel- opment Conference, hosted by the Gov- ernment of Canada and the World Bank in June 1997. One of its five themes is "Understanding the Global Knowledge Revolution."

Democratization of political institutions Recent years have brought a breakdown in the single-party political systems in many nations, most notably those of the former Soviet Union, and a substantial increase in the number of countries with democratic forms of government. Such changes have meant that millions of persons now have the opportunity for the first time to participate in poli- tics and exercise influence over their lives and destinies.

According to Freedom House, a non- profit and non-partisan organization in New York established in 1941 to promote democracy around the world, the number of countries that now meets its criteria to be considered "free" or "partly free" has increased over the past decade. However, the proportion of the world's population living in countries that it counts as "free" has actually declined, whereas the proportion in countries it counts as "partly free" has nearly dou- OW bled over that period (sec Table I) [4]. Pro-democracy march, Chile (Photo: Agence Vu/Javier Bauluz) BEST COPY AVAILABLE a5 i--Adult Eaucation in a Polarizing World

Democracy, though, makes demands on ply, often failed to meet their social of implementation are uneven, and those its citizens. To work well, it requires an obligations. Such failures have contrib- having experience with the first gener- electorate that is informed about issues uted to the economic and social mar- ation of a new technology are better pre- and that has the motivation, skills and ginalization of large numbers of people. pared to take advantage of subsequent confidence to participate in decision- breakthroughs. Thus the macro forces making. In order to have an informed Education as a polarizing force discussed earlier can combine with for- electorate, basic education must be One unfortunate fact of life is that edu- mal schooling to form a vicious circle extended to children and adults alike. In cation, seen by many as a means of pro- that widens the gap between those who the absence of a well-educated citi- moting equality, functions too often as are poorly prepared to face life and those zenry, power tends to be appropriated a source of inequality. Those who have who are armed with the knowledge and by a ruling elite, and the problems of a good basic education are in position to skillsto defend themselves and take marginalization and disenfranchisement benefit from further education. Employ- advantage of opportunities. persist. ers train the trainable, building on the skills employees bring to the market- Retreat of the state from its place from school or nonformal pro- redistributive role grammes. To those who have, more The Dangers A .variety of forces,including the shall be given. As "lifelong learning" of Polarization growth of a global market economy and becomes more established, the gap is

.the discrediting of centralized govern-likely to widen between those who The economic, social and political costs anee,. has led many states to diminish have a sufficient basic education to ben- inherent in these trends toward the their traditional role in redistributing efit from further learning and those who marginalization of . large numbers of wealth and providing social benefits do not. In Sweden, for example, partici- people and the polarization of society and services in respect to education, pation in employer-sponsored educa- are enormous. _health; ,transportation, communications tion programmes ranged from 69 per and so. forth. cent for some professional groups to 15 Excluding large numbers of people from per cent for some unskilled blue collar participating in the changing world This trend can be dated to the oil crisis groups [51 economy runs therisk of creating of 1973 when industrialized countries of enclaves of poverty, despair and vi- the West discovered that the welfare John Ryan, a UNESCO literacy special- olence that cannot be eliminated by systems financed by the post-World ist, sees much of the problem as lodged last-minutegovernmentactionor War II economic boom could no longer in thinking that views education as an humanitarian aid. This is true in indus- be sustained. These systems "investment" requiring a max- trialized as well as developing coun- also faced increased political imum return. By such logic, tries. In a recent controversial article pressure from leaders such as Political employers prefer to invest entitled The Capitalist Threat, George Ronald Reagan,Margaret leaders have only in workers who need rel- Soros, a financier whose credentials as a Thatcher and other propo- often failed atively little further training successful capitalist are beyond dispute, nents of laissez-faire capital- to meet to upgrade their skills; only in warned that the current widespread ism and a reduced role for gov- their social timesof protractedlabor faith in unrestricted free markets por- ernment. The fall of the Berlin obligations shortages will they findit tends serious danger to the concept of Wall and the collapse of com- pays to invest in workers an open society. "By taking the condi- munism contributed further to with serious educational defi- tions of supply and demand as given this erosion of the state's responsibil- cits. Such thinking flows from the factand declaring government intervention ities. The new governments in central that most employment-oriented train- the ultimate evil," he wrote, "laissez- and eastern Europe lack both the politi- ing is funded by private enterprises. faire ideology has effectively banished cal mandate and the financial means to "Yet, what is rational for private firms income or wealth redistribution1...] fulfill the role of the former socialist creates situations of inequality and Wealth does accumulate in the hands of state as guardian of the social safety net. exclusion for the society as a whole," its owners, and if there is no mechanism said Ryan. "It is this fact that justifies for redistribution, the inequities can The retreat of the state from its redis- and, indeed, requires a continuing and, become intolerable." Soros criticized tributive role is often presented as an in many cases, enhanced role for public social Darwinism as a basis for organiz- inevitable development, as a law of authorities in all stages of lifelong learning human affairs. He wrote that "there nature as ineluctable as the weather. ing." is something wrong with making the What is often overlooked, however, is survival of the fittest a guiding principle that this change has involved political The same analysis applies to technology. of civilized society" because 'coopera- choices and, one must add, political fail- New information technologies represent tion is as much a part of the system as ures. Political leaders have, quite sim- a structural break with the past. Patterns competition" [6].

16 Adult :Education in .a Polarizing -World

In its recent report, Learning: the Treasure Within, the International Commission on Education for the Twenty-first Cen- tury warned againstaconcept of "progress" that tolerates the marginalization of large numbers of people as the price of technological and other changes. "The danger is everywhere: hordes of jobless young people, left to fend for themselves in the big cities, are exposed to all the dangers inherent in socialexclusion,"the Commission wrote. "This development is proving very costly in social terms and, at worst, could jeopardize national solidarity. It is therefore possible to say, in deliberately cautiousterms,thattechnological progress is outstripping our capacity to think up solutions to the new problems itraises for individuals and modern Wyk societies" [7).

It is paradoxical that, at a time when lib- Ir eral democracy and joblessness are spreading within the former Soviet bloc, the very countries of Western Europe that advocate democracy are threatened also by the specter of widespread joblessness and growing poverty. Marseilles, France (Photo © Agence Vu/Hugues de Wurstemberger)

BEST COPY AMIABLE

17 tz

at-. %A, --T4

1.111111)1'.:

- amt

't.tet.", A J= - pti - Oar

'thrft-'

:;4' ..- -

Young family, India (Photo: UNICEF/5205/Vilas) 18 BEST COPY AVAILABL E a ,4 . . a.. 4 . a. ,444.-4, 0 .4. Adult Education in a Polarizing World Part II

The opposite of "Education isempowerment. marginalization is It is the key to establishing empowerment, and basic and reinforcing democracy, education isone of the keys to development which is to empowerment, both for both sustainable and individuals andgroups. At humane and topeace the mid-decade meeting of foundedupon mutual the International Consultativerespect and social justice. Forumon Education for All Indeed, ina world in which (Amman, Jordan, June 1996), creativity and knowledge the 250 participants began planan ever greater role, their final communique, the right to education is adopted by acclamationas nothing less than the right the Amman Affirmation, with to participate in the life of- the following words: the modern world" [8].

asic education empowers indi- need to move from exclusion to full par- acy skills, basic scientific concepts and, viduals because it opens up av- ticipation in their society. Basic educa- above all, they need the capacity to con- enues of communication that tion also empowers entirenations tinue acquiring new knowledge and skills. would otherwise be closed, expands because educated citizens and workers personal choice and control over one's have the skills to make democratic insti- environment, and is necessary for the tutions function effectively, to meet the acquisition of many other skills. It gives demands foramore sophisticated Basic. people access to information throughworkforce, to work for a cleaner envi- both print and electronic media, equips ronment, and to meet their obligations Education them to cope better with work and fam- as parents and citizens. ily responsibilities, and changes the is a image they have of themselves.It One irony of the 'knowledge explo- strengthens their self-confidence to par- sion" is that it renders basic skills more Human Right ticipate in community affairs and influ- essential than ever. Access to basic education is a fundamen- ence political issues. Basic education is tal human right. It is also the essential the key with which individualscan In order to move into the mainstream of precondition for the effective exercise of unlock the full range of their talents and the society, marginalized people do not other human and legal rights. The Uni- realize their creative potentials. It gives need special forms of education: they versalDeclarationof HumanRights, disadvantaged people the tools they need solid training in literacy and numer- adopted by the United Nations in 1948,

BEST COPY AVM 1 9 Adult Education in a Polarizing -World

Box A STUDENTS TEACH ADULTS IN ECUADOR

or 75,000 Equadorian secondary school Results were impressive. Over 80 per cent of the 350,000 adults who Fstudents it was the experience of a completed the prescribed literacy course were able to read and lifetime.They bid goodbye to their parents and comprehend a short text on human rights and to write creatively about friends and boarded government trucks bound for their own experience in the campaign. The adult learners entered the places that most had only heard of in books from programme hoping to learn how to read, sign their names, do simple the Galapagos Islands to the soaring Andes. When they arithmetic and use a calculator. They left the programme not only with could go no further by truck, the young people rode donkeys enhanced skills, but with a greater understanding of their rights as or hiked the remaining distance on foot The students had human beings and a determination to express and exercise them. As one accepted the challenge of Equador's newly elected President Rodrigo Borja mother commented, "We must care for these rights as we do for our own to become teachers for four months in the National Literacy Campaign. lives." The campaign was initiated in 1988 to bring down the country's The student-teachers of Equador also taught their nation a lesson illiteracy rate then running at 14 per cent and to promote national about the capabilities of its young people.'There were a lot of doubts awareness of democracy and human rights, including the right to and questions about our ability as young people to teach others to read education. The campaign was a large-scale effort involving the production and write,"said one student, "but we have proven ourselves. We young of teaching materials, training programmes, weekly radio and television people are capable of doing things that society normally does not let us broadcasts, and a monthly newspaper. do."Three-quarters of the students said that they would do it again, and The 12 lessons in the literacy textbook, Nuestros Derechos (Our 82 per cent described the experience as more rewarding than the thesis Rights), were organized around the Universal Declaration of Human that they would have had to write if they had stayed home. "I have been Rights. useful," said one student-teacher enthusiastically. "I have served some Another purpose of the campaign was to educate secondary school purpose. I have been able to teach someone." students about the country's pressing social problems, including rural As the literacy workers packed up their belongings and said their last poverty, and to give them a hands-on opportunity to address them. good-byes, the villagers shyly wiped away their tears and hugged the Students not only had to teach, they also had to find ways to overcome young people tightly. "After the campaign, our lives are going to change a, obstacles preventing people to attend literacy classes. "In the beginning, lot," said one student"They already have changed a lot over these four many people blamed their age, health, or the fact they couldn't see well months. We've come to understand the way our poor people live, the at night"saidone student - teacher. "Others blamed their jobs or children. Equadorian people. After this we will be left with an emptiness inside, But we encouraged them. We told them we would help take care of their leaving all these people, because although they are very poor, they have children while they learned to read and write." touched us very much."

asserted that "everyone has a right to Human rights has even been used as an ondary school students and teacher education,' and this position has been organizing theme in some national lit- trainees as literacy instructors. Each les- embraced and further elaborated in sev- eracy campaigns. In 1989, Ecuador car- son of the literacy text included discus- eral subsequent normative instruments ried out an innovative and successful sions, reading and writing exercises adopted by the world community. campaign that made use of distance based on one of the universal human learning techniques and employed sec- rights. SecBox A. In 1990, during International Literacy Year, the World -Conference on Educa- tion for All reaffirmed the right to education when it adopted the World Declara--What is Adult Basic Education? tion on Education for All. In a formal sense adult basic education ence to various other kinds of basic Article I of the Declaration affirms spe- can be thought of as all forms of organ- knowledge and skills, such as "scientific cifically, "Every person child, youth ized education and training, including literacy", "computer literacy" and "polit- and adult shall be able to benefit from literacy instruction, that meet the basic ical literacy." educational opportunities designed to learning needs of adults. Adults are usu- meet their basic learning needs." Article ally defined for statistical purposes as Itis important to recognize that the 3 added that "basic education should be persons aged 15 years or older. Techni- phrase "meeting basic learning needs" provided toallchildren, youth and cally, the term "literacy" refers to read- means different things in different cir- adults" and declared that "for basic edu- ing and writing skills, but many adult cumstances. The knowledge and skills cation to be equitable, all children, youth literacy programmes today are organ- that a farmer needs to be an active par- and adults must be given the opportunity ized around broader aims and content ticipant in a rural community differ to achieve and maintain an acceptable than just literacy and numeracy. The from those appropriate to a government level of learning' [9]. term is sometimes used also with refer- worker in an urban capital. Moreover, 20 BEST COPY AVAILABLE Adult Education in a Polarizing World

learning needs change over time and find ways to provide thembasic educa- component of "lifelongeducation". basic education should, too. Forty years tion that is relevant to their immediate real- While this reconceptualization is prob- ago, Thailand set out to provide two ity and that can equip them to continue ably more obviously necessary inthe years of basic education to all children. learning as their circumstances evolve." industrialized countries today, basic Over the years the sights were raised, (emphasis added). education of adults in the developing two years at a time, to twelve years at countries is also evolving. present, and the country is now work- Another important development is the ing on legislation regarding adult educa- breakdown of the traditional distinction tion. In countries that have recentlybetween initial education and continu- moved toward democratic forms of ing education. Learning is now for peo- The Importance government, the concept of "political ple of all ages, not merely the young. of Educated literacy" becomes an important part of Gone are the days when one could hope basic education.. to amass an initial fund of knowledge Parents and skills that would serve for a lifetime. For some time to come, however,The rapidchanges efforts will continue to be necessary to now occurring in all A considerable body of research shows promote literacy in its original sense in countries require that one of the most important order to move towards basic education knowledge and determinants of how long pupils for all, especially in nations where illit- skillsto be - continue in school eracy among adults is widespread. The updated con- emergence of "knowledge-rich soci- tinuously eties" and "learning economies" organized around the creation and manipula- Consequently, tion of knowledge, information and the very concept ideas will place new demands on adult of adult basic edu- basic education. Furthermore, the aging cation must be recon- of the population in many countries sidered as an important calls for diverse and flexible approaches to adult learning because senior citizens now have more time available to them and a variety of interests and activities Rural scene. Iron (Photo UNESCO/ Lifelong learning Dominique Roger) Educators around the world are increasingly recognizing the importance of moving beyond a narrow concept of adult basic education. TheWorld Declaration on Education forAll states: "To serve the basic learning needs of all requires more than a recommitment to basic education as it now exists. What is needed is an'expanded vision'that surpasses present resource levels, institutional structures, curricula, and conventional delivery systems while building on the best in current practices " (Article 2)

The final report of the 1996 Amman meeting also emphasizes the importance of context in thinking about adult basic education. Referring to the needs of the "growing numbers of alienated and unemployed adolescents and young adults, many with little or no schooling", the document states "It was agreed that governments must

BEST COPY AVAILABLE 21 Aauit Laucation in a Polarizing World

Box B

EDUCATED PARENTS, EDUCATED CHILDREN

Many studies have reported and even measured cent of the variance in pupils' scores (Nigeria, 1996). the positive correlation between parents' In Lebanon, another survey focusing on fourth grade educational levels and the attendance and pupils found that "the lower the parents' education performance of their children in school. In general levels are, the lower their children's achievement levels terms, children whose parents have at least a basic will be". (Lebanon, 1996) education tend to do better in school than children An earlier study (1994) in Sri Lanka also looked whose parents have had little or no education. The into home background factors that affect children's following graph, for example, shows the average test learning. "In general, the educated parents always try scores of fourth grade pupils in Morocco in relation to to provide their children with some education.... Most the educational level of the father and the mother.The educated parents support learning at home of their data were collected through a sample survey of schools children by providing additional reading material such in ten provinces and involved administering tests in as newspapers, magazines, etc."The study analyzed mathematics, Arabic language and general knowledge the variance of pupils' test scores according to whether to some 3.000 pupils. the parents regularly, sometimes or never "encourage learning", or "support learning" or "supervise work". It found that "The Average test scores of fourth graders in Morocco according to parents' encouragement given by educational attainment parents for the education of their children is seen to be SCORE RELATIVE TO FATHER'S EDUCATIONAL ATTAINMENT SCORE RELATIVE TO MOTHER'S EDUCATIONAL ATTAINMENT contributing to the learning 80 achievement at school." 70 However, parental 60 encouragement for children's 50 learning is not necessarily 40 related to the educational 30 level of the parents. A survey in Mauritius found "Children from families with low socio- economic status received less support at home than those from better-off families. On the other hand, parents with Source: Evaluation du niveau d'acquisition des eleves de la quatrieme armee fondamentale. low educational qualification Direction de la Statistique de la Prospective et de la Programmation, Rabat. 1995. were more likely to help their children in school than parents who had high education levels". (UNESCO- The graph shows that the test scores of pupils UNICEF Monitoring Project, 1995). improve as the level of parental education rises. In this Among the several factors that influence children's case, it appears that the mother's level of education learning, the education of parents is clearly very has more effect on pupils' performance than does the important. In fact, some basic education programmes father's. cater particularly to young adults of child-bearing age A similar survey in Nigeria found that among and deal with family matters and child care in the several "home background" variables, the fathers' lesson materials. Efforts of this kind can enhance the educational qualification was the most predictive of inter-generational effects of basic education to the pupils' performance in school, accounting for 19 per advantage of children and adults.

22 BEST COPY WHAM Adult Education in a Polarizing World

and how well they do is the level of FIGURE 6. PRIMARY EDUCATION: education of their parents. Such find- REQUIRED ANNUAL GROWTH IN ings are well known in industrialized ENROLMENTS TO ACHIEVE UNIVERSAL PRIMARYEDUCATION BY 2000 IN SELECTED COUNTRIES countries, but it has also been shown

that in developing countries, the chil- ETHIOPIA

dren of parents who have at leasta basic MALI

education do better in school. This is ERITREA

especially true of girls with educated DJIBOUTI mothers. See Box B U.FLTANZANIA SENEGAL__IF Such findings make intuitivesense. Par- ents, along with other members of the ZAIRE family and community, are the child's MAURITANIA first teachers. Educated parents under- OMAN stand the value of education andcom- MOROCCO municate this to their children. Theyare TOGO more diligent in assuring attendance ZAMBIA and organizing household affairsso that LESOTHO their children have the time to study KUWAIT and attend school. Thus it follows that EL SALVADOR'' investing in the basic education of CHILE

adults especially those adults with MONGOLIA -

the most influence on the nextgenera- DOMINICAN REP. tion will not only produce better PARAGUAY educated adults but pay off in better BRUNEI educated children as well. NICARAGUA

UNITED ARAB EMIRATES Awareness of the importance of investing in the education of parents is growing. MAURITIUS The Amman Affirmation states, forexam- BAHRAIN ple, "In all societies, the best predictor of ALGERIA the learning achievement of childrenis SWAZILAND the education and literacy level oftheir SYRIAN ARAB REP. parents. Investments in adult education MALAWI and literacy are, thus, investments in the BELIZE

education of entire Families." SOUTH AFRICA

BOTSWAN

PHIUPPINES The Limitations URUGUAY INDONESIT.

of Schooling TUNISIA O FEMALE IN MALE REP. OF KOREA Schools alone cannot do the job of CHINA % 0 10 bringing about universal basic educa- IS 20 2S 30 35 40 tion. Although formal schooling has had great success in most industrialized nations, they still have large pockets of illiterate and poorly educated people. unschooled children for manyyearsto school enrolments, but they mustalso Figure 6 shows the growth in enrol- come. These children will enter the pool ments that would be required to achieve improve the 'efficiency" of schooling by of adult illiterates and becomea primary reducing dropout and repetition rates universal primary education by theyear target for adult basic education pro- 2000 in selected countries. While such among pupils in the education system. a grammes. See Box C, page 22. Actually, a significant proportion of goal is clearly realistic inmany countries, there are others that will be deal- pupils do not complete the primary These countries face a two-fold chal- cycle or even reach Grade 4, which is ingwithsubstantialnumbersof lenge. Not only must they increase considered the threshold of sustainable

BEST COPY AVAILABLE 23 Adult Education in a Polarizing World

Box C ESTIMATED AVERAGE ANNUAL TARGET ILLITERATE POPULATIONS IN SELECTED COUNTRIES, 1990-2000 (ADULTS SCHOOLING, THE LEAKY FAUCET 1 S YEARS AND OLDER, IN MILLIONS)

40 If all children attended school long enough to become sustainably IN SCHOOL DROP-OUTS literate that is, beyond the risk of relapsing into illiteracy 0 I" UNENROLLED CHILDREN MI BACKLOG OF ADULTS adult illiteracy would vanish from the earth in one generation. 20 Unfortunately, this is still a distant prospect.Today, millions of school-age children never enter a school, and millions of those who 8, do enter school drop out before completing even the four years of

schooling that are assumed to be necessary to develop sustainable 6 literacy skills. Later, these children will join the ranks of the millions of adults who cannot read or write. Like a leaky faucet, the school 4 is not yet able to stop the flow of young people into the vast pool of illiterate adults. 3 The graph in this box illustrates how the coverage and 271 efficiency of primary schooling can affect the number of adults

(aged 15 or more) defined as the "target population" for adult 0 literacy programmes. Using data from eight populous countries with large numbers of illiterates, a simulation exercise generated the average number of illiterate adults that each country would have to target for literacy efforts each year during the I990s in order to attain 100 per cent adult literacy by 2000.The simulation completing Grade 4 than by children who were never enrolled at assumed that past trends in school enrolment and drop-out would all. Ethiopia and Pakistan are the two exceptions, where the continue through the decade. number and proportion of unschooled children entering the pool of The overage yearly literacy target population for each country illiterates is much greater than those of school drop-outs entering has three components: (I) the backlog of adults who were the pool. One can see also that in all countries except Brazil, half illiterate at the beginning of the decade, plus (2) those children or more of the adults in the average annual target population are unenrolled in school and who reach age 15 during the 1990s, plus part of the backlog of adult illiterates carried over from prior (3) those pupils who leave school before completing four years of decades. In Nigeria, the proportion is around 70 per cent study and who reach age 15 during the 1990s, since they are In all of these countries, the target population of illiterate assumed not to have sustainable literacy skills. adults could be significantly reduced by tightening the leaky faucet The graph shows, for example, that China would need to target through universalizing access and retention of all children in each year not only some 18 million of the backlog of illiterate primary school for at least four full years to acquire sustainable adults, but. also an additional 3.2 million young adults (reaching literacy skills. For a country the size of India, this would effectively age 15) who did not attend school, plus 14.5 million young adults reduce the average annual target population from 45 million to 28 who dropped out of school before completing Grade 4. million. However, in all countries, the remaining backlog of illiterate For six of the eight countries, the pool of illiterate adults is adults can be reduced only through programmes specially designed replenished more by pupils dropping out of school before for adults and carried out on a large scale.

literacy (see Figure 7). These pupils are education. However, a period of initial opportunities in school and out-of- likely to join the masses of illiterate or schooling that equips all children with school for children, youth and adults. semi-literate adults. the basic knowledge, skills, values and Any strategy that relies on the primary attitudes they need to function in their school alone, in the absence of comple- Schooling no longer constitutes the only communities and to continue learning mentary measures, willfailto meet organized, educational experience for throughout life will continue to be nec- many basic learning needs and is likely most people, as the need for and supply essary, though not sufficient by itself. to be inefficient. Furthermore, a sound of lifelong learning opportunities grow. strategy must take into account that the The world is changing so fast that even A sound strategy to provide basic edu- effectivenessof basiceducationis ifeveryone completed compulsory cation for all requires a combined effort strongly affected by forces beyond the schooling, people would still need more to improve and expand basic learning control of schools. For example, the use 24 Adult Education in a Polarizing World

FIGURE 7. PRIMARY EDUCATION: APPARENT SURVIVAL RATES UP TO GRADE 4, BY REGION, 1990-1995 1(GRADE I IGRADE 2 fGRADE 3 GRADE 4

100%

50 COUNTRIES :24 15 19 6 20 38 POPULATION COVERAGE : 40% 74 92% 80% 83 % 94% DEVELOPED ARAB STATES EASTERN ASIA / SOUTHERN ASIA LATIN AMERICA / SUB-SAHARAN COUNTRIES OCEANIA CARIBBEAN AFRICA

of a widely shared common language, formal education", have a major role to necessary and complementary compo- access to newspapers and books, and play, particularly in providing learning nent of a comprehensive strategy to good levels of nutrition and health tend opportunities for adults. In the words of provide Education for All": The Forum '' to support basic learning. the Amman report: "Nonformal or out- recommended that "nonformal educa- of-school education, once seen as a mar- tion should be recognized as an integral . - Educational activities organized outside ginal and second-class alternative to for- part of an education system, rather.than the school, usually referred to as "non- mal schooling, is increasingly seen as a a parallel but separate alternative".

7**

BEST COPY AVAILABLE 25 . ;

Evening he/my classes, Thailand (Photo: UNESCO/Vidal)

26 BESTCOPYAVA6LABLE

- . _ _-. . Adult Education Part III in a Polarizing World' r

Adult basic Latin America during the late1960s and remains a potent force. Theprojects it education generated are small and localized,however, so its overall quantitative impact is encompasses a said to be rather limited.

wide variety of There have been severalexamples of successful, national mass literacycam- activities,some paigns over the years. Insome countries, such as Cuba, Nicaragua,Viet well-established, Nam and Somalia, their "one-off"cam- while othersare paigns were undertakensoon after rev- olutionary movements accededto ..strugglingto power and enjoyed widespread popular support. In Ecuador, however, thegov- survive. ernment showed that it was possibleto mobilize young people to teachliteracy on a volunteer basis in a nonrevolution- ary setting. See Box A, page 18. Adult education is a long-standing tradition in the Nordic coun- Other adult educationprogrammes areas tries,especially in Sweden, different as the settings where they'are . where large numbers of adults haVe par- carried out, and many combineliteracy ticipated in "study circles" since the instruction with other social objectives.. 1970's. Debate is now underway about For example, the Roman CatholicArchdi- the equity of suchprogrammes, with ocese of San Salvador uses its radio station. critics arguing that the courses intended to provide basic education to children, for under-educated Swedes tend to be of youth and adults, while China hasorgan- short duration and do little to address ized 200,000 "parent schools" attachedto fundamental educational disparities. formal schools to educate citizensabout health, nutrition, child developmentand The best-known adult education move- other matters. Indonesia hasa large-scale ment in the developing world is the 'con- programme to educate mothers on the scientizationn approach inspired by the care of children between birth andage Brazilian educator, Paulo Freire. Through three, while Nepal operatesa programme his bookPedagogy of the Oppressed and that uses textbooks in the form ofcomics other writings, Freire argued that if adults to approximate the first threeyears of for- are given a chance to engage in active mal primary school for adults whohave learning, they will become aware of the little or no schooling. The principalorga- nature and causes of social oppression nizers of many such programmes in devel- and gain the tools to participate inactions oping countries are non-governmental toward social change. Thisconcept of organizations (NGOs), most of which popular education expanded throughout operate on a small scale.

27 in a Polarizing World

FIGURE 8. WORLD ADULT LITERATE AND ILLITERATE POPULATION BY GENDER, 1980-2005 (miLuoms)

5000

4500 4000 Adult Literacy 3500 and Illiteracy 3000

2500 Statistics show that the ranks of the lit-

2000 erate adult population in the world are growing, though the patterns in the 1500 industrialized and the developing coun- 1000 tries are sharply different.

1_11 RATE.11E 500 rid& ,Akt ER.Atti-ev0m As can be seen in Figure 8, the number 0 of literate men and women in the world 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005isincreasing,andthisgrowthis expected to continue for the foreseeable

FIGURE 9. GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF ADULT ILLITERATES, 1995

DEVELOPING COUNTRIES 80 %

DEVELOPED INDIA (33 %) COUNTRIES I%

LEAST DEVELOPED CHINA (19%) COUNTRIES 19% PAKISTAN (6%)

BANGLADESH (5 %) NIGERIA (3 %) INDONESIA (2%) ETHIOPIA (2 %) EGYPT (2 %) BRAZIL (2 %)

future. At the same time, the number of FIGURE 1 O. ESTIMATED ADULT LITERACY RATES BY REGION, 1980TO 2010 illiterate adults has remained at about 100 1980 885 million since 1980 and, if present I. 1995 trends continue, will remain largely 80 2000 unchanged through 2010. This constant 2010 core group of illiterates, almost two- thirds of them women, persists over time despite efforts that are increasing both the number and proportion of the literate population in the world.

20 The distribution of illiterate adults, as shown in Figure9, remains quite 0 uneven: virtually all live in developing countries, with more than half in India ,0 4") and China combined, and nearly a '0° ce>- 0-5 2 8

BEST COPY MAI I AISLE FIGURE 11. GENDER GAP IN ADULT LITERACY RATES BY REGION,1980 AND 1995 probably growing, and as the require- WORLD 1995 ments of the workplace increase, these 1980 people will find themselves increasingly marginalized. DEVELOPED COUNTRIES

DEVELOPING ,-75iMPS.WREWL5W. .M.4ffl COUNTRIES Progress

LEAST DEVELOPED 74 COUNTRIES During the 1990s

LATIN AMERICA/ Participants in the mid-decade meeting CARIBBEAN of the EFA Forum in Amman, Jordan, in EASTERN ASIA/ OCEANIA June 1996, examined the question of whether the world was moving closer SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA to the goal of universal basic education agreed at the Jomtien Conference in ARAB STATES 1990. "In the six years since the adop- tion of the World Declaration on Educa- SOUTHERN ASIA tion for All," they wrote in the final 25 30 % 0 10 I S 20 communiqué, "there has been significant progress in basic education, not in all countries nor as much as had been hoped, but progress that is nonetheless quarter more in seven other nations. for literacy. This does not take into real." Figure 10 shows that while literacy account that adults with poor literacy rates are improving in all regions of the skillsthat are seldom used often The major gains came in expanded pri- world,therearemajor disparities relapse into illiteracy. Yet, on the eve maryschooling.The communique among them. of the 21st century, most children in states: "Primary school enrolment has most countries have at least a few increased, an estimated 50 million more As shown in Figure 11, all regions have years of schooling, so the number of children were enrolled in 1995 than in made progress in narrowing the gender "true" illiterates who have had no 1990. The number of out-of-school chil- gap in adult literacy rates, but signifi- instruction is probably declining. On dren, which had grown inexorably for cant regional disparities remain. Fig- the other hand, the number of indi- decades, is also beginning to decline." It ure 12 shows that improvements in lit- viduals with poor literacy skillsis went on to say that attendance gains eracy rates have been more pronounced among younger age-groups.

Data on the distribution of the adult FIGURE 12. WORLD LITERACY RATES BY AGE -GROUP AND GENDER, population by level of educational 1980 AND 1995 attainmentalsoshowsubstantial regional disparities. As seen in Fig- 100%1 ure 13, page 28, the countries in some regions, notably sub-Saharan Africa and 90 1 : South Asia, have large proportions of adults who either have no formal 80 1" schooling or have an incomplete pri- ...._ 70i mary education. These adults constitute ...... - - the primary target group for adult basic 601 education. ...,..,MEN 1995 MEN ,98° la yo 50 i . . ., ...... There is a strong possibility that these WOMEN 1995 statistics understate the extent of adult 40 I. WOMEN 1980 illiteracy because many countries use 30 years of schooling as a proxy indicator 55-59 604. AGE 15-19 20-24 25.29 30-34 35-39 40-44 45-49 50-54

29 iin a Polarizing World

were accompanied by"a growing tries such as India, Namibia and South mary education," thus illustrating a politi- emphasis on the quality of education". Africa, that have launched major adult cal choice that has been supported by literacy programmes in recent years. many external funding agencies. While celebrating such gains, the Forum warned against oversimplifying the The final report of the Amman meeting problem and focusing only on primary noted, "Many participants felt that the schoolenrolment."Theexpanded strong emphasis given so far to expanding Current vision of basic education espoused in schooling has obscured other dimensions Jomtien has often been reduced to a of EFA and particularly its agenda for Investments simple emphasis upon putting more meeting basic learning needs of people of in Adult Basic children into school: an essential step, all ages needs that evolve over time but only one of many measures needed and tend to become more sophisticated." Education to achieve EFA," says the Amman Affir- The report noted also that representatives mation. Participants were concerned of some developing countries who had Despite the commitments made at the that there was little information avail- spoken of achieving education for allJomtien Conference, the funding of able on adult basic education, with the within a few years were "apparentlycon- adult basic education is precarious in exception of reports from a few coun- fusing EFA with UPE, i.e. universal pri- nearly all countries.

FIGURE 13. LEVEL OF EDUCATIONAL ATTAINMENT OF THE ADULT POPULATION (24+ YEARS)BY REGION, 1995

SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA COUNTRIES :25 ARAB STATES COUNTRIES :9 SOUTHERN ASIA COUNTRIES 7 100 %

EASTERN ASIA/OCEANIA COUNTRIES :40 LATINA AMERICA/CARIBBEAN COUNTRIES : 7 DEVELOPED COUNTRIES COUNTRIES :29

Note :The distance between the ends of the lines extendingfrom each box shows the range of values of the relevant data available for all countries within therespective regions. The box itself spans the 25th to the 75th percentile values (the interquartile range),a measure of dispersion.The median or 50th percentile value is shown by the horizontal lineinside the box. For example, with reference to figure above, the percentage of adult population with 'No schooling'in Sub-Saharan Africa varies from 18% and 89%. For half of these countries for which dataare available, the box indicating range extends from 46% to 73% with the median at 58%. 30 BEST( PY AVAILABLE Adult Education 17,1 in a Polarizing World alati

Another possible reason for the low level of public funding for adult education is the view of some politicians that adult education is not so much an educational enterprise as a charitable activity that can be carried out with volunteers and minimal resources.

Although widespread economic diffi- culties have meant that very few large- scale,national literacy programmes have been undertaken during the 1990s, there have been some exceptions. Namibia launched a well-designed campaign in September 1992 that has enrolled 35,000 learners a year, 80 per cent of them women. The target of the programme is to achieve an 80 per cent national literacy rate by 2000, and preparations are underway for additional adult basic education programmes that will extend beyond basic literacy. See Box D, page 30.

The government of newly democratic South Africa has adopted national guidelines for adult basic education and training, but left implementation to pro- vincialgovernments working with Column 5 in the data tables shows the aboutthe NGOs, universities and the business low level of current public spending on value of adult basic education and gave sector. This approach is seen as most primary and adult education as a pro- impetus to several literacy initiatives, beneficial to black workers who previ- portion of total educational expendi- such as those profiled in these pages. ously faced discrimination on the job, tures. However, these figures need to be Nevertheless, the available statistical and but it is less beneficial to the poorest interpreted with caution. In developing anecdotal data suggest that few govern- segments of the population, especially countries, public funding for adult basic ments have given any real funding prior- women in rural areas. education can be found also in the bud- ity to adult literacy. gets of the ministries of health, agricul- Still another exception can be found' in ture, community development,etc. One reason is that financial crises and Ghana, where the World Bank agreed to Also, it should be recognized that public structural adjustment programmes have fund a large national functional literacy spending on adult education is only part led many governments to reduce their programme. Since its inception in Janu- of the picture. Much adult education is education budget. The result has been ary 1992, about 200,000 learners a year, privately financed, and participants gen- that adult education, which lacks an 60 per cent of them women, have been erally bear some of the direct costs and organized constituency, has often suf- enrolledannually. The programme substantial indirect costs. In industrial- fered deep budget cuts. According to makes use of literacy "facilitators" who, ized countries, adult education typically one estimate, allocations for adult edu- along with their supervisors, work on a includes more than instruction in liter- cation represent less than two per cent volunteerbasis.Evaluationshave acy, numeracy and other basic skills, so of the gradually decreasing education shown that about 50 per cent of the public spending on adult basic education budgets in Latin America. The cuts in learners reached the point where they is not easily identifiable. education budgets are paralleled by could read simple passages correctly. reductions in other social sectors, such Positive side effects included increased In developing countries as health and agricultural extension pro- awareness of the value of tree planting, There is no doubt that the Jomtien Con- grammes, suggesting to one observer vaccinations and cleanliness, as well as ference and the International Literacy that "the State has practically aban- the benefits of boiling water before Year, 1990, raised global consciousness doned the peasants" [10]. drinking.

BEST COPY AVM A1E U 3 it Aault Eaucauon in a Polarizing World

Box D

NAMIBIA: LITERACY FOR CITIZENSHIP In industrialized countries "I am not blind anymore." Economic recession and stagnation "My eyes are open." have taken their toll on education bud- "Being literate has taken me away from the gets also in the industrialized coun- darkness into the light." tries. Yet, as a group, they have more Such were the testimonials of participants in the varied sources of funding to draw on. National Literacy Programme (NLPN) carried out Privateenterprise underwrites and in Namibia during the early 1990s. Now able to read often organizes many adult education letters from distant family members, to help their activities,particularlythosethat children with homework, to fill out forms and control enhance knowledge and skills useful in their finances, these newly literate Namibians see a the workplace. Various tax incentives whole new world before them. are offered by some governments to After becoming independent from South Africa in 1990, the encourage such training and retraining leaders of Namibia took aim at the country's 35 per cent adult illiteracy rate and of the workforce. decided to make education a top national priority. An article establishing the right to education was written into the country's constitution, A recent report, Adult Education Partici- :and the new government set aside one-quarter of the national budget for education. pation in Industrialized Countries, which Tee.perhr cent of the education budget was earmarked for adult education, and the examined data from Canada, Nether- Ministry of Education and Culture used these funds to set up the NLPN. It was backed lands, Poland, Sweden, Switzerland and up by structures in seven regions, 94 districts and 2,162 localities, which aided in the United States, spoke of an "explo- recruiting participants and supporting the programme in communities throughout the sion" of demand for adult and continu- ' country.." ; ing education.It found that almost The curriculum focused on three progressive stages of learning, with primers in ten 75 million of the 200 million adults liv- of the local languages for the most basic stage, readers in nine languages for the ing in these six countries "participated second stage, and readers in basic English for the final stage. in organized learning activities during Topics for the readers ranged from health and home management to government. the year of the survey" [11). Math textbooks were also published for each stage. By early 1995, some 37,000 learners were enrolled in all stages of the programme. However, the provision of basic educa- The NLPN received strong public support from President Sam Nujoma and members tion for adults in the industrialized of the Parliament, who envisioned it as a vehicle for enabling people to better exercise countries is not so evident. their rights and responsibilities as Namibian citizens. As the Hon. Dr Mose P.Tjitendero, speaker of the National Assembly, explained at the opening of a national seminar on The available data must be considered literacy,"Through the acquisition of literacy, we want our people (...] to be self-confident, with caution. For one thing, the study well informed, and, if necessary, critical. We want our citizens to boldly exercise the rights cited above defined adult education in a and responsibilities which are theirs as human beings." broad sense that included on-the-job The speaker also spoke of the positive benefits associated with the literacy of skill training and other continuing edu- 'women, a.powerful issue in a country where 39 per cent of women are the single cation programmes that would not nor- heads of household, each with an average of 5.2 persons. He noted that literate mally be considered "basic" education. women hove more healthy families, pass on their knowledge to their family members, Moreover, distribution of these educa- and convey to them a sense of the value of education. tional services is highly concentrated Eighty per cent of the adults enrolled in the NLPN courses were women, and their among certain segments of the popula- success rates were considerably better than those of men. At Stage one, 68 per cent of tion. women completed the course versus only 31 per cent of men. At Stage two, the success rate was 82 per cent for women and 18 per cent for men. The OECD report Lifelong Learning for Participants spoke of gaining not only new skills, but enhanced self-confidence. All documented what it termed a "large Angelika Toatago Lukas, who is 47, reported, "Family members are happy with me, and and unmet demand" for adult and con- they also show respect. When I return from classes they want to know what! have tinuing vocational training.Its data been taught"Another women recounted, "Before, I talked with my hands in front of my indicate that while one-third of the mouth without looking up. But now I feel strong and free to speak up." labour force in some countries partici- Women also play a key role in running the programme. Seventy percent of the pates in job-related education or train- literacy "promoters" were young women without any other income, supporting nine ing in any given year,thisfigure family members on average. Almost all the promoters felt their experience had been implies that two-thirds of the labor positive, citing gains in their ability to communicate and work with people. Many force do not participate in such activ- promoters will certainly develop into community leaders or professional and adult ities. Moreover, it said, "The data fur- educators now that they have been given a chance. ther suggest that many of the least- qualified receive training lasting only 32

BEST COPYAVAILABLE Adult Education in a Polarizing. World

Tostan project, Senegal (photo: UNESCO/Inez Forbes) one or two days an amount that is but also may choose to drop out when- wastage in adult and young people's unlikely to count much towards the ever they wish. And many do. It can also programmingis nowsufficiently goal of acquiring new skills and qualifi- be argued, however, that adult learners, advanced to prevent them" [13]. There cations" [12]. who sacrifice their free time, often at the isalso evidence that the failure to end of a hard day, and who really feel reduce the absolute number of illiterate the need to acquire new knowledge, are adults in the world is the result not of probably more motivated to learn than inefficient adult education programmes, Priorities many are children. but of the fact that the pool of of donors The costs illiterates is constantly being Thus the supposed ineffi- of effective replenished by new arrivals, Another factor in the equivocal state of ciency of adult education pro- literacy and many of whom spent at least some time in primary school. adult basic education has been the grammes is often used to jus-basic education tify an alternative investment declining support it has received from programmes in formal schooling for chil- Donors also express reluc- donors since the economic troubles of for adults and the 1980s. Despite rhetoric to the con- dren. Such reasoning, how- tance to fund adult literacy trary, many donors have been led to ever, ignores the fact that vast young people programmes for reasons of concentrate their financial and pro- amounts of resources are also compare scale and accountability, as gramme resources on formal primary spent on children who fail to favourably well as doubts about their schooling for children. complete primary school and with the costs quality. Many of these pro- on those who "survive" to the of primary grammes are small, and the It is frequently asserted that adult liter- end but learn little of any use education non-governmental organiza- acy programmes are inefficient and to their lives. tions that run many of them costly, and such accusations have some oftenlackexpertiseinstandard merit. Persons seeking basic education One observer concluded that "The costs accounting procedures and the credibil- as adults may approach the learning pro- of effective literacy and basic education ityof publicadministrations. The cess with memories of failure and frus- programmes for adults and young peo- quality of programmes alsovaries tration from their childhood experience ple compare favourably with the costs considerably, from those that produce at school, as well as other psychological of primary education." Moreover, he little learning to those that develop baggage that children do not possess. continued, "Our knowledge of whatbasic literacy skills much faster than Unlike children, adults choose to learn commonly causes inefficiencies and schools do. 33 BEST COPY AVAILABLE '''' iN.,1.3.4 + .v, ..... ,-1 ,UoltU:', 40. -.';1' .4.47"4-'. tb."1/4' 4':iffiFfik,' -k444,1** ti1.41.44;410.IfititI;a1-..6.'-:;t:/"' --s.i , J-414, .W.,....0.,, . .4 1111"4 '1s tlr';ItS,."? 4.j!, tt. . lio,,,

1.'.17:

E.124.-'..';'4.'i-,";: ....-1'

'44;41i,`,./,.. fk../

_4- Saptagram Women's Movement, Bangladesh(Photo: UNESCO/Vidal) 3 4 -,:. .EST COPY,AYAHAP.k. Adult Education in a Polarizing World Part IV

Widespread basic education is a The Economic prerequisite for economic growth. Rationale This was true in the past for Researchers have documented the correlation between investment in basic edu- developed countries such as cation and economic productivity in developing countries. Studies have esti- Germany, France and the United mated that one-quarter to one-half of the agricultural labour productivity differ- Kingdom. The United States, for ences between countries can be explained example, had achieved an 80 per bydifferencesineducationlevels. Figure 14 shows how adult literacy rates cent literacy rate by themid-19th correlate positively with gross national product (GNP) per capita in developing century. The importanceof countries. The research shows that, as a rule, the economic payoffs of investment education for economic growth in basic education are highest in low- income agricultural economies and those has been demonstrated more still in the early stages of industrial development. The return on investment is larg- recently by the newly est at the primary level of schooling, but still significant at the secondary level. industrialized countries, such as The economic returns apply equally to the Republic of Korea and the education of girls and boys. Singapore, which achieved near- In the emerging "learning economies" of industrialized countries, investment in universal primary school basic education is recognized as a prerequisite for economic growth. Studies by enrolment by the mid-1960s. OECD and others have estimated that the 35 in a Polarizing World

Box E

BRAZILIAN WORKERS LEARN TO educationleveloftheworkforce accounts for up to a quarter of economic BE HEARD growth [14]. There is also evidence of the private returns to individuals on /-1 ver half the population of the State of Paraiba in their investment in education beyond Northeast Brazil is illiterate, and the rate is even primary schooling. Research in the -, higher in its rural areas, which supply many of Brazil's United States has found that a worker construction workers. These workers drift into cities where they with a college degree can expect to earn work long, exhausting hours, and their employers often show little half again as much as someone with concern for the workers' personal well being. only a secondary school diploma. Such Recognizing that literate workers are in abetterposition to articulate gains, of course, vary widely by occupa- their needs and rights, the construction workers' union in the city of Joao Pessoa tion and are typically greater for men undertook to promote literacy among its members and other workers whom it hoped thanfor women, perhaps because to organize. In 1991, the union joined with the nearby Federal University of Paraiba to women are more likely to drop out of establish "schools" at construction sites throughout thecity.Using university lecturers the workforce for periods of time. and students as teachers, these workers' schools offered classes ranging from basic literacy to science subjects. When using classrooms was not feasible, workers watched The case for investment in primary videos on various topics or traveled with teachers to local cultural sites. schooling for children iscompelling, Despite physical fatigue and the overtime work necessitated by low wages, workers but there is surprisingly little informa- showed up Monday through Thursday evenings after work. Since worker turnover was tion on the economic payoffs of invest- high, the makeup of the classes was constantly changing. Nevertheless, the results ment in adult basic education. Most of were palpable, including regular attendance by worker-students at union meetings and the relevant research in industrialized a willingness by workers to stand up for their rights in the workplace. countries has focused on vocational Unlike many literacy campaigns, the programme in Joao Pessoa was an urban and training for workers already employed. local effort. The workers' schools succeeded with minimal state funding, but without Daniel A. Wagner, director of the Inter- support from the central government nor nationwide voluntary mobilization. The national Literacy Institute, observed success of the union and the university team in mobilizing the frequently neglected that "there is little empirical research as populationofmanual labourers shows that determination is a crucial factor in the yet to suggest that adult literacy pro- success of adult literacy efforts. grammes are enabling the unemployed

FIGURE 14. ADULT LITERACY RATES (AGE I 5+) AND GNP PER CAPITA to obtain new jobs or to make major IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES WITH GNP UNDER US$2000, 1995. career changes, even though anecdotal (EACH DOT REPRESENTS ONE COUNTRY) claims abound. Furthermore, there is

_ . virtually no evidence from developing countriesthatadultliteracypro- grammes leadtoactualeconomic improvements in the lives of programme participants" [15].

80 The Social Rationale 60 Man does not live by bread alone. The purpose of basic education is not only to turn people into producers and con- 40 sumers, but to help them to adapt to and shape the conditions in which they

y = 16.194Ln(x) - 38.042 find themselves and to become fulfilled Ft' = 0.318 20 R = 0.5639 individuals, parents and members of N = 64 the community. Societies as a whole benefit from having a substantial mass GNP PER CAPITA (5 U. S.) of educated adults who share a corn-

SOO 1000 1500 2000

BEST COPY AVAILABLE36 Adult Education in a Polarizing World

FIGURE 15.ADULT LITERACY RATES (AGE15+) AND LIFE EXPECTANCY AT BIRTH IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES, 1995 mon cultural heritage and have access to other cultures and to universal cultu- 80 ral values. "Even if literacy has only y = 0.3432x 37.835 limited direct economic consequences ", = 0.5653 1,2 R =0.7519 said Wagner, "it may have secondary a 70 N=I01 social consequences which become U important objectives for development z planners" [16]. 2 60

Some of these social consequences are "i immediately evident. In an evaluation 50 of a literacy programme in 1989 in 00 Ernakulam, a district in the Indian state of Kerala, P. J. Joseph reported that, in 40 addition to achieving 100 per cent adult

literacy, the programme produced sig- ADULT LITERACY RATES (%) 30 nificant side effects afterwards, includ- I 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 ing a considerable reduction in the inci- 70 80 90 100 dence of petty crimes, a reduction in the number of invalid votes during the next general election, and a decline in the responsible citizens, and they took care Literacy can also lead to social action. In number of dropouts Erom schools. to give their children all the facilities of the Nellore district of Andra Pradesh, "When learners began to enjoy the fruits education of which they had beenanother Indian state, the literacy cam- of literacy," he wrote, "they became deprived" [17]. (See Box F) paign used a text that included a story

Ai Box F

INDIA'S TOTAL APPROACH TO LITERACYACTION

the entire community including artists, The Total Literacy Campaigns reach out street dramatists, folk dancers and to all age groups. By June 1996, the community committees to create a campaigns had taken root in 401 districts climate hospitable to literacy. instatesthroughoutthommunities of C f, throughout India, over 73 million learners India gathered to sing folk This approach was adopted by the had been enrolled, and 56 million of them songs and watch plays. Students, teachers and National Literacy Mission, one of several had become literate. Kerala become the community leaders rallied at mass meetings missions established by the Indian first Indian state to achieve 100 per cent to focus public attention on literacy. In the 18 Government following the launch of the adult literacy. In Kerala's Ernakulam development blocks and 12 towns of West National Policy on Education in 1986. The District, for example, over 185,000 persons Bengal's Hooghly District, teachers mounted Mission modeled the approach on a previous aged six to sixty had learned to read thanks door-to-door canvasses to convince parents to effort, PROPEL, which had promoted to the commitment of 20,000 literacy send their non-enrolled children to school. community ownership of education. Under volunteers. These diverse actions were part of India's the PROPEL programme, 137 villages The literacy campaigns did more than nationwide, Total Literacy Campaigns, which established Village Education Committees enrol children in school and teach adults basic use a holisitic approach. Adult literacy (VECs), which evaluated the needs of each literacy skills. They also raised awareness programmes generally offer instruction in village, conducted training sessions for about issues covered in the materials and basic reading and writing for adult learners. teachers, provided space for non-formal infused teachers and learners with a long- However, India's Total Literacy Campaigns education centres and mobilized the parents term interest in literacy. Once people feel that recognized the need to mobilize all members of children not enrolled in schools. The VECs they have "er stake in the process and know of a community. Each district-led campaign also set up various support programmes, how to organize a campaign, efforts to involves pre-school and school-age children, including child recreation centres for 3- to promote and sustain literacy can continue as well as adult learners, and it mobilizes 6-year olds and Women's Development Groups. even without government sponsorship.

BEST COPY AVAILABLE 37 C.,41.1,1211,14 in a Polarizing World

Box G based on the experiences of women harassed by drunken husbands.This les- THE PRIORITY OF WOMEN'S LITERACY son inspired newly literate women to organize committees to protest against The gender dimension of illiteracy is rarely raised in industrialized countries, where the sale of alcohol, which led to the the majority of illiterate adults and those with poor literacy skills tend to be men. closing down of the liquor shop in their In developing countries, however, the majority of illiterate adults are women, and the village and the spread of their move- gender gap in illiteracy persists. ment into neighbouring districts.

The Amman Affirmation cited the education of women as an issue deserving priority A large body of research has established attention. Referring back to the 1990 World Conference on Education for All, it a strong correlation between literacy recalled that "No point was more stressed in Jomtien than the urgent need to close and social development indicators, such the gender gap in education, both as a matter of simple equity and as the most as health and nutrition, life expectancy effective means for responding to demographic pressures and promoting and fertility in developing countries. As development. Yet, progress towards this goal has been excruciatingly slow; much more can be seen from Figure 15, life expect- must be done." ancy at birth rises as adult literacy rates increase. Studies have shown that the The final report of the Amman meeting went on to point out that "since Jomtien, greatest social benefits accrue from the there is a much better understanding of the positive links between educating girls extension of basic education to girls and and women, on one hand, and family income, health, fertility, child survival, and women. As they become more literate, agricultural productivity on the other." Numerous studies and statistical correlations women tend to marry later (Figure 16), show strong links between the education of women and such measures of well-being, bear fewer children (Figure 17), and the and it is now widely recognized that the benefits of investing in the education of girls mortalityrateofyoungchildren and women extend to members of both sexes, both children and adults. declines (Figure18). Other studies have shown that women with even a The Amman report states that "Participants talked about a 'new political will' to close few years of schooling are better agri- the gender gap and urged that instead of looking only at constraints to educating culturalworkers, generate more girls, one should identify pragmatic local solutions that accelerate the enrolment of income, and take better care of their girls in school." It then cited a few specific examples of progress, such as the families. Educated women are more programme in Guinea where the government has formed a partnership with local likely to serve nutritious meals and seek organizations and external donors to boost girls' enrolment. Unfortunately, such medical care; consequently, their chil- programmes appear still to be the exception rather than the rule. dren are more likely to avoid illness and do well in school. (See Box G).

Such datamake intuitive sense. Women, after all, tend to run house- FIGURE 16. FEMALE LITERACY RATES (AGE 15+) AND MEDIAN AGE AT FIRST holds, and they influence their daugh- MARRIAGE IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES1995 ters, who have households and families of their own later on. 33

y =0.0535x 18.386 Although research has shown compel- R' =0.2816 :-2 30 ling correlations between basic educa- 2 R =0.5307 N =85 tion and various measures of social well- -E being, the issue of causality remains 27 unclear. One observer has suggested 0 that "literacy and basic education are

:q24 perhaps better seen as enabling factors in z the complex matter of development a rather than as strictly causal factors" [18]. 21 Nevertheless, the correlations are strong, and the non-economic arguments for 18 investment in basic education are likely to become more important in the future, FEMALE LITERACY RATES (X)

I I when meaning in life will probably 15 1 0 depend less on structured employment. 10 20 30 40 SO 60 70 80 90 100

38 BEST COPY AVAILABLE FIGURE 1 7.TOTAL FERTILITY RATES AND FEMALE LITERACY RATES(AGE 1 5+) IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES, 1995 The spread of democratic institutions in z 10 countries around the world, which is y = -0.045I* 7.3223 proceeding at a rapid pace, offers a new 0 R' = 0.5789 R = 0.7608 incentive to engage in large-scale basic iL8 N = 87 education programmes for adults. In

a order to function well, democratic insti- a a I g a a t, tutions require a well informed citi- U6 O zenry with at least basic literacy and I social skills. Some observers argue that A a.. the ultimate justification of adult educa- Z 4 a so s Ns w tion is sustaining and strengthening civil 3 society. "Its task is to support pluralism, enhancing democracy through dispers- ing power," writes C. Duke [19]. Put in negative terms, the absence of an edu-

70 80 90 100 cated citizenry threatens political stabil- 10 s' 20 30 40 SO 60 FEMALE UTERACY RATES (%) ity by fostering marginalization and polarization and by making the task of governance more complicated. How- ever, education alone is no guaranteeof participation in political life, as some established democratic countries have As with the economic returns on invest- tives, such as establishing religious found. ment in basic education, studies ofthe authority in Protestant countries in the social impact of basic education have 16th century or promoting national sol- The newly democratic countries cannot relied primarily on data relating to years idarity in countries such as China, wait for the current generation of chil- of schooling rather than on analysis ofCuba, Ethiopia, Nicaragua and the for- dren to pass through the school system the outcomes of adult education pro- mer Soviet Union. Today, such pro- in order to create an educated citizenry. grammes for youth and adults. One rea- grammes are viewed as evidence that Today's adults must make democratic son for this is that adult learningbeyond governments of developing countries institutions work now, and equipping basic literacy has for the most part been are concerned to improve thelot of them to do so will require substantial a privilege reserved for afortunate few. their most disadvantaged citizens. investment in adult basic education.

All countries on the development spectrum need "social capital" as well as human capital. Citizens need to trust each other and be able to work together. FIGURE 18. FEMALE LITERACY RATES (AGE15+) AND MORTALITY RATES Social capital is eroding in many coun- OF CHILDRENUP TO AGE 5 IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES,1995 tries, due to many factors, including eth-

nic conflicts, and those countries cannot 300 A y = 2.0986x * 223.41 wait until their children are properly edu- A R' = 0.5906 cated and grow up to re-establish social A R = 0.7685 250 solidarity. Reversing social marginaliza- N = 89 A tion and polarization requires A 200 efforts on many fronts, including the pro- AAA A A A vision of opportunities for adults to A A .A acquire at least a basic education. ISO 4 -5. A A A A A A A A A A A A The Political I00 A SO A. A. A Rationale AA 4

1 I 1 A 1 History offers many examples of coun- I 1 80 90 100 tries that have embarked on literacy 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 FEMALE LITERACY RATES (%) programmes to achieve politicalobjec- 39 BEST COPY AVAILABLE muuli muucailon in a Polarizing World

Evening classes for students at Nairobi secretarial school (Photo: UNESCO/Dominique Roger)

community level, Lind reported, the for international peace and solidarity in Personal greater sense of self-esteem that came an interdependent world." from literacy led learners to become Development more active participants in meetings and One innovative approach toliteracy organizations. They typically expressed instruction that goes in this direction is and reactions such as, "I am now somebody REFLECT (Regenerated Freirean Literacy and have something to say. Before I used Through Empowering Community Tech- Empowerment to remain quiet and felt very stupid" [20]. niques), started in 1993 by ACTIONAID, a As seen above, adult education pro- British non-governmental organization, grammes can be powerful instruments Another function of education, in John and piloted in some 100 villages in Uganda, for promoting economic, social and Ryan's words, "is to instill in individuals El Salvador and Bangladesh. This approach, political objectives. But the purpose of the need and duty to make all aspects of which builds on the theories of Brazilian education must not be restricted to "fit- life fit for human beings." Until now, educator Paolo Freire, has each literacy ting" human beings into the production adult education in the industrialized group develop its own learning materials process or into various social institu- and developing countries has tended to using maps, calendars and diagrams that tions. Education has two other impor- respond to the needs of the economy, represent local situations and help the tant functions. but has focused hardly at all on more group to analyze and organizetheir social and cultural purposes. knowledge. Using locally designed visual First, education equips individuals to cards, graphics are transferred to paper, develop and express the full richness of TheWorld Declaration on Education for All and each participant creates a book with their particular personalities and talents took note of these broader purposes of phrases he or she has written. Evaluations in the various roles they play in society. education: after reaffirming the right of of the pilot experiences suggest that this In other words, education empowers individuals to have their basic learning approach not only teaches people to read people. A. Lind's evaluation of the needs met, it went on to state, "The sat- and write and enhances their self-esteem, national literacy programme in Namibia isfaction of those needs empowers indi- but it also prompts learners to take actions (see Box D on page 30) described the viduals in any society and confers upon at the community level to improve living empowering nature of that project. them a responsibility ... to promote the conditions. Learners have taken greater Learners reported feelings of "coming education of others, to further the cause controlofhouseholddecisionsand out of darkness" and increased self-confi- of social justice, ... ensuring that com- resources, showed greater awareness of dence and self-reliance in dealing with monly accepted humanistic values and health issues and improved the school banks, post offices and hospitals. At the human rights are upheld, and to work attendance of their children [21]. 40 BEST COPY MUM Adult Education in a Polarizing, World. Conclusion s zznc Edue ti

1 0)

As we have seen, adult basic The preceding analysis of the trends in adult education can play a significant role in achieving such basic education contains hopeful signs. objectives. Through the acquisition of Globalization of economies, the advent of basic knowledge and skills, individuals can gain the tools and self-confidence to knowledge-based societies and political become productive workers, citizens breakthroughs in the direction of democratic and family members, and fulfill themselves as human beings. The importance forms of government can be forces for of education as an engine of economic positive change. They have the potential to development means that, for the first time,countrieslackinginnatural bring members of the world community resources or large amounts of capital are no longer doomed to poverty. The com- together, to make them more aware of each ing of a world where ideas have greater other's needs and to assist individuals and value than petroleum is a welcome development. The difficulty, as John societies in addressing common concerns Ryannotes,isthat'educational ranging from protection of the environment resources are even less equitably distrib- to the easing of ethnic strife. Theseforces uted than natural riches.' The most challenging fact in the forego- also carry with them the tools by which ing analysis is that there are still nearly marginalized individuals and groups can one billion illiterate adults in the world, and the number will probably stay at work their way into the mainstream of their this level into the next century unless societies and thereby reverse the polarizing large-scale and determined efforts are made to reduce it through a combina- tendencies that are apparent in many tion of universal primary schooling and countries. adult literacy activities. 41 Adult Education in a Polarizing World

FIGURE 19. PUBLIC EXPENDITURE ON EDUCATION AND THE MILITARY AS PER CENT OF GNP IN SELECTED COUNTRIES, 1994 ernment budgets. For example, spend- 18 OMAN s ing on the military outpaces spending SAUDI ARABIA 14 on education in many countries, as illus- 6 RWANDA 13 trated in Figures 19 and 20. However, F.r.14 Figure 2 I shows that military expendi- KUWAIT re ture by the donor countries as a group YEMEN 8 has actually been declining during the 10 RUSSIAN FED. 4 1990s along with their development 9 aid. Considering that annual expendi- AZERBAIJAN - 5 9 tures on weapons worldwide are esti- ISRAEL mated to be in the region of US$800,000 MOZAMBIQUE 8 6 million, a mere one per cent reduction JORDAN 7 5 would liberate the funds needed to PAKISTAN 7 achieve 100 per cent primary school enrolment. BAHRAIN 6 BRUNEI 6 The world community and each indi- 6 GREECE .3 vidual country thus face a choice. They SIERRA LEONE IS 2 can stand by while the forces of mar-

U.A. EMIRATES ginalization and exclusion exact their toll on individuals and whole societies, UNITED STATES create the seeds of conflict and anti- SINGAPORE 4 3 democratic forces, threatening the very TURKEY 4 stability of world order. Or the nations SRI LANKA of the world can make the necessary investments to address marginalization QATAR 4 MILITARY and polarization in their many faces. Of rEDUCATION LEBANC-111 3 course adult basic education is no pana- 3 CHINA 13 cea. Concerted efforts are necessary on % of GNP 0 I0 15 20 economic, social,political and other fronts. But ensuring that alladults acquireabasic education, whether Recent estimates of what it would costditional US$3,000 million to US$6,000 through primary schooling when they to provide a place in school for all million per year during the latter half of are children or through basic education school-age children by the year 2000the 1990s. Investments of this magni- programmes for adults, is an important suggest that the developing countries tude would require substantial rethink- starting point, and without gains on this together would need to invest an ad- ing of the priorities embedded in gov- front little else will be accomplished.

FIGURE 21. TRENDS IN MILITARY EXPENDITURE AND FIGURE 20. PUBLIC EXPENDITURE PER SOLDIER FOR ECONOMIC AID BY DEVELOPED COUNTRIES, 1960-1994 US$100 SPENT PER STUDENT BY REGION, 1994 (1987 US$ IN BILLIONS) 600 SOUTH ASIA :

AFRICA SOO

EX-USSR

LATIN AMERICA

OCEANIA FAR EAS13Ej NORTH AMERICA EE EASTERN EUROf=a EUROPE (N/±01 M1

MIDDLE EAST ECONOMIC AID GIVEN OTHER EUROPEa 0 14000 16000 US dollars0 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000 12000 1960 1970 1980 1990 1992 1993 1994 42 BEST COPY MI _ABLE. Adult Education in a Polarizing World

STATISTICAL TABLES Selected Educational and Socio-Economic Indicators for 132 Developing Countries and Territories

his section presents statistical data on ten selected educational adult education, and (iii)the share spent on primary education. and socio-economic indicatorsfor132 developing countries Unfortunately, data on public spending for education, especially for adult grouped by major region. All figures are from official sources, education, are not available for many countries. except the figures shown in yellow, which are estimates. The columns Columns 6 through 10 present data on certain variables that may showing data for the latest year available (LYA) generally refer to 1994 or correlate statistically with data on education. GNP per capita (column 6) 1995, but for some countries they pertain to the early 1990s. is often used as a rough measure of a country's general economic Data in columns 3 and 4 give a rough picture of each country's actual situation and hence its capacity to finance education. The Gini index situation in respect to adult literacy, while columns I and 2 show data that (column 7) is a summary measure of equality in the distribution of could affect its evolution through the effects of primary schooling: its income or consumption on a scale from zero to 100. Zero represents coverage (column I) and efficiency (column 2). Columns I, 3 and 4 also hypothetical total equality of income among households, whereas 100 show disparities between the sexes. represents a hypothetical concentration of all income in one household: Column S presents three indicators of a country's investment in hence the lower the value shown, the more equality in income education: (i) its spending on education expressed as a percentage of its distribution. The headings for columns 8, 9 and 10 are defined in the gross national product (GNP), (ii) the share of that investment spent on glossary in Annex 3.

ARAB STATES

ac 4:-z 0

C7 sr AC' En

cs . . , 6 7 8 9 10 I 2 3 4 5

% F .5 II FOR maucrFOR NUNART 1994 LYA 1995 1995- 1995 1985 LYA GRADE FINAL MEN WOMEN TOTAL % F TOTAL OF EDUCATIONEDUCATION 2000 4 GRADE 1980 1995 GNI (SI DO BOYSGIRLSBOYSGIRLS (YEARS) 1980 1995 1980 1995 38.7 61 3.8 68 ALGERIA 94 78 99 91 98 90 (6) 54.873.924.3 49.0 610364.0 658265.8 1690 7500 2.9 72 BAHRAIN 94 98 99100 95 83 (6) 79.589.1 60.2 79.4 6354.0 5655.54.95 5.4 48 DJIBOUTI 37 26 36 28 96 94 (6) 45.360.3 18.1 32.7 10861.1 181 63.83.77 53.4 63.625.5 38.8 1594661.51895462.05.65 71032.0 51 3.4 65 EGYPT 8867 95 82 99 98 (5) 53.9 ...... 71 5.3 67 IRAQ 99 87 83 74 (6) 55.370.7 25.045.0 418862.1 484864.6 55.8 43.4 25 5.1 69 JORDAN 89 89 98 79 (10) 82.493.4 53.9 79.4 46471.1 41474.7 1390 19040 142.8 75 KUWAIT 88 85 61 61 99 99 (4) 72.882.2 59.1 74.9 26448.5 20058.65.62 402.8 69 LEBANON (5) 90.694.782.090.3 22267.1 151 66.7 1.98

LIBYAN ARAB 63 5.9 64 98 96 (9) 72.987.9 31.063.0 74968.0 70273.0 JAMAHIRIYA 37.6 48042.4 195 5.0 53 MAURITANIA 61 50 71 62 (6) 41.449.6 18.7 26.3 61359.2 80660.43.97 33.0 115039.2 95 3.1 64 MOROCCO 73 48 81 62 83 72 (6) 42.056.6 16.2 31.0 782459.8 973061.85.38 46.7 5200 257.2 70 OMAN 70 63 72 70 98 94 (6) 4.48 0.49 PALESTINE A.T. 100 98 (6) 14540 3.8 71 QATAR 88 94 81 80 97 92 (6) 72.079.2 64.879.9 4736.2 8227.13.46 7240 345.9 71 SAUDI ARABIA 60. 42 66 59 96 91 (6) 60.271.5 31.750.2 278656.7 387155.06.25 211 7.0 48 SOMALIA II 6 (8) 1154.6 54 SUDAN 94 81 (6) 43.157.7 17.0 34.6 721659.6 850760.9 0.10 40.5 36 4.0 68 SYRIAN ARAB REPUBLIC100 92 95 87 95 85 (6) 72.485.7 34.4 55.8 207369.7 225975.44.25 180040.2 37 2.9 69 TUNISIA 99 87 98 9S 95 87 (6) 61.178.6 32.3 54.6 197464.0 193067.86.33 41:5 19 3.5 74 UNITED ARAB EMIRATES 76 77 84 82 99 95 (6) 71.878.963.7 79.8 21928.8 27229.5 2.06 280 1107.6 S1 YEMEN (9) 7.46

I. Yellow figures are estimates. 2.Yellow figures are calculated using the apparent cohort method.

43 BEST COPY AVAI_ABLE mow'. cuucdtioli in a Polarizing World

SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA

s-s hW 4/cr W co cr

4? 0:: 14.1 2e00 44. 444"0 A.-

I 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

1985 LYA GRADE FINAL MEN WOMEN TOTAL % F TOTAL % F ASS FOR ADULTFOR PRIMARY 1994 LYA 1995 1995- 1995 4 GRADE OF EDUCATIONEDUCATION 2000 BOYSGIRLSBOYSGIRLS (YEARS) 1980 1995 1980 1995 1980 1995 GNP (A) 1%) ANGOLA 34 34 (4) 3 292 6.7 48

BENIN 71 36 69 35 71 61 (6) 28.048.7 9.7 25.8 153256.7 179260.2 370 142 5.8 48

BOTSWANA 84 94 94 99 91 84 (7) 70.480.5 43.2 59.9 20769.6 25569.1 8.61 1.74 31.1 2800 52 4.4 66

BURKINA FASO 29 17 35 23 87 61 (6) 18.8 29.5 4.3 9.2 345855.0 459757.1 3.59 0.37 41.7 300 164 6.6 47

BURUNDI 47 35 56 48 75 74 (6) 37.4 49.3 12.0 22.5 174061.7 222162.43.84 44.5 150 176 6.3 51

CAMEROON 77 67 8069 70 58 (6) 58.9 75.029.7 52.1 269564.3 271266.52.99 680 108 5.3 57

CAPE VERDE 98 95 100100 (6) 64.281.4 38.0 63.8 7969.6 6471.24.36 9.66 54.7 910 3.6 65 CENTRAL AFRICAN 74 47 65 43 38 16 (6) 40.568.5 19.0 52.4 95660.3 76062.52.83 52.7 370 165 4.9 50 REPUBLIC

CHAD 39 21 (6) 46.762.1 19.4 34.7 175161.5 186864.32.17 0.55 42.1 190 152 5.5 49

COMOROS 60 51 58 48 84 76 (6) 56.064.2 40.0 50.4 8958.4 143 57.93.74 40.8 510 5.5 56

CONGO 64 44 (6) 64.5 83.1 39.6 67.2 44464.9 35467.78.34 640 108 5.9 51

COTE DIVOIRE 79 72 (6) 34.3 49.9 13.7 30.0 330954.7 433957.2 51036.9 150 5.1 50 EQUATORIAL (5) 77.289.644.7 68.1 5170.6 4976.5 1.75 430 GUINEA 5.5 48

ERITREA 33 30 87 79 (5) 195 5.3 52

ETHIOPIA, 28 19 54 51 (6) 32.1 45.5 14.0 25.3 1511756.81905257.54.30 1.46 53.6 130 195 7.0 49

GABON (6) 54.3 73.728.0 53.3 32162.6 29565.1 3550 148 5.4 55

GAMBIA 77 48 64 46 87 82 (6) 37.052.8 12.5 24.9 27859.0 40362.35.18 0.98 42.5 360 I10 5.2 46

GHANA 84 78 (6) 59.075.9 30.5 53.5 328663.7 338766.53.10 0.76 29.2 43033.9 130 5.3 S7 GUINEA 36 18 87 73 (6) 34.449.9 10.7 21.9 187758.2 227261.02.24 2.41 35.0 51046.82196.6 46

GUINEA-BISSAU 74 38 (6) 53.4 68.025.642.5 29562.7 28265.5 24056.2 227 5.4 45

KENYA 78 42 (8) 72.286.3 44.2 70.0 347967.1 323769.07.03 3.16 62.4 26057.5 904.9 55

LESOTHO 61 81 60 71 85 68 (7) 70.5 81.1 45.2 62.3 33468.0 34068.1 4.83 1.18 48.8 70056.0 154 4.9 62

LIBERIA (6) 38.0 53.9 11.2 22.4 78758.4 101462.4 2166.3 56

MADAGASCAR 37 28 (5) 23043.4 164 S.7 58 MALAWI 46 41 100100 94 91 (8) 63.971.9 27.841.8 178969.0 258768.9 3.51 55.4 140 2196.7 45 MALI 22 13 30 19 81 61 (6) 20.2 39.4 8.7 23.1 313555.5 391757.42.26 0.49 47.2 250 2106.6 47

MAURITIUS 100 100 95 96 100 99 (6) 81.687.1 66.578.8 16365.6 13862.43.74 0.02 37.7 3180 232.3 71

MOZAMBIQUE 56 47 44 34 58 47 (5) 44.0 57.7 12.223.3 455863.8 529865.56.34 49.8 80 2756.1 47 "NAMIBIA 86 92 86 74 (7) 8.74 2030 784.9 60

NIGER 32 17 29 17 83 62 (6) 13.9 20.9 2.8 6.6 273054.4 4081 55.3 23036.1 210 7.1 48

. NIGERIA 83 74 (6) 46.767.3 23.047.3 2622960.22607562.7 28037.5 191 5.9 51 RWANDA 61. 58 76 76 69 44 (7) 55.069.8 29.651.6 153462.0 169562.5 0.09 67.7 28.9 1396.0 47 SAO TOME (4) 8 PRINCIPE 250 67

SENEGAL 57 39 60 48 (6) 31.043.0 12.1 23.2 237656.3 308457.74.37 0.30 43.9 61054.1 1105.6 50

SEYCHELLES 99 99 (6) 9.76 0.73 28.2 6210 71

SIERRA LEONE (7) 30.045.4 8.5 18.2 149458.2 172761.3 150 284 6.1 40

SOUTH AFRICA 95 96 77 68 (7) 76.981.9 74.581.7 423453.2 473151.07.06 301058.4 673.8 64

SWAZILAND 78 80 95 96 83 69 (7) 63.878.0 57.1 75.6 120S5.8 11456.26.78 0.84 33.5 1160 4.5 58

TOGO 86 56 90 66 93 85 (6) 49.267.0 18.4 37.0 96762.9 108566.56.15 31.8 128 6.1 56

UGANDA 63 40 (7) 61.873.7 31.750.2 366965.0 417266.2 1.93 32040.8 185 7.1 44 UNITED REPUBLIC 55 56 47 48 87 77 (7) 65.879.4 34.1 56.8 OF TANZANIA 491267.0 5171 68.75.04 3.42 41.6 20038.1 160 5.5 52

ZAIRE 81 61 71 50 83 80 (6) 74.686.645.2 67.7 593170.1 518473.0 31.7 185 6.2 52

ZAMBIA 86 81 76 75 92 78 (7) 64.785.643.2 71.3 130863.6 108268.02.64 35046.2 203 5.5 48

ZIMBABWE 100 100 79 69 (7) 82.890.4 68.0 79.9 91965.7 94068.38.34 0.03 51.6 49056.8 744.5 52

I.YellOw figures are estimates. 2. Yellow figures are calculated using the apparent cohort method. 44 BEST COPY AVALABLE Adult Education - in -'a Polarizing-World-

EASTERN ASIA / OCEANIA

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

1985 LEA GRADE FINAL MEN WOMEN TOTAL % F TOTAL % F Ass FOR ADULTFOR PRIMARY 1994 LYA 1995 1995- 199$ 4 GRADE OF EDUCATIONEDUCATION 2000 BOYSGIRLSBOYSGIRLS (YEARS) 1980 1995 1980 1995 1980 1995 GNP IV (V BRUNEI DARUSSALAM_-78 78 91 91 95 91.(6) 85.792.667.883.4 . 2763.0 2266.74.60 0.23 24.1 14240 2.7.'74 CAMBODIA 59 SO (5) 1744.5 53 ' CHINA 95 86 99 98 95- 92 78.689.9517717218848 16617371.9 (5) . '67A 156 178 36.8 53037A 4718S69 COOK ISLANDS (6) 29.8 . .... 7.- --..:: : i-, DEM. PEOPLF3.Rii-._ 77' '(4). 71 OF KOREA. . ,

FIJI* 97 97 99100 87 82 (6) 87.093.878.9 89.3 6660.6- 4363.05.39 50.5 2320 . 2.8 72 . . INDONESIA 100 95 99: 95 92t- 86 (6) 77389A 57.778i.28325.663-21507 6.13.5 122 79031 .7 752.6.64 KIRIBATI 91 90 (7) 7.51 730 LAO PEOPLE'S DEM: REP. 51 ,40 75 61 59 53 (5) 55.6 69.427744.4 108361.8 117065.6135 -3.79 412 32010:4 1346.7 .52

MALAYSIA 99 96 (6) 79.689.1 59.7 78.1 240067.0205766.86.10 33.4 352048.4 13 3.2 71

MONGOLIA 74 77 (3) 81.588.6 63.3 77.2 26167.0 25666.6 5.21 23.S 340 743.3 6S

MYANMAR (5) 85.788.7 68.277.7 472769.2 491367.1 47.7 1503.3 59

PAPUA NEW GUINEA 67 52 (6) 70.081.045.1 62.7 73762.4 72464.5 1160 7.. '_ 95.7..4 57 .. PHILIPPINES 97 96100100 74 69 (6) 90.695.0 88.794.3 291154.8 223453.1 2.97 96040.7 533.6 67

REPUBLIC OF KOREA 94 95 92 94 100 100 (6) 97.4 99.3 90.1 96.7 156679.5 69782.34.46 41.9 8220 23 1.7 -,,.... SAMOA (8). 4.20 52.6 3.8 68 . ... _ -_,.. SINGAPORE100100100100 (6) 91.6953 74.08C3 3017C I-19676A316 26.8 23360 SOLOMON ISLANDS 85 73 (6) 4.20 0.06 56.5 800 4.9 71 THAILAND 91 87 (6)- 92.396.084.0 91.6 329768.2 261368.33.80 1.66 52.8 221046.2 32 1.7 69 ... _...... TONGA 92 90 (6) 4.83 38.8 1650 TUVALU. 96 96 (8) 35.9'

VANUATU 76 72 72 53 (6) 4.82 58.1 1150 65

VIET NAM. (5) 90.096.5 77.6 91.2 513372.2 291673.1 19035.7 452.9 66

I. Yellow figures are estimates. 2.Yellow figures are calculated using the apparent cohort method.

SOUTHERN ASIA cs 4," s.; 0 cr'r I:: CO cr 4.;4asr. 14

0 I:: hWvyQ 42 k tt444 Z.00 C/20:: g 44( " 0 :.?Ci Jct.

I 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

1985 LEA GRADE FINAL MEN WOMEN TOTAL % F TOTAL S F AS S FOR ADULTFOR PRIMARY 1994 LEA 1995 1995- 1995 4 GRADE OF EDUCATIONEDUCATION 2000 BOYSGIRLSBOYSGIRLS (YEARS) 1980 1995 1980 1995 1980 1995 GNP (V 191

AFGHANISTAN 23 1I 42 15 S3 37 (6) 32.6 47.2 5.7 15.0 737157.0 816960.5 2576.9 45

BANGLADESH 64 48 66 58 60 53 (5) 41.3 49.4 17.2 26.1 3355157.24508257.72.32 44.2 23028.3 115 3.1 57 BHUTAN 88 70 (7) 41.1 56.2 14.9 28.1 S3259.0 55862.12.90 400 189 5.9 52

INDIA 86 65 9074 67 62 (5) 55.3 65.5 25.3 37.725059260.929070562.83.75 0.95 38.5 31033.8 115 3.1 62

ISLAMIC REP. OF IRAN 8S 72 100 93 93 90 (5) 5.93 2.01 27.7 404.8 69 MALDIVES 93 93 (5) 90.6 93.3 89.293.0 955.6 949.28.09 900 6.8 NEPAL 74 34 86S2 55 52 (5) 30.640.9 7.3 14.0 678456.3 914958.92.91 0.68 44.5 20030.1 114 4.9 SS PAKISTAN S2 48 (5) 38.4 50.0 14.7 24.4 3457555.64869358.03.02 44031.2 137 5.0 63 SRI LANKA' 100 98 (5) 90.993.4 79.5 87.2 141068.3 124166.83.20 64030.11 19 2.1 73

1. Yellow figures are estimates. 2. Yellow figures are calculated using the apparent cohort method. BEST COPY AVALABLE 45 Adult Education in a Polarizing World

LATIN AMERICA I CARIBBEAN

L.,

I 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

FOR PRIMARY 1985 LYA GRADE FINAL M N WOMEN TOTAL % F TOTAL I& F AS % FOR ADULT 1994 LYA 1995 1995- 1995 4 GRADE OF EDUCATIONEDUCATION 2000 (XI BOYSGIRLSBOYSGIRLS (YEARS) 1980 1995 1980 1995 1980 1995 GNP MI ANTIGUA / BARBUDA 6970 74 ARGENTINA 96 96 95 95 (7) 94.3 96.2 93.696.2 118554.2 935S1.9 3.77 1.51 50.5 8060 27 2.6 73

BAHAMAS 100 99 92 96 87 84(6) 97.598.5 96.0 98.0 475.0 3 59.6 3.90 11790 1.9 73 BARBADOS 84 83 78 78 (7) 96.6 98.093.7 96.8 966.7 5 64.6 7.20 37.5 6530 1.7 76 BELIZE 89 85 100 98 72 60 (8) 5.69 2160 3.7 74 BOLIVIA 90 82 95 87 69 44 (8) 80.9 90.5 58.8 76.0 93769.5 74572.6 5.38 2.15 41.9 255042.0 105 4.4 60 BRAZIL 81 81 91 91 74 37 (8) 76.3 83.3 72.8 83.2 1871754.318331 50.5 0.28 48.8 77063.4 602.2 67

BRIT. VIRGIN ISLANDS (7) 3370 CHILE 88 86 93 79 (8) 92.0 95.4 90.9 95.0 63454.1 48553.6 2.93 0.66 58.4 356056.5 15 2.4 74 COLOMBIA 7272 8585 65 59 (5) 87.4 91.2 86.5 91.4 208052.8 204650.6 3.66 38.8 162051.3 36 2.7 70 COSTA RICA 83 84 87 88 92 84 (6) 91.694.7 91.4 95.0 11850.8 11548.64.68 0.12 39.5 238046.1 16 2.9 77

CUBA 91 91 96 97 94 92 (6) 91.096.2 87.3 95.3 71658.2 36455.36.55 1.67 30.5 10 1.5 76 DOMINICA 90 83 (7) 1.64 59.5 2830 72 DOMINICAN REPUBLIC 70 69 79 83 65 S2 (8) 75.382.0 73.5 82.2 84251.0 90848.8 1.93 3.33 51.4 132050.5 442.8 70 ECUADOR (6) 85.592.0 78.7 88.2 81559.6 71959.83.36 0.57 32.1 131046.6 40 3.1 69 EL SALVADOR 63 65 78 80 64 39 (9) 66.4 73.5 59.9 69.8 90456.2 97555.7 1.62 1480 40 3.1 67 .- GRENADA (7) 2620 71 GUATEMALA 6760 7670 (6) 56.362.5 41.0 48.6 192057.1 262757.7 1.58 0.70 55.4 119059.6 674.9 66

GUYANA 90 89 (6) 96.498.6 93.1 97.5 2466.7 II 65.94.99 530 2.3 65

HAITI 57 54 25 26 55 39 (6) 36.248.0 28.9 42.2 214554.7 236054.5 1.45 1.81 53.1 220 124 4.6 58 HONDURAS 8789 89 91 (6) 64.072.6 60.6 72.7 71052.4 86949.94.03 0.74 48.5 58052.7 384.3 69

JAMAICA 92 95 100 100 99 89 (6) 73.280.8 81.1 89.1 28942.9 25436.5 5.32 0.28 27.7 142041.1 13 2.4 74

MEXICO 100 100 100 100 88 81 (6) 86.291.8 79.9 87.4 645260.6 624661.3 5.78 1.27 37.2 401050.3 322.7 71 NETH. ANTILLES (6) 45.0 2.1 NICARAGUA 74 79 85 87 65 53 (6) 61.064.660.8 66.6 57451.2 82251.5 1.27 33050.3 603.8 68

PANAMA 90 90 91 92 (6) 86.3 91.484.9 90.2 15752.2 161 52.8 5.17 2.26 30.3 2670S6.6 202.6 73 PARAGUAY 90 89 89 89 79 65 (6) 89.993.583.7 90.6 24161.4 23558.6 3.05 47.9 1570 344.2 71 PERU 95 92 8787 (6) 88.8 94.571.0 83.0 202072.1 173675.7 189044.9 55 2.9 67 SAINT KITTS & NEVIS (7) 4.08 0.13 34.7 4760 70 SAINT LUCIA 95 95 (7) 5.38 0.43 44.9 3450 72 SAINT VINCENT / 6.89 2120 71 GRENADINES (7) SURINAME (6) 91.5 95.1 83.8 91.0 2766.7 19 65.97.16 0.26 60.4 1220 2.4 71

TRINIDAD & TOBAGO 91 92 84 96 95 94 (7) 96.9 98.8 93.3 97.0 3568.6 19 72.04.47 0.16 40.5 3740 20 2.1 72

URUGUAY 87 86 95 95 96 92 (6) 94.3 96.9 95.3 97.7 11046.4 6544.9 2.54 35.6 4650 21 2.3 73

I .Yellow figures are estimates. 2. Yellow figures are calculated using the apparent cohort method.

BEST COPY AVAILABLE Adult Education in a Polarizing World

Annex I Sourrc xs

A. References

1.Wagner, Daniel A. Literacy and Development: Ratio- 10. Schmelkes, S. Research Trends in Adult Education in Latin nales, Myths, Innovations and Future Directions. Educa- America.Mexico City, Centro de Estudios Educativos tional Development, Vol. 15, No. 4, 1995. pp. 341-62. AC, 1994. 11. See Note 2. 2. Belanger, Paul; Valdivielso, Sofia. Adult Education Par- ticipationinIndustrializedCountries,Hamburg, 12. See Note 3. UNESCO Institute for Education, 1997. 13. Jones, P. Literacy and Basic Education for Adults and Young People: Review of Experiences. (Special study for the World Meeting of the Education 3.Lifelong Learning for All, Conference on Education for All), 1990. Committee at Ministerial Level, Paris, OECD, 1996. 14. See Note 3, p. 225. 4.Data presented in Freedom House's home Web page, http://www.freedomhouse.org, January 1997. 15. See Note 1, p. 342-3. 16. Ibid., p. 345. 5.Rubenson, Kjell. Adult Education Policy in Sweden. Policy Studies Review, Vol. 13, Nos. 3/4, 1994. p. 385. 17. Joseph, P.J. The Total Literacy Project of Ernakulam: An Epoch-making Experiment in India. Convergence, Vol. 6.Soros, George. The Capitalist Threat. The Atlantic XXIX, No. 1, 1996. pp. 10-19 Monthly, February 1997. pp. 45-58. 18. See Note 13, p. 34. 7.Delors, Jacques et al. Learning: The Treasure Within. Report 19. Duke, C. What kind of Adult Education Helps Demo- to UNESCO of the International Commission on Education for cracy? Adult Education and Development, No. 39, 1992. pp. the Twenty-first Century, Paris, UNESCO Publishing, 1996. 187-98. 8. The Amman Affirmation. In: Education for All: Achieving 20. Lind, Agneta. Free to Speak Up: Overall Evaluation of the National Literacy Programme in Namibia. Windhoek, Nami- the Goal, Final Report of theMid-Decade Meeting of the bia, Gamsberg Macmillan Publishers, 1996. International Consultative Forum on Education for All, Paris, UNESCO, 1996. 21. Archer, D.; Cottingham, S.Action Research Report on REFLECT: The Experiences of Three REFLECT Pilot Projects 9. World Conference on Education for All: Meeting Basic in Uganda, Bangladesh, El Salvador. London, Overseas Learning Needs, 1990, Jomtien, Thailand. Final Report. Development Administration, 1996. (ODA Education New York, Interagency Commission, 1990. Paper 17.)

B. Main data sources used in preparing the tables andgraphics

EUROSTAT ning Manual, UNESCO Principal Regional Office for Enquite sur les Forces de travail: Resultats 1995, Asia and the Pacific, Bangkok, 1992. Luxembourg, 1996. UNICEF UNITED NATION DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMME State of the World's Children 1997, Geneva, 1997. (UNDP) Human Development Report, New York, Oxford Univer- UNITED NATIONS sity Press, 1995-1996. World Population Prospects: The 1996 Revision, New York, 1996. UNESCO Compendium of Statistics on illiteracy, Division of Statis- World Bank tics, Paris, 1995. The World Bank's Role in Human Resource Development in Education for All: Status and Trends1994, Secretariat of Sub-Saharan Africa, Washington, 1993. the EFA Forum, Paris, 1994. Statistical Yearbook, Division of Statistics, Paris, 1980- Other 1995. Leger Sivard, Ruth. World Military and Social Expenditures, Educational Management Information System (EMIS): 1996. 16th ed. Washington D.C., 1996. 4 7 BEST COPY AVAILABLE uuuiGOUCal1011 in a Polarizing World

Annex 2

Compost ti)

SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA ARAB STATES LATIN AMERICA/ EASTERN ASIA/ SOUTHERN ASIA DEVELOPED CARIBBEAN OCEANIA COUNTRIES Angola* Benin' Algeria Antigua and Barbuda Brunei Darussalam Afghanistan' Albania Botswana Bahrain Argentina Cambodia' Bangladesh Andorra Burkina Faso' Djibouti' Bahamas China Bhutan' Armenia Burundi Egypt Barbados Cook Islands India Australia Cameroon Iraq Belize Democratic People's Islamic Republic of Iran Austria Rep. of Korea Cape Verde' Jordan Bolivia Maldives* Azerbaijan Fiji Central African Kuwait Brazil Nepal' Belarus Hong Kong Republic' Lebanon British Virgin Islands Pakistan Belgium Indonesia Chad' Libyan Arab Jamahiriya Chile Sri Lanka Bosnia and Herzegovina Kiribati' Comoros* Mauritania* Colombia Bulgaria Lao People's Democratic Congo Morocco Costa Rica Canada Republic* Cote d'Ivoire Oman Cuba Croatia Malaysia Equatorial Guinea* Qatar Dominica Cyprus Mongolia Eritrea Saudi Arabia Dominican Republic Denmark Myanmar' Ethiopia' Somalia Ecuador Estonia Niue Gabon Sudan* El Salvador Finland Papua New Guinea Gambia' Syrian Arab Republic Grenada France Philippines Ghana Tunisia Guatemala Georgia Republic of Korea Guineas. United Arab Emirates Guyana Germany Samoa* Guinei-Bissau* Yemen* Haiti* Greece Singapore Kenya Honduras Hungary Solomon Islands Lesotho Jamaica Iceland Thailand Liberia* Mexico Ireland Tonga Madagascar* Netherlands Antilles Israel Tuvalu* Malawi* Nicaragua Italy Vanuatu* Mali' Panama Japan Viet Nam Mauritius Paraguay Latvia Mozambique' Peru Liechtenstein Namibia Puerto Rico Lithuania Niger' Saint Kitts and Nevis Luxembourg Nigeria Saint Lucia Kazakstan Rwanda' Saint Vincent and Kyrgyzstan Sao Tome and Principe' the Grenadines Malta Senegal Suriname Netherlands Seychelles Trinidad and Tobago New Zealand Siera Leone* Uruguay Norway South Africa Venezuela Poland Swaziland Portugal Togo' Republic of Moldova Uganda* Romania United Republic Russian Federation of Tanzania' San Marino Zaire' Slovakia Zambia* Slovenia Zimbabwe Sweden Switzerland Tajikistan Turkey Turkmenistan United Kingdom Ukraine United States Uzbekistan * Least developed countries 48 Yugoslavia

BEST COPY WAi ABILE ,...?.., Adult Education in a Polarizing -World

writing skills. Often the term is Annex- 3 used to include also basic arithmetic skills (numeracy). Literacy rate: number of literate Glossary adults expressed as a percentage of the total adult population (15 years or older).

Adult basic education: all formsGross national product (GNP):Military expenditures: all public of organized education and train- the value of all finished goods and expenditure on military forces, ing that meet the basic learning services produced in an economy including the purchase of military needs of adults, including literacy, during one year.GNP per capita supplies and equipment; construc- numeracy, general knowledge and (i.e.a country's GNP divided by tion of facilitities; recruitment, life skills.. For statistical purposes, thepopulation) is often used as an training and maintenance of per- adults are usually defined as per- indicator of a country's general sonnel; and militaryaid pro- sons aged 15 years or over. wealth. grammes.

Basic learning needs comprise both Illiteracy: a lack of mastery of theNet enrolment ratio (NER): the essential learning tools (such as lit- written language, usually related number of pupils in the official eracy, oral expression, numeracy, to a social condition of poverty, school-age group expressed as a and problem solving) and the basic but not to be confused with ignor- percentage of the total population learning content (such as knowl- ance. in that age-group. edge, skills, values, and attitudes) required by human beings to sur- Illiteracy rate: number of illiterate Non-formal education: educa- vive, to develop their full capac- adults expressed as a percentage tionalactivitiesforchildren, ities, to live and work in dignity, of the total adult population (15 youth or adults that are organized toparticipatefullyindevel- years or older). outside the regular school system, opment, to improve the quality of sometimes referred to as out-oftheir lives, to make informed de- Illiterate adult: a person aged 15 school education. cisions and to continue learning. years or over who cannot with understanding both read andOut-of-school children: those in Developed countries, also called write a short, simple statement theofficially defined primary industrialized countries,includes the about everyday life. school-age group who are not countries of Europe, the ex-Soviet enrolled in school, including those Union, Australia, Canada, Japan, Least developed countries who dropped out. Israel, New Zealand, and the (LDCs) are low income countries United States of America. recognized by the United Nations Public spending on education. as as encountering long-term imped- used here, refers to expenditure Fertility rate: number of live births iments to economic growth, par- on educational activities bythe in a given year per 1,000 women ticularly low levels of human public authorities responsible for in the age-group 15-49 years. resource development and severe education.It does not include structural weaknesses. The list of expenditure for such purposes by Functional literacy: a term some- LDCs gives guidance to donor other government departments. times used to distinguishthe abil- countries for the allocation of ityto use literacy skills for par- foreign assistance. School-age population: number ticular purposes in the home, ofchildrenintheofficially community or workplace. How- Life expectancy at birth: the aver- defined primary school age-group, ever, it is now generally consid- age number of years a newborn whether enrolled in school or not. ered that true literacy must be infant is expected to live if pre- functional and relevant to the vailing patterns of mortality in the Under-5 mortality rate (U5MR): the individual's needs. country at the time of birth were number of deaths of children under to stay the same throughout his or five years of age per thousand live Gini index: a measure of inequality her life. births during a given year. (used here in respecttothe incomedistribution withina Literacy: the ability to read andUniversal primary education (UPE): country) in which 100 represents write, not only by adults, but by full enrolment of all children in complete inequality and 0 perfect children and youth as well. Liter- the primary school age-group, i.e. equality. acy is a continuum of reading and 100 per cent net enrolment ratio. 49 The INTERNATIONAL CONSULTATIVE FORUM ON EDUCATION FOR ALL was set up after the World Conference on Education for All (Jomtien, Thailand, March 1990) to promote and monitor progress in the provision of basic education through the 1990s. The Forum periodically brings together senior policy-makers and specialists from developing countries, international and bilateral development agencies, and non-governmental organizations and foundations.

At its first meeting (Paris, December 1991) the Forum focused on the prospects of achieving universal primary education. At its second meeting (New Delhi, September 1993), the Forum examined the prospects of providing quality education for all (EFA). The Forum's third meeting (Amman, June 1996) reviewed overall progress towards EFA at the mid-decade, and its final communiqué outlined priorities for action during the remainder of the decade.

An inter-agency Steering Committee decides the Forum's workplan, which is carried out by the Forum Secretariat based at UNESCO headquarters in Paris, and endorses the Forum's extended programme activities, which are sponsored by two or more of the constituent organizations. During the 1995-1996 programme period, the Forum's core programme was funded by contributions from Denmark, Finland, Italy, Nether- lands, Norway, Sweden, UNDP, UNESCO, UNFPA, UNICEF and the World Bank.

The Mid-Decade Review of progress towards Education for All constituted the Forum's principal set of activities in 1995-1996, which included:

providing guidelines to all countries in undertaking their own EFA reviews;

- commissioning 20 country case studies on specific aspects of EFA;

commissioning a survey of conditions of primary schools in 14 of the poorest countries;

examining the policies and practices of donors supporting EFA;

collecting the views of major groups of non-governmental organizations on EFA;

organizing seven regional EFA policy review seminars;

collecting and analyzing data on basic education in developing countries;

presenting the results of these activities to the Forum at its mid-decade meeting in Amman, Jordan, June 1996; and

publicizing the results and the main EFA issues through the media.

The Forum Secretariat also publishes the quarterly EFA 2000 Bulletin in five languages, a series of topical reports entitled Education for All: Status and Trends, as well as occasional brochures and papers.

5n t the end of the 20th C'eri out of four adults in th'e:*Orld Yet the Universal Declaratioiii Rightsassertsthat "Everyone \has\' education". What is being done to meet the basic leaa' of adults around the world? What role can 4fiiiek' education play in a world characterized 'bh* polarization both within countries -41,18. them? This third report in the series Educauo and Trends highlights, with the use D£: present situation of adult basic educai tibin. ,,,..0;t1

key trends in its development. The rsport-Oudinesie . I rationale for increased investment /fri,the., bash tr.' I education of adults, including its positive imps6 the education of children. Comparative tables presen selected educational and socio-economic indicator 132 developing countries and territories.

This report is published by UNESCO for the International Consultative Forum on Education for All, the global mechanism established to promote and moriiiCrp-rogress toward the goal of Education for All (EFA).

For further information, please contact:

EFA Forum Secretariat BEST COPY AVAILABLE UNESCO 7, Place de Fontenoy 75352 Paris 07 SP, France fax: 33-1-45685629 U.S. DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION Office of Educational Research and Improvement (OERI) z Educational Resources Information Center (ERIC) IC

NOTICE

REPRODUCTION BASIS

This document is covered by a signed "Reproduction Release (Blanket)" form (on file within the ERIC system), encompassing all or classes of documents from its sourceorganization and, therefore, does not require a "Specific Document" Release form.

This document is Federally-funded, or carries its own permission to reproduce, or is otherwise in the public domain and, therefore, may be reproduced by ERIC without a signed ReproductionRelease form (either "Specific Document" or "Blanket").

(9/92)