DU?1410'A?E

1! 6000. Bulletin No. 82. November, 1904. IDepa rtmexit of Hox-tc,i1ture

Oregon Agricultural Experiment Station.

CORVALLIS, OREGON.

0

Fruil of Pyrus rivularis OFEGON NA'rIVE CffAE. THE IN OREGON. By E. R. LAKE

THE BULLETINS OF THIS STATION ARE SENT FREE TO AL .ST1TS OF OREGON WI- EGIJEST THEJi.

Oregon Agrc. A Board ofegeots of the Oreoo ArcufturaI CoIIce aod Exerirneot Statloo

Hon. J. K. Weatherford, President Albany, Oregon. Hon. John D. Daly, Secretary Portland, Oregon. Hon. B. F. Irvine, Treasurer Corvallis, Oregon. Hon. Geo. E. Chamberlain, Governor Salem, Oregon. Hon. F. I. Dunbar, Secretary of Slate Salem, Oregon. Hon. J. H. Ackerman, State Supt. of Pub. Instruction, Salem, Oregon. Hon. B. G. Leedy, Master of Stale Grange Tigardville, Oregon. Hon. William E. Yates Corvallis, Oregon. Hon. J. T. Apperson, Park Place, Oregon. Hon. W. P. Keady Portland, Oregon. Hon. William W. Cotton Portland, Oregon. Hon. Jonas M. Church La Grande, Oregon. Hon. J. D. OlweIl Central Point, Oregon.

OFFICERS OF THE STATION. STATION STAIT. l'hos. M. Gatch, A. M., Ph. ID PrsidenE. James Withycombe, M. Agr.. Diycthy and Agriculiurisi. A. L. Knisely, M. ChemisE. A. B. Cordley, M. S EnEomalogi.sI. E. R. Lake, M. S. Bolani.sE. E. F. Pernot, M. S. .8aclerialogisi. George Coote .l4lorcsl. P. L. Kent, B. S Dairying. C. M. MeKellips, Ph. C., M. S.. Chemi.thy. P. K Edwards, B. M. E... C'he,nisfry. THE APPLE IN OREGON PART II Topics Discussed.Yarieties for home Use.Polllnation.Tillage..Cov- er Crops.Pruning.

This series contemplates four parts.Part I dealt with Early History. Earliest Varieties.Later Plantings.The Problem of Planting.Siteas to Soil.Site as to Aspect.Selection of Trees.Plantin.Parts HI and IV will deal with varieties for commercial planting, harvesting, packing, storing, marketing, and wanuacturing the inferior fruit into secondary products, and such other topics as naturally accompany the discussion. VARIETIES.

'If a child be in a fair garden about St. Jatnes tide lie will choose asweeting, because it is presently fair and pleasant, and refuse a rennet, because it is then green, hard and sour; when the one, if it be eaten, doth breedboth worms and ill humors; tlieother, if it stand his time, he ordered and kept as it should, is wholesome of itself and helpeth to the good digestion of other meats.Sweet- ings will receive worms, rot, and die on the tree, and never or seldom come to the gathering for good and lasting store.' 'RoGER ASCuAM. in the School- master. The question, what varieties shall I plant, is one that faces every beginner in orchard work, and is one that can be answered as fuiiy by himself as by any other person.In therst place none but himself knows fully his own likes and dislikes, which, for a success- ful orchardist, must be as pronounced as for one in any other line of work.The man who does not possess a strong personal equation in favor of some varieties is quite likely doomed to disappointment in the cultivation of the apple, as in other fields of industry. Coupled with this personal factor favoring iertain varieties must be a full consideration of the fitness of the variety tothe soil and climatic conditions of the site in view.In all but the newest sections of the country this information of suitability of varieties may be ob- tained from local growers, except possibly, when some new variety is under consideration, and such an one is hardly what should be planted to any considerable extent until after full local trial. Though it is quite impossible to have fresh of good quality the year round without recourse to the cellar, store-house or cold- storage room, yet it is practicable, through judicious plantings and such care in storage as every home of average means is able to pro- vide, to have fresh fruit of the apple seven or eight months of each year.On a basis of a family of five and for an average western Oregon farm home the following list was suggested in 1901 for the purpose of enlisting discussion and comment:Two trees Trans- parent; one, Oldenburg; two, ; one, King; one, Spitzen- burg; one, ; one, ; one, or Spy; one, Waxen; one, Hyslop (crab). The following comments were made by our leading growers in the various districts of the state: "List all right, quantity and quality, except put two trees of iii place of one King and o,,e Transparent.Jonathan is vastly better than King anywhere, at atiy time."- -W. K. NEwEI,L, Washington Co. 5 'Can suggest no improvement upon the list submitted for the home orch- ard.R. H. \VEBER, Wasco Co. "I should select the following for the above purpose:One tree each of , Gravenstein, King, N. Spy. Baldwin, , Waxen, V. N. Pippin, Hyslop."F. A. SLEIGHT, Clackamas Co. 'My list for this purpose would be:One tree each of (Y) Transparent, Old- enburg, Gravenstein, Dutch Mignonue, King, Grimes Golden (Pippin), Wax- en, Baldwin, () Spitzenburg.j. H. SETTLEMIER, Marion Co. ''One tree Red Astrachan; one Oldenhurg; three, Gravensteili; one, ; one, Spitzenburg; three, Baldwin or Spy; two, \Vaxen; one Rambothe Rambo is good eatingone, Hyslop."THOMAS PATJLSON,WaSI1 ington Co. "I would suggest br this part of the valley a Swaar or (Red-Cheek Pippin) Monmouthi Pippin in place of Spitzenhurg as both of these do well here and are late keepers, but the Spitzenburg does not thrive hiere.L. T. REYNOLDS, Marion Co. "\Ve think the following list would not make the orchard too large:One tree each of Red Astrachan, Maidens Blush, Bisniarck, and two trees each of Jonathan and Stark, and where they do well, two trees of V. N. Pippin." ALBERT BROWNELL, Liun Co. "One tree of Transparent is enough.I think N. Spy too shy to depend on. 'rhe Gravenstein is all right.In place of the second Transparent of the list I should put one or (Red-Cheek Pippin) Monmouth Pippin for a long keeper."J. J. VAN KLEEK, Washington Co. "For this region ourJ. H. Stewart suggests the following list for the home orchard:One tree of Red Astraclian; one, Oldenburg; one, Maidens Blush; one, Gravenstein; two, Jonathan; one, Swaar; one, Spitzenburg; two, Yellow Newtown;two, Bennett."S. L. BENNETT, Jackson Co. "The list submitted is good.I should add one tree ofSeek-no-Further, and otie, Fall Beauty.This latter I consider better than Waxen.It is an excell- ent table apple and fine for cooking. A Yellow Newtown ought to be added for those sections suited to its growth."S. D. EVANS, Douglas Co. 'We think your list as complete as it is possible to make one in covering so large a territory.For this locality we should plant rio Spitzenburg as it is a poor tree here.We should add one tree of Maidens Blush.This tree thrives here, bears regularly, and we regard it as a very fine ."F. B. CHASE, Lane Co. "I think half the number of well fed trees would be sufficient.I have one Gravenstein and no family often can use the yield.I would reject the Wax- en, also the Baldwin because it has too many dark spots inside(spot-rot) (dead-spot) (dry-rot). I know nothing of the Transparent, Oldenhurg, Grimes Golden or York ImperialJoHN HENRY, Washington Co. "I think the list a good one but would select Jonathan in place of Spitzen- burg and also think the should be included as itcomesbetween Gray- ensteiri and King; or possibly I should drop the King and put Wealthy in its place, ill thought the list too long.Our soil is particularly adapted to Bald- win, Jonathan and ."ASA HOLADAV, Columbia Co. "I suggest the substitution of one tree of (Red-Cheek Pippiti) Monmouth Pippin for one Transparent because of the excellence of the fruit, and one tree of in place of one Gravenstein'for use in late spring, and one tree of Winesap in place of Spitzenburg. were a favorite in childhood and we cling to them from "blessed memory."L. M. GILBERT, Marion Co. "I should amend the list to read:One tree of Transparent; one. Oldenburg; one, Waxen; two, Gravenstein; two, Spitzenburg; two, Yellow Newtown.I should not attempt to grow either the King or Baldwin in this localityas both varieties are subject to bitter rot.The Yellow Newtown is a late keeper of best quality, both for cooking and dessertA. H. CARSON, Josephine Co. "For a family orchard I should plant as follows: One tree, Transparent; one, Hawley (superior to Transparent); two, Gravenstein; one, King; one Spitzenburg; one, Grimes Golden; one, York Imperial; one, Baldwin; one, Rhode Island Greening; one, Bailey Sweet; one, Transcendent.I consider the quantity rather small for a family of five, until the the trees reach quite an age."--JUDD GEEI, IJiiion Co. 'For the home orchard I should substitute the Early Goodwin for the Trans- parent.I believe the Early Goodwin the best apple on earth for this season. I should plant Rome Beauty instead of York Imperial.Transcendent should take the place of Hyslop, as it is altogether better.Then I should add the Jonathan to the list and from my point of view the selection would beex- cellent."G. A. HOBBS, lJmatilla Co. "For our locality we should amend the list to read as follows: Two trees of Yellow Transparent; one, Oldenburg; one, King; two, Gravenstein; one, Jona- than; one, Grimes Golden; one, York Imperial; one, Winesap; one, Rome Beauty; one, Spokane Beauty; one, Transcendent (crab).Spitzenhurg, Bald- win, Northern Spy and Hyslop do not thrive in this locality.Spokane Beau- ty is the best all-round family apple for cooking that Iknow."S. A. MILLER, Ijniatilla Co. 'For an Hood River home orchard I should name this as a list:One tree of Red Astrachan; two, Transparent; two, Gravenstein; two,Jonathan;two, Bald. win; two, Wagener or ; two, Spitzenbnrg; two, Yellow Newtown;one, Whitney or Transcendent. King, water-cores badly; York Imperial lacks qual- ity of taste; Whitney is the largest crab.I believe it is well to plant two trees of each variety as one is liable to injury and premature decay."E. L. SMITH, Wasco Co. "I should advise for home use one tree of Transparent; one, Gravenstein; one, King; one, Delicious; one, Ortley; one, Lady; one, Hyslop; two, Spitzen- burg; two, Yellow Newtown.I know this list would suit my desires and this locality better than the one submitted.The Waxen is too sour and non- marketable, should one chance to have more than could be used at home.I should want plenty of Spitzenbnrg and Yellow Newtown.I should plant no tree to dig up in future; too much labor lost."A. I. MASON, Wasco Co. "It is difficult to improve the list submitted for general home purposes, but for our use we prefer the following:One tree of Transparent; two of Graven- stein, for early use; two, King, very fine for fall use; two, Waxen, best for cooking and sauce and everybody likes it; two, Baldwin, old reliable; one, Spitzenburg and one, Northern Spy, or one,Yellow Newtown, for winter keep- ing; one, of a long keeper like American Pippin, could be substituted for one Ba!d"in or King. Some people do not care for crabs and so I leave them off my list."GEoRGE ARMSTRONG, Benton Co. "Referring to your list for a family orchard I wish to say that I do not know the Transparent.The Spitzenburg is not a healthy tree with us.The King, Ben Davis (Gloria Mundi) Monstrous Pippin, Twenty Ounce and some others I do not consider family fruits, as they are grown more for show and display than for use.As you know, much depends uponsoil, climate and soil moist- 7 ure and I naitie the following varieties as they do well with us, the trees being particularly healthy and vigorous.One tree each of Red June, Rambo, Gray- enstein, Waxen, Transcendent (crab), and two each of Baldwin and N. Spy."- CHAUNCY BALL, Multnomah Co. "For my own use I should want a sweet apple in the list but I do not know of one that is fully satisfactory.I should also wish a very late keeper, even if I had to take Ben Davis or some other of that type.I think I should prefer a large number of trees to start with, for it takes so long for them to come into full bearing.It would be an easy matter to grub out a few of the most unde- sirable ones if fruit became too plentiful.My list would be about as follows: Your list plus one more each of King and Baldwin, the late keeper and sweet one as noted above.As the Spitzenburg does not thrive well in this section I should be disposed to leave it out of the listDR. A. MILLS, Yanihill Co. 'Our list for the home would be:One tree of Early Harvest; one, Astra- chan; two, Gravenstein; one, Waxen; one, King; one, Grimes Golden; one, Rhode Island Greening; one, Baldwin; one, Spitzeuburg; one, Northern Spy: one, Yellow Newtown; one, Hyslop (crab).An Early Harvest and an Astra- chan gives a longer season for very early fruit than the list submitted.I am not acquainted with Oldenburg or York Imperial, but the Swaar is a great favorite of mine and I should plant a tree of this variety.The Yellow New- town is added for those soils and locations that are suited to its growth.It is a leader among apples but its growth is slow and bearing shy in this section." G. W. RIDDLE, Douglas Co. "For city conditions and limited space I should choose: One tree of Yellow Transparent; one, Gravensteiu; one, Wealthy (superior to Oldenburg and bet- ter keeper); one, King; one, Yellow Bellefiower (in place of Waxen or Spy); one, Grimes Golden; one, York Imperial; one, White Peat-main (a general favorite here, and a reliable bearer); one, Jonathan (never should be left out, too rich and prolific for that); one, Spitzenburg; one, (much superior to Baldwin for late winter). To make twelve trees, same as list given, should select one tree Fameuse or Carolina Red June, also a small limb of Transcend- ent (crab), if my good neighbors had none, as a whole tree will furnish enough fruit for a dozen families."KARL STACKLAND, Union Co. "I would suggest the following list for the purpose you name; I am familiar with these.Others may be as good but I don't know them to be.Two trees each of Early Harvest. Gravenstein, King, Yellow Bellefiower, four trees N. Spy and one of Hyslop.Should this aumount of trees yield too much in time, I should not remove any Graveoateius for if there be too much fresh fruit it makes a most excellent evaporated product.I find to roy sorrow that the Spitzenburg is dry and pithy when grown in this valley.For baking there is no apple in the world equal to the Yellow Bellefiower, and "Such dumplings as mother used to make All out of Yellow Bellefiowers." For a long keeper one needs nothing better than the N. Spy.It keeps until April or MaY."CHARLIE LONG, Marion Co. If ample site is at command it may be well to plant two or even three trees of each variety and when they have grown to be of con- siderable size remove the undesirable or unnecessary ones.During the first eight or ten years the fruit of three or four trees of a variety would be none too much for home use, but with the development of the trees two, or even one, would yield all a family of five or six would need or use.In such case it is better to remove the extra trees than to endanger the health and vigor of the trees, and the qual- ity of fruit upon the remaining ones, as is only too frequently the result under such circumstances.An excess of fruit tends to cheap- ness, this induces an indifference which sooner or later disastrously affects the care and attention that should be given the trees every year.When once neglected it requires double the effort to renew the care formerly given.This is often "the straw that sets awry" and down goes an orchard that otherwise might have been a pride and a joy to its owner, an untold blessing to the family and a boon to "the stranger that has tarried within thy gates."

POLLINATION. During recent years no one phase of orcharding has received more thought than that of pollination.Though more or less regarded by the leading horticulturists of the past, at least since Knight's time, this subject rose to one of pa.ramount importance upon the publication of a bulletin upon the pollination of the pear, by NI. B. Waite in 1893.Since the appearance of this bulletin many obser- vations have been made upon this very important subject and all have tended to prove the importance of it.Today no intelligent orchardist contemplates planting varieties until he has fully in- vestigated their self-sterility or self-fertility, and their fitness for cross-fertilization.However, it must not be understood that all failures of crop can be ascribed to the impotency of pollen.Nor that the pollen of relatively shy-bearers like the Spitzenburg or Northern Spy is altogether impotent for it is known that in many instances the pollen of such varieties is efficient as a fertilizer. Then again, local climatic, soil, seasonal or other conditions may be such that the pollen of some individuals or varieties may be im- potent one season, while fully effective the following or subsequent years.This fact is particularly evidenced in the conduct, one sea- son with another, of the Italian prune.Large blocks of this fruit are to be found in various parts of Western Oregon and Western Washington in particular.Some years it bears a fairly full crop in all sections; in other years the orchards in one or more localities will fail, or produce but a partial crop, while orchards in other parts bear full crops; and even individual orchards in a locality may bear a full crop, or none, while others are returning opposite resu1ts. Liere appears to be accumulating evidence tending toward this conclusion rather than that slight frosts or rains are fully responsible for the failures of the Italian to set fruit some years. 9 From the researches of Waite and others there is reason tobelieve that the same general rules relating to the impotency of pollenwill apply equally well to the apple, pear, plum and cherry, though per- haps less noticeable with this latter fruit, as large blocks ofsingle varieties are not as common as with the others. In summarizing the results of this work upon the apple and the pear Waite says:"Too much importance must not be attached to cross-pollination as a factor in fruitfulness.There are other fact- ors equally as important.The variety, vigor, health, age, heredity and vitality of the tree; the presence of undue climatic, soil and site conditions and fungous diseases, are all vital factorsin the fruitfulness of orchards and must not be overlooked."* Varieties generally considered self-fertile, that is, safe to plant alone are:Ben l)avis, Rome Beauty, Jonathan, Baldwin, Falla- water, Oldenburg, Rhode Island Greening, Astrachan. Varieties that are considered more or less self-sterile are: Spitzen- burg, Northern Spy, Gravenstein, Winesap, Belleflower, Willow- Twig. The above list is only tentative at best.Investigators are a unit in declaring that, other conditions being favorable, nearly allvarie- ties are more or less improved by cross-fertilization, hence aliberal mixing of varieties in a plantation is to be recommended;provided, they are capable of inter-pollination.For it must not b forgetten that not only are varieties self-sterile but that they are also cross- sterile.Until much more information is obtained in detail as to the conduct of particular varieties under the varied conditions to which they are subject, implicit confidence cannot be placed upon the reputed behavior of other than a few of the varieties most wide- ly grown as Ben Davis, \Vinesap, .Jobathan, Rome Beauty. In view of this condition a point of much interest to the apple grower is the relative periods of blossoming of theinter-pollinating variOties.For with a knowledge of this at hand there may be planted side by side such varieties as will interpollinate and blos- som during the same period thus effectingcross-fertilization and thereby doing away with the troublesome question of sterility and at the same time deriving the best possible results as tosize and quality of the crop at a possible minimum of loss.If the planta

WaiteM. B., U. S. Agri Report 1898. tTrees of this variety have been observed to be apparently self-sterile.See report quoted above. 10 tion is of such size that three or four varieties may be grown to ad- vantage, so far as marketing the crop is concerned, then the prob- lem becomes one of getting such first-class varieties awill succeed on the proposed site, inter-pollinate, and blossom at the same per- iod.If it is not possible to get first-class inter-pollinating varieties that will blossom at the same time it may be possible to get an in- ferior variety at slight disadvantage, as to marketable value, that will pollinate the better varieties.Under such conditions the in- suring of acróp of the best grade fruit of two or three choice varie- ties at an expense of one inferior variety would be considered a judicious procedure.In view of this condition as to the relative blossoming periods of varieties andas to whether or not they will inter-pollinate or cross-fertilize, the work done at the Deleware sta- tioii affords some interesting data. Investigations made in 1900 indicated that Stayman, Paragon, York Imperial and Missouri Pippinare self-sterile varieties.That Stayman and Paragon will not inter-pollinate; that Staymancan be fertilized by Missouri Pippinor York Imperial; and that Missouri Pippin and York Imperial will inter-pollinate. In 1901 the same station made investigationsupon a larger scale. The following varieties, located in three different orchardswere ob- served:Astrachan, Sweet Bough, Early Harvest, Early Ripe, Eng- lish Russet, Fanny, Gilpin, Gravenstein, Grimes, Fourth of July, Lilly of Kent, Missouri Pippin, Nero, Paragon, Red Streak, Stark, Stayman, Strawberry, Williams Favorite, Winesap, Yellow Trans- parent. Only two varieties of this list proved to be fully sell-fertile, Sweet Bough and Fourth of July, and these are of no practical commer- cial value.It was noted also that of thislist the early varieties were the more self-fertile.Only one winter variety, Gilpin, was at all self-fertile.Where duplicate trees of the same variety were observed it was noted that there was a difference of degree of self- fertility between the individuals.In conclusion the author notes: "It is essential that varieties blossom together if they are to be planted for inter-pollination.Apples are more stable in their blossoming habits than other fruits, especially plums.The length of the blossoming period of a given variety may vary with thesea- son and with the care of the trees.The treatment of the soil has a considerable effect upon the blossoming period, for example: Light soil devoid of humus and lacking in tillage shortens the blossoming 11 period.Good tillage, plenty of humus and fertilizing material in the soil prolong the blossoming periodSpraying to preserve the foliage is also a factor in lengthening this period.It appears that the blossoming period is apparently very largely governedother conditions being favorableby the length of the flower-forming period of the previous summer and fall." * For several years a record of the College orchard has been kept with this point in view, namely, to ascertain what varieties blossom at the same period.The following tables give the results in sub- stance.One observation, however, needs to be made at this point. Records kept at other places, both within and without the state show that the periods of blossoming of certain varieties do not re- main invariable.In other words, two or more varieties that blos- som at approximately the same period at Corvallis, may not blos- som together at Hood River and La Grande, or at Medford and Cove. For example:In the table on page 16 it will be observed that during the season of 1903 at Hood River Early Harvest and Red Astrachan were in full blossom on May 1st. Jonathan, Spitzenberg, Ben Davis and Baldwin were in full blos- som on May 8th. Yellow Newtown, May 10th; Northern Spy, May 12th. On examination of the table on page 16 it is noted that at Cove Early Harvest and Red Astrachan were in full blossom on May 5th and 7th respectively. Jonathan, Spitzenburg, Ben Davis and Baldwin were in full blos- som on May 20th, 25th, 20th, 16th, respectively. Yellow Newtown, May 25th and Northern Spy, May 20th. The same season the records at Corvallis show that the Early Harvest tree under observation did not blosom; that Red Astra- chan was in full blossom April 28th; Jonathan, May 1st; (Spitzen- burg, no tree old enough to blossom in the College orchard); Ben Davis, May 4th; Baldwin, May 5th; (Yellow , no tree in the College orchard); Northern Spy, May 12th. On closer comparison it is found at Hood River that, while there is uniformly seven days difference between full blossom of Early Harvest and Red Astrachan on one side, and Jonathan, Spitzen- berg, Ben Davis and Baldwin on the other; at Cove there were two * This idea corresponds closely with that expressed on page 17 under the caption, Tillage. 12 days difference between the first two, and as between these and the other four the time varied from nine to twenty days, and at the same time the variations between the members of this second group were from four to nine days. At Hood River the Yellow Newtown precededtheNorth- ern Spy by two days.At Cove this order was reversed with a differ- ence of five days. * While it is reasonable to think that no very great value can be attached to the observations of one or two years, it is evident from the records kept at Corvallis, though they are very incomplete, .that a very variable relation exists from year to year not only between different varieties, hut between the various phases of development in the same variety, for example:In 1896, Deleware Red and Doininie were in full blossom seventeen days apart, but in 1897 they were in full blossom only two days apart.Then in the record of Fameuse we find a variation between the opening of first blos- soms and full blossom to vary from seven days in 1896; to three days in 1897; to twelve days in 1898; to nine days in 1900; to four- teen days in 1901 and to eight days in 1903. Or in other words the period from the opening of first blossoms to the time when the tree is in full blossom may vary from year to year, from three to four- teen days, which is equivalent to the variations between different varieties doing the same work. An interesting note is made by comparing the average of time that elapses between first blossoms and full blossoms in different sections.From the table of Cove data it will be observed that the minimum time is fifteen days, the maximum is twenty days, the average fifteen and three-fourths, approximately.For the same year at Corvallis the minimum was four days, the maximum was eleven days, and the average less than seven days.These latter figures are upon data derived from the blossoming of all varieties and may be counted of little value for purposes of comparison ex- cept as a matter of record at this time. *It is quite probable that some slight variation in these dates may be accounted for through the difference of individuality of the observers but it is mi probable that itan all he account- ed for in this manner when we take into account the personality of the observers i,i these two instances. 1901 1902 1903 VARIETY. 1896 1897 1898 1900 - B A B CA B C A B C - 5A BCIA BC A C AB C5.1 '4.285.8 5.161 Autumn Sweet 4.245.3 0.4.154.21 I U 4.27 5.7 5.14i American 4:214:30 0 0.9 4.205.8 4.285.5 0 Abram 4.255.7 all 4.26o.1 0 Arkansas - 275.2 0 4.174.30 Baldwin - 5.3 5.10 0 4 295 3 0 4.195.2 0 4.165.1 5.1014.255.9 5.17 . Bailey Sweet . 4.175.2 5.10 4 fls5 0 Bethiemite 4.305.3 0 4.225.5 0 4.285.4 5.16 -. 4.20 4.295.9 4.2oa.3 Bietigheimer 4.23 4.26 0 4.184.30 0 Briar (crab) '4 28 5 1 0425 59 0 5.55.10 5.194:28 5.4 Ben Davis 422 54 0 4.13 4.21 5.1 4.2.05.35.12'4 255.7 5.19 Bottle Greening 4.22 5.55.12 5.15.7 0 4.244.30 5 8 0 4.28 5.3 4 224 30 0 I '4.19 545.9 4.28 Belleflower, V 14:25 4.185.55.11429 5.85.19 4.27 3.2 Black Twig 5:6 0 Bisinarck 14.195.5 0 4.74.18 4.25 4.224.295.3 4.285.4 Canada Sweet 4.15 4.23 5.3 4.285.25.19, Canada '4.175.3 0 4.165.2 5.18 4.295.4 Charlottenthaler 4.15 4.28 5.8 4.275.4 Calvert 4.255.4 0 5.25.10 Canada Red 4.295.4 Commerce 4.225.1 0 4.7 4.184.30 4.204.285.8 4.255.6 Dutch Mignonne 0 4.12 4.185.14.225.3 5.11. Deleware Red 4.285.110 4.174.28 0 '4.225.6 4.22 4.29 '4.164.240 4.154.26 0 4.12 4.22 0i434.154.28 4.164.285.7 DominiC 0 4.184.281 Early-1'" 153 5.11 0 4.25 5.4 0 4.12 4.20 4.28 4.174.28 5.10 Ewalt 0 4.64.15 4.28 4.164.29 5.7 Early Strawberry 14.194.23 0 4.16 4.28 4.175.7 0 Fall Pippin 4.19 4.28 0 4.23 4.255.6 4.24 5.2 0 Fall Wine 4.25 5.6 04.22 5.1 04.74.15 4.294.16 4.26 5.11 4.28 5.4 0 Fallawater 4.74.15 4.254.18 4.275.101 Fall Jennetting.. 4.22 4.23 04.185.4 0 4.22 4.290 4.205.1 0 4.165.4 04.10 4.205.104.20 5.2 5.6 Fameuse 4.16 4.215.84.225.105.171 4.295.4 0 Gano 4.20 4.304.19 5.2 5.8 4.285.5 0 Grimes Golden 4.195.1 4.27 4.29 0 4.255.1 4.15 4.18 4.304.204.295.11 Green Sweet 4.18 5.14.204.29 5.8 4.275.5 0 Golden Sweet 14.144.270 4.19 4.29 0 4.184.28 4.9 4.224.30 4.10 4.16 4.28 4.174.25 5.2 I Graveustein - I 4.134.26 5.14 5.204.27 5.3 0 4.29 53 0 4.295.9 4.30 5.6 5.1415.6 Hoover 4.205.2 4.74.18 4.284.225.35.8 4.25 4.30 0 jlydes Keeper 4.11 4.22 4.304.28 5.10 5.20 Holland Beauty 4.29 5.5 0 5.2 0 4.20 4.26 04.25 5.5 04.15 4.25 5.14.23 5.9 5.18 Holland Pippin 4.17 4.21 4.295.8 4.27 5.8 0 Hyslop (crab) 4.13 4.200 4.20 4.26 04.18 4.24 04.94.19 4.28 VARIETY. 1896 1897 1898 1900 1901 1902 1908 A Haas B CA B CA B C A B C A B C A B C A B C Jonathan 4.17 4.27 4.64.16 4.254.16 4.265.6 4.23 4.80 0 4.24 5.5 4.215.6 5.13 Janetting 4.24 5.7 0 4 20 53 4.27 5.1 0 04.15 4.23 4.27 5.4 0 Jewetts Red 4.25 5.2 4.15 4.285.3 Kentucky Red Streak 4.24 4.29 5.25.9 0 King 4.28 4.28 5.4 0 5.8 04.22 5.2 4.18 4.205.2 4.19 5.5 5.105.159 0 4.28 5.5 0 Keswick Codlin. 4.94.18 4.25 4.17 4.285.8 Longfellow 4.44.15 0 1413 5.1 4.8 4.28 5.4 0 Limbertwig 4.155.1 4.16 4.285.8 4.28 5.8 I) 4.24 5.8 4 28 5.7 5.164.27 5.3 0 Mann 4.28 5.8 4.74.15 4.24 4.16 4.29 8.8 4.28 5.5 0 Melon 4.16 4.25 4.25 5.8 4.16 4.28 5.3 8.25.8 5.15 Munson 4.19 5.8 0 4.22 5.7 McMahon - 4.10 4.205.1 4.225.2 5.9 Maiden Blush (Winter) 4.22 5.6 4.285.8 0 4.20 5.7 0 4.29 5.8 0 4.22 5.6 4.9 4.165.1 4.215. 5.105.4 5 8 5.18 5..4 Martha 4.13 4.23 0 4.28 0 4.194.29 0 4.16 4.25 4.74.16 4.30 4.17 4.275.8 0 Montreal (crab) 4.94.20 0 1.18 0 4.28 5.5 5.1 4.165.1 4.64.16 4.26417 5.25.10 4.23 4.30 0 Minnesota (crab) 4.185.2 0 4.20 5.8 8.17 :4.255.45.154.26 5.2 0 Missouri Pippin 4.24 5.13 0 4.20 4,29 04.23 5.2 04.18 4.21 May 4.17 4.28 5.8 5.15.10 5.20 Oregon Crab 4.15 4.17 5.85.7 0 Ortley 0 4.12 4.22 04.44.13 4.18416 4.25 5.2 4.214.28 0 4.18 4.30 04.94.19 4.28 4.22 5.25-8 4.29 5.4 0 Oldenburg 4.14 4.20 04.18 4.25 Pryor (Red) 04.114.12 4.20 4.18 4.25 5.7 4.24 5.2 0 4.29 5.5 04.15 4.28 5.2 4.23 5.55.135.55.10 5.174.27 5.2 0 Pewaukee 4.25 5.10 0 4.235.8 0 4.28 5.6 Paradise Sweet 5.35.855:19 19 4.296.5 0 4.23 4.26 0 4.24 5.3 04.64.20 4284.22 5.25.7 5.15.6 Pumpkin RusseLL. 4.20 4.29 0 Palmer 4.24 5.8 0 4.12 4.18 5.2 4.20 5.75.16 4.28 5.4 Rome Beauty 4.265.3 5.85.10 0 4.27 5.8 0 4.235.1 6.35.75.14 5.20 5.6 5.10 Red Astrachan 4.16 4.200 4.28 4.26 0 Roxbury 4.7 4.12 4.204.194.225.1 5.21 4.28 4.28 55 0 4.190 5.4 Rock Pippin 4.27 4.285.6 5.18 5.6 0 4.22 3.2 0 4.15 4.20 4.284 224.26 5.7 4.285.5 Romanite 4.19 5.6 04.21 4.30 0 Ralls 4.19 5.9 0 4.9 4.274.295.1 5.9 5.16 Red Canada 4.7 4.16 4.254.214.265.1 Ranibo 4.22 5.7 4.15 4.28 5.40 4.165.45.5 5.10 5.19 Red Winter 0 4.265.4 0 4.15 4.285.64.205.3 5.11 5.15.9 '0 Rhode Island Greening 4.235.6 5.13 4.225.4 04.13 4.205.54.225.2 5.9 Siberian (crab) 4.54.15 0 4.20 4.23 04.17 4.80 0 September (crab) 4.22 5.2 0 St. Lawrence 4.18 4.29 4.26 4.30 0 Steeles 1ed 0 4.94.165.1 4.17 4.265.6 4.22 3.2 0 4.21 4.295.65.15.9 6.174.29 5.2 0 VARIETY. 1896 1897 1898 1900 1901 1902 190$

f 5A B C A B C A B C AB C A B CA C A B Sweet Bough 4.25 5.7 0 4.21 4.29 04.22 5.2 0 4.94.205.2 4.205.3 5.10 4.27 5.4 Shiawassee . 4.22 4.27 04.18 5.2 0 4.74.204.29 4.204.295.7 4.28 5.5 Spy (N.) . '4.2.34.285.3 5.65.12 Salome 4.254.27 0'4.245.4 0 4.94.18 4.28 4.28 5.5 Scotts Winter ..------4.16 4.25 0 4.274.28 014.184.28 0 4.10 4.155.1 4.184.285.9 4.27 5.4 Summer Queen . 4.27 5.4 0 4.15 4.18 5.6 4.285.9 5.18 5.1 5.6 Soulard (crab) 4,28 4.29 0 4.18 4.29 0 4.84.19 5.1 4.225.25.10 4.28 5.4 Stark 4.15 4.20 0 4.25 5.4 0 .4.94.16 5.1 4.205.4 5.12 ,4.275.3 Taylor 4.255.7 0 4.164.24 5.2 153 59 Tetofsky .14.154.19 0 14.164.20 5.11 .J4.224.28 4.183.35.12 Talhnati Sweet 4.225.3 0 4.165.1 59 5.14 5.204.285.7 5.17 4.80 5.5 0 Transcendent(crab) - 4.16 4.23 0 4.15 4.20 0 4.13 4.24 0 4.4 4.15 4.28 4.164.26 5.4 4 4.27'0 Twenty Ounce 4.22 5.3 0 4.214.26 0 4.224 28 0 4.9 4.20 4.28 4.204.28 5.7 4.275.4 0 Transparent (Yellow) 4.20 5.3 0 4.184.21 0 4.195.2 0 4.64.16 4.25 Willow ------4.205.65.11 4.295.6 0

Wolf River . 4.214.24 0 1.28 54 0 4.204.80 5.20 Winesap 1.245.2 0 4.164.24 5.1 4.275.10 5.16 White Belle5ower 14.255.3 0 4.215.6 5.10 4.285.2 0 Willow Twig 4.295.3 0 4.25 5.5 0 Whitney (crab) . . 4.174.20 014.164.29 0 4.6 4.154.284.194.26 5.3 Waibridge 4.185.6 0 4.14 4.204.294.22 5.23.17 Waxen 4.12 4.19 0 1.244.29 0 4.275.4 0 White Pippin 14.224.26 014.165.4 0 4.8 4.214.30 4.165.45.10 4.245.1 0 Wealthy 4,265.7 0 4.225.5 0 4.3 4.295.6 5.15.9 Western Beauty 4.26 5.8 014.274.29 0 4.22 5.3 0 4.15 4.235.1 4.22 5.35.10 4.285.3 0

Wagner . 4.275.5 0 4.13 4.22 5.3 4.22 5.10 5.16 4.28 5.4 0 York Imperial 5.4 5.11 0 4.23 4.26 0 4.255.7 0 4.15 4.24 5.2 14.225.65.16 4.305,8 0

5A, B, and C stand for Srst blossoms, full blossom, sod fall of blossoms, respectively. fThe dates read for example: 4.25, April25; 5.7, May 7; 0, no record kept. 16 Observations upon the blossoming of apple trees in the Rogue River valley, 1903, by Olwell Bros. *

Variety I First BlossomFull Blossom

Gravenstein 4.12 4.25 Yellow Newtown 420 5.4 Ben Davis 4.20 4.28 Winesap 4.24 4.80 Spitzenburg 4.24 5.2

SCourtesy of the State Board of Horticulture.

Observations upon the blossoming of apple trees in the Hood River valley for 1902 and 1903, by E. L. Smith.

i Full BlossomFull Blossom Variety 1902 1908

Baldwin May 8 May 8 Ben Davis 8 8 Canada Reimiette 6 6 Deleware Red 6 6 Rarly Harvest 8 8 EsopusSpitzenburg 1 1 Gravetistein 1 1 Grimes Golden 4 4 Jonathan 8 8 Missouri Pippin 8 8 Red Astrachan 4 1 Red Russian 1 1 Salome 8 8 Stark 8 8 8 1 5 Swaar - Transcendent (Crab\ 4 4 Wagner 6 Winesap 4 4 Yellow Transparent I 4 Yellow Newtown 10 10 N.Spy 12

Observations upon the blossoming of apple trees ill Grand Ronde valley, 1903, by Karl J. Stackland.

Variety First BlossomFull Blossom

Arkansas May I May 21 Baldwin 1 16 Ben D6vis 5 20 Early Harvest April 20 5 May 10 25 Gano 5 20 20 Jonathan . 5 King 1 16 Northern Spy 1 5 20 Oldenburg 10 25 Oregon April20 9 Red Astrachan May 5 20 Rhode Island Greemming 5 20 Rome Beauty...... April20 7 Winesap May 15 30 Yellow Newtown 10 25 York Iniperial 15 50 17

TILLAGE. Modern soil tillage has in view too chief ends, namely, to im- prove the mechanical condition, and to increase chemical and bio- logical activities or changes.In the growing of shallow rooted crops, tillage aims to serve both purposes equally, but in the growth of the orchard crop the chief aim is the latter purpose, that is, to in- duce vigorous chemical and biological changes.The roots of the orchard crop feed so deeply in the soil that tillage operations can not be expected to greatly modify the physical conditions, except upon the surface.This is one of the leading reasons why a deep, porous, weU drained soil primarily should be selected for an orch- ard site.Plowing, subsoiling, harrowing and cultivating break up the soil to a depth suitable for the root systems of the cereal, root and forage crops, but such operations only serve to help the orch- ard crop for the first few years of its growth.By the time the tree comes into Learing its principal roots should be feedihg in the soil fat' beneath the reach of the plow and cultivator, and besides havoc would be wrought if tillage tools were to reach among the roots for the purpose of putting the soil in better physical conditions.This phase of the subject need receive no further consideration here save this observation:The importance of the first preparation of the soil for the reception of the trees is not to be underrated.Deep, thorough tillage of a well broken and subdued soil is an essential to success in the first steps of orcharding.When the young tree is transplanted it undergoes a severe check to its vegetative function- ings.Too much cannot be done by way of putting the soil in a fit condition to favor rapid and unobstructed root growth.A point always to be kept in mind when one is dealing with the problems of tree life is that a living working tree requires a more or less definite amount of energy to produce new wood and leaf-growth and a crop of fruit.Any object that obstructs in any way the free- dom of growth, or checks the supply of available food materials re- duces the tree's supply of energy and thus retards its growth or croppage.Clods, rocks, puddled earth particles, coarse vegetable matter and other materials may offer obstructions to the course of growth of the roots, or render the food supply more difficult to ob- tain; all these conditions are hindrances to the plant's best develop- ment.So much of the plant's energy, best efforts, vigor, is used in overcoming these obstacles that frequently the young tree fails to is survive the shock of being transplanted.Every time a young root turns out of a quite direct course in its growth thereis lost plant effort; every time an absorbing rootlet is obliged to encompass a clod instead of penetrating between fine particles, moreplant ener- gy is wasted; every time the rootsof plants are surrounded with clods, lumps and soil masses so large that the water of thesoil can- not be conserved against evaporation during periodsof dry, warm weather, the root system receives a check which too oftenresults disastrously to the young tree; if there is too much half-rotted veg- etable matter in the soil when the young roots begin topush out the heat of thisduring the processof furtherdecaymayrisesohigh as to kill the tender young roots; or, it may driveoff the soil water to such an extent that not enough remains to make themineral plant food of the soil available.For the use of most plants mineral sub- stances must be in very weak solutions, as one partof mineral mat- ter to ten thousand parts of water or even as weak as one,in fifteen thousand parts of water. All these conditions, so unfavorable to tree growth, areeliminat- ed by such thorough tillage as should be given the soil for atleast one year, and preferably two or three yearspreparatory to the planting out of the young trees. A thoroughly 5ubdued, deep, fertile, friable soil workedfine is an ideal place in which to transplant a young tree, andunder such conditions there is little danger of its not enduring the change. Tillage, for the purpose of inducing chemical and biological changes in the soil, is all important to 'the orchardist, orother soil tiller for that matter.It has been long known to students of soils that there are two classes of changes constantly going onin ordin- ary agricultural soils independent oftillage operations, hut both of which may be greatly augmented by judicious tillage.Chemical changes in the soil result more or less directly in the releaseof min- eral substances needed by the plant.These changes are hastened and increased by the presence in the soil of water, heatand air in sufficient quantities and by the stirring and consequentchanging of position of the soil particles.These requirements, or rather desir- able conditions, are fully induced by proper tillage operations.By pulverizing the soil, air is admitted; this warms the soil;the wat- er of the soil during the dryer part of the season,by this same oper- ation, is kept from passing off in the form of vapor as readily asit otherwise would, and while the position of the soil particles is great- ly changed, their size is also reduced. 19 The biological changes taking place in the soil and whichare like- wise greatly facilitated by good tillage, are various and quite im- perfectly understood.A few of the more important ones like nitri- fication, have received much attention in recentyears and results of much moment to the soil tiller are being reached through the biological investigations of the soil now being carried on in nearly every scientific center. CULTIVATION. Tillage operations generally discussed as cultivationare as vari- able as the individuals that are engaged 'in orcharding.Some rely chiefly upon the old-time plow, but more count the modern disk- harrow the staple tool.These latter followed by clod-crushers, acme harrows, and scarifiers do most effective work under the usual soil conditions to be found in Oregon orchards. One plowing in alternate years is held to be sufficient for all the mellow soils, though some find that disking alone is all sufficient. Upon the clayey soils most cultivators deem one plowinga year de- sirable and in this practice the two operations of contiguousyears are at right angles, i. e. one year plow east and west; next year, north and south.Plowings or diskings are usually followed by clod crusher or pulverizing harrow.The first operation is usually just after the blossoms fall. *Then at intervals of two or three weeks the pulverizing harrow follows, until the middle of Julyor first of August.By this time or even by the middle of June, the surface soil from two to three irches deep is a perfect dust, the so-called' Recently some discussion has been provoked by the statement that the first plowing Should precede blossonijn5. The reason assigned for this is that the stirring of the soil that time induces a more vigorous root activity thus enabling the tree through this stimulusat to set more fruit titan it otherwise would. The issue is debatable at least, and the position, probably erroneous.No experimental evidence of unquestioned character has been pro- duced; and it is not yet credited by the known principles of vegetable physiology: Sappres- sure does not indicate the extent to which elaborated food is present, such as young buds or blossotiis require.What a bud needs at the time of opening is a good supply of digestible food material. This food material is prepared the year before.It would seen, that if a bud is low iii vitality it could hardly be expected that the overcharging of it with water and crude mineral matter would increase its vitality, i.e. make it do more work by way of fertilization of flowers. It is a generally accepted view that the pollen grain is normally rich iii proteid matters, ic, substances rich iii nitrogen, sulphur and phosphorus, and that for the growth that takes place at the time of fertilization elaborated carbon foods are chiefly'equired. This carbon food material is only developed in the presence of green leaves, i.e. the year preceding. Thus it appears that early tillage operations have no direct bearing upon the fertilization of the bIos- solos.Tillage inidirnctly, however, might be beneficial to the tree at this early period through the aeration of the soil whereby it would become warmer and thus more suitable forroot activity.This induced root-activity would cause sti increased sap pressure and this in its turn would have a measurable influence upon the period of cell activity in the region of the blos- soms, but it is very doubtful if it could add anything to the vitality or vigor of the blossoms and especially the organs of fertilization, stamens and pistils. Ifs crop of fruit is wanted next year preparation for it must be made this year while thetree is growing and particularly while it is storing 'food during the latter part of thevegetative period.Feed the tree well tIns year: keep it clean and free from pests, and other conditiouis, as climate, being favorable next year, the tree will yield a crop in return for your judicious care. 20 "dust mulch" or "earth-blanket" a most importantfactor in the con- servation of soil moisture.Where ferns or some other deeprooted perennial plants persist in playing the part ofweeds (See Fig. 19) it is often necessary to go over the ground atintervals of ten days with a tool known as a scarifler.By removing the tops at frequent intervals the roots finally become exhausted, and asthere is left no other means for the plant to propagate itselfit disappears.It fre- quently requires from three to four years to rid apiece of land of a well established crop of ferns.Occasionally one hears that trees should not be planted on a fern ridge becausethe plant is such a

Fig. 19. Ferns as weeds inWesternOregon orchards. pest in the orchard.In truth fern ridges when oncesuddued are the very best of sites for orchard purposes.Ferns only grow abund- antly on well drained soil.The ramifications of theirunderground stems and the ultimate death anddecay of these very materially aid in oxidizing and aerating thesoil, to the depth of two feet, or even more.This oxidization and aeration arehighly important processes in the biologicalfunctionings of the soil, and mostuseful factors in rendering the plant food ofthe soil available for tree growth. 21 COVER CROPS. This is a phase of orchard management that has received little attention as yet.Speaking more particularly of Western Oregon it may be said:Thus far our orchards that are thoroughly tilled have shown no especial need of service in the directions in which a cover crop would aid them, but the time is approaching when such conditions will no longer exist.Thorough tillage increases oxida- tion in the soil.The humus burns away as it were and need for material to replace the original supply will be manifest, in a dryer, harsher soil; sometimes heavier; sometimes lighter; in a soil that will be cloddy and intractable, generally throughout Western Ore- gon.This material can be obtained at least expense by means of cover crops, as oats, wheat, rye, vetch, clover, mustard, and the like. As to the functions of a cover crop altogether, it may be well to quote from bulletin No. 61, of the Delaware station, which says:

'WMAT DOES A COVER CROP Do? If sown at the proper time, about August 1 if weather con- ditions are favorable, itcompetes with the trees forsoil mois- ture and plant food.The supply of moisture and food to the trees is lessened and their growth is checked.This is desirable, because atthattime the treesshould stop growing and ripentheir wood for the winter. * It catches soluble nitrates late in the fall when root action of the trees has nearly or quite ceased, thus much plant food is saved rather than allowed to escape in drainage. It prevents erosion of the surface soil by catching the rains as they descend and by condu6ting them into the soil.This is in contrast to streams of water flowing over the bare surface and cut- ting channels for the escape of surplus water.It also holds the snow of winter which adds to the efficiency of the protection. It protects the ground from frost to a certain extent, that is, actual tests have proven that ground protected by live cover crops during the winter does not freeze so deep as does bare ground. In the spring it catches soluble nitrates that might leach out of the soil before active root action of the tree begins. * This statement applies ,,lore particularly to young trees.Bearing trees with us would need no such check and it would be well to sow the cover later, thus not shortuing the sup- ply of water for the fruit. 22 It pumps the surplus water out of the soil early in spring so that the ground warms up and may be plowed earlier than if no cover crop were used. When plowed under these crops add enormous amounts of vegetable matter or humus to the soil.The humus improves the mechanical condition of the ground by loosening up the soil par- ticles; it increases the water-holding power of the soil, provides a favorable home for soil bacteria, furnishes elements of plant food in available form, and assists in breaking up chemical compounds of plant food which would otherwise remain unavailable. Experience has shown that the continued use of cover crops will, to a certain extent, make heavy land lighter and light land heavier.This is an immense advantage in practical orchard operations." Cover crops may be grouped into twopossibly threeclasses: the leguminous, as peas, hearts,alfalfa, clovers, vetches, cow peas, and the like; the potash gatherers, as turnips, and rape and proba- bly kale, and the non-legununous asye, wheat, oats, barley, mus- tard, buckwheat, rape, millet, corn, and others. The first class are the so-called nitrogen-gatherers, and may be considered as fertilizers as well as cover crops.One of the most important materials used in plant growth is nitrogen.This ma- terial bought as a commercial fertilizer or applied with barnyard compost is quite expensive.It abounds in the air as one of the principal gases and, so far as we know at present, this gas can he used directly only by legurninous plants.Or, in other words, this free nitrogen of the air, which is inexhaustible, is made available as plant food through the agency of leguminous plants, while other plants must get the nitrogen required for their growth from the supply in the soil or that set free by decomposing plants or animals. Then, since nitrogen is one of the most valuable of plant foods, it is evident that any plant which is able to get its supply of this ele- ment from the inexhaustible stock of the air must b&doubly valu- able as a èover crop. By recent analyses * it is made evident that certain plants, cow- horn turnips and rape, are rich in potash.It thus appears that such crops used for cover purposes might put the potash supplies of the soil within easier reach of the tree.If the soil of an orchard is rich in humus andnitrogen, a cover crop of potash-gathering * Delaware station. 23 plants, if from such knowledge as we have of them, we may call them such, would be' the logical one to use.In this connection it may be well to note the fact that Scotch kale, a plant closely re- lated to the turnip, has been giving some remarkable yields in Western Oregon, as a forage plant for dairy purposes.It seems probable that this plant would do efficient service as a cover crop on soils in good tilth and well supplied with humus. And since potash tends to hasten the maturity of a crop, increase the sugar content, and heighten the color, indirectly, at least as a conse- quence of earliermaturity, its importance to the fruit-grower in the moister sections of our state becomes evident, and any second- ary or catch crop that will render the potash of the soil more read- ily available for the trees is to be held as a. useful factor in or- charding.But, as before stated, only practical tests upon the site will determine the course to be followed in each instance.The crops, rotation or tillage, will depend upon the local conditions and the successful orchardist will be the intelligent experimenter in these matters. A rotation of cover crops is as important as a rotation of general farm crops.The constant use of a leguminous crop would tend to make the soil very rich in available nitrogenous materials.This would induce excessive wood and foliage growth at the expense of flowers and fruit.To off-set this tendency non-nitrogenous crops should be grown in rotation with the leguminous crops, as often as the trees appear to be growing too vigorously at the expense of fruit production. Then we must not lose sight of the fact that though a cover crop may not, of itself, use the free nitrogen of the air, it will avail itself of such nitrogen material as is obtainable in the soil during its per- iod of growth, anti, as this is at a time when the dormant tree could make no use of such nitrogen material, which, if not used, soon es- capes as a waste by leaching from the soil, it is seen that the cover crop thus becomes a saver of nitrogen as well as other substances and thus performs a work as important as that of a nitrogen gath- erer under the circumstances. In Western Oregon orchards in particular, not a foot of soil should remain uncovered or bare of plant growth from the time the crop is fully grown to the time when the fruit begins to form the following spring.The warm winter temperature, together with the rainfall, results in a set of conditions quite suitable for the growth 24 of many hardy plants.Under the same conditions biological and chemical changes in the soil are setting free much soluble plant food material.This material if not used by active plants on the ground, will be wasted very largely by surface washing or leaching through the drainage system.An active crop saves this waste; puts it in such form as can be more readily used by the trees when they become active in the spring.And thus, while saving what would otherwise be lost to the soil tiller, the cover crop performs a preliminary or preparatory work for the trees, getting ready for their use early in the spring a quantity of predigested breakfast food as it were.And, as with the human, the more substantial the breakfast the better the start in the season's work. While the list of plants that may be grown for cover purposes is quite long, each locality, and each grower, will find that local con- ditions and personal requirements will render some more suitable than others for his purpose.So far as reports have been made the vetch Vida salivaappears to give the best results in West- ern Oregon.L. T. Reynolds says: "Our first test of cover crops was in 1896, when we sowed crimson clover.It did not prove suit- able for our climate.The common vetch has been found to meet all requirements. It can be sown later than crimson clover;is nearly always a good stand; makes a good growth during the win- ter, and pushes forward rapidly in the spring, so that one can have a growth of two to three feet in height to turn under by May the first.As such luxuriant growth renders it somewhat difficult to plow in, we have found it convenient to sow the seed only one way between the trees, leaving about three feet in the tree row unsown. Sown in this way it requires about fifty pounds of seed per acre, and it can he readily plowed under." "In an orchardof youngtrees making vigorous growth the vetch can be sown in February and plowed under in June, but under such conditions I should hardly consider a cover crop necessary." In bulletin No. 40 (1896) of this Station the following statements are found:Speaking of a twenty-five acre tract, in a large prune * Oregon report 1903. f In a letter to the writer dated December 24, 1903, Mr. Reynolds speaks further of the vetch as a cover crop."In ordinary years, I would say the vetch should not be sown later thait December 1st.1 prefer to sow it in September and October as it then gets a good start and makes a rapid growth as soon as warm weather comes in the spring and enables one to turn under a good crop by the early part of May.It then rots qu,ckly and assists in preserving soil moisture together with its other functions.if a heavy growth is turned under in June, the soil moisture is usually too low to permit of ready decay and thus the vetch not only does not yield plant food, but ft renders the soil dryer and in this way works an injury to the or. chard crop." 25 orchard, that had become overed with a rank growth of wild mus- tard, the author said:"The soil of this mustard strip remained moist and friable all sumnier through, and with one-third the til- lage it presented a more avorable condition for tree growth, as shown by the vigor of the trees, than any other part of the orchard under otherwise similar tratment." If the supply of nitrogein the soil is quite sufficient there are some advantages in a mus ard crop not found in others.The crop may be pastured in the winter, and if not plowed under too early in the spring, ample seed will be formed to renew the crop the fol- lowing year.The seed, after lying dormant during the summer and being thoroughly mixed with the soil through the tillage op- erations, will germinate with the first fall rains and one year with another the plant makes a good stand before cold weather sets in. With a small orchard and on a soil moderately supplied with hu- mus and nitrogen, vetches for silage purposes might be grown with a double effect.By cutting the crop about the first of May, put- ting it in the silo and plowing under the stubble the double benefits of a cover crop and a forage crop might be obtained three years out of five in Western Oregon.Some seasons of moderate rainfall a drawback to this practice would be encountered in the excessive dryness of the surface soil induced by the growing cover crop.This condition would render plowing and pulverizing the soil more dif- ficult and expensive.In such instances the whole crop could be turned under while the soil is still mellow. For early spring pasturage or for humus, other plants may be used, as wheat, winter oats, rye and kale.Even though the soil may not need the humus of a cover crop, such a crop on the soil during the resting period of the trees is an advantage to the or- chard and the orchardist.A crop growing on the soil during our warm, wet winters, gathers for its use a quantity of food material that otherwise would escape through leaching or surface washing. This crop can be pastured in the early spring months and such pas- turage would be net gain less the cost of putting in the crop.Or- chard lands that are sufficiently supplied with humus and as well drained as they should be for such purposes, would in no wise suf- fer by being pastured with sheep or swine during the early spring months.Other tock is liable to do more or less damage to the tops of the trees, especially in the young orchards, and accordingly should not be allowed in the orchard.Care must be exercised in 26 pasturing young orchards with sheep or swine, for in the event of a shortage of the food crop, they will attack the trees and may do much damage by girdling.

PRUNIN1. "Pruning is coinuionly resorted to only for the purpose of increasing the vigor of feeble trees, or to regulate or improve the form of healthy and luxur- iant treesDOWNING. "The course to follow in pruning will depend upon which of the two lead- ing objects, vigor of growth or fruitfulness, is in view.Pruning at one season will produce one result, while pruning at another will yield a different result, hence prune in winter for wood and summer for fruit. 'WARDER.

Fig. 20. A sprawling top (See Fig. 2!)

"Bad pruning of the apple is disposed to give an alternate production of fruit."PASSY.(See Figs. 20 and 21.) Pruning and training should go hand in hand in orchard-mak- ing.To prune is to remove surplus or undesirable wood; to train is to evolve an ideal or correct form as a result of the pruning, but it should be remembered that the form will vary not only with the several kinds of trees but also with the different varieties of the same kind, as is well illustrated, for example, by the Northern Spy 27 and Grimes Golden.The pruner must have the ideal form in mind and then prune accordingly.A brief discussion of the phi- losophy of tree growth may serve to aid the beginner in getting a better idea of how to proceed in the work of pruning.In the first place it must be kept well in mind that the tree is a community or- ganization.Each bud imeasurably independentit is an indi- vidual.Every individual is struggling to make the most of its op- portunities. Every bud that is enabled to develop into a branch becomes an important factor in the plant's economy, and its impor-

FIg. 21. breaks when laden with a good crop. tance will depend upon the magnitude of its growth, and this de- pends very largely upon position and period of formation.Every tree is endowed with an impulse to grow upward and outward. This impulsei8governed very largely by the influences surround- ing the tree as light, heat, moisture, wind, food supplies and room. One of the chief influences determining the form of the top is light. Every bud, every shoot, every branch, for its best development, needs ample light, other conditions being favorable, that bud or branch that has the best light relation will make the best growth. 28 The best light relation normally is to be found about the top and outside of the trees' head.As a result of this better light relation growth begins earlier in the spring and continues later in the fall. The terminal buds are the last to go into the resting stage; the lateral ones, and especially those well in toward the center, start last and stop first.The growth impulse gradually weakens in these inner twigs and shoots and many of them yieldto their fellow branches on the outside.This process even goes to such an extent that many buds upon the inner and lower branches fail to develop into shoots at all, and still further, the lower buds upon a thrifty grow- ing outside shoot often remain dormant.Thus it is, that, practi- cally, only the later formed buds of a season are the ones that de- velop into new parts.Another of the active influences in the tree's growth is the water and mineral matter supplied by the roots. This supply as it is forced or drawn upward through the tissues of the stems and branches, endeavors to follow the lines of least re- sistance.Usually a straight line offers the best course, hence, we commonly see the erect, straight branches or shoots growing fastest, and we come to think of the chief growth of a tree as being upward and outward.If the tree is crowded by its fellows, its lateral light relations will be poor, and accordingly growth will be chiefly up- ward. All this results in what amounts to being a struggle for existence. Every bud and branch is using its best effort to get the best light and food supply.Some must yield by either becoming dormant or dying after a brief existence. This is nature's way of pruning. We see splendid examples of the process in thickets of young firs, and in the dense tops of old maples or evergreens.The lessons that na- ture would have us learn from these examples are that pruning should be such as to remove those shoots which are not in position to do the best ultimate service; that the removal of some branches is necessary to the best development of others; that thinning of the wood growth is necessary because more buds are formed and more twigs are started than can find light space for successful develop- ment; that the judicious removal of undesirable or poorly located shoots in their earliest stages of growth, is economy of labor and material (plant energy.) Hence, remove undesirable wood, as far as possible, while it is small.This does not imply that large branches may not be taken off whenever found to be undesirable, but it does imply that such removal means a greater loss of the plant's energy.This view of pruning and training calls for a full knowledgeof the individual types of trees, their characteristic formsof growth and a compre- hensive understanding of the requirements ofeconomic plant cul- ture. If a young apple tree has been received fromthe nursery as a '

Fig. 22, A high head in Western Oregon. the nursery row, and the trimming of woundedroots.Should the tree to he planted be of two or more years, asis too frequently rec- ommended by nurserymen and dea1ers then thewhole top should be removed to such an extent as will correspondwith the amount of roots cut away. The writer recommends only one-year-old trees forgeneral trans- planting.A one-year-old tree is small; it does not suffer so severe a check upon removal fromthe nursery as an older tree.Less cut- ting back, relatively, is necessary at setting out.The wounds made 30 are smaller and accordingly heal over more readily, allowing less opportunity for attack by injurious fungi.As an evidence of the importance of this point, the size of the wounds, it may be stated that common observation throughout the Willamette valley during the past few years has pointed out the great loss that has occurred among plantations of prunes, in particular, through injudicious pruning at setting out time, or, possibly, to the lack of care in at- tending to the wounds made at the time of cutting back.At the time of setting out, usually late fall or early winter, the young

Fig. 23. Low heads with horizontal training. prune tree is cut back to a mere stub, leaving, ordinarily,a raw wound from one-half to three-fourths of an inch in diameter ex- posed to the weather.Tho fall or winter planting of prune trees makes it almost imperative that the cutting back be done at the time, otherwise much damage may be done the plantation by win- ter winds swaying the trees back and forth, for the prune "switch," as commonly planted, exposes a considerable length of stem, from six to eight or more feet.If these wounds were painted at the time made with some tenacious material like white lead, in which has 31 been dissolved a little sulphate of copper, injury from exposure to the air would be prevented. These observations apply almost equal- ly well to the apple, though the young apple tree, as arule, is smaller and thus exposes less surface to the action of the wind. The common practice in the more humid sections of the state is to hed the tree at three to four feet from the ground, (See Fig. 22) while in the dryer portions the trees are headed as low as one foot, and on an average not more than two feet.This necessitates train- ing the lowest branches to a somewhat erect position for at least

Fig. 24. Low heads with vertical training. two years, otherwise they will interfere with the operations of till- age.See Fig. 28 and 24.In later years though these branches, while laden with fruit may almost touch the ground, no serious disadvantage will be felt during tillage, and the position of the fruit will be a decided gain in the work of spraying.See Fig. 25. In fact all operations save tillage are benefitted by the formation of low heads.As the growers of Eastern Oregon remark; "We like to work onthe ground floor, for it facilitates the work of picking and thinning;" while in sections where heavy winds prevail much less 32 loss of fruit occurs in orchards of low headed trees, and the trees themselves are of hetter form, thus requiring less attention and la- bor in pruning.See Fig. 26.It is true that in parts of Western Oregon and along the coast the fruit on low headed trees is often of indifferent color while that on trees of medium to high heads is of fair to high color.This fact makes it desirable that trees of late fall and winter varieties be headed or trained high in these sections while trees of summer and early fall varieties may be headed low if desired.

FIg. 25. This fruit is so located as to make spraying easy. As to the manner in which the head may be formed there are several important points to keep in view.And first, perhaps as to whether a central leader shall be left, or all main branches trained to develop uniformly.The latter has been the common practice in later years, but recently some of the leading orchardists have been advocating a return to our earlier practices of leaving a central leader.The contention is that many trees are lost as a result of close or cramped forking at the origin of the head, while with a leader no such loss occurs.With a central leader there are so 33 many buds that remain latent that space sufficient for good branch unions is always present, whereas, the forced development of all buds at the top in the case of the young tree cut back, and the lack of ample forethought in the removal of the excess of branches, which, when young are not clearly evident as such, allows opportun- ity for too many faulty heads.As yet there are no well defined examples of superior young orchards grown with central leaders, but a comparison of our younger orchards with those planted years ago would seem to give considerable weight to the view that leaders

Fig. 2. Heavy winds little affectthese low heads. ought to be retained in general planting, though the specialist may adopt such style of head formation as he deems best suited to his taste, for in such cases ample attention will be given to the numer- ous minor matters that pertain to efficient pruning. Compare Figs. 3 and 27. Then, after this question of form is settled there comes the quest- ion of branches or laterals.Not more than four, and usually three are quite enough for this purpose especially if a central leader is left.Too many branches make a bushy close top, while too few 34 would leave a top too open or ill shapen.In cases without a cen- tral leader the buds which are to form the chief branches of the head should be left not closer than eight inches apart.When the tree has grown to full size there will then be no more open space between them than is necessary to maintain a good strong union, a point that is too often overlooked in the formation of the heads of all kinds of fruit trees.See Figs. 28 and 29. When the few topmost buds of the young tree are left to form the head they are usually so close together that in a few years the forks

Fig. 27. Good care but poor training. of all are united and the result is a weakened union.There is not sufficient distance upon the main stem for the several branches, as they increase in size, to make a close union with it.At the end of the first season's growth the young branches that are destined to form the top should be cut hack about one-half.From these stubs the next year two chief secondary branches should be allowed to form upon each.The following winter the young growth should again be cut back about one-half.The third and fourth years the tree should receive similar treatment. The fifth year, such branche5 85 as interlace should be removed; irregular, diseased, and malformed shoots should be cut back or taken out as the case may demand. If the trees are planted upon deep, heavy, well-watered soil and con- tinue to make excessive wood growth it may be necessary to give them a summer pruning which operation tends to check wood growth and induce the formation of fruit buds.In the warmer, dryer sections, and where the soil contains considerable sand, trees will begin to bear atfive years or even earlier, but in those sections where the climate is cool and moist and the soil heavy and

Fig. 28. Young trees with leader removed. deep, trees may show a disposition to devote all their effort to the production of wood until they are seven, eight or even nine years old.In such cases the check given by summer pruning is often de- sirable, though it may be a question as to whether trees ought not to be allowed to make their full growth before being forced into fruit production.Still, there is an advantage in hastening the time at which the trees are brought into bearing, and, if not allowed to overbear the first years of fruiting, they may complete their full growth without disadvantage to size or vigor, though the final 36 growth will be made more slowly than would he the case if the trees had not been hastened into bearing. The need for future pruning of the orchard will he variable. Each variety has a characteristic habit of growth.The pruning neces- sary to make the growth conform to our chosen type willdepend upon how far apart are the "type" and the "habit."If the grower at the oulset has adopted the plan of studying the habits of the different varieties, and has pruned for the purpose of getting the best results with the natural form of the variety rather than for the

Fig. 29. A good example of care, also of poorly formed heads. purpose of making all the trees conform to a commonartificial ideal, then the work of pruning will be greatly simplified and re- duced.The cutting back of excessive growths; the cutting out of interlacing, crossing, chafing, rubbing and diseased branches; and the shortening in, as an offset against winds, will be the chief points to keep in view in all subsequent pruning operations.In the past, too little attention has been given to the study of theindividual habits of growth.Pruning has been indiscriminate.Not princi- ples, but practices have prevailed in the direction of the work, Un- 37 til we can find the trees of Western Oregon east in the same mould as those of California or Southern and Eastern Oregon.Pears, ap- ples, plums and cherries have been treated alike as to cutting back, form of head and style of branching!The practice followed with a species in a particular section, giving good results, has often been heralded as the ideal form for all fruit trees in, at least, the same cultural zone. That such a course is most ill-advised can be readily seen if one will but observe the trees growing in any well-kept home orchard, and it may he said just here that the beginner in this work of grow- ing an orchard would be well repaid by making a study of some of the best kept local orchards.Nothing cati give one so good an idea of the traits of character of the different fruit trees as a study of the real plants as they develop uuder the hand of a good orchardist. LIST OF BULLETINS (in brini) J,ublished by ihe Oregon Agriuliural Ex/ttrimen/ S/allon N Noomber, 1901. Circular No. 1-Dairying in Oregon Shaw, Frelich and Kent No.6, 1890-Chemistry, zoology Washburn No.7, l890-Small Fruits and Vegetables Coote No. 8, 1891-Varieties of Wheat and Flax French. No. 10, 1891-Entomology Washburn No: 28, 1894-Pig Feeding, continued Frnc.h No. 29, 1894-Horticulture, Pruning, etc. Coote No. 30. 1894-Potao6saod Roots, continued French No. 32, 1894-Five Farmers' Foes Craig No. 38, 1894-Tentt.aterpillar . Washburn No. 14, 1895-Fruits and Vegetables Coote

. No. 3& 1895-Pig Feeding, continued . . . French No. 86, 1895-Composition and Use of Fertilizers Shaw

No. 37, -185--Experimeiits in CatOle.Feediitg - . . French No. 38, 1385-Fruit Pests Washburn No. 39. 1895-Grasses, Chemistr-t' Shaw No. 40, 1896-Prunes. Apples and Pears Hedrick No. 42, 1896--Feeding Sheaf Wheat French No. 48, 1897-Flax Culture French No. 44, 1897-Review of Oregon Sugar Beets No. 47, 1897-Cheat and Clover Shaw and French No. SI, 1898-The Fertility of Oregon Soils Shaw No. 51, 1898-Marketing Fruit Craig No. 52, 1895-Nut Culture Coote No. 53, 1898-Sugar Beets Shaw No. 54, 1894-Flax, Hemp. Dairy, etc French and Kent No. 55, 1898-Chemistry of Cherries Shaw No. 57, 1899-Brown Rot Cordley No. 58, 5899-Rose Culture in Oregon Coote No. 59, 1899-Sugar Beet Experiments of 1898 Shaw No. 60, 1900-Apple Tree Anthracnose . - .. Cordley No. 61, 1900-'l'he Oregon Prune - Shaw No. 62. 1900-Miscellaneous Investigations. Shaw No. 63. 1900-Prevention of Smut on Oats-Preliminary Bulletin Pet-not No. 64, 1901-Investigation of Diseasesit,Poultry Pernot Circular Bulletin concerning Acid Soils in Oregon-I800 - Knisely No 65, 19(11-Creameries and Cheese Factories of Western Oregon Kent No. 66, 1901-The Grape iii Oregon Lake No. 08, 1902-Birds of Oregon . No. 70, 1902-Testing Milk and Cream ...... Kent lb. 75, 19112-Stagnant Water Germs in Milk Pertiot No. 74, 1903-The Cultivation of Vegetables and Notes on Varieties Coote No. 75, 1903-Insecticides and Fungicides Cordley No. 76, 1903-Leguminous Forage Plants ... Withycombe No. 77 78,1905-Continuation 1904-Canning of Bulletin Cheese...... No. 74 on Onions, Strawberries,------. Vegetables -----PernotCoote No. 79, 1904-Plant-Food and Use of Fertilizers Knisely No. 80, 1904-Some Results in Swine Feeding \Vithycotnbe No. 81, 1904-The Apple in Oregon - .....Lake Copies will be sent to applicants so long as the supply lasts. Address JAMES WITHYCOMRE, Director of Experiment Station. Corvallis, Oregon.