Mapping North-South Relations: The Case of Australia’s Regional Refugee Arrangements
Mapping North-South Relations: The Case of Australia’s Regional Refugee Arrangements
Dimas Fauzi & Yusnia Kurniasih Kopernik & Universitas Gadjah Mada
Abstract In recent years, Australia has created some regional refugee arrangements with their neighbouring countries. Under the agreements with countries such as Nauru, Papua New Guinea, Malaysia and the most recent, Cambodia, Australia is committed to providing financial aid to run the supporting facilities and protect the asylum seekers who are relocated from their territory. These agreements then become questionable as the partner countries are developing countries which are relatively unstable in domestic politics and are not prosperous enough to bear the non- financial costs of refugee protection, such as integration and accountability issues. In this case, relations between Australia and their partner countries could be considered as an example of relations between the developed (north) and the developing countries (south). Thus, a question appears to be prominent: what do Australia refugee settlement agreements tell us about the relations between the (developed) north and the (developing) south? By employing structuralism model in international politics, we propose an argument that Australia’s refugee resettlement agreement can be understood as a form of responsibility sharing on refugee issue between the concerning countries in the region. The arrangements have not only produced positive results but also negative ones, such as conflicts. Additionally, this research will also take into account the existence of international law(s) governing refugee issues as the basis to analyse the refugee protection, mainly in Australia’s resettlement partner countries.
Keywords: Asia-Pacific, Asylum Seeker, Australia, Refugee Agreement
Abstrak Dalam beberapa tahun terakhir, Australia telah membuat prosedur penanganan pengungsi secara regional dengan beberapa negara tetangga. Dalam perjanjian dengan beberapa negara seperti Nauru, Papua Nugini, Malaysia dan yang terbaru, Kamboja, Australia berkomitmen untuk menyediakan kebutuhan finansial yang diperlukan dalam proses perlindungan pencari suaka. Perjanjian ini kemudian menimbulkan pertanyaan ketika negara rekanan yang dipilih adalah negara berkembang yang relatif tidak stabil kondisi politik domestiknya dan tidak cukup sejahtera untuk mengemban beban non-finansial dalam perlindungan pengungsi seperti integrasi dan akuntabilitas. Dalam kasus ini, hubungan antara Australia dengan negara rekanan dapat dianggap sebagai contoh dari hubungan negara maju (utara) dan negara berkembang (selatan). Sehingga, pertanyaan penelitian yang muncul adalah: bagaimana perjanjian pengaturan pengungsi secara regional yang dikembangkan oleh Australia menunjukkan hubungan antara negara maju (utara) dengan negara berkembang (selatan)? Dengan menggunakan model strukturalisme dalam politik internasional, kami mengajukan argumen bahwa perjanjian ini dapat dipahami sebagai bentuk pembagian tanggung jawab dalam isu pengungsi di antara negara-negara kawasan yang terlibat. Perjanjian ini tidak hanya memiliki efek positif namun juga negative seperti konflik. Penelitian ini juga akan mengamati keberadaan hukum-hukum internasional yang mengatur pengungsi sebagai dasar untuk menganalisa perlindungan pengungsi, terutama yang terjadi di negara-negara rekanan Australia.
Kata Kunci: Asia Pasifik, Pencari Suaka, Australia, Perjanjian Pengungsi
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Introduction each concerning country. Therefore, both In today’s international relations, “North” and normative approach and cost-benefit “South” groupings are still prominent which calculation are relevant to understand lead to the prolongation of the discourse on the country’s behaviour on certain issue at matters. Some dependency theorists must international level. agree that the so-called “core” and To start off the debate about Australia’s “periphery”—which represent developed regional refugee arrangements, this research (North) and developing (South) countries will come up with one central question: what respectively—are in relations characterized by do Australia refugee settlement agreements tell exploitation. Some scholars such as us about the relations between the (developed) Wallerstein (1974) have formulated a model of north and the (developing) south? By world system analysis from which employing world-system analysis and international division of labour can be constructivist approach, we propose an understood. argument that Australia’s regional refugee In this globalising era, understanding resettlement agreements have divided the North - South relations can be done not only countries involved into three categories, from the economic perspective but also from a namely “core”, “semi-periphery”, and more normative one such as international “periphery”. This categorization can be norms. As a matter of fact, the emergence of understood as a form of responsibility sharing international laws which forms international in a sense that refugee resettlement issues are norms has started to play a big role in solved collectively by Australia and its international relations since the end of the surrounding neighbours through formal World War II. In this sense, refugee has always agreements. Even so, the notion of been an issue which sparks public discourse at responsibility sharing does not merely reflect national and international levels. However, in an equal relation between Australia and its the current era, refugee has grabbed more partner countries. public attention at the international level, Conversely, the international division of especially when the very first refugee labour on refugee settlement is present as convention was agreed in 1951 and followed by shown by the different roles played by its protocol in 1967. Since then, countries have Australia (financial and technical needs been struggling to provide favourable provider) and its partner countries (venues treatment to the refugees through resettlement provider). Additionally, the instances of poor and integration efforts. refugee management and even violent cases In terms of refugee protection, Australia inflicting financial and non-financial costs to is among the top countries which provide the the host countries and the asylum seekers so-called durable solution through its illustrate the importance to revisit the regional resettlement policies. One of the most arrangements. Therefore on the last part of this important features of Australia’s resettlement article we propose some policy suggestions to policies is its regional arrangements under settle refugee issues which have raised global which Australia engages its neighbouring attention. countries in the Asia-Pacific region to The argument will be organised into the collectively deal with this issue. To be exact, following five sections which will be started by Australia’s regional refugee arrangements are the discussion on world-systems analysis and targeted toward illegal asylum seekers who constructivism as the main theoretical arrive in Australia in an unlawful manner. In foundation to map the North-South relations spite of its aim, this regional refugee on refugee settlement. It is followed by the arrangement adds on unique perspective to the explanation about the nature of refugee, discourse of international relations. In a sense, asylum seeker and international laws regional refugee arrangements reflect on how governing refugee issues. Australia’s regional countries interact with each other to address refugee arrangements will be outlined in the normative issues where the arrangements are following section which will show the made based on the capacity and capability of established agreements between Australia and
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Mapping North-South Relations: The Case of Australia’s Regional Refugee Arrangements its partner countries (Nauru, Papua New intensive and high technology goods which are Guinea, Malaysia, and Cambodia) in regards to exported to periphery and semi-periphery refugee resettlement for those coming as countries. On the contrary, peripheral asylum seekers. This will lead to the core of this countries produce labour intensive and low research which is to map out the relations technology goods needed by the core and semi- between North and South regarding the periphery countries. Meanwhile, semi- refugee settlement agreements by stressing on periphery countries are somewhere in between the notion of responsibility sharing and core and periphery and thus their economic international division of labour on this issue. activities are similar to the other two groups. Lastly, this research will conclude by Again, what is emphasised on this juxtaposing the proposed hypothesis with the categorisation is the notion of capitalism which findings. Some policy suggestions will also be shapes the structure of global political presented based on the research findings. economy. Through this categorization, the power distributed among countries will further World-Systems Analysis and determine their positions in the global arena. Constructivism From historical point of view, this This article will employ two tools to map categorisation has helped to map the core- North-South relations on refugee settlement periphery relations in which it is still applicable issues, namely world-system analysis and in today’s international relations. constructivism. The so-called “world-systems In the current global affairs, however, analysis” was initially formulated by Immanuel economic power is not the only determinant Wallerstein in 1974 as to criticise the which outlines the map of international politics structural-functionalist underpinnings and influences the behaviour of states. In this (Shannon, 1989, p. 18). Structural- regards, we consider constructivist approach to functionalist approach is commonly used in be important in understanding state’s sociology to understand how people interact behaviour and how it can be used to better with each other within a set of roles defined by understand about international relations, the existing structure in society (Wendt, 1987). especially in refugee resettlement issues. Even In a larger sense, Wallerstein defines world- though the combination between world-system system as “a multicultural division of labour in analysis and constructivist approach is not so which the production and exchange of goods common but we consider these two concepts as and raw material is essential for its the perfect match in understanding the inhabitants”. This definition reflects that international refugee resettlement issues. In different societies are linked through the the world-system, core countries are inclined exchange of goods and raw material (Chase- to maximise the profit by exploiting the Dunn and Grimes, 1995). It is essential to note peripheral countries. It, somehow, implies that that world-system is mainly based on Marxist the decision they make must involve the so- critics on capitalism which has caused the called cost-benefit calculation in order to avoid fragmentation within global economy (Block, the loss which may incur from the acts taken by 1990). By fragmentation, world economy is the states. Yet, in the case of refugee divided into some other classes which reflect settlement, what motivates (host) countries to one’s position against another, especially in receive asylum seekers is not merely the benefit terms of who owns the capital and who is since this activity is far from profitable in some exploited by the capital holders. senses. International norms which are Furthermore, Wallerstein divided the institutionalised in international laws, then, world-system into three distinct categories as a are considered prominent to understand the form of world division of labour, namely reason of why some states are committed to “core”, “semi-peripheral” and “peripheral” receiving the asylum seekers and in many cases (Shannon, 1989, p. 24) which portray the granting them with refugee and even residency economic capacities of the world economies. In status. economic sense, core countries are those In international relations (IR), specialising on the production of capital constructivism has been studied as the
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opposition to realism (Barkin, 2003, p. 325). (e.g. Australia) and peripheral countries Constructivism considers knowledge and ideas (Australia’s partners). Also, the notion of as the important aspects which constitute responsibility sharing in this issue can be social reality and its evolution (Adler, 2013: explained by using constructivist approach 123). For individuals, the norms and rules they which regards international laws governing use to construct social realities will become refugees as the internationally accepted norms their reason, interests and intentional acts and rules, thus constructing state’s behaviour. which, if institutionalised, will become In addition, the interplay between world- international practice. In international politics, system analysis and constructivism will show constructivists believe that shared norms, such that the international division of labour on as international laws, become the basis for refugee settlement issue is arranged not only interaction among actors which then constitute by economic power but also internationally actors’ identities and interests (Slaughter, constructed norms on refugee protection and, Tulumello, and Wood, 1998, p. 373). Moreover, to some extent, human rights. in regards to rational actors who take decisions based on rational calculation, the so-called Refugee, Asylum Seekers and practical or communicative rationalism International Laws Governing Refugee believes that an actor’s decision is sensitive to Protection historical, social, and normative contexts According to the 1951 Refugee Convention, the (Adler, 2013, p. 124). This shows that even if term refugee can be explained as someone who rational calculation is present in actors’ is “owing to a well-founded fear of being decision, the logic of “appropriateness” persecuted for reasons of race, religion, appears to influence their decision (Adler, nationality, membership of a particular social 2013; Finnemore, 1996; March and Olsen, group or political opinion, is outside the 1998). By considering state as individual and country of his nationality, and is unable to, or international laws as norms and rules under owing to such fear, is unwilling to avail himself which individual state is embedded, it is logical of the protection of that country” (UNHCR, to say that state’s behaviour is somehow 2015). This term is sometimes confused with constrained by the existing international the term asylum seekers. In this sense, UNHCR norms and rules. defines asylum seekers as the potential Therefore, in order to understand refugees who become the concern to UNHCR international refugee settlement issue, we in which they have to be protected until their cannot necessarily rely on world-system claims for refugee status have been determined analysis which emphasises more on economic (UNHCR, 2011). approach. Rather, as mentioned earlier, By referring to the stated definition, constructivist approach may help us asylum seekers are merely the challenge for understand this occurrence. We do not countries which happen to be the destination consider world-system and constructivist as of those asylum seekers. With insufficient two opposite approaches as constructivism will documents they have to claim their rights as help us understand how the division of labour refugee, these people could easily be mistaken is arranged within today’s world-system and being labelled as illegal and therefore may especially in such human rights-related case as not get the same treatments as refugees who refugee settlement. have been well examined and have documents In the case of Australia’s refugee needed to enter the host countries legally. In resettlement agreements with some partner regards to the status of asylum seekers, article countries, world-systems analysis will help 31 of the 1951 Refugee Convention stated that translate the instance of international (UNHCR, 2015): resettlement agreement which is arranged 1. The Contracting States (in based on the positions of the concerning this case, the destined countries in international or regional sphere. It countries) shall not impose is done through the division of labour which penalties, on account of distinguishes the roles played by core countries their illegal entry or
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Mapping North-South Relations: The Case of Australia’s Regional Refugee Arrangements
presence on refugees who basic rights of people to seek asylum as stated coming directly from a in article 14 (United Nations, 2015): territory where their life or 1. Everyone has the right to seek freedom was threatened in and to enjoy in other countries the sense of article 1, enter asylum from persecution. or are present in the 2. This right may not be invoked territory without in the case of prosecutions authorization, provided genuinely arising from non- they present themselves political crimes or from acts without delay to the contrary to the purposes and authorities and show good principles of the United cause for their illegal entry Nations. or presence. This means that people seeking for asylum is 2. The Contracting States not illegal or even deemed to commit any shall not apply to the criminal act just by arriving at some territories movements of such without sufficient documents. To be able to refugees restrict other than provide safety for people who seek for asylum those which are necessary because their life is threatened in their own and such restrictions shall homeland is the responsibility for every only be applied until their country that understands and is committed to status in the country is the ratification of this document. Even so, the regularized or they obtain responsibility to give asylum seekers admission into another protection will be bigger for those who ratify country. The Contracting the 1951 United Nations Convention Relating States shall allow such to the Status of Refugee. refugees a reasonable In relation to the international period and all the necessary regulations on the protection of refugees, facilities to obtain Australia has already ratified the 1951 United admission into another Nations Convention Relating to the Status of country. Refugee in 1954 (United Nations, 2015) and From the article, it can be concluded that signed the Universal Declaration of Human asylum seekers, in regards the way they come Rights. This shows that Australia is one of the and enter the territory and the lack of countries that have been aware and concerned documents needed to prove their refugee about the existence of asylum seekers and status, have the rights to stay safe in the refugees in the world. In fact, Australia has destination countries as soon as they arrived. provided protection for refugees and asylum They should be freed from any punishments seekers since the first period of refugee wave for entering the territory without permission (around the time of World War I and World and also deserve the time and all necessary War II). At that time, Australia firstly resettled facilities for them to obtain admission into around 3.500 people after World War I and another country legally. 181,700 persons after World War II (Hugo, Beside the international refugee 2002). agreement that bounds countries to respect National Population Council even stated and protect refugees coming to their territory, that the period between 1921 and 1975 was the there are other international laws which also period when Australia had established itself to support the idea. Universal Declaration of be a generous country of resettlement, regular Human Rights is one of the examples. The donor to international refugee funds, active declaration is an important document for every participant in determining international country in the world that emphasizes the response towards refugee situation, and importance of respect and protection of basic compassionate community as reflected in the human rights of each person in their territory. active support given by the network of NGOs And this document also mentions about the and the involvement in refugee works
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(National Population Council, n.d.). These Australia’s Regional Refugees commitments showed that Australia was very Arrangements concerned about refugee protection issues Before going further into discussing about since their early years. However, after 1975, the regional refugee arrangements, it is necessary wave of asylum seekers coming from Asian to understand what is meant by resettlement. countries, such as Vietnam and Cambodia United Nations High Commissioner for (between 1975 and 1989), China (1994), Iraq, Refugee (UNHCR) defines resettlement as the Afghanistan, Iran, Sri Lanka, and Pakistan process which involves the selection and (around 1999) increased significantly. The transfer of refugees from the state where they soaring number of incoming asylum seekers seek for protection to a third country which has has forced Australia to adopt mandatory the agreement to provide permanent resident immigration detention for unauthorized status (UNHCR, 2011). Furthermore, arrivals as introduced by Keating Government resettlement should hold three main functions, in 1992 under the Migration Amendment Act namely 1) a tool for providing international 1992 (Spinks, 2013). This is deemed to be protection; 2) a durable solution for a larger necessary to effectively regulate not only the numbers of refugees; and 3) a tangible determination of refugee status but also the expression of international solidarity on removal of people who do not establish an refugee protection. Based on the 1950 UNHCR entitlement to be in Australia. This measure statute, UNHCR is the legitimate international was also applied against the rising concerns body which holds the mandate to provide over organised people smuggling that forms a international refugee protection by assisting chain from the home nation (especially coming the government to provide such long-term from Thailand, Malaysia, and Indonesia) to solution such as repatriation and assimilation. Australia (Hugo, 2002). Resettlement, therefore, lies on the As the signatories of UN Refugee assimilation effort through which the refugees Convention and its Protocol, Australia has are given protection in the third country. been active in promoting refugee protection In the Asia-Pacific region, Australia through two-folded means, namely onshore ranks first among countries receiving and and offshore processing (Hugo, 2002). granting refugee status. Nevertheless, the Onshore processing refers to Australian increasing number of asylum seekers fleeing to government’s policy of providing facilities and Australia on boat—or known as “boat people”— support for asylum seekers in Australia as can has made Australia revisit its refugee policy. be see in through Permanent Protection Visa The so-called “Tampa Affairs” in 2001 which (PPV) or Temporary Protection Visa (TPV) led to the enactment of “Pacific Solution”, then, followed by supports for integration to the local became the turning point for Australia’s communities. On the contrary, offshore refugee policies in which the initiation of processing is the mechanism through which regional refugee policies was started since.1 asylum seekers are sent to the processing After the occurrence of the affairs, John facilities established by Australian government Howard administration passed offshore in agreement with partner countries to conduct processing procedures for the boat people in a necessary refugee assessment out of Australia. view of mandatory detention due to illegal In the following section, offshore processing arrival status of the boat people (Fox, 2010, p. will be discussed further. 356-373). In his campaign speech on 28 October 2001, Howard stated that “we will
1 Tampa Affairs happened on 26 August 2001 when (Taylor). Since then, offshore processing was Norwegian freighter named Tampa was instructed introduced in which the asylum seekers will be by Australian authority to rescue 433 asylum transferred to Nauru or Manus Island in PNG. seekers from the sinking boat on their journey to reach Christmas Island for refugee processing
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Mapping North-South Relations: The Case of Australia’s Regional Refugee Arrangements determine who comes to our country and the Offshore processing facilities in Nauru circumstances in which they come”.2 His are the earliest offshore processing statement, then, became the foundation for arrangement carried out by Australian Australia’s refugee policies especially in government in which some other countries, regards to the “boat people”. such as Papua New Guinea (PNG) and Prior to the affairs, refugee issue has Kingdom of Cambodia were involved surfaced in the government debate since 1999 afterwards.3 The agreement for offshore when Australia’s Immigration Minister processing facilities was firstly signed between complained about the increasing flow of Australia and Nauru on 10 September 2001 asylum seekers entering Australia’s territory by and renewed by another MOU signed on 11 sea (Maley, 2010). This situation called for a December 2001 (DIMIA 2002). The signing of government action to reduce, if unstoppable, MOU with Nauru was followed by another the number of boat people seeking refuge in MOU signing with PNG on 11 October 2001. Australia. Generally speaking, there are two Offshore processing facilities in Nauru and forms of resettlement arrangements under PNG were known as “Pacific Solution”. The which asylum seekers have to proceed in order main deal of these agreements is to establish to determine whether or not they are eligible offshore processing facilities in Nauru and for refugee status. These arrangements are PNG to assess the asylum seekers arriving on offshore processing and refugee swap (Maley, boat. The first “boat people” who were sent to 2010). Following these regional arrangements, offshore detention were those evacuated asylum seekers intending to be resettled in during the “Tampa Affairs” in 2001 and a group Australia unlawfully would have to undergo of unauthorised arrivals found in Ashmore certain procedures arranged by Australia and Island (Phillips 2012). And yet, “Pacific its partner countries. Through these Solution” which was implemented since 2001 arrangements, therefore, people who intend to was discarded by the Australian government in take a boat journey to Australia in a hope to be 2008 and after gaining prominence at the resettled there will be discouraged. agenda setting, however, “Pacific Solution” has Furthermore, in order to understand deeper been re-enacted in 2012 by reopening the about these arrangements, let us discuss about facilities in Nauru and Manus Island, PNG. each of these.
Figure 1 Asylum Seeker Caseloads in Nauru and Manus Island (PNG) within 2001 – 2008 (2012)
Resettled Resettled Returned Country Deceased Refugee Non-Refugee Voluntarily
Nauru* 769 78 474 1
Manus (PNG) 306 0 9 0
Total 1075 78 483 1
*There were 53 people transferred from Manus Island (PNG) to Nauru, of which 26 were resettled as refugee, 12 resettled as non-refugee and 15 returned voluntarily Source: (Phillips, 2012)
2 John Howard election speech can be obtained in the transfer of asylum seekers have yet to be done
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Figure 1 presents the numbers of asylum its 1967 protocol. Consequently, Malaysia does seekers who were transferred to Manus Island not have any laws protecting the refugees (PNG) and Nauru within 2001 – 2008 periods. which results in the absence of obligation to Around 70% of those asylum seekers processed guarantee the rights of refugees and asylum in offshore facilities could finally be resettled in seekers, such as rights to education and work. Australia and other host countries, such as From the discussion in this section, it is New Zealand, Canada, Sweden, Norway and clear that Australia has been engaging its Denmark with either refugee or non-refugee neighbours in Asia-Pacific region to deal with status (Phillips, 2012). Bem, Field and refugee issues. In fact, the numbers of boat Maclellan (2007) suggest that, since 2001 until people sailing through ocean with an aim to 2007, offshore processing have burdened reach and be resettled in Australia had Australia’s taxpayers with at least $ 1 billion. decreased after the implementation of Pacific Following the re-enactment of “Pacific Solution. The abolishment of offshore Solution” in 2012, the “boat people” arriving in processing facilities has sparked another wave Australia will be transferred to Nauru and of asylum seekers attempting to reach Manus Island (PNG) for processing. As agreed Australia’s outer island, Christmas Island, to on the MOU, Australia will bear all costs gain refugee status. And yet, since 2013 associated with the operation of offshore offshore processing facilities in Nauru and processing facilities which include many PNG have been reopened in addition to the features, such as transportation, basic needs, swap agreement with Malaysia which will staff payment, etc. Australia’s National expire in 2015. Additionally, in 2014, Australia Commission of Audit (NCOA, 2015) reported has another arrangement with the Kingdom of that the costs incurred from offshore Cambodia for refugee resettlement. This processing reached $ 400,000 per person for agreement has broadened the regional refugee 12 months in detention (2013 fiscal year) or arrangements in Asia-Pacific region under around $ 1 billion in 2014 fiscal year (Whyte, which more countries are involved. These 2015). These costs are borne to accommodate refugee arrangements, especially offshore about 2,200 asylum seekers in Nauru and processing, aim to deter the flow of asylum PNG. seekers in which Australian government On the other hand, refugee swap considers it as people smuggling due to the arrangement has been agreed between unlawful nature of their entry to Australia. Australia and Malaysia on 7 May 2011 through which as many as 800 asylum seekers coming Mapping North – South Relations: to Australia on boat will be transferred to Australia’s Regional Refugee Malaysia for processing and 4,000 processed Arrangements refugees from Malaysia will be resettled in This section will analyse the case of Australia’s Australia4 (Pastore, 2013). The agreement regional refugee arrangements based on which is also known as “Malaysia Solution” international level of analysis. In doing so, we works for four years (Pastore, 2013). In this will employ two conceptual frameworks arrangement, Australia will bear almost all the discussed earlier in this research, namely costs incurred from transfer of asylum seekers world system analysis and constructivism. By and refugees to Malaysia and Australia employing world-systems analysis, countries respectively. It is estimated that to fly the in Asia – Pacific region will be divided into asylum seekers to Malaysia will cost Australian three categories, namely core, semi-peripheral tax payers as much as $76 million (ASRC, and peripheral. The use of this categorisation is 2013). Interestingly, Malaysia is neither the adopted from the work of Wallerstein through signatory of UN Refugee convention 1951 nor which he divided world economy into these
4See the MoU on refugee swap between Australia and Malaysia
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Mapping North-South Relations: The Case of Australia’s Regional Refugee Arrangements categories. That way, it will be more feasible to between world-systems analysis and map the regional refugee arrangements constructivism will, therefore, help deepen the between Australia and its partner countries in understanding about the instance of regional the region. In addition to world-systems refugee arrangements. As to begin, the analysis, this research will also employ following parts will discuss further about the constructivist approach as to identify the utilisation of the proposed approaches to draw international norms related to refugee this particular international relations protection under which the signatories are phenomenon. obliged to comply with. The combination
The Map of Australia’s Regional Refugee Arrangements Figure 2 World-systems analysis on regional refugee arrangements
Source: Authors’ illustration5
From the above illustration, it can be groups is two-folded: 1) economic capacity seen that regional refugee arrangements and 2) level of dependency to “core” country. agreed between Australia and some countries These two elements are deemed sufficient to in the Asia-Pacific region reflect the so-called justify the presumed categorisation from the international division of labour on refugee above illustration about world-system protection. As what Wallerstein suggested analysis on regional refugee arrangements. that countries in the world are divided into In terms of economic capacity, the three categories, namely core, semi- five countries assessed in this research are at peripheral and peripheral; regional refugee different levels. In order to illustrate their arrangements can also be divided into these economic capacities, Figure 2 presents the three categories. The extent to which juxtaposition of per capita income at current countries are categorised into one of these US $ of these five countries.
5The map was downloaded from
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Figure 3 GDP Per capita (Current US $)
Year Australia PNG Nauru* Malaysia Cambodia
2001 19,497 558 N/A 3,878 319
2005 33,996 804 2,599 5,554 471
2010 51,801 1,382 6,234 8,754 783
2012 67,525 2,184 12,022 10,440 945
* The data on Nauru is generated from United Nations while the rests are from World Bank Statistics in which data on Nauru is not available Source: World Bank, GDP per capita (Current US $); United Nations
From Figure 3, it is evident that Australia is the countries, Nauru can be considered as upper- strongest economy and, if compared to the middle economy like Malaysia. others, there appear such huge margins or gaps On the other hand, the level of among them. In the income classification dependency can be used as another indicator introduced by the World Bank, Australia is which becomes the basis of this categorisation. considered as high income economy, Malaysia It should be noted that, as the “core” country, as upper-middle income economy, PNG as Australia becomes the “centre” under which lower-middle economy, and Cambodia as semi-periphery and periphery countries lower income economy (World Bank, 2015). depend upon. In this regard, dependency on The classification for Nauru is not available on Australia can be understood in some senses, World Bank data but if compared to other such as the Official Development Assistance (ODA) from Australia and trades.
Figure 4 Australia’s ODA (Estimated Outcome in Million US$)
Countries 2008-09 2013-14
PNG 357.3 448.5
Nauru 18.0 20.7
Cambodia 37.6 51.1
Malaysia - -
Source: (Australian Government, n.d.)
Based on the Figure 4, PNG becomes the Furthermore, Cambodia also receives biggest Australia’s ODA receiver compared to additional financial assistance from Australia Nauru and Cambodia. It is estimated that worth of $ 40 million for a four-year term as a Australia contributes almost 70% of total aids result of offshore processing deals in 2014 received by PNG and an additional aid worth $ (UNSW, 2014). 47 million will be allocated to PNG for a four- On the contrary, Malaysia is not year term as part of the offshore processing among the recipients of Australia’s ODA. Yet, deals (Provost, 2015). Besides, for Nauru, Australia and Malaysia have established strong Australia’s ODA in 2008-09 periods made up trade relations, particularly when the Malaysia to more than 30% of Nauru’s GDP which – Australia Free Trade Agreement (MAFTA) accounted to only $ 62 million in 2010. was agreed in 2012 (MITI, 2015). Malaysia’s
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Mapping North-South Relations: The Case of Australia’s Regional Refugee Arrangements exports to Australia have been increasing run the deal. It is evident that these two overtime. It was recorded that in 2011 indicators have shown that Australia can be Malaysia’s exports to Australia reached A$ considered as the core country while its 9,894 million and A$ 10,944 million in 2013 partners are considered as either semi- (DFAT, 2014). In addition to trade figures, periphery or periphery. As the “core”, Australia Malaysia will be less burdened by the refugees has the strongest economy in juxtaposition residing in their territory as four thousands of with its partner countries. Besides, Australia’s them will be resettled in Australia in exchange ODA and Australia’s position as strategic for approximately 800 asylum seekers under trading partner for Malaysia and other the swap agreement for which Australia is countries in the region have made Australia committed to providing the necessary funds to gain more prominence.
Figure 5 Australia’s Trade Flow (in Million US$)
Export Import Partner 2000 2005 2010 2014 2000 2005 2010 2014
Cambodia 6.4 35.9 23.0 38.8 1.4 6.9 26.1 107.5
Malaysia 1,366.5 1,917.1 3,347.1 5,432.0 2,590.7 4,832.4 8,562.5 10,036.8
Nauru 14.7 9.1 13.1 84.5 5.1 0.2 5.7 5.1
PNG 569.1 1,019.5 1,874.0 1,945.0 847.6 1,559.1 2,794.3 3,340.7
Total 1,956.7 2,981.6 5,257.2 7,500.3 3,444.8 6,398.6 11,388.6 13,490.0
Source: (UN Comtrade, n.d.)
Besides, as suggested in the Table 5, Based on the definition of refugee and asylum trade relations between Australia and its other seeker outlined in the previous section, it can partner countries are also prominent to be understood that these people, with all the understand the level of dependency among rightful reasons as explained above, are taking each other. Although nominally speaking, the risk to go seeking for safety and fleeing from figure only represents a small portion of their home without certainty to pursue asylum Australia’s total trade which is around 1%, yet somewhere, in a hope to find a place for them it is still necessary to note that generally the to live a safe life. By looking at this fact, we figures grow sustainably (except for Nauru). In could conclude that no one is directly other words, it is justifiable to assume that the responsible for causing them to face such dependency level between Australia and its unfortunate situation, but everyone has partner countries are also increasing. responsibility to help them and not to mention, Compared to Malaysia and Cambodia, Nauru to respect their rights to receive fair treatments and PNG have less access to trade or economic from countries that they happen to visit. In this cooperation which then makes trading with regard, no country should reject those people Australia as one of the most promising ones. fleeing to another country to seek refugee Still, Malaysia and Cambodia involved in some there. Therefore, it is deemed necessary for all regional trading agreements with Australia, states to work on refugee issues collectively in such as under AANZFTA, APEC and even TPP order to succeed the established international (for Malaysia) which add on dependency laws governing refugees. among each other. Australia as one of the destination countries in Pacific area has been dealing with Responsibility Sharing and Division of refugees coming to their territory since Labour on Refugee Issues decades ago. Then challenges are up for Australia to deal with the significant increase
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on the number of refugees and asylum seekers coming as shown in figure below:
Figure 6 People Seeking Australia’s Protection
IMA* refugee status Program Non-IMA** Protection visa determination requests Total Year (PV) applications lodged received
2002 - 03 4,960 60 5,020
2003 - 04 3,485 87 3,572
2004 - 05 3,062 146 3,208
2005 - 06 3,191 101 3,292
2006 - 07 3,723 23 3,746
2007 - 08 3,987 21 4,008
2008 - 09 5,072 668 5,740
2009 - 10 5,986 4,579 10,565
2010 - 11 6,337 5,174 11,511
2011 - 12 7,036 7,379 14,415
Grand Total 46,839 18,238 65,077
*IMA= Irregular Maritime Arrivals ** Non- IMA generally refers to protection visa applicants who arrived by air and are already in Australia’s migration zone Source: (Australian Government, 2012)
With the number of refugees going up each use a constructivist approach to understand year, as we can see from the above figure in this issue. As Slaughter, Tulumello and Wood 2004 until 2012, Australia needed new ways to (1998) explained, shared norms (in this case, it cope with the challenge. As mentioned earlier is the same understanding about the that asylum seekers and refugees are the responsibilities to respect the rights of refugees responsibilities of every country, judged by and asylum seekers) such as international laws their cause to flee from home, Australia’s become the basis for interaction among actors partnership with its surrounding countries which then constitute actors’ identities and through offshore processing arrangement and interests. And it could also be seen that the refugee swap agreements are deemed to be a international laws become the firm foundation form of responsibility sharing between to see the responsibility sharing between countries in the region. Australia and its partners in the issue of The responsibilities for countries to refugee resettlement. respect the rights of refugees and asylum And yet, responsibility sharing seekers are emphasized in some of the between Australia and its partners also shows international laws related to the issue, such as the pattern of division of labour in the sense article 31 of UN Refugee Convention and article that Australia plays the role of core countries to 14 of Universal Declaration of Human Rights. support the funding for refugees’ processing These laws have been the basic foundations to facilities in the partner countries. While on the
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Mapping North-South Relations: The Case of Australia’s Regional Refugee Arrangements other hand, partner countries provide the place swap agreement. This unequal relationship on and facilities needed for the refugees in their regional refugee arrangements has made territory. In this sense, international norms Australia as a core country while Malaysia, generated from international laws governing Nauru, PNG and Cambodia as semi-peripheral refugee issues are not the only determinant and peripheral countries respectively. which influences state’s behaviour. Rather, economic rationale also takes part in dividing Critics on Australia’s Regional Refugee the jobs among countries in dealing with Arrangements refugee arrangement. Despite the fact that regional refugee As a result, Australia takes the crucial arrangements initiated by Australia have roles in the arrangements by providing shown the sense of responsibility sharing financial means and experts to support the among concerning countries, it is important to processing procedures which makes it as the note that there are non-financial costs incurred “core” country. Australia’s policies on refugee from the implementation of these resettlement arrangements confirm Australia’s arrangements. In providing protection to position as a good international citizen who refugees or asylum seekers, the host countries promotes the fulfilment of human rights and must not only prepare for financial support. refugee protection. It is, indeed, a form of soft Other costs which are not associated with the power which may be used as a tool to financial capacity can be considered as non- strengthen its position in the region. While on financial costs in which both host countries the contrary, Malaysia, Nauru, PNG and and refugees or asylum seekers themselves Cambodia receive the resource allocations must bear. Such costs may include from Australia to make the arrangements assimilation, human rights abuse, and poor work, making them as semi-peripheral and living condition. peripheral countries respectively. After the re-enactment of offshore It is clear that the relations between processing in Nauru and PNG, asylum seekers Australia and its partner countries are unequal begin to be transferred to the designated where core country allocates more resources to countries. Following the transfers, UNHCR the semi-peripheral and peripheral countries. conducted survey to each of Australia’s The transfer of resources, especially the offshore detention facilities and assessed the financial one, is considered as the trigger for living condition there. UNHCR concluded that non-core countries to take part in the refugee asylum seekers in both detention facilities lived arrangements. Otherwise, PNG, Nauru and in the “harsh” condition where the shelters Cambodia which have ratified UN Refugee were overcrowded with extreme heat and Convention (UNHCR, n.d.) but with poor- humidity (UNSW, n.d.). In the offshore performing economy and prone to political detention centre, the asylum seekers often instability will not be able to put so much effort experience mental illness due to the long to provide processing facilities for asylum isolation and the lack of proper health seekers by their own due to the costs associated infrastructure like hospitals (Bem, Field, and with the facilities. And for Malaysia, its Maclellan, 2007). It is worsened by the geographical and cultural proximities (as a conflicts which sometimes happened between Muslim-majority country) will not let them the asylum seekers and local residents. neglect the very existence of asylum seekers Besides, Bem, Field and Maclellan (2007) also stranded on their coasts. With these regional suggest that there is a need to impose the arrangements, Malaysia will be able to gain not reform in Nauru, and to some extent other only financial support from Australia but also partner countries, in order to improve burden sharing with another country through efficiency and to end corruption.
Figure 7 Corruption Perception Index 2001, 2012 and 2014
Country 2001 2012 2014
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Australia 11 7 11
Malaysia 36 54 50
PNG N/A 150 145
Cambodia N/A 157 156
Nauru* N/A N/A N/A
Countries assessed 91 176 175
Source: (Transparency International, n.d.)
Based on the above figure, it can be Conclusion and Policy Suggestion clearly seen that most of Australia’s partners The discussions outlined in this research have are on the bottom list of corruption perception. provided some insights regarding the mapping Until recently, CPI becomes one of the most of “North” and “South” relations on the case of comprehensive and robust measurements of Australia’s regional refugee arrangements. The corruption perception even though some instance of these regional arrangements has critics also appear (Roca and Alidedeoglu- provided an opportunity to understand the Buchner, 2010). This implies that they are very issue from different point of view. By much vulnerable to the corruption. In relation combining wolrd-systems analysis and to the refugee arrangements, corruption may constructivism, Australia’s regional refugee threaten the implementation of the regional arrangements can be understood as a two- arrangements on refugee. Accountability issue, folded occurrence. On the one hand, these for instance, will be exposed and questioned arrangements show the tendency to create a particularly when the aids given by Australia sense of responsibility sharing on the refugee, are not well allocated to the betterment of if not asylum seekers, issues. As countries are refugee protection and processing in the host constrained by the international laws under countries. Even so, the data on Nauru is, again, which they are bounded in, their behaviour unavailable. Yet, based on the country reports must reflect and comply with the provision from Transparency International, Nauru is agreed on the laws. On the other hand, considered to be among those countries with however, international division of labour is still low CPI like PNG and Cambodia. present in a way that engages economic and All these situations should require normative discourses on refugee issues. In this Australia to be more selective in choosing sense, even though dealing with refugee issues partner countries for the implementation of its is costly, yet countries cannot neglect this very regional refugee arrangements. Two factors occurrence particularly those who ratified the must be considered when choosing a partner refugee convention and its protocol like country, namely country’s capability and its Australia. Regional refugee arrangements commitment to refugee protection. The show that countries behaviour is constrained former, as discussed earlier, can be seen from by the existing international norms resulting economic, political and social indicators while from international laws. As the strongest the later can be seen from international laws economy and the most favourite refugee governing refugee and human rights destination in the region, Australia takes the ratification. Once these issues are assessed lead to promote regional refugee arrangements carefully, Australia will be able to ensure the and provide financial means as to work the same and standardised treatment towards the plan out. asylum seekers and refugees even in offshore The categorisation of countries into processing facilities. Thus, harsh situation and core, semi-periphery and periphery is, thus, even human rights abuse against asylum relevant to understand the regional refugee seekers and refugees can be prevented. arrangements between Australia and some partner countries in the Asia – Pacific region.
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By using economic and normative rationale, automatically reduce the number of countries are categorised based on the people fleeing to seek refuge in other economic power and the level of commitment countries, including in Australia and to international laws. The notion of other Asia Pacific countries. responsibility sharing is in line with the notion of international division of labour in which Bibliography countries work collectively to promote refugee Books protection by performing distinctive roles from Adler, E. (2013) Constructivism in one another. Thus, the discussion in this International Relations: Sources, research has outlined how the North and South Contributions, and Debates. In: interact collectively under the notion of Carlsnaes, Walter, Thomas Risse and responsibility sharing and division of labour on Beth A. S. Handbook of International the matters of regional refugee arrangements. Relations. London: SAGE Publications, pp. 112-145. Policy Suggestions Finnemore, M. (1996) National Interests in Based on the discussions and critics that have International Society. Ithaca: Cornell been outlined in this research, we propose University Press. some policy suggestions as to improve the Shannon, T. R. (1989) An Introduction to the treatment to asylum seekers and refugees and World-System Perspective. Colorado: reduce the likelihood of people getting on boat Westview Press. to flee to other countries in a hope of seeking UNHCR. (2011) UNHCR Resettlement asylum. Handbook. Geneva: UNHCR. 1. If regional refugee arrangement is the Wallerstein, I. (1974) The Modern World- most viable solution to deal with System I: Capitalist Agriculture and refugee issues, the countries where the the Origins of the European World- asylum seekers will stay and apply for Economy in the Sixteenth Century. refugee status should possess New York: Academic Press. political, economic and social Wendt, A. E. (1987) The Agent-Structure stability. That way, the abuse of basic Problem in International Relations rights and the occurrence of conflict Theory. International Organization, can be mitigated; pp. 335-370. 2. Strengthen the monitoring function in the offshore processing facilities as to lessen the possibility of human rights Journals abuse and corruption to occur as most Barkin, J. S. (2003) Realist Constructivism. of Australia’s partner countries are International Studies Review, pp. considered as Least Developed 325-342. Countries; Bem, K., et al. (2007) A Price to High: The Cost 3. Official Development Assistance of Australia's Approach to Asylum (ODA) can be used as a means of Seekers. Oxfam Australia. improving the capacity of partner Block, F. (1990) Capitalism versus Socialism in countries. This capacity building will World-Systems Theory. Review prepare institutional capacity and (Fernand Braudel Center), pp. 265- infrastructure development of 271. Australia’s partner countries to take Chase-Dunn, C. and Peter G. (1995) World- the lead in promoting refugee Systems Analysis. Annual Review of protection; Sociology, pp. 387-417. 4. Australia and its partner countries Fox, P. D. (2010) International Asylum and should be more active in promoting Boat People: The Tampa Affair and peace building in the countries where Australia's "Pacific most of “boat people” come from. The Solution".Maryland Journal of stability in the sending countries will International Law, pp. 356-373.
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