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The Gold Star Journal 2013 About the Staff
Lance C. Braye Lance is Sierra Company’s Commander from Walterboro, South Carolina. A Biology major with a Health minor, he plans to attend the Medical University of South Carolina after graduation. As an Honors student, he has earned Gold Stars every semester while also earning President’s List and Comandant’s List. He is a member of Phi Kappa Phi, America’s oldest, largest, and most selective honor society.
Ryan J. Boodee Ryan is a junior on Second Battalion Staff from Raleigh, North Carolina. He is a Physics and Mathematics double major, and currently holds the position of Battalion Supply NCO. He has attained Gold Stars each semester, is a member of the Honor’s College, and is developing a telescope for a suborbital laboratory.
Robert P. Keener III Robert is an Alpha Company junior, majoring in Political Science with a subfeild in international relations. Following graduation he has intentions to pursue a career in international business, after earning an MBA. He is currently serving as Regimental Public Affairs NCO, as well as the 1st Battalion Student Government Representative.
Jane Ma Jane is a sophomore in Golf Company from Falls Church, Virginia. She is currently double majoring in Biology and English. A member of the Citadel Honors Program, she also holds down a research assistant position in the Biology department studying the role of mitochondrial core histone protein H3. She hopes to be an infectious disease specialist in the field of public health.
Dr. Suzanne T. Mabrouk Dr. Mabrouk has been teaching chemistry at The Citadel for nineteen years. Her areas of specialization include organic chemistry, the chemistry of art, and introductory chemistry for non-science students. She earned her A.B. in chemistry from Wheaton College (Norton, MA) and her Ph.D. in organic chemistry from the University of Massachusetts (Amherst, MA). She enjoys advising the editors of The Gold Star Journal each year.
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The editors and advisor of The Gold Star Journal thank the following individuals and groups for con- tributing funds to the 2013 issue:
The Citadel School of Engineering and The Bernard Gordon Foundation The Citadel School of Science and Mathematics The Citadel Class of 2016 Dr. Suzanne T. Mabrouk and Mr. Stephen S. Jones Dr. Phillip V. Manning, Jr., Class of 1958 CPT A. Drane Oliphant, IV, M.D., Class of 2003
If you would like to support this publication, please make a donation to The Citadel Foundation and specify your contribution to The Gold Star Journal. Thank you.
iv The Gold Star Journal 2013 A Letter From the Editors
As editors, we are proud of our seventeenth installment of The Gold Star Journal. We hope you will read it at your leisure and enjoy the academic papers submitted by some of the best academic minds the Citadel has to offer. For this year, as with others, we have selected for you an assortment of papers we found to be outstanding. This rich variation of subjects is mainly due to the individual talent of the authors and the diverse academic environment fostered by the Citadel.
First we have a paper by Scott Holmes, which describes the Nassau Raid, one of the first engagements of both the Revolutionary War and what would become the United States Marine Corps. Following that, we have Lance Braye, and his paper, discussing the Darwinian evolution of religion. Then we have a paper from Nathaniel Madden decoding Mephistopheles and Jus- tice Adam’s portrayal as the Germanic Satan in Johann Wolfgang von Gothe’s Faust: Part 1 and Heinrich von Kleist’s The Broken Pitcher. After this we have graduate student Thomas Gorman and his paper which presents an argument identifying the merits of capitalism. To finish, we have Franklin McGuire and his paper “Icarus Floundering”, illustrating his time, and the efforts of humanitarian aid, in Africa.
Recognition and appreciation are also due to Karl Mack of the Sun Printing Co. and John Whitten of Citadel ITS for his assistance and expertise in developing the design of this year’s edition.
We would like to thank Dr. Mabrouk for her tireless patience and invaluable advisement in producing this year’s edition, the sixteen previous editions, and we remain confident she will be a guide for editors who are to write editions to come, long after we have left this school.
Lance C. Braye
Ryan J. Boodee Robert P. Keener Jane Ma
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Table of Contents
The First of Many: The Marines’ First Amphibious Assault by Scott A. Holmes 1 On the Origin of Faiths: Using Religion to Explain Science and Vice Versa by Lance C. Braye 8 The Devils and the Details: Justice Adam and Mephistopheles by Nathaniel G. Madden 16
Capitalism: If History Has Taught U.S. Anything… by Thomas A. Gorman, Jr. 22 Icarus Floundering: An Ethical Response to Inequity by Franklin McGuire, Jr. 32
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viii The Gold Star Journal 2013 The First of Many: “A t 2 P.M. Cast off from ye Warf In Company The Marines’ First with ye Comodore Ship Alfred, Columbus & Cabot, Light airs from ye Westward & much Ice in ye Riv- er.”1 These words were written down in a logbook Amphibious Assault by Lieutenant James Josiah. The date was January Scott A. Holmes 4, 1776. The Warf that Lieutenant Josiah is talk- ing about is right outside of Philadelphia and he is Scott Holmes is a on board the Continental ship Andrew Doria. As senior and a member Josiah is looking over the rails of the Andrew Doria, of Kilo Company he is seeing the newly formed Continental Marines from Jacksonville, FL. board his ship and the surrounding Continental vessels. Led by Captain Samuel Nicholas, over 200 In the Spring of this Marines would be loaded onto these ships. The year, he will graduate Continental Marines are not even three months with a Bachelors old by this time, but what the Marines were em- in History. Upon barking on was what would come to be their first graduation, he will amphibious assault in their long, illustrious fu- ture ahead. At this time of the year, the water was receive a commission very cold and many parts of it were frozen. This into the United States Marine Corps made movement of the ships difficult and a few with the aspirations of being a pilot. days would be put off on setting sail because of the weather. Eight ships would be in the fleet. The Alfred was the largest with multiple cannons. She had twenty 9 pounders, and ten 6 pounders. On Abstract her bow she had an elaborate figurehead of a man The year is 1776. The Revolutionary War in armor drawing his sword as if he was riding into 2 is very young and George Washington and his battle. Most of the ships were newly built by the Continental Navy and were top of the line. They Continental Army are starving for gunpowder and would be commanded by Commodore Esek Hop- weapons. They are doing their best to drive the kins, who made his flagship the Alfred. The other Red Coats back. Back on November 10, 1775, the ships in the fleet would be the Columbus, Cabot, Continental Marines were formed. Their first ma- Andrew Doria, Wasp, Hornet, the Fly, and the Prov- jor mission of their history would happen in March idence.3 Once on board, the Marines did not know 1776. It was a bold and daring raid that resulted where they were going or what their mission would in triumph and catastrophe. The details were im- be. This would all be briefed on the way down to portant, and the slightest mess up could result in their target. Commodore Hopkins would be the only the loss of the United States Marine Corps and the person who would know what the destination and entire Continental Navy fleet. This raid would set targets were before he would pass on the informa- the tone for generations to come. tion to Captain Nicholas. Hopkins was ordered by the Naval Committee to sail down to Virginia for support. If he was not going to do that, the Naval Committee and the Continental Congress
1 The Gold Star Journal 2013 surely thought Hopkins would sail to Georgia or forts in the Bahamian capital city of Nassau. These South Carolina as the campaign in the South was forts consisted of cannons and huge armories that becoming a huge possibility. Hopkins had a better were full of gunpowder. The British had assigned idea, however. He was going to sail to the Carib- a company of the 14th Regiment of Foot to protect bean islands of the Bahamas. This would prove to these supplies and weapons. What the Americans be wise for Hopkins for the British had just sent found advantageous to their cause was that this two frigates and two sloops-of-war to Virginia, and company of the 14th Regiment of Foot had been Hopkins’ fleet could have very well been destroyed. called to Boston to reinforce their garrisons there. The same goes for Georgia and the Carolinas as Also the British sloop HMS Savage only visited the the British were starting to build up their military harbor occasionally.6 While Hopkins orders were mass there for a Southern Campaign.4 The British to sail down to Virginia and reinforce there, his had been hinting decision of at- to their superiors tacking the Ba- at the idea of an hamas was not American attack totally against in the Bvahamas, the Continen- but when Hop- tal Congress’ kins’ fleet even- will. On No- tually sailed, the vember 29, British believed 1775, just 19 his destination days after the to be New York creation of the City or Boston. Marines, the In so, Hopkins Map of New Providence Island, locations of forts, city, and American landing zones. Continental achieved in what Congress real- others did not by picking the Bahamas, and this ized the mass stores of gun powder and cannon that was simple logistical needs of the army, surprise, the Bahamas provided, so they issued this resolu- and strategy. tion: “Information being given to Congress that Before the war, many American sailors had there is a large quantity of powder in the Island of sailed throughout the Caribbean. They did it for Providence, Ordered that the foregoing Commit- trade for when they were once loyal to the British tee take Measures for securing & bring[ing] away Crown. By doing this, the American sailors were the said powder…”7 Hopkins saw the opportunity very familiar to the waters of the Caribbean and also for glory, and he was not going to let it slip away. knew the islands and their inhabitants quite well. The fleet finally set sail in February with In fact, the islanders cared more for the Americans Hopkins and Nicholas after being stuck for six than the British, as long as they benefited from it. weeks in thick ice in the Delaware Bay.8 While The islanders just cared for whatever deal they re- they waited in the ice, more and more reports came ceived more money from.5 to Hopkins about how desperate Washington was As the war went on, logistics for the Con- in need for gun powder. Hopkins wanted to take tinental Army were not great. There was a serious action. Nicholas would be in command of over lacking of heavy artillery and especially black pow- 200 Marines with his main two lieutenants being der. This is where Hopkins strategic aspect comes Matthew Parke and John Fitzpatrick.9 As the fleet into view. Over the years, the British had set up left the Delaware Bay, the Marines believed they
2 The Gold Star Journal 2013 were heading to Virginia or further south as Hop- rale was lifting for now they were only about one kins orders said to do so. What the Marines did day of sailing from their anchor point. However, not know were what his orders said after dealing tragedy struck again. On March 1st, the Colum- with Virginia. His orders ended with the phrase, bus buried another sailor who died from smallpox. “You are then to follow such course as your best Hopkins reported in his logbook that four of his judgment shall suggest to you as most useful to the ships were infected with this disease.14 Luck would American cause.”10 This legitimized Hopkins deci- now switch over to the favor of the Americans now, sion for the Bahamas even more after the resolution though. Later that same day of March 1st, the fleet passed in November. As Hopkins sailed into the was sailing down the coast and spotted two sloops Atlantic, the risk grew greater. This was the first from New Providence belonging to the British fleet that the Continental Navy had Navy. The flagship, Alfred, quickly put together, and destruction of it caught up to them and seized them would surely be devastating to mo- This was the first as the first prizes of the Continen- rale. The men were poorly trained tal Navy.15 Later that afternoon, for maritime warfare, as they had fleet that the the fleet anchored on the southwest only been merchants and knew the Continental Navy side of Grand Abaco in twelve fath- basics of sailing, but not the basics had put together, oms of water.16 of fighting on the open ocean. The The assault on New Provi- threat of a growing number of Brit- and destruction dence had two objective points. ish warships in the area was loom- of it would surely These two points were Fort Nas- ing. The British had deployed a be devastating to sau and Fort Montagu. Both of 28 gun frigate, the HMS Liverpool, these had guns and powder that and there was a very good chance it morale. the Marines could take back to the could cross paths with the Ameri- colonies to be used in Washington’s can fleet.11 Army against the British. The Brit- From the beginning, luck was not on the ish had been moving some of the guns over the past side of the Americans. Disease had found its way months out of the fort along with troops to help on board most of the ships of the fleet. Smallpox reinforce Boston, but there was still enough guns was a huge concern and on February 18, 1776, it and powder to make the mission a successful one. became a reality. On that day, the Alfred had to Fort Nassau was built in 1697 and was overlooking bury a man at sea because he died of the disease. the western entrance to the harbor. It was a fort of The next day, the Columbus did the same. Fear superior technology and heavy firepower. The fort of the disease spreading was growing amongst the had carried in its lifetime cannon consisting of 12 men and morale was not good.12 The days follow- pounders, 18 pounders, 8 inch bronze mortars, 5 ing the deaths of two sailors, storms grew and the ½ inch howitzers, and bronze Coehorn mortars. winds grew heavy. The fleet had lost visual con- However, at the time of the attack, the fort was tact of the Hornet and the Fly. While the fleet was falling apart. The local loyalist militia thought the wondering what happened, the reality was that the British infantry would kill themselves just firing two ships had collided with each other. The Hor- the guns in the fort for how old the guns were and net was forced to return to port, the closest being how the walls were probably not sturdy enough to Charleston, to make repairs. The Fly would make withstand artillery fire. Fort Montagu was a differ- repairs and rendezvous with the fleet on March 1 ent story. It was built from 1741 to 1742, approxi- in the Caribbean.13 Two weeks went by and noth- mately one mile east of Fort Nassau. It was more ing horrendous had happened. The sailors’ mo- simplistic than Fort Nassau but larger and it guard-
3 The Gold Star Journal 2013 ed the vulnerable rear entrance to Fort Nassau. called “The Creek” which was located a mile and Fort Montagu at the time of the attack consisted of a half south of Fort Montagu. The Marine Corps cannon of 18 pounders, 12 pounders, 9 pounders, today is known for amphibious assaults, this would and 6 pounders. It also consisted of a large powder be their first one in their history. The first overseas magazine, barracks, and a guardroom. Contrary to attack by the young country of the United States Fort Nassau, Fort Montagu was not falling apart. had begun. Fort Montagu did have one major flaw. Its simple Over 200 Marines and 50 sailors took the square shape made it extremely vulnerable to any beach with the Wasp and Providence in support.20 type of assault.17 They landed near a group of free slaves and the March 2nd was the scheduled date of the as- Marines encountered no resistance. Captain Nich- sault. Hopkins knew the forts could be easy to olas made a report in his journal about the first take for the British did not leave a good number amphibious landing. “The inhabitants were very of infantry to defend them. Also, the local loyalist much alarmed at our appearance, and supposed us militia would be unprepared. The plan was to take to be Spaniards, but were soon undeceived after our the two sloops that were captured the day before landing.”21 The Marines under Nicholas formed and put the Marines below deck, hiding them. The into two columns and marched towards Fort Mon- ships were known to the locals so tagu. Under cannon fire from 110 the Americans believed the sloops local militia under the command of could come into port, unload the Once the sloops Browne, not a single American ca- Marines, and then the Marines entered the sight of sualty was taken. Browne then took could take their objectives of Fort his militia to Fort Nassau and the Nassau and Fort Montagu. Once Fort Nassau, the Marines easily took Fort Montagu. the sloops entered the sight of Fort plan fell apart. The militia tried to “spike” their ar- Nassau, the plan fell apart. There tillery by driving a nail into the bar- were warning shots fired and the rel so the gun would not fire safely, British knew the sloops were not friendly. Hop- but the spiking was ineffective.22 Nicholas and his kins and his fleet and the two sloops fled to hope- Marines were tired. Nicholas said, “I thought it fully attack the next day.18 That night, Hopkins necessary to stay all night, and refresh my men, called for a council of war to figure out the next who were fatigued, being on board the small ves- move. He wanted to go to the western side of the sels, not having a convenience to either sleep or island to have the Marines attack the town from cook in.”23 Hopkins knew he could now take Fort the rear but there was no road for a march and no Nassau, but to help save American lives and to show water deep enough to make anchor. A decision the courtesy of 18th century warfare, he announced was finally made. a message to the British and the militia. “…if I am As the American fleet sailed over the ho- not Opposed in putting my design in Execution rizon and into the view of the British in the ear- the Persons and Property of the Inhabitants Shall ly morning of the 3rd, all hell would break loose be Safe, Neither shall they be Suffered to be hurt in on the island. The alarm guns would sound and Case they make no Resistance.”24 Browne under- troops would be called to arms. The British gov- stood this and knew he could not defend the city ernor, Montfort Browne, decided the powder was or the harbor from the outnumbering American necessary to defend and put Fort Nassau’s com- force. He did what he knew was best, and he knew mander, Major Robert Sterling, in charge.19 The the Americans wanted the powder. The powder Marines made an amphibious landing at a point was the single most important item Browne had,
4 The Gold Star Journal 2013 so what he did was loaded it all onto the HMS St. back with him, for he did not have enough room Johns. In total, it was over 100 barrels of powder in his own ships.28 The problems were not over, and Browne would send it to the British occupied though. Sickness was still killing some of the men, town of St. Augustine, Florida. This was Hopkins’ and many took desertion on the island to get away major fault of the operation that would find him in from it.29 The fleet finally set sail on March 16th trouble with the Naval Committee and in the lik- back towards Rhode Island. The journey did not ings of Congress. He failed to use his other ships go without adventure. Sickness was still killing of his fleet to sailors but along the way they captured four prize block the very few lanes out of the harbor. The ships. The Marines performed these captures with powder escaped under the cover of darkness aboard outstanding musket fire. They finally returned on the HMS St. April 8, 1776 Johns and made with seven dead it to its destina- and fourwound- tion of St. Au- ed from the trip gustine, Flori- back. One of the da.25 dead included The fol- Lieutenant Fitz- lowing day on patrick, one of the 4th, Nicholas Nicholas’ per- was met with an sonal friends.30 invitation from Upon return, Browne to take people would the city and Fort be praised and Nassau if he people would be liked. Nicho- reprimanded. las wrote in his Fort Montagu Today. Fort Nassau no longer stands. Captain Samu- journal, “On el Nicholas was our march I met an express from the Governor… promoted to Major for his brave actions. Hopkins The messenger then told me I might march into would lose his reputation by disobeying orders and the town, and if I thought proper, into the fort, attacking the Bahamas even though documenta- without interruption.”26 Not a single shot was tion said he could. He would also be reprimanded fired and the Marines took the city and the fort. for not securing the lanes of escape from the har- Browne was arrested in chains and taken aboard bor and allowing the most important thing they the Alfred. needed, the powder, to escape.31 This would be the The raid was a huge success. The Ameri- first of many of amphibious assaults conducted by cans did manage to capture some barrels of pow- the Marine Corps. It would be the first of many der. The fleet would spend two weeks just load- overseas attacks by the United States. It was aston- ing all of their captured prizes onto their ships. ishing in the fact that most of the sailors and Ma- The prizes consisted of two forts, a city, 88 guns, rines were untrained, yet performed as if they had and over 16,500 shells of shot.27 On the Andrew been doing it for years. The artillery pieces greatly Doria alone, 38,240 pounds of round shot were helped the artillery starved Continental Army. loaded into her storage areas. Hopkins had to The raid did have one major impact that hire a private sloop to carry some of the prizes would be more important than guns or powder.
5 The Gold Star Journal 2013 The British were now forever paranoid. They ENDNOTES knew they were vulnerable where they least expect- 1 Charles Smith, Marines in the Revolution: A History of the Con ed it, and now they had to concentrate more naval tinental Marines in the American Revolution 1775-1783 powers in other areas that held guns and powder. (Washington D.C. Library of Congress 1975) 41 It also hurt the British in that the guns and shot 2 Ibid Page 41 3 Ibid Page 41 seized in the raid would be used against the British 4 No Author. “The New Providence Expedition.” http://www. five years later at Fort Griswold and other battles.32 awiatsea.com/Narrative/New%20Providence%20Expedition.html Overall the raid was a huge success and goes down April 17, 2012 5 Douglas Cubbison, “America’s First Overseas Attack: Battle of Nas- in history as such. The attack would be the first sau. Page 14 (The Magazine Article Dr. Preston sent me.) of many for a lot of things, and over the years, the 6 Ibid Page 14 7 Ibid Page 14-15 Marines and the United States would take what 8 Charles Smith Page 44 they learned on the Raid of Nassau and turn it into 9 Ibid. Page 41. an art form. 10 Douglas Cubbison. Page 15 11 Charles Smith Page 44 12 No Author. “The New Providence Expedition.” http://www.awi- atsea.com/Narrative/New%20Providence%20Expedition.html April 17, 2012 13 Charles Smith Page 46 14 No Author. “The New Providence Expedition.” http://www.awi- atsea.com/Narrative/New%20Providence%20Expedition.html April 17, 2012 15 Ibid 16 Charles Smith Page 46 17 Douglas Cubbison Page 16 18 No Author. “The New Providence Expedition.” http://www.awi- atsea.com/Narrative/New%20Providence%20Expedition.html April 17, 2012 19 Ibid 20 Douglas Cubbison Page 16 21 Ibid Page 16 22 Ibid Page 16-17 23 Ibid Page 17 24 Ibid Page 17 25 Ibid Page 17 26 Ibid Page 17 27 United States Marine Corps History Division 28 Douglas Cubbison Page 17 29 No Author. “The New Providence Expedition.” http://www.awi- atsea.com/Narrative/New%20Providence%20Expedition.html April 17, 2012 30 United States Marine Corps History Division 31 Ibid 32 Douglas Cubbison Page 18
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BIBLIOGRAPHY
Clark, William. Naval Documents of the American Revolution. United States Marine Corps History Division. http://www.tecom. Volume 4. Library Of Congress. Washington D.C. 1968. usmc.mil/HD/Quantico, VA. Cubbison, Douglas. America’s First Overseas Attack: Battle of Wood, W.J. Battles of the Revolutionary War. Algonquin Books of Nassau. Magazine Article Dr. Preston sent me via email. Chapel Hill. Chapel Hill, NC. 1990 www.patriotsar.com Unknown Author. The New Providence Expedition. “Fort Montagu Today.” Online Image. 16 January 2013.
“Grace Set of the Sun” by Cadet Joshua Rodgers
7 The Gold Star Journal 2013 On the Origin of Faiths: Using Religion to Explain Science and There are two conflicts that are ever present in today’s society. On one hand, there is the clash be- Vice Versa tween the findings of science and the beliefs of reli- gion. On the other, there is a cycle of antagonism Lance C. Braye between different religions themselves. Often, the Lance is a Sierra roots of the quarrels stem from a misunderstanding Company senior from on one or both sides. This phenomenon is repeat- Walterboro, SC. In edly seen in the flashpoint subject of evolution and within conflicts of Christianity, Islam, and Juda- addition to majoring ism. Interestingly enough, both the issues of evolu- in Biology with a tion and religious diversity can be explained in one minor in Health and fell swoop. Biological concepts are often displayed serving as a Company throughout life as recurring themes. Evolution is Commander, he no exception to this principle. Much like Darwin’s writing explained a biological concept and brought is the Chaplin for humanity closer to its animal counterparts, the in- The Citadel Gospel tent of this endeavor is to explain evolutionary the- Choir, an editor of The Shako, the President of ory to the faithful while promoting understanding BioCid , a member of the Pre-Health Society, between the Abrahamic faiths by means of putting and a member of The Citadel’s One in Four their developments in the light of evolution. The development of the theory of evolu- Sexual Assault Prevention Team. He has earned tion by natural selection was the direct result of Gold Stars and Dean’s List each semester in Charles Darwin noticing similarities in organisms conjunction with being in the Honor’s College. during his voyage on The Beagle (Keller 9). As such, it can be safe to say that some sort of evolu- Abstract tionary force may be active in any group where dif- The debate between science and religion ferent entities that have existed for a considerable seems to be an eternal struggle, with evolution amount of time are seen to share a set of basic fun- versus creationism serving as the current arena. damental characteristics or principles. This is not hard to do with the Abrahamic faiths. It is com- With both sides often refusing to consider the oth- mon knowledge that all three religions believe in er’s logic, it seems like the two are clearly incom- one God. In addition to this, the faiths put forth patible. In addition to this, religions such as the many of the same requirements for a believer to Abrahamic faiths have also been locked in a theo- achieve a good afterlife and all share the concept logical feud for centuries. A possible solution to of Paradise (“Comparison of Islam, Judaism, and the problem may be reached when the three faiths Christianity”; Hale 1). Add to these commonali- realize that they spring from a common ancestor ties the fact that all three can be traced back to the Middle East, and there is more than enough reason and may very well be the product of evolutionary to surmise that there is some form of common de- forces themselves. scent between these faiths (“Comparison of Islam, Judaism, and Christianity”). In the first portion of his proposal on evo-
8 The Gold Star Journal 2013 lution, Darwin elaborates on the concept of varia- in Quadian, Punjab, India when he claimed to be tion under domestication. By doing this, he seeks the promised Messiah and taught doctrine on Je- to explain the impact of selective pressures on a sus and jihad that were counter to orthodox Islam species by showing how organisms have been in- (“Ahmaddiya”). In Judaism, this intentional divi- fluenced by the desires of mankind (Keller 45). sion is demonstrated by the rise of Reform Judaism With respect to religion, the selective pressures of in Germany, which was a direct “reaction against mankind can be demonstrated as also having an the perceived rigidity of Orthodox Judaism” in the impact on the development of faith traditions. In nineteenth century. During this time, worship essence, the major faiths and beliefs of the twenty- began to be conducted in German instead of He- first century are the result of centuries of variation brew and there was a relaxed observance of dietary and selection due to humanity. This is best dem- laws (“Reform Judaism”). As for Christianity, one onstrated by the emergence of denominations and would be hard pressed to find a religious division sects within Christianity, Islam, and Judaism. Just more intentional than the formation of the Church as it was a fact in Darwin’s time of England. When King Henry VIII that all breeds of domestic pigeons of England was denied the ability were descendants of the Columbia In essence, the to divorce his wife by the Pope, the livia, the rock pigeon, it is a fact major faiths one-time Catholic purposefully es- that all denominations spring from tablished himself as the “Supreme a central faith (Keller 44). and beliefs of Head” of the Church of England Variation amongst a group the twenty-first with the Act of Supremacy of 1534 of related individuals is not rare century are the (“History of Anglicanism”). in nature or religion. Darwin ex- While some species and re- plained that these traits are inher- result of centuries ligious sects owe their development itable. Some offspring exhibit the of variation and to someone’s desire to create some- same rare trait that was observed in thing different, some owe their cur- the parent (Keller 43). As such, in- selection due to rent states to unconscious selection herited traits can be seen between humanity. by mankind. This unconscious se- denominations and the churches lection is due to the fact that people they sprang from. For example, simply choose what they think is the all Protestant faiths as well as the Catholic Church best of anything without any intent of developing a recognize the Old and New Testaments of the Bible new breed or type. Darwin explains this principal as sacred texts (“Comparison of Christian Beliefs”). by using pears: A major part of domestic speciation is due to the fact that humans intentionally breed certain But the gardeners of the classical period, animals for desired characteristics. Some domestic who cultivated the best pear they could species as we know them are the results of centu- procure, never thought what splendid fruit ries of selective breeding. Entire breeds of animals we should eat; though we owe our from dogs to sheep have been developed due to excellent fruit, in some small degree, to this fact (Keller 45). By the same token, adher- their having naturally chosen and pre ents have intentionally created denominations due served the best varieties they could any to their own preferences. Such is seen with the where find. (Keller 46) creation of Ahmaddiya Islam in 1889. This sect Where religion is concerned, this sort of of Islam was founded by Mirza Ghulam Ahmad unconscious selection is demonstrated in gradual
9 The Gold Star Journal 2013 changes that have resulted in the state of religions the sense of sects and denominations, the different and denominations as they are known today. A forms of faith are just diverse varieties of the com- Christian example of this type of development is mon ancestor faith they derive from. For example, seen in the origin story of the Catholic Church. the formation of Sunni and Shi’a Islam are the re- Prior to the conversion of Emperor Constantine, sult of variation in the belief of who the Prophet the church was heavily persecuted, lacked a cen- Muhammad’s true successor was. Given the cir- tral authority, and was focused on survival. After cumstances of a faith desperate for a new leader the emperor was converted in 318 AD, however, after the death of their founder, a split resulted that the church began to adopt a structure that mir- led to the bloody sectarian violence of today (“Shi’a rored that of the government, ulti- Islam”). Despite such differenc- mately culminating in the papacy es, the two are still just varieties (“Roman Catholicism”). In this of the common ancestor of Islam scenario, there was no intention of Differences in before the death of Muhammad. changing the church into a world lifestyle and Once he makes his case power. Instead, as Christianity in- interpretations for variation, Darwin details the creased in popularity and became struggle for survival. As previously the official religion of the Roman of doctrine can stated, all animals show some sort Empire, more organization was develop into whole of variation that allows it to be per- unconsciously selected for and led religions if given fectly adapted to its respective en- to The Vatican and global influ- vironment. This accumulation of ence. the proper scenario. beneficial traits is no result of mere The next chapter of chance. The best adaptations are Charles Darwin’s On the Origin of simply passed down from parent Species elaborates on variation and its role in nature. to offspring by those organisms that survive and The observations of Sir John Lubbock, a friend of successfully mate. That in essence, is the definition Darwin’s, noted that there was variety on minute a of natural selection (Keller 52-3). With respect to scale as the branching of the main nerves close to spirituality, all three Abrahamic faiths have a mix- the central ganglion of Coccus hesperidum. In ac- ture of characteristics from rituals to holidays to cordance with those findings, all creatures within doctrine that make them perfectly tailored for their a species vary in some manner, providing the raw believers. Once again, this is not the result of a ran- material that natural selection acts upon. These dom accumulation of spiritual satisfaction. Reli- individual variations, given the right conditions, gious practices are continually passed down from could potentially develop into different species, one generation to the next by those groups that which are nothing more than continued iterations successfully teach their younger members. This of varieties of the common ancestor (Keller 47-9). culminates in what one may call a sort of spiritual A look at any congregation regardless of religion selection. will show you variation in some form, whether it Natural selection stems from a struggle for is racial, ethnic, socioeconomic, or cultural (Rusaw existence that is driven by the extraordinary rate 233). No two people are alike, even if they attend of increase of organisms. In short, living things the same place of worship. Differences in lifestyle multiply at such a rate that there are simply not and interpretations of doctrine can develop into enough resources to support them all, and this whole religions if given the proper scenario, just as leads to eternal competition within and between variations in organisms can result in speciation. In species (Keller 55-6). Spiritual selection, on the
10 The Gold Star Journal 2013 other hand, does not derive from the lack of re- proselytizing is not a traditional aspect of Juda- sources on the planet. The struggle in this case is ism, even that is starting to change. In fact, “no for belief and is driven by a requirement to increase form of Judaism imagines that one must be Jew- and the fact that this desire pits one religion against ish to attain salvation or gain entrance to heaven.” another. In all of the Abrahamic faiths except for However, the intermarrying of Jews with Gentiles Judaism until recently, evangelism, or what some has become so popular in recent years that rabbis would call proselytism, is a major component of of Reform Judaism decided in 2010 at the 121st the faith. In Christianity, this is a direct command meeting of the Central Conference of American from Jesus Christ himself, and is known as The Rabbis to encourage the conversion of spouses and Great Commission: families of intermarried Jews Then Jesus came (Hirschfield). With three of to them and said, the world’s largest religions “All authority in vying for new souls each day, heaven and on there is bound to be compe- earth has been tition. given to me. / In nature there are Therefore go and natural checks that prevent make disciples the expected rate of increase of all nations, that would outstrip the baptizing them planet’s resources. These in the name of limiting forces are climate, the Father and disease, species interactions, of the Son and of and competition. While the Holy Spirit, / some species are adapted to and teaching a climate, changes in the en- them to obey vironment could lead to a everything I have scarcity of food. Disease is commanded always present but especially
you. And surely A sample of the various pigeons studied by Darwin. becomes a factor whenever I am with you al- a population grows out of ways, to the very end of the age. (New control and endures an epidemic. Predation and International Version, Matt. 28:16-20) succession are largely consequences of the fact that every individual of every species must ensure that it With respect to Islam, they believe their will be able to survive. As such, some populations message to be a universal truth as read in the are kept under control by other populations that Quran: “Verily this is no less than a Message to feed on them while the predatory species is also (all) the Worlds: / (With profit) to whoever among kept in check by the amount of prey it has avail- you wills to go straight. / But ye shall not will Ex- able to it. Relationships such as this are depicted cept as Allah wills The Cherisher of the Worlds” in codependence webs. Succession as observed (Yusuf Ali Translation, 81:27-29). in forests that were hewn down demonstrates the By virtue of the scriptures shown above, concept of competition beautifully. If it were not all Christians and Muslims must spread the in- for competition, the first organisms to colonize fluence of their faith due to direct orders. While cleared woodlands would eventually grow out of
11 The Gold Star Journal 2013 control. However, eventually they give way to new third barrier to unlimited religious expansion is groups of plants that will replace their older coun- competition from other religions. Common sense terparts through competition (Keller 58-60). dictates that one belief cannot convert everyone if Essentially, if either faith group was in a there is another form of faith with the same goal in position where there were no barriers to winning mind. In nature, organisms may go after the same converts, then eventually there would virtually be resources and become competition for each other; no sin or inherent evil in the world, resulting in a it is the same for religions who go after the natural type of world that each faith is eagerly awaiting the resources of heart, mind, and soul. coming of. That result in itself would largely take All of the biological information that has away the goal of most faiths by virtue of accom- been covered so far results in natural selection. Just plishing it and leads to all sorts of philosophical as humanity can select for desirable traits, nature questions beyond the scope of this paper. While itself selects for traits that are conducive to the sur- the physical environment, disease, predation do vival of species. These traits just may confer basic not have any significance in religious expansion, survival or may prove advantageous in mating and there are limiting factors. Three of these dynam- therefore be the result of sexual selection. Simple ics are culture, politics, and competition for con- geographic isolation also provides a mechanism of verts. Culture can be a barrier to religious expan- selection with regard to speciation (Keller 61-75). sion largely due to the stereotypes it may promote. The benefits of survival due to natural selection Many faiths are never even given the time of day may have played a role in the development of reli- due to improper opinions and beliefs about their gion itself. The dominating theory on the evolu- practices. In regards to American culture, Islam tion of religious tendencies is known as the Stan- has felt the greatest impact of this phenomenon dard Model. According to the standard model, in recent years. While there are many wonderful, religion is not necessarily an adaptive mechanism law-abiding Muslims around the globe and in the designed to promote faith in a higher being, but United States itself, misconceptions of terrorism, rather an evolutionary side effect of the cognitive misogyny, and draconian rules are a constant thorn evolution of the human mind. Cognitive adapta- in the side of Muslim evangelization efforts (Ali). tions that may have indirectly caused religion are Politics can get in the way of religious expansion those related to agency detection, theory of mind, whenever laws are passed against specific religious and folk ontology. Some researchers have proposed action. Legally speaking, these restrictions are usu- that religion was itself an adaptation of genetics or ally in the form of laws against blasphemy, apos- cultural groups. While there is not substantial evi- tasy, and defamation of religion. The interesting dence for genetic evolution of religion, it could be aspect of this is that these laws in most instances possible given the millennia that religion has exist- are designed to protect religion. However, they ed that over time genes that make religion easier to also severely restrict any other religion besides the acquire could have accumulated in humans. In the state’s majority faith. It is easy to be found guilty cultural adaptation approach, it is hypothesized of blasphemy and apostasy if you convert from the that religion allowed a form of artificial kinship to majority religion and profess your new belief. This form between unrelated members of a group, al- is clearly a barrier to religious expansion of Chris- lowing the development of altruism and group co- tianity and Judaism since fifty-nine countries have hesion that helped the group survive. There is even some form of rule or policy that prohibits the three evidence of religion being linked to overall fitness aforementioned crimes against religion, a major- with religious societies out-persisting, producing ity of which are in the Middle East where Islam more offspring, and cooperating better than nonre- is the dominant faith (“Rising Restrictions”). The ligious societies (Powell 460, 473, 476). In a way,
12 The Gold Star Journal 2013 religion can also be at the mercy of sexual selec- Together, all this makes for a convincing tion. All three Abrahamic faiths contain scripture argument that all things are related in a sort of against intermarriage with members of a different Tree of Life. This is displayed in biology by way of religion. This can be found in Deuteronomy 7:3- phylogenetic trees (Keller 76). A similar tree can 4 in the New International Version of The Bible be constructed with regard to the Abrahamic faiths and Surah 2:221in the Yusuf-Ali translation of The when each groups claim to descent from Abraham Quran. By virtue of these scriptures, adherents of and the Bible are put in context. According to a faith will seek to marry and reproduce with those the Bible, Christians and Jews are descendants of of a similar belief. Geography can also come into Abraham by his son Isaac, who they say was the play with the development of religion. An example promised seed. Abraham’s firstborn son, Ishmael, of this that has already been discussed is the domi- is who Muslims claim to be the promised seed and nance of Islam in the Middle East and how it has their ancestor (Knowles). Based on these findings shaped spiritual policy in that region. Even the and the fact that Isaac was of the same faith as his nonreligious in such an area of the globe will have father, it can be said that Islam and Christianity some form of belief or morals in line with Islam both descended from Judaism. To put this in a due to the fact it permeates everyday life in those “tree of spirit” as shown below, Abraham would be countries. If a cultural group is isolated within a the source of ancient Judaism, carried on through region that is dominated by a belief, it may develop his son Isaac. Islam would begin to branch from into a separate denomination or sect just as an iso- Judaism at the time of Ishmael’s banishment and lated population of squirrels could lead to a new eventually become its own religion with the mes- breed. Again, such a case has been shown with sage of Muhammad. After the birth of Ishmael but the development of Reform Judaism in Germany. before the founding of Islam, Christianity would
13 The Gold Star Journal 2013 branch off from Judaism during the earthly minis- faith raised their children the same way, then the try of Jesus Christ. These major divisions as well unit of inheritance for religion would be whatever as traditional Judaism would then branch off into holy book the parents use. However, parents of their own respective denominations over the course the same faith still raise their children differently, of history into those that are in existence today. meaning that the unit of religious inheritance must Now that it has been clearly shown how be interpretation of beliefs. Just like genes are re- natural and spiritual selection work and how the combined in fertilization, interpretations of faith organisms and beliefs they affect can vary, it is nec- are recombined when two people decide how they essary to describe the laws that govern such varia- want to raise their children with respect to religion. tion and drive the selection. Two important fac- Even in cases of a single parent, interpretations are tors in every case for variation are the nature of further recombined by influences of life and per- the organism and the nature of the sonal interactions that every person conditions (Keller 80). Spiritu- Islam would begin experiences, resulting in a form of ally speaking, those factors could horizontal interpretation transfer be the nature of the believer and to branch from like the horizontal gene transfer the cultural environment they live Judaism at the of bacteria. In turn, interpreta- in. It has already been established tions of faith are passed down from how culture can influence beliefs time of Ishmael’s generation to generation, occasion- through stereotypes, laws, and ma- banishment and ally forming new denominations jority religions. Just as the type of eventually become or, as in the case of Muhammad’s organism and its environment are interpretation as well as the inter- crucial to types of variation in liv- its own religion pretation Christ’s disciples, entirely ing creatures, the type of believer with the message of new religions. Continuing with and their cultural environment Muhammad. the gene-interpretation analogy, will dictate the forms of variation common interpretations or beliefs in belief. For example, adherents signify related beliefs just as shared living in a more liberal society will vary from a re- genes give clues to related species. The aforemen- taliatory conservative set of beliefs to a liberal spiri- tioned characteristics of monotheism and affilia- tual outlook that goes with the flow of the respec- tion with Abraham give clues to the relatedness of tive culture. This can be seen in the wide scope of Christianity, Judaism, and Islam in this way. approaches to Christianity in the United States. It is important for the three faiths to learn While traits were considered to be the prod- about one another and realize their common de- uct of use and disuse until disproved by Thomas scent in order to stop the stereotypes and violence Wollaston and his beetles, it is now known that between them. It is also crucial for the science and they are controlled by genetics. By virtue of the re- spiritual-minded to do the same with each other combination of genetics, underlying recessive traits to end their quarrels. The theory of evolution, some time arise in offspring of different breeds, whether biological or religious, is not intended to pointing to a common ancestor (Keller 82, 85). be a divisive subject. Instead they are both meant In the realm of religion, the controlling aspect of to be a means of better understanding not only spiritual evolution must be passed down from par- the world around us, but each other. While they ent to offspring like genes. No matter the faith, are not perfect theories, it is hoped that they make a majority of parents proselytize their children by sense to all and explain the commonality of all liv- how they raise them (Leslie). If all parents of a ing organisms and Abrahamic faiths.
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BIBLIOGRAPHY
“Ahmaddiya.” ReligionFacts. 8 August 2006. ReligionFacts, 17 “Pigeons.” Online Image. 11 February 2013.
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The Devils and the In their dramas Faust: Part 1 and The Broken Pitcher, Johann Wolfgang von Goethe and Hein- Details: Justice Adam and rich von Kleist, respectively, both incorporate Mephistopheles figures of deceit and temptation that, on the sur- face, display several vestiges of a typical Western Nathaniel G. Madden Satan-figure, a being of pure evil often adorned Nathaniel is a Band with hooves and horns, and always on the hunt for Company junior the souls of men. The characters of Mephistoph- eles and Justice Adam in the respective plays are from Anderson, SC. both presented in the context of biblical allegories Majoring in Political and assigned various traits that, on the surface, Science and German, cast them as devilish figures of pure malevolence. he is also serving as However; through careful textual and plot analysis, a Company First the guise of devilry falls apart in Adam and Me- phistopheles’s cases and reveals far less evil personas Sergeant. A member and roles. Both Adam and Mephistopheles exude of the Honor’s the appearance and behaviors of satanic figures in College, he has also their respective roles; however, closer examination studied at the Goethe Institute. His internships of Mephistopheles’s role as a lesser spirit through include working for the House Armed Services the theories of Jane K. Brown will allow for similar interpretation to be applied to the understanding Committee in Washington, DC and South of Adam’s role as an ambivalent figure of human Carolina Educational Televison. After graduation, weakness and folly in The Broken Pitcher. The basis he plans on attending Notre Dame in order to for this alternative reading of both dramas is found receive his MA in International Peace Studies. first in Faust: Part 1, in the “Prologue in Heaven” and the so-called “Pact Scenes” where Mephis- Abstract topheles is introduced and supposedly character- The dramas Faust: Part 1 and The Broken Pitcher ized as a form of the devil. The supposed “satani- zation” of Justice Adam then runs throughout the both incorporate figures of deceit and temptation description of events that befall Adam, as well as that, on the surface, display several vestiges various passages that characterize the judge in The of a typical Western Satan.The characters of Broken Pitcher before analyzing common symbolic Mephistopheles and Justice Adam in the respective parallels shared by the antagonists and their roles plays are both presented in the context of biblical in the respective biblical parallels of the dramas. allegories and assigned various traits that cast them as devilish figures of pure malevolence. Through When first introduced to Mephistopheles in “The Prologue in Heaven” and “The Scene in careful analysis, this paper examines the Satanic the Study”, the reader is initially reminded of the imagery around both characters to show that biblical story of Job, in which God and Satan make though both characters exhibit somewhat demonic a bet that Job, a devout follower of God, will not traits, both are ambivalent, almost comic figures. renounce his faith, even when tried and tested to his very limits. Likewise, The Lord and Mephis- topheles discuss the state of Dr. Heinrich Faust,
16 The Gold Star Journal 2013 and Mephistopheles wagers “What will you bet?... contends that several conditions surrounding the If unto me full leave you give,/ Gently upon my “Pact Scenes” of the story point to Mephistoph- road to train him!” (Goethe 11). He even goes so eles as a another “nature spirit” to whom Goethe far in soliloquy to ponder “It’s really kind of such a only grants “control of nature spirits, the elements noble Lord/ So humanly to gossip with the Devil!” and the animals” and that “Mephistopheles stands (Goethe 13). Here, Mephistopheles is presented in alone” (Brown 68). Opposed to the traditional parallel to Satan in the story of Job. When he in- understanding of a “deal with the devil”, “Mephis- troduces himself to Faust, however, the spirit pres- topheles states explicitly at the beginning of the ents himself much differently, using such monikers second study scene that he has come to offer Faust as “Part of the Darkness which brought forth the the experience of life”; in addition to this, Brown Light” and “Part of the Power, not understood,/ also contends that “Even the cloak on which [Faust Which always wills the bad and always works for and Mephisto] ultimately depart is not really mag- the good” (Goethe 46-47). The ic; it floats perfectly naturally on supposed Devil is using extremely the hot air generated by Mephisto’s ambiguous diction in his introduc- control of the elements” (Brown tion to “Goethe’s Job” (Brown 73). The reader 68, 69). Nor is fire his single or This intentionally confusing choice strongest element, which is ap- of words speaks less to a spirit of is initially parent when he admits to bend- pure evil and more to one who ing “earthquake, tempest, wave, stands in league with the equally- reminded of [and] volcano’s brand” (Goethe confusing nature of the Spirit of the Biblical 47). Seen in this light, Mephis- the Earth as seen earlier in Faust’s topheles is far from a hellish fig- Study. After the bet is made, the story of Job. ure of fire and brimstone; he even spirit implores the doctor to “Let seems more akin to such figures as a the lying spirit bind thee” (Goethe Shakespearean Puck in that he has 63). Mephistopheles repeatedly re- some minor control over elements fers to himself as a spirit, but one of extremely odd and uses them to ambivalent means, if nothing ends, and, in contrast to the Satan seen in the Book else, to satisfy a curiosity. Mephistopheles is still su- of Job, he does not make any reference to what pernatural and Goethe’s creation of him toys with will become of Faust’s immortal soul, or even if he biblical elements, but the comical and ambivalent wants his soul over an unspecified idea of servitude, way in which the spirit is constructed early in the nor are there any references given to any sort of play suggests that Mephisto is more of a deceit- hell as a destination for a losing Faust. Through his ful being of the natural realm, bearing the vestiges introduction of himself in the “Pact Scenes”, the of a devil rather than a form of Lucifer himself. being of negation has aligned himself more with the spirits already hosted in the Doctor’s study as When Heinrich von Kleist published The opposed to a supreme being of evil as is expected in Broken Pitcher in 1808, he, like Goethe, wrote a a Western Satan-figure who would have arguably play that toyed with the concept of religious paral- demanded his soul for material wealth or under- lel. The main characters, Adam and Eve, are caught standing as opposed to making bets with a mortal. in a courtroom farce regarding the breaking of Mrs. Martha’s, Eve’s mother’s, pitcher the night before. In her book, Goethe’s Faust: The German Several things are simply not known about the Tragedy, Jane K. Brown supports the idea that Me- case, or the events that occurred in Eve’s bedroom, phistopheles is not a satanic being at all. Brown nor is anything revealed about the wounds Adam
17 The Gold Star Journal 2013 sustained the night before in what is comically re- of Satan in similar fashion to Goethe’s introduction ferred to in the original German as the “Adamsfall”, of Mephistopheles in Faust: Part I. Adam’s initial an allusion to the fall in Eden. Several attempts are explanation of how he received his wounds during made by Adam to conceal the facts of the night be- the night of the “Adamsfall” is that he fought “with fore and the reason he has not only injured himself, that blasted ram/ jutting out from the stove” (Keist but has also lost his powdered wig in the process. 5). The stove—a house for fire, smoke and brim- stone—appears to be a likely origin of injury for The initial and most prevailing parallel be- a man who now bears the marks of a ram, a well- tween the two German works is the very loose ad- known biblical symbol for Lucifer. The motif of herence to their biblical parallel. In a very similar Adam as a being of fire and brimstone is continued fashion to Goethe’s deviance from the rigid con- by the testimony of Mrs. Bridget, who was present structs of the story of Job, Kleist’s interpretation in the adjacent garden to Mrs. Martha’s house the of the fall from paradise has several incongruences night the pitcher fell. Mrs. Bridget testifies that, which will later reveal the true nature of Justice in the garden, she saw “then, from there, human Adam. The story begins foot and horse’s hoof” (Kleist as Adam is confronted by 5). Adam is the bearer of the Link, the court clerk and is The most prevailing “horse’s hoof” due to his club- asked, “What happened to parallel between the foot, first addressed in Scene 1 you, Adam? What befell?” of the drama, despite his best (Kleist 3). After Adam’s ini- two German works efforts to conceal this fact lat- tial explanation that “with is the very loose er in the testimony (Kleist 4). that blasted ram/ jutting Both of these elements align out from the stove I strove adherence to their themselves not only with tra- in battle,” his clerk replies biblical parallel. ditionally accepted vestiges of with the assertion that “No Satan, but also with those pos- Adam fell before” (Kleist sessed and invoked by Mephis- 5). Kleist makes several references to the Book of topheles in Faust: Part I. The horse’s hoof speaks Genesis, and in doing so, sets up a similar bibli- to the same idea of dual-role symbolism in that cal foundation to that of Job in Faust: Part I, and, Adam has already been branded by the mark of a like Goethe, breaks from it in character as well as goat, and now is awarded by Kleist with a hoof, thematic elements. The Genesis parallel is broken a traditionally accepted mark of the devil in the primarily by the fact that Adam, the prelapsarian Western world and an attribute given to Mephis- man, has now become the deceiver about whom topheles by Goethe. Adam is little more than a Eve fumes in saying “How that villain lied to me,” flawed man, just as he confesses in Act 1 when he and whom Mrs. Bridget regards as “the good- says “Still, here I stumbled. For each man bears,/ for-nothing vile deceiver!” (Kleist 68). Whereas Within himself, his own stumbling block” (Kleist the Biblical Adam is meant to be deceived, the 3). Adam and Mephistopheles’s hooves, as well as text has him cast as a deceiver, and, for that rea- Adam’s bestial mark are as much a guise as is Ad- son as will be discussed below, a combination of am’s missing powdered wig. Adam’s “hoof” is actu- both the fallen man and the story’s Satan-figure. ally a deformity that only affects one of his feet and Mephistopheles confesses on “Walpurgis Night” in Several comical allusions are made through- response to Faust’s question of his introduction to out the one act play to cast upon Adam the vestiges the crowd as “wizard or of devil” that “The Garter
18 The Gold Star Journal 2013 does not deck my suit/ but honored and at home likely, due to the fact that he does not remember the here is the cloven foot” (Goethe 155). As an an- “Erste Adamsfall” when asked about it and could tagonist, Adam is given the “horses hoof” but only be interpreted as offering the double meaning that incompletely and as an infirmity which can be in- Adam is rather an alte Ziege, or old goat who only terpreted as a symbol of imperfection as opposed appears to be satanic. Because of these incomplete to a mark of evil; likewise Mephistopheles humbles and superficial marks, Adam should not neces- himself before the crowds of the supernatural as sarily be interpreted as a being of evil, but rather merely one who bears a respected mark instead of as one of imperfection who uses deceit—such as a mark that would crown him a Master of Hell. his lies to the Chief Justice or Ruprecht’s falsified draft letter—simply to satisfy human weaknesses Mrs. Bridget does like pride and lust. Adam’s not only speak of Adam’s lies also give rise to an ac- deformity in her testimony; companying interpretation she also speaks of shapes to the snow-circle. Due to made upon the ground. the joking way that Mrs. When asked about what Bridget unknowingly casts she saw in the garden on Adam as a devil figure, the the night of The Broken circle can be interpreted as a Pitcher, Mrs. Bridget also Teufelskreis, literally a devil’s claims that “First by the circle, which translates to a trellis where he leapt, look “vicious cycle”. Through his you—/ A circle, so wide, deceit Adam has created a churned up in the snow” scenario of which he cannot appeared. The circle itself escape without serious legal is not a demonic symbol, retribution, offering further especially when looked at support to Adam as a crea- only in the context offered ture of weakness and folly. by Kleist’s drama; however, in the context of Goethe’s The Broken Pitcher work, the circle becomes and Faust: Part 1 are prod- Eugene Delacroix’s lithograph of Mephistopheles half of the parts necessary ucts of the same era in Ger- to construct a pentagram or a Symbol of the Mac- man Literature. Johann Wolfgang von Goethe was rocosm, both of which are drawn by Dr. Heinrich even the director of the Berlin Theater the night Faust during his venture into the supernatural arts. that The Broken Pitcher premiered in 1808, over When viewed as an allusion to Faust: Part 1, the twenty years before the completion and publica- circle in the garden, like Faust’s pentagram is in- tion of the second part of Goethe’s tragedy, which complete. This incomplete symbol, along with gives credence to the idea of possible dialogues be- that of the horse’s hoof, speaks to the idea that tween the two (Neumann 61). Both dramas invoke Adam, though comically cast as a Satan-figure, is widely accepted ideas of biblical allusion and draw little more than a poorly-clad and incomplete devil. strongly upon biblical parallel before altering the The ram mark upon Adam’s head is likewise a re- course of events. Both playwrights also incorporate sult of human imperfection in that it was obtained leading antagonists who are easily mistaken for the by either clumsiness or, even drunkenness, which is devil due to their superficial attributes before reveal-
19 The Gold Star Journal 2013 ing the ambivalent nature of their deceit and folly. BIBLIOGRAPHY By looking at the flawed antagonist, Justice Adam, through the same lens that Jane K. Brown uses to Brown, Jane K. Goethe’s Faust: The German Tragedy. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1986. 66-73. Print. examine Mephistopheles, both antagonists can be “Eugene Delacroix’s lithograph of Mephistopheles.” Online Image. seen as parallels, sharing the guise and appearance 15 January 2013. < http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipe dia/commons/thumb/b/b9/Mephistopheles2.jpg/250px- of Lucifer but holding none of his true malevolence. Mephistopheles2.jpg> Neumann, Allfred R. “Goethe and Kleist’s “Der Zerbrochene Krug.” Modern Language Quarterly, 13, 1, pg. 61, Academic Search Premier. Web. 9 Dec. 2011. von Kleist, Heinrich. Heinrich von Kleist PLAYS. New York, NY: The Continuum Publishing Company, 1982. 1-73. Print. von Goethe, Johann Wolfgang. Faust (Translated in the Original Metres, by Bayard Taylor). Random House, 1870. 9-155. Print.
Untitled by Robert Keener
20 The Gold Star Journal 2013
Untitled by Terri Craig
21 The Gold Star Journal 2013
Capitalism: If History Has Every human civilization that has ever come into Taught U.S. Anything… existence, from prehistoric times up to the pres- ent day, has been forced to produce in order to preserve its existence. The manners in which these Thomas A. Gorman, Jr. civilizations have organized production and al- Thomas Anthony located their scarce resources have, by and large, Gorman, Jr. is in his determined the amount of individual, political, and economic liberties that each member of a so- fourth semester in ciety will possess1. These economic organizations the Citadel Graduate largely control every citizen’s standard of living and College MBA ultimately play a large role in the success or fail- program. He also ure of every society. In terms of economic policy, studies economics then, the long-term results lead to either existence or non-existence. Sadly, a brief examination of the in his spare time. history of mankind confirms that our decisions, In December of more often than not, have lead to failure and, ulti- 2010, he received a mately, non-existence. Bachelors Degree in Business Administration Over the past century, we have witnessed, through The Citadel’s “Two Plus Two” program here in the U.S., the economic pendulum swing back and forth across the spectrum of economic with Trident Technical College. He graduated arrangement. The era of unregulated free trade of with Summa Cum Laude honors as an the late nineteenth and early twentieth century was undergraduate and was inducted into the Beta brought to an abrupt halt by the Great Depression Gamma Sigma International Honors Society and FDR’s New Deal regulations. Thirty years of for Business Students in March of 2011. He prosperity ensued until rising unemployment and inflation, known as stagflation, gripped the nation is currently employed by his family’s small in the mid 1970’s. 2 business, Gorman Brothers Alignment, where This time it would be Ronald Reagan di- he manages and oversees daily operations. recting the winds of change through deregulation and laissez faire style of Reaganomics.3 Today, Pres- Abstract ident Barack Obama has met the Great Recession The manner in which a nation organizes its of 2008-09 with a new period of regulation and economic activities largely decides its fate. Here deficit spending. Each change in direction, as is of- in the U.S., the economic pendulum swings across ten the case throughout history, was ushered in by the spectrum of economic arrangement. This study a period of crisis and public panic. Now, with the benefits of time to deliberate and the knowledge examines the principles of socialism and capitalism of historical experience, we should ask ourselves and examines the nature of man in order to determine a fundamental question: Economically speaking, which is best. Before making recommendations what has history taught us and how do we achieve for the future course of the American economy, sustainable prosperity and growth? we shall take a look back at Rome and how According to Milton Friedman, “there are its economic policies played a role in its fate. only two ways of co-ordinating the economic activ- ities of millions. One is central direction involving
22 The Gold Star Journal 2013 the use of coercion – the technique of the army and market is systematically rooted out. As the com- of the modern totalitarian state. The other is vol- petition in the market begins to evaporate, so with untary co-operation of individuals – the technique it goes the personal incentive to produce at a high of the market place”; also known as the invisible level as well as the innovative ideas that are pro- hand of the free market.4 Throughout his history, duced by and dependent upon it. The citizenry, mankind has more frequently than not turned to now void of the entrepreneurial spirit, abandons central direction to arrange his economic affairs. ideas of productivity and ingenuity and instead These measures have been become dependent upon the referred to by names such as establishment; as if in an in- socialism and communism; fantile state. Now directly however, for our purposes, burdened with the welfare we will refer to them as col- of the masses, the govern- lectivism, so as to reference all ment must quickly turn to forms of collective economic arbitrary law to meet the con- orders. stantly changing needs of its To centrally direct the dependents. This is a process economy of a state, as col- that begins with regulation, lectivism attempts, is an ex- then grows into monopolies, tremely complex task for any and ultimately evolves into government to undertake. In government control of every- the words of F.A. Hayek: “It thing from the price of a loaf must, of necessity, take sides, of bread to how an individual impose its valuations upon earns a living.8 people and, instead of assist- As the overall scope ing them in their advance- of government expands, so ment of their own ends, grows with it the bureaucracy choose the ends for them”.5 and the financial burdens in- Even the initial step of gather- herent with sustaining such Milton Friedman ing the information necessary a system.9 In The Road To to make decisions for individuals is practically im- Serfdom, Hayek explains: “To be a useful assis- possible because of the constantly changing needs tant in the running of a totalitarian state, it is not of each individual.6 Quickly it becomes painfully enough that a man should be prepared to accept clear that while collectivist governments distribute specious justification of vile deeds; he must himself many things to their citizens, liberty cannot be one be prepared actively to break every moral rule he of them. Even the freedom of thought is a threat has ever known if this seems necessary to achieve to the leaders and therefore an enemy of the state. the end set for him”.10 As all incentive for person- In this type of society, the value of the individual al advancement through honest and productive is void as his only purpose is to serve the state; a means has been destroyed, individuals of a lower purpose commonly wrapped in ambiguous guise moral quality stand ready to do what is necessary of the “common good”.7 to attain a bureaucratic position. A new breed of As a result of the complexity of its task, a leadership concerned only with preservation of collectivist government must be ever expanding in power is, hereby, born. size and authority. As the state gains control over As government expenditures rise, on ac- industry, any competition that may exist in the count of a larger overall structure and scope, as
23 The Gold Star Journal 2013 well as less effective and more corrupt policies, of function and division of labor, the consumer the administration is constantly searching for new is protected by the fact that there are numerous ways to raise revenue. At this point, most govern- producers to exchange with, and vice versa for the ments hand down hefty rounds of taxes and tariffs. producers. Each individual is thereby protected by Whenever these measures have been insufficient to the economic options and freedoms they possess. cover the expenditures, as Milton Friedman says, The attempts of each individual to be productive “The only other way to finance higher government in the market, indirectly, lead toward a more pros- spending is by increasing the perous society. Adam Smith af- quantity of money”.11 This firms this notion in Wealth of move begins a downward spi- Nations: “As every individual, ral that devalues the state’s cur- therefore, endeavours as much rency and brings about vicious as he can both to employ his inflation. Left unchecked, this capital in the support of dome- inflation can destroy monetary stick industry, and so to direct systems; thereby sending man- that industry that its produce kind back into a primitive state may be of society as great as he of bartering or, even worse, can”.13 Smith went on to tag serfdom. these indirect effects as “the in- The road less traveled visible hand”. in terms of economic organiza- The government, although tion has been the market based purposefully serving in a lim- economy. Often referred to as ited capacity, has many impor- Capitalism, the free market tant roles to play. Obviously system allows the individual a government must provide a to take command of their eco- military to protect its citizens nomic destiny through volun- against external threats. To set- tary exchange and by provid- tle internal disputes, a govern- ing a smaller, much simpler role for government to ment must develop a justice system with consistent play in society. In Capitalism and Freedom, Fried- courts and laws to protect the individual. A consis- man lays out the foundations of the free market tent and effective justice system will, as Hayek says, with two basic requirements: “(a) that enterprises “make it possible to foresee with fair certainty how are private, so that the ultimate contracting parties the authority will use its coercive powers in given are individuals and (b) that individuals are effec- circumstances and to plan one’s individual affairs tively free to enter or not to enter into any par- on the basis of this knowledge”.14 Equipping the ticular exchange, so that every transaction is strictly public with this type of foresight gives individu- voluntary”.12 This type of arrangement minimizes als confidence to make investments in the market- government interference into the marketplace and place; which ultimately lead to economic growth effectively separates economic power from political and higher standards of living. power. Perhaps the most important responsibility The economic freedom provided by the of the government is to provide a stable currency free market system creates a level playing field with which to facilitate commerce. In the absence which producers and consumers can utilize to of a stable currency, a modern free society cannot engage in exchanges. As a result of specialization exist because there will be no funding to support
24 The Gold Star Journal 2013 the institutions on which such a society depends no choice upon, are predetermined by the nature upon (military, courts, banks). In her epic novel At- of the entity. If an organism fails to complete these las Shrugged, Ayn Rand, through the industrialist basic functions, death, or non-existence, is the re- Francisco d’ Anconia, vividly depicts the purpose sult. Maintenance of life, therefore, has to be the of money: “Money is a tool of exchange…Money “ultimate end” of every organism.18 Consequently, is the material shape of the principle that men who as Rand says, “An organism’s life is its standard wish to deal with one another must deal by trade of value; that which furthers its life is good, that and give value for value…Blood, whips and guns – which threatens it is evil”. 19 or dollars”. 15 In a capitalist society, a government The existence of good and bad values pre- is limited enough to survive off of minimal taxa- supposes some sort of mechanism to differentiate tion of its citizens. As a result, the money supply between the two. Simple organisms such as plants can remain steady, capital gains can be reinvested, have automated mechanisms to direct them to- rather than taxed, and the economy can experience wards life sustaining actions; water, sunlight, and sustainable growth and prosperity. This concludes nutrients in the soil are, therefore, good values for our synopsis of the two types of economic organi- a plant. However, for all conscious animals, includ- zation. ing man, this mechanism is the sensation of plea- Now let us turn our attention to the na- sure, for life sustaining actions, and pain, for life ture of man. In The Virtue of Selfishness, Ayn Rand, threatening actions. Consequently, consciousness, through her Objectivist Theory, provides, perhaps, for the entities which possess it, “is the basic means the most comprehensive analysis of the nature of of survival”; and the amount of action required to man of any offered. As the name of her theory sug- maintain the survival of the entity is in accordance gests, Rand proclaims that ethics are an objective is- with the scope of that entity’s consciousness.20 sue not to be diluted by personal feelings or desires, The animals which hold a lower level of or “whims” as she calls them. 16 While grounded in consciousness are limited strictly to the function of the idea of objectivism, Rand’s theory stands upon instantaneous sensation. The sensation of pleasure three principles: reason, mind, and reality. and pain instinctively keep the animal constantly Rand begins her explanation of the na- attracted to pathways (eating, resting, reproduc- ture of man with the idea of value. She explains ing) which will help it thrive. This, therefore, ne- that value can only exist when there are alterna- gates any possibility that the animal could ever tives available. Through John Galts speech in Atlas purposely act in a manner which would be det- Shrugged, she explains that “The existence of inan- rimental to its own existence.21 On the opposite imate matter is unconditional, the existence of life end of the spectrum, animals with a higher level of is not: it depends on a specific course of action… consciousness can comprehend and retain a cata- It is only a living organism that faces a constant log of actions that produce pleasure and pain and, alternative: the issue of life or death”. 17 Therefore, therefore, keep a conscious log of which pathways a living entity is the only entity which can realize of behavior will be most beneficial to their exis- value. tence. This conscious log of memories and ideas Rand goes on to explain that each living are what is referred to as “perception”.22 With the entity has the responsibility of performing certain ability to perceive, these organisms can assimilate a tasks to preserve its existence. This primarily con- “perceptual reality”, as Rand calls it, which allows sists of the consumption of products which will it to learn skill sets, such as hunting, which are ben- give it energy as well as the tasks required to attain eficial to their survival. This perceptual reality will those products. These tasks, of which the entity has forever direct the organism down the path which
25 The Gold Star Journal 2013 will maximize its existence and, again, prevent it lems which are presented to him through the real- from consciously acting in a manner which would ity of his existence. The reality of his condition is be detrimental to survival.23 something that can never be whimsically altered by What separates man from every other con- will; only improved through productive thoughts scious animal is the fact that man’s consciousness and actions. In the following sentence, Rand sums is volitional. In other words, man has the unique up the nature of man through her Objectivist the- ability to behave in ways which are detrimental to ory: “The Objectivist ethics holds man’s life as the its survival; suicide being the most vivid example. standard of value – and his own life as the ethical This is made possible because of man’s ability to purpose of every individual man”.26 integrate his perceptions into conceptual knowl- At this point in our investigation, it has edge, which are derivatives of conceptual values.24 become evident that the free market is the only However, this ability to develop concepts, unlike form of economic organization that is compatible the physical sensations of pleasure and pain, is far with the nature of man. As man’s nature dictates from innate; it requires action on man’s behalf. The that his highest purpose is to perpetuate the exis- process of conceptualizing is, here, best described tence of his own life, capitalism is the only system by Rand: which provides man the freedom to fully utilize his It is an actively sustained process of most potent tool for survival: his mind. Further- identifying one’s impressions in con- more, if man is provided with the opportunity to ceptual terms, of integrating every fully use his focused mental faculties, his reasoning event and every observation into a and logic will undoubtedly lead him towards the conceptual context, of grasping re- economic order which has, throughout history, a lationships, differences, similarities, proven track record of creating growth and pros- in one’s perceptual material and of perity: capitalism. However, before we look ahead abstracting them into new concepts, for a future economic course, perhaps it would be of drawing inferences, of making de- beneficial to, first, take a glance into the past. As ductions, of reaching conclusions, of the United State of America has now, in its youth, asking new questions and discover- become one of the greatest civilizations to ever ex- ing new answers and expanding one’s ist, with regards to economic growth and prosper- knowledge in an ever-growing sum.25 ity, perhaps we should look, briefly, to one of he This unique process is what makes it possible for world’s former superpowers, Rome, for some guid- man to reign supreme over the Earth. This process ance and clarity on how to, or not, chart our future is called thinking, and it is directed through the course. faculty of reason. As the sun set on the Roman Republic and At this point, the three principles upon began to rise on the Roman Empire, the glorious which Objectivism stands are clearly visible. The days of free enterprise would be numbered despite ability to reason, by which man gains knowledge the fact that the empire’s first emperor, Augustus, through the integration of his experiences, obser- heavily favored the free market system. Upon tak- vations, and thoughts, is his ultimate tool of sur- ing the throne, Augustus implemented a number vival. Reason is provided to man through the use of policies geared towards enhancing the free mar- of his mind in a focused manner; though man also ket system. These policies included eliminating has the choice to un-focus his mind and, thereby, the corrupt and oppressive tax farming system and destroys his ability to reason. Through these facul- replacing it with a more fair and predictable flat ties, man has the ability to effectively solve prob- tax on individuals with a low rate, slashing entitle-
26 The Gold Star Journal 2013 ments, and investing in harbors and roadways to Beginning with Gaius Gracchus in 123 facilitate trade and communication. 27 However, B.C., the Roman government began subsidizing despite the efforts of Augustus, the policies of his grain to its citizens by selling them monthly ra- predecessors and followers to the throne would seal tions at a fixed rate.31 Initially, this policy was im- the Roman fate. plemented to stabilize the price of corn as it had Spending by the Ro- become erratic from seasonal man government became an fluctuations.32 However, as enormous burden for the em- most government programs pire to bear. By and large, the do, this program only got bureaucracy (which consisted larger. In 58 B.C., Clodius al- of government officials and tered the policy to make the military personnel), and grain grain distributions free.33 This entitlements were the two ar- resulted in an influx of farm- eas which required the bulk of ers and freed slaves into the the spending. During the time city to become government of the Roman Empire, Rome’s dependents. By the time of huge amounts of territories Augustus, around 320,000 were constantly under siege, Roman citizens were receiv- thus necessitating a large and ing free grain from the gov- mobilized army. Furthermore, ernment, although he would as Bruce Bartlett says, “it was slash this number to 200,000. now explicitly understood by However, in 274 A.D., Aure- everyone that the emperor’s lian would yet again alter this power and position depended policy by making entitlements entirely upon the support of heredity and to, instead, dis- the army”.28 This meant that tribute baked bread along the army’s needs and wants with salt, pork, and olive oil; were top priority, regardless even entertainment, at this of the costs. This passage from Gaius Julius Ceasar Augustus point, was provided by the one of Augusts’ ancient writ- government (Reed). The rug- ings detail how burdensome these costs could be: ged individualism that existed during the Roman To acquire lands for soldier-colonies Republic was now a thing of the past. I paid 600,000,000 sesterces (thirty As the Roman government’s demand for million dollars) for Italian farms revenue increased, the policies they devised to raise and 260,000,000 sesterces for land the funds became more and more unscrupulous. in the provinces…and to soldiers Obviously, heavy-handed taxation and tariffs were whom I sent back to their native handed down. As these policies lost their effec- cities I gave gratuities amounting to tiveness because of rising debt and inflation, gov- 400,000,000 sesterces etc.29 ernment stooped to more devious methods that Even more telling was the fact that, later, during included trumping up charges on the wealthy in the reign of Diocletian, half of the adult men of the order to confiscate their properties and demand- empire were on the government payroll.30 Clearly, ing tributes to be paid from the provinces for petty the bureaucracy was expanding out of control. reasons (Bartlett). Then, beginning with the Em-
27 The Gold Star Journal 2013 peror Nero (54-68 A.D), the state began a series of with Kershner’s First Law: “When a self-governing currency devaluations in an attempt to boost rev- people confer upon their government the power to enues. Initially, Nero reduced the silver content in take from some and give to others, the process will the denarius to 90 percent (Bartlett).34 However, not stop until the last bone of the last taxpayer is Nero’s successors would follow this precedent of picked bare”.38 currency debasement. By the year 268 A.D., the Although there were also social and politi- denarius would contain only .02 percent silver and cal factors that contributed to the downfall of the lethal bouts with inflation would devastate the re- Roman Empire, the atrocious economic decisions gion.35 As a result, the people of Rome began to made by the leaders played an overwhelming role. hoard the old currency while paying taxes with Over a long period of time these policies eroded the new currency, effectively further reducing the away the foundation of individualism and free en- states revenues. A series of wage and price controls terprise that made the Empire possible to begin would, thereafter, be implemented. However, there with. If there is one lesson that we should take would be no stopping the downward spiral of the away from the story of the Romans, it is that all once great Roman Empire. great civilizations, the United States included, are One last major attempt would be made capable of destroying themselves. Today, in Amer- to salvage the Roman economy by the Emperor ica, we as a people, armed with the political and Diocletian. Upon assuming the throne, Diocletian economic freedoms necessary for such a task, still was faced with a worthless currency, skyrocketing have the opportunity to preserve our free market prices and wages, and a population in a desperate heritage and our individual freedoms. To do so we state of panic. By this time, says Tenny Frank: must embrace and improve upon the system that …there was little evidence in the peo- has created so much for so many: Capitalism. ple of the old-time vigor, the spirit of Every citizen of the United States, as the independence and self-reliance, the primary participants in the free-market system, has capacity to meet new situations, the the power to improve upon our capitalist system. mental alertness, the refusal to accept This is possible because we, as the owners of the defeat that once had characterized the various private enterprises, create the moral fab- Romans.36 ric of the business community. This is extremely Diocletian took action with the oppres- important because, historically, government regu- sive and infamous “Edict of 301”. This law would lations have been reactionary policies which are design a stringent set of wage and price controls implemented on moral grounds to protect the which were enforceable by death. In addition, the rights of consumers from harmful practices. This tax system was re-organized to directly requisition has been evident in recent times with the passing of products required by the state, instead of collect- regulations on the healthcare, financial, and oil in- ing the worthless currency, from individuals who dustries. Immoral actions on the part of a handful were to be forbidden from changing occupations of individuals, such as Bernie Madoff for example, or locations; also punishable by death.37 The state can result in the regulation of an entire industry.39 now controlled all production and the citizens To combat this phenomenon, the promotion and were merely serfs. The Edict would be a complete practice of ethical business practices are essential in failure and repealed after Diocletian’s resignation. the realm of the business community. Practiced col- The Roman economy would never recover and lectively, we can keep the governments regulatory the Empire would collapse a little over a century targets off of the business community and shorten later. These events can be properly summed up the gap between Wall Street and Main Street.
28 The Gold Star Journal 2013 As a nation, we must also come to the re- attempted to cap federal spending with legislation alization that we simply cannot afford to take care that includes the 1985 Gramm-Rudman-Hollings of every individual citizen. The American welfare Act and the 1990 Budget Enforcement Act.41 Ulti- system is largely inefficient and very disruptive to mately, these caps failed because Congress would al- our free market system. Our public housing units ways find a way to get around the rules with exemp- often create troubled neighborhoods and balloon- tions and emergency spending. With this in mind, I ing healthcare costs are driving up the deficit via would forgo the implementation of more spending Medicare/Medicaid. Furthermore, an extensive caps and instead recommend heavy budget cuts to and paternal type of welfare system eradicates the the American military empire and entitlement pro- rugged individualism that grams. These cuts would need makes Americans unique Every citizen of the to reduce federal spending and transforms them into from its current level, which is unproductive wards of the United States, as the nearly 25 percent of GDP in state. This is not to say that primary participants 2011, down to at least 21 per- we should abandon our at- in the free market cent of GDP, which is slightly tempts to alleviate poverty. above the forty year average.42 However, we must ensure system, has the power It may also be beneficial to pair that the effectiveness of every to improve upon our this amendment with another dollar that we spend on this capitalist system. that requires Congress to bal- cause is maximized and that ance the budget. The final pil- the interference to the mar- lar is a stable currency. This ketplace is minimized. For this, I would prescribe amendment would basically tether the money sup- Milton Friedman’s idea, as presented in Capitalism ply to economic production and growth and, there- and Freedom, of using a “negative income tax” to by, prevent government officials from devaluing or “set a floor” for individual income.40 This would manipulating the currency valuation. provide those enduring poverty with the assistance The United States is not immune to the they need while forcing them to be responsible for fate that awaited Rome and the other nations that making crucial decisions. have implemented collectivist policies. However, In the two-hundred and twenty years since with the near toxic political environment that cur- the ratification of the Bill of Rights, American citi- rently exists in Washington, it would be quite a zens have been able to enjoy the legal protection task to pass such a bill such as the one just pro- of their natural rights and liberties. In order to posed. Yet it is hard to imagine that the passing properly secure our economic rights and cement of an Economic Bill of Rights would be more dif- the manner in which we allocate resources amongst ficult than the passing the original Bill of Rights. our people, I propose an Economic Bill of Rights. The founding fathers of this country used reason This bill would stand on three pillars; the first of and logic to convince the nation of the benefits which is free trade. The free trade amendment of Federalist system. As believers in economic would effectively limit the powers of the govern- freedom, we must follow the same path to con- ment to impose regulations upon industries or in- vince our fellow citizens of the benefits that will terfere with free trade in any manner, domestic or derive from the preservation and enhancement international. of the free market system. History has shown The second pillar of the bill would be low what awaits us if we are to fail this mission: government spending. In the past, Congress has non-existence.
29 The Gold Star Journal 2013 ENDNOTES
1 Friedman, Milton. Capitalism and Freedom. (Chicago: The Chi- 13 Smith, Adam. The Wealth of Nations, Edited by Kathryn Suther- cago University Press, 2002), 9. land. (New York: Oxford University Press, 1993), 291. Yergin, Daniel and Joseph Stanislaw. The Commanding Heights: 14 Hayek, F.A. The Road To Serfdom, Edited by Bruce Caldwell. 2 The Battle for the World Economy. (New York: Free Press, 2002), (Routledge: The University of Chicago Press, 2007), 112. 111. 15 Rand, Ayn. Atlas Shrugged. (New York: New American Library, 3 Commanding Heights: The Battle for the World Economy. DVD. 1957), 380-385. Directed, written, produced by Daniel Yergin & Joseph Stanislaw, 16 Rand, Ayn and Nathaniel Branden. The Virtue of Selfishness. (New 2002, Public Broadcasting Service, 2002. York: New American Library, 1961), 15. 4 Friedman, Milton. Capitalism and Freedom. (Chicago: The Chi- 17 Ibid., 16. cago University Press, 2002), 13. 18 Ibid., 17. 5 Hayek, F.A. The Road To Serfdom, Edited by Bruce Caldwell. 19 Ibid., 17. (Routledge: The University of Chicago Press, 2007), 115. 20 Rand, Ayn and Nathaniel Branden. The Virtue of Selfishness. (New 6 Ibid., 95. York: New American Library, 1961), 19. 7 Hayek, F.A. The Road To Serfdom, Edited by Bruce Caldwell. 21 Ibid., 19. (Routledge: The University of Chicago Press, 2007), 100. 22 Ibid., 20. 8 Ibid., 89. 23 Ibid., 20. 9 Friedman, Milton and Rose Friedman. Free to Choose: A Personal 24 Rand, Ayn and Nathaniel Branden. The Virtue of Selfishness. (New Statement. (New York: Harcourt Inc., 1979), 295. York: New American Library, 1961), 21. 10 Hayek, F.A. The Road To Serfdom, Edited by Bruce Caldwell. 25 Ibid., 22. (Routledge: The University of Chicago Press, 2007), 169. 26 Rand, Ayn and Nathaniel Branden. The Virtue of Selfishness. (New 11 Friedman, Milton and Rose Friedman. Free to Choose: A Personal York: New American Library, 1961), 27. Statement. (New York: Harcourt Inc., 1979), 265. 27 Bartlett, Bruce. How Excessive Government Killed Ancient Rome. 12 Friedman, Milton. Capitalism and Freedom. (Chicago: The Chi- www.cato.org. http://www.cato.org/pubs/journal/cjv14n2-7.html cago University Press, 2002), 14. 28 Ibid.
Untitled by Dr. Suzanne T. Mabrouk
30 The Gold Star Journal 2013 BIBLIOGRAPHY
29 Tenny, Frank. An Economic History of Rome. (New York: Cosimo Bartlett, Bruce. How Excessive Government Killed Ancient Rome. Inc., 2005), 198. http://www.cato.org/pubs/journal/cjv14n2-7.html 30 Reed, Lawrence. Are We Going The Way of Rome?. http://www. (Accessed: March 26, 2011) mackinac.org/3 Commanding Heights: The Battle for the World Economy. DVD. 31 Bartlett, Bruce. How Excessive Government Killed Ancient Rome. Directed, written, produced by Daniel Yergin & Joseph http://www.cato.org/pubs/journal/cjv14n2-7.html Stanislaw, 2002, Public Broadcasting Service, 2002. 32 Ibid. “F.A. Hayek.” Online Image. 20 January 2013.
31 The Gold Star Journal 2013 “To know what is right and not do it is the worst Icarus Floundering: An cowardice.” Ethical Response to Inequity —Confucius Franklin McGuire, Jr. At first I had tried to avoid stepping on the hymn books. It didn’t seem right to walk on those words, Franklin McGuire, Jr. is to tread on songs sung just hours, days before. But by a junior English major in the time I had already walked through the debris of the Corps of Cadets with two or three burned-out churches in Nigeria last sum- a passion for international mer, I had grown numb to the charred song books and humanitarian work. A Bibles strewn across the ground beneath me. Instead founding member and my boots would push through the rubble, forcing me current captain of The to survey the all-too-common scene before me. Against Citadel’s nationally- the sides of buildings, twisted heaps whose mangled steering wheels and melted tires betrayed their suicidal competitive ethics debate purpose. Angled, charred beams and collapsed roofs team, Franklin is a and shoes. Everywhere shoes, large and small. Smoke, huge proponent of ethics sometimes — and always dust. Heat. Inside and out- education, an absolutely critical element of a Citadel side me. White plastic chairs, some melted; red arti- cadet’s training in the arts of principled leadership. ficial flowers fallen from their places on overturned altars offering brilliant hints of color through the ash. And always a sadness — a heaviness — a confusion. My small home town was thousands of miles away in Abstract Middle America. I had seen pictures of these things What is the proper response to the inequities we before, but had never seen these things, smelled these see all around us, especially in the developing smells. Why were people killing each other here and world? Do we have a responsibility to directly why was I there? Was I supposed to do something; was intervene to alleviate suffering if we know that I even able to do something? Unsure of the answers, I suffering is occurring? This essay tackles these left my journal in my backpack that night. questions and others as it explores the ethics of aid. By relating some of the author’s experiences last year in Nigeria, South Africa, and Uganda, i spent over half my last summer in Africa. Nige- this essay hopes to challenge and inspire read- ria, South Africa, and Uganda showed me aspects ers to reevaluate their understanding of ethics of my world and myself I hadn’t seen before and and rethink their approach to aid. While every- prompted deep questions I feel I am still answering. one’s response to international challenges and I struggled then and I still struggle now to put the crises will be unique, a proper ethical frame- experiences into words. From my perspective today, work ultimately refuses to accept a sidelined though, I see it as a collision point in my life and a status quo, choosing instead to act with both pragmatic wisdom and compassionate urgency. conversion point in my mind for myself, my ambi- tions, my convictions, and my ethics. The experi- ence forced me, above all else, to reexamine my eth- ics and re-explore my hopes for my life as I sought to discover my role in what I had seen.
32 The Gold Star Journal 2013 An undergraduate student from a small stroyed, their wives raped, and their children beat- town in suburban America, I had never left the en. It was sadness, pain, and evil on a level I had United States until a few years ago and had never never before experienced. been to Africa until last June, when I landed in I saw a different kind of pain when I fi- Nigeria for the first time. I was with a small team nally left Nigeria and went to South Africa for the of humanitarian workers from a next chapter of my work. In Cape British NGO (non-governmental I met people Town I discovered a place much organization) and our mission was more like the London I had left, or to investigate the ongoing religious whose friends so I initially thought. This must be violence in Nigeria’s Middle Belt and family had a modern city of progress, I remem- region — the area between the na- been slaughtered ber reflecting with some relief as I tion’s predominantly Muslim north sipped a chilled drink and looked and largely Christian south. I had just days and out on Table Mountain and the been studying the conflict for some weeks before... city bowl while descending toward months already in my role as a vol- Cape Town International Airport. unteer analyst at the NGO’s office My initial perceptions were almost in London, but nothing I could read in a news- immediately challenged, however, on the bus ride paper or summarize in a briefing could have pre- from the airport when I passed through Khayelit- pared me for the actual situation on the ground. sha, a huge collection of tin, boards, and riotous I met people whose friends and family had been color I was told was called a “township,” home to slaughtered just days and weeks before, people who nearly half a million people in less than twenty had been tortured with machetes, people who had square miles. The rest of my time in Cape Town seen their homes broken into, their livelihoods de- further revealed to me a city of strange contradic-
Untitled by Franklin McGuire
33 The Gold Star Journal 2013 tions, extremes, and inequities — I would spend I touched another battered door on a shattered my afternoons witnessing severe pain, loss, and church, or looked into the eyes of a speechless sorrow at the city’s innumerable AIDS orphanages child suffering from malaria or orphaned by AIDS, before heading downtown in the evenings for din- or walked through a school filled with children in ner with friends in Camps Bay, one of the most shabby-but-kept-as-clean-as-possible uniforms do- affluent areas of the world I had ever seen. Just as ing their best to wrestle a good education out of the religious violence and death I had witnessed in the incredibly little available to them… That fun- Nigeria had done, these images and experiences damental, deeply-personal question would not go confused and challenged me. away, and still remains: Knowing what I now know, I spent the final leg of my time in Africa in what should I do? Uganda, one of the most beautiful countries I have That question, of course, encompassed ever visited. There I focused on the fields of educa- other questions and gave rise to other concerns. Do tion and health, spending time volunteering in a these people even need my help? I constantly won- rural health clinic and touring numerous schools dered. Was my concern legitimate, or was I apply- of various kinds. The greatest challenge I saw there ing unrealistic American norms to fundamentally was not religious violence, as in Ni- different cultures in a poor show geria, nor extreme economic ineq- That of cultural sensitivity? Can I even uity, as in South Africa, but a lack accomplish anything at my age? For of access to effective resources for fundamental, whom am I responsible and to whom a majority of the population. The deeply-personal am I beholden? Am I responsible for medical clinic in which I worked question would what I’ve now seen? These questions has brought some relief to its area, and experiences challenged my un- but before an American NGO built not go away, and derstanding of both myself and my it, the only medical facility avail- still remains: world and forced me to reexamine able to the town’s residents was the Knowing what I my ethics. Beyond just myself, how- local government clinic which is ever, I believe these are fundamen- overcrowded and filthy. Effective now know, what tally important questions for us all schooling is also a difficulty in many should I do? to ask ourselves in an increasingly areas — I met so many bright, in- interconnected and interdependent telligent, motivated people my age world. In a world such as ours to- who felt unable to advance in society because of day, what is our proper personal response to the their lack of access to education. extreme suffering and inequity we see in places like Meeting people my own age and compar- Africa? What is the right thing to do? What is the ing their opportunities to mine was one of the ethical response? most humbling things I experienced while I trav- In asking these questions we begin to im- eled. Repetitive exposure to such groups from merse ourselves in the delicate, difficult issue of country to country, place to place, and day to day aid ethics. Generally speaking, the question is one over the summer was, at first, merely interesting of whether it is better to help the apparently “less from a cerebral level. That offhand interest gradu- fortunate” of our world because of their needs ally took root, however, and grew into a more se- and our supposed ability to fulfill at least some rious concern. That concern, in turn, ultimately of them, or if it is better to refrain from such morphed into a question — a single deep, over- altruism out of a concern that our (often riding question that gradually consumed me, a culturally-insensitive) efforts will hurt and hinder question that demanded consideration every time more than they will help. This is, of course, an
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Untitled by Franklin McGuire especially important question for governments in Last year, in order to better understand the their foreign aid considerations, although for our current progress and future direction of Africa and purposes here I am most fundamentally concerned its constituent nations, McKinsey & Company with our individual personal responses as unique conducted an exhaustive study of the continent. moral agents to the inequities and lack of oppor- Its findings asserted that “Africa’s long-term pros- tunities we see with so many people in places like pects are strong, because both internal and external Africa. trends are propelling its growth.”2 McKinsey & I believe that a proper view recognizes the Co’s report on the study in the Harvard Business unique difficulties involved in aid ethics, but I Review cites a decline in major armed conflicts, also believe that, despite its challenges, few sub- an expansion of government-sponsored market- jects could be more ethically important in today’s friendly policies, and the continued revenue stream world. In the Foreword to An Ethical Compass: provided by Africa’s abundant natural resources as Coming of Age in the 21st Century, Thomas Fried- reasons to assume Africa will continue to grow in man explores the increasing interconnectedness global strategic importance. and interdependency of today’s world: “The more While these findings support the impor- connected we are, the more ethics and ethical tance of “the question” — in that they lend ad- leadership matter, because a moral breakdown in ditional urgency and utility to an exploration of one country, region, market, or institution can af- how we are to respond to aid ethics — they do fect so many others so much more easily and so not, notably, answer the question. Africa’s growth much more profoundly.” 1 Africa’s current explo- has not made it immune to the concerns of past sion in growth will only make it even more closely years and decades: even the optimistic study from connected with both the United States and the McKinsey takes care to emphasize that, in Africa, rest of the world over the next few years, making “the infrastructure is still poor; talent is scarce; and ethical leadership from both within and without poverty, famine, and disease afflict many nations.”3 the continent more important than ever. We must accept that, while Africa’s challenges are
35 The Gold Star Journal 2013 not going to disappear overnight, its interconnect- ure; the sun shone edness and interdependency with the rest of the As it had to on the white legs disappearing world has exploded overnight, making these con- into the green cerns and our responses to them even more public Water; and the expensive delicate ship that and even more important. must have seen What then — to get back to the initial Something amazing, a boy falling out of question that haunted me all summer — is the the sky, proper, ethical response to this matter of aid ethics? Had somewhere to get to and sailed Concerning ethics, Wittgenstein and Moore, and calmly on.8 W. D. Ross, have termed the ethical action the one which is based on “the general enquiry into what This is the failure of appalling silence — of witness- is good” and the one with the best “tendency...to ing great need and having the ability to do some- promote general good,” respectively. 4,5 Building thing about it, as the ship in Auden’s poem does, on this theme of ethics concerning itself with the but refusing to act, refusing to break the status quo. good action as the right action, British philosopher Insofar as ethics is concerned with justice, Elizabeth Anscombe brings in the idea of justice by and justice is intimately bound up with fairness further asserting “that a good man is a just man.”6 and equality of opportunity, then the ethical ac- Martin Luther King, Jr. also operated, it seems, un- tion will be the action that best advances fairness der a belief that ethics and goodness and justice and increases equality of opportunity. This is the were fundamentally bound together. In his “Letter principle from which we get our moral imperative from a Birmingham Jail,” he warns, “We will have to act. What I saw in Africa defined injustice for to repent in this generation not merely for the vit- me, as I have hinted already. The economic side of riolic words and actions of the bad people, but for all I witnessed was most unjust of all. The young the appalling silence of the good people.”7 The si- people with no opportunity for advanced educa- lence of the good people, conscious or not, upheld tion, the parents and grandparents stuck in subsis- injustice and allowed it to perpetuate, making it tence economies, and the villages, cities, and even unethical. nations completely unable to climb the ladder of Rushworth M. Kidder, founder of the In- opportunity — this is the essence of a system crip- stitute for Global Ethics, addresses the ethical fail- pled by injustice. Add religious and racial violence ure of “appalling silence” in his book, How Good and massive healthcare challenges and inequities People Make Tough Choices. Here he refers to Flem- and the system becomes even more difficult; escape ish painter Pieter Brueghel the Elder’s work, Land- becomes even more hopeless. And it’s not a clinical scape with the Fall of Icarus and Auden’s reflections academic issue anymore. For me, childhood ma- on it in his “Musée des Beaux Arts.” In this poem, laria is not a sterile statistic of a certain number Auden discusses the visual depiction of the ancient of children dying every minute from a preventable story of Icarus and his wings of wax: disease — it’s Moses, six years old and shivering on a hard cot in a rural clinic in northern Nigeria; In Brueghel’s Icarus, for instance: how did he make it through that night? Unemployment everything turns away isn’t a battery of statistics on a speechless page — Quite leisurely from the disaster; the it’s Samkelo, who pumped my gas in Cape Town, ploughman may glad for a job but fearful for his unemployed and Have heard the splash, the forsaken cry, uneducated brothers in Khayelitsha. And global But for him it was not an important fail educational inequities aren’t something to discuss
36 The Gold Star Journal 2013 in a philosophy class — they’re the realities I saw be more practically informed, helping her make painted across countless faces in the schools I visit- better decisions. ed in Uganda, schools with libraries with no books Our own actions in any foreign culture like and infirmaries with no supplies and dormitories Africa must be informed by phronesis. This is the with no safe water. This is inequity to me, and the great qualifying element to the conviction that we injustice is the growing advantage Africa and its must do something, and is thus the redeeming in- people and resources offer the world, but the lack put that practically shows us just what we must do. of meaningful aid and assistance we offer back. I Phronesis keeps us from a reactionary “ready-fire- — we — are watching Icarus fall, but what will aim” attitude toward aid that says any and all aid we do about it? The first step must be to accept is good. An ethical approach to aid informed by our responsibility to step out of our status quo and phronesis rather seeks education first as it tries to do something. It is the only understand a people and their option, ethically speaking, particular hopes, dreams, since a key part of ethics is fears, and challenges. NGO doing good by spreading research and policy recom- justice to places and people mendations gave me plenty of trapped in unjust systems. ideas about what needed to be Once we come to done and what could poten- this conclusion that our tially be done before I arrived knowledge of injustice in Africa, but until I had vis- does ethically obligate us to ited the villages and the town- take some action against it, ships and the cities I could though, the next great ques- never have understood the tion becomes one of prag- human and cultural element matics — what exactly am of the constituencies I and I to do? This question and others were trying to help. its answer are just as impor- By seeking to learn before we tant as the question which act and basing our actions on prompted us to involve our- what we learn about a people selves in the first place. In and a culture, we can rescue other words, how we involve our aid — personally and in- Untitled by Franklin McGuire ourselves is just as important as stitutionally — from becom- that we involve ourselves. ing mere trinkets and hand-outs we offer wrongly, The answer to this question lies in an an- albeit sincerely. Phronesis shows us how to connect cient concept from the field of virtue ethics known conviction with action, keeping our ethical system as phronesis. Phronesis is the concept of a practi- robust and effective. cal or moral wisdom that deeply informs a moral For my own part, I see my experiences in agent’s ethical decisions and actions. An advanced Africa last summer as largely educational. Yes, I understanding of phronesis, formed through a life- did act and try to help where I could, but I tried time of personal experience and learning, is what to actively resist adopting reactionary attitudes to separates an ethical adolescent from an ethical el- the people I met and the things I saw. I wanted to der and connects good intentions with practical re- learn, because I knew it would not be my last time sults. Both the adolescent and the elder act within in Africa, and I wanted to be ready for the next an ethical system, but the older agent’s system will time, ready to come back and offer real assistance.
37 The Gold Star Journal 2013 I haven’t waited for the second trip, how- ing silence.” Indeed, as long as there remains in the ever, to begin connecting my convictions with ac- world mindless inequity of which I am intimately tions in my response to the ethics of aid. When acquainted, I cannot just stand by and watch and I returned to The Citadel in August, I enlisted still maintain my ethical integrity. None of us can. the help of several professors and administrators , Of course, our responses will all look different, but working with them to raise $45,000 to start a new the important thing is that we do respond, that we annual program, the Honors Experiential Leader- follow our ethically-defined convictions with phro- ship Program (HELP). This program will expose nesis-led action for the purposes of advancing good eight other cadets to lecture-based teaching from and advancing justice across the world. “To know eminent scholars and humanitarians this spring what is right and not do it is the worst cowardice.” in addition to involving them in independent re- Icarus is floundering — will you jump in with me? search projects focused on various facets of Africa and its opportunities and challenges. The program will culminate in a two-week capstone trip to ENDNOTES Uganda where we will work in a sustainably-mod- 1 Thomas L. Friedman, forward to An Ethical Compass: Coming of Age in the 21st Century: The Ethics Prize of the Elie Wiesel Foun- eled Ugandan health clinic while further research- dation for Humanity (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2010), ing our independent projects. My own project will Kindle edition. focus on social entrepreneurship as I seek to start a 2 Mutsa Chironga, Acha Leke, Arend van Wamelen, and Susan Lund, “The Globe: Cracking the Next Growth Market: Africa,” Har- new social enterprise in Uganda with a local friend vard Business Review, May 2011, accessed December 1, 2012, http:// from my last visit there, Mustafa. The entire expe- hbr.org/2011/05/the-globe-cracking-the-next-growth-market-africa/ ar/1. rience — which marks the first trip to Africa for 3 Ibid. each of the other eight students in the program — 4 Ludwig Wittgenstein, “A Lecture On Ethics,” in Ethics: Selections will be focused on the very questions I could not from Classical and Contemporary Writers, ed. Oliver A. Johnson (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1989), 347. escape last summer as we seek to embrace our role 5 W. D. Ross, “The Right and the Good,” in Ethics: Selections of extending ethical aid and assistance by expand- from Classical and Contemporary Writers, ed. Oliver A. Johnson (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1989), 370. ing justice and opportunity in a system constantly 6 G.E.M. Anscombe, “Modern Moral Philosophy,” Philosophy 33, guided and informed by phronesis. Indeed, I con- No. 124 (January 1958). sider the HELP program to be the opening salvo 7 Richard Stearns, The Hole In Our Gospel (Nashville: Thomas Nelson, 2009), 190. in a larger campaign to raise awareness and fight 8 Rushworth M. Kidder, How Good People Make Tough Choices: injustice in one of the world’s most promising but Resolving the Dilemmas of Ethical Living (New York: Harper, 2003), troubled places. 103. My answer to the questions seared into my memory by Moses, Samkelo, Mustafa, and count- less others does not end with HELP. This new pro- gram is just a beginning, an opportunity to devel- op additional phronesis, and an initial response to my answers to those questions — What must I do? What can I do? Is my help even needed? Am I respon- sible for what I’ve now seen? I am choosing to run away from my status quo and jump into the wa- ter to swim toward Icarus because I do believe my help is needed, valuable, and required. I will not be one of the “good people” who live in “appall-
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Untitled by Jane Ma
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