Nationalism, Politics, and the Development of Archaeology in Iran Author(s): Kamyar Abdi Source: American Journal of Archaeology, Vol. 105, No. 1 (Jan., 2001), pp. 51-76 Published by: Archaeological Institute of America Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/507326 . Accessed: 03/11/2014 09:40

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This content downloaded from 128.148.252.35 on Mon, 3 Nov 2014 09:40:15 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions Nationalism, Politics, and the Development of Archaeology in Iran KAMYAR ABDI

Abstract by foreign expeditions to a halt. Of the European, The relationship between nationalism, politics, and Japanese, and North American archaeologists who the and of has development practice archaeology re- were active in Iran, the younger generation has centlybecome a This populartopic among archaeologists. sought fieldwork opportunities elsewhere, and the paper reviewsthe relationship between nationalism, po- senior has tried to the results litical developments, and the rise and progressof archae- generation publish ology in Iran from the mid 19th century to the present. of their research before retirement or death. Al- The Iranian reaction to foreign interference is investi- though this hiatus during the Iranian revolution and the role Iran's has in rein- gated here, past played fostered many symposia and numerous publica- forcing nationalist sentiments is explored. It is argued tions, which in all possibility would not have mate- that whenever the political situation provided a favor- rialized if fieldwork had continued in one able environment, intellectuals and politicians, in vari- Iran, ous capacities,have exploited the archaeologicaland his- should not ignore the fact that very few new archae- torical record, especially those of the Achaemenid and ologists have been trained in Iranian archaeology, Sasanian to advocate their nationalist empires, agendas. and courses on the archaeology of Iran have been This paper concludes with an assessment of the recent dropped from many academic curricula. Conse- manifestations of Iranian nationalism in the post- Iran, once a center for field revolutionaryera, and its utilization of Iran's historyand quently, major research, recent sociopolitical transformations.* has slipped into an archaeological isolation. This situation may be changing. Recent devel- Nationalism-as an ideology that vests political opments in relations between Iran and many West- rights and accomplishments in a nation as a whole- ern countries, including the United States, prom- in its different social, functional, temporal, and ise an improvement in cultural exchange, and ar- spatial manifestations has long been a fascinating chaeological research in Iran by foreign expedi- topic for sociocultural anthropologists. Archaeolo- tions may soon resume. Therefore, time seems ripe gists, on the other hand, have recently begun to for a review of the development of archaeology, na- devise new approaches to nationalism by explor- tionalism, and political developments in Iran dur- ing the relation between their profession and na- ing the past 100 years. Among many lessons to be tionalism and the effects nationalist sentiments can learned from this survey, one may begin to see why leave on the development and practice of archae- Iran underwent such drastic sociopolitical chang- ology in different parts of the globe.' es and chose to go through political and archaeo- The Near East, owing to its rich archaeological logical isolation for so long. and historical past and its contemporary sociocul- THE BASES OF NATIONALISM IN IRAN tural diversity, has been particularly interesting for exploring connections between nationalism, ar- Most Iranians evince nationalist sentiments. But chaeology, and political manipulations of archaeo- nationalism expressed by members of different seg- logical record to advocate nationalist agendas.2 This ments of Iranian society demonstrates qualitative and paper explores the very same questions in the case quantitative differences. These differences emanate of a largely ignored country, Iran. The Revolution from Iranians' degree of historical consciousness, as of 1979 and the ensuing Iran-Iraq War of 1980- well as their exposure to national and international 1988 brought all archaeological fieldwork in Iran intellectual currents. A semideveloped historical

* I would like to thank KathrynBabayan, Joyce Marcus, remain solely my responsibility. HenryWright, and anonymousreviewers for readingand com- 1Cf.Trigger 1984;Kohl and Fawcett1995; Atkinson et al. menting on earlier drafts of this paper. I would also like to 1996;Dfaz-Andreu and Champion1996. thankAdam T. Smith for providingme with a copy of his un- 2Cf. Silberman1989; Whitelam 1996;Meskell 1998. publishedpaper. As always, errors of factsand interpretations,

51 American Journal of Archaeology 105 (2001) 51-76

This content downloaded from 128.148.252.35 on Mon, 3 Nov 2014 09:40:15 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions 52 KAMYAR ABDI [AJA105 consciousness characterizes Iranian society. For the tics. Nonetheless, a glance at the recent history of general public this understanding is vague but in- Iran shows that historical nationalism is swift to ad- controvertible and rarely exceeds mere description vocate its agenda whenever politics provides a fer- or speculation; it lacks either the vigor or the preci- tile environment. sion that characterizes academic debates. No culture can survive or evolve in isolation, thus The nationalism of educated Iranians, on the coercive or cordial interaction with foreign cul- other hand, is sophisticated and coherently ar- tures through the ages has dramatically trans- ticulated. A review of the relevant publications formed Iranian culture. Arguing that Iranian cul- would show that educated Iranians are capable ture today is the same as at the time of the Achae- of producing thousands of pages on the glory of menids or Sasanians is obviously incorrect, but ancient Iran and its contribution to world civili- several persistent cultural traits suggest that some zation. But, despite its academic aura, the nation- degree of cultural continuity exists between con- alism advocated by educated Iranians may also temporary and pre-Islamic Iran. The foundations fall into the same pitfalls that characterize the of Iranian culture laid in pre-Islamic times proved nationalism of the general public. This is largely to be resistant to sociopolitical change. Even be- because of the fact that nationalism, among many fore their resurrection in the Pahlavi period, pre- other concepts and disciplines-including ar- Islamic traditions were influential in Iran. Espe- chaeology-was imported to Iran in the 19th cen- cially in the case of the institution of kingship, it tury by Western-educated Iranians or the intro- has been argued that rulers of the Qajar dynasty duction of Western concepts into the Iranian so- modeled their kingship after the Sasanian mon- ciety. As we will see in this paper, this lack of in- archy, which was transmitted to the Islamic period digenous development has prevented both na- through general histories, instructions for king- tionalism and archaeology from a natural and ship, and several versions of the Book of Kings, es- gradual development in the context of Iranian pecially the Shah Nameh of Ferdowsi.3 culture-a problem that still troubles both. Perhaps the most vital factor in this cultural con- The nationalism advocated by educated Iranians tinuity and the hallmark of Iranian national identi- seems to fall into two broad categories: historical ty is the Persian language. Having been used in and political, both of which have proven to be po- Iran at least since the time of Achaemenids in the tentially enduring. In the past few decades a minor sixth century B.C.E., the Persian language has as- undercurrent among Iranian intelligentsia has sumed a distinctive Iranian character4 and become shown that Iranian historical nationalsim is capa- intertwined with Iranian national identity and uni- ble of approaching chauvinism, perhaps even rac- ty.5Not surprisingly, in recent times the Persian lan- ism. There is no dispute that in the past century, guage has been one of the most important contexts Iranian nationalism frequently has been used po- in which Iranian nationalism has flourished. litically, but the political nationalism that intermit- This paper is not an attempt to study the devel- tently resurfaced in this time period demonstrates opment of nationalism in Iran; others have studied a displaced emphasis on Iranian nationalism. For this topic, whether in its support6 or denial.7 My political nationalists, ancient Iran is of little or no goal here is to explore the elusive connection be- concern, and they may only sporadically use Iran's tween nationalism, politics, the development of Ira- past to advocate their goals, which primarily include nian archaeology, and the uses and abuses of ar- freeing contemporary Iran from foreign influence chaeology and ancient history in promoting nation- and ensuring that Iran asserts itself in the world alism in Iran in the past century and half. Follow- scene. Historical nationalism, on the other hand, is ing some pioneering works,8 after the Revolution characterized by an elaborate, and sometimes crude, of 1979, the history of archaeology in Iran has at- attempt to glorify the history and culture of ancient tracted considerable attention, both among for- Iran. Unlike its political counterpart, historical na- eign9 and Iranian scholars."' Most of these studies, tionalism is only tangentially associated with poli- however, are either descriptive or are chronicles of

Amanat 1997, 7. 9 Cf. Young 1986; Perrot 1989, 1997; Chevalier 1989, 1992, 4Meskoob 1992. 1997; Gran-Aymericand Gran-Aymeric 1991; Carter 1992; Cur- Afshar 1927. tis 1993; Larsen 1996; Gluck and Siver 1996; Dyson 1997; de 6 Cf. Cottam 1978. Morgan 1997. 7Vaziri1993. '0 Cf. Malek Shahmirzadi 1986,1987,1990; Azkaii 1988; M. Cf.de Morgan1902,1905; Mostafavi 1955; Ma'soumi 1976. Mousavi 1990,1994;A. Mousavi 1992,1996; Chegini 1994; Abdi

This content downloaded from 128.148.252.35 on Mon, 3 Nov 2014 09:40:15 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions 2001] THE DEVELOPMENT OF ARCHAEOLOGY IN IRAN 53 discoveries or administrative changes. A thorough the Qajar elite. Mohammad-Hassan Khan-e 'Ete- study of the conceptual and methodological devel- mad al-Saltaneh, a trustee of Naser ad-Din Shah, opments of Iranian archaeology is yet to be done. was one of the more enthusiastic treasure hunters and collectors of the late Qajar period. In February NATIONALISM AND ARCHAEOLOGY IN IRAN of 1885 he wrote, "I came home after lunch and DURING THE REIGN OF NASER AD-DIN spent some time studying ancient coins. I have SHAH QAJAR picked up [this hobby] recently, I am collecting The second half of the Qajar dynasty (1787- ancient coins."'3 On the methods applied for find- 1925) witnessed major changes in Iran, including ing artifacts, he wrote, "The King has gone to Dos- the introduction of nationalism and archaeology. han-Tappeh. I stayed at home. In the evening, I As Western countries were moving toward the In- visited Shazadeh 'Abd al-Azim to see tala-shuyi [lit., dustrial revolution as well as political and econom- gold-washing] ."14 ic supremacy in the 19th century, Iran was suffer- On the so-called tala-shuyi method of excavation ing from a severe social and economic depression A.H. Schindler, the German-born British engineer, under the Qajars. Several military confrontations made the following observations while laying the with the Russian Empire in the early 19th century Tehran-Mashhad telegraph line in 1875:15 led to the loss of extensive territories in Transcau- A distance south of Damghan there is a mound known casia and Central Asia. From the mid 19th century, as Tappeh Hesar. A few months ago some antiques both the Russians and the British exerted increas- were discovered there. Since then [people] have been and economic on Iran. working there and finding marvelous objects. The ing political pressure By first time I was in I visited the mound and the late 19th its inde- Damghan, century, despite maintaining realized that they are not working properly. I told Iran pendence, was nominally transformed into a them what to do, and to bring water to the head of buffer zone between the British and Russian em- the mound to finish thejob faster and more efficient- pires in Asia. The Anglo-Russian mutual under- ly. The second time I was there they were much bet- ter.... have a stream which ran standing opened Iran to British and Russian agents, They dug through the mound and washed antiques unbroken. some with archaeological interests. In the early 1840s, the Russian Baron Th.A. de Bode and the Some excavations were in fact sponsored by Nas- British Austin H. Layard traveled in Lurestan and er ad-Din Shah: "[S]ome ruins can be seen in parts Khuzestan and recorded some archaeological sites. of Lar. His Majesty ordered some spots to be dug. From 1836 to 1841, Henry C. Rawlinson copied the Some nice tiles came out."'6 Meanwhile, in his nar- trilingual inscription at Bisotun and made a major rative of the pilgrimage to Karbala and Najaf, Nas- breakthrough in deciphering the cuneiform er ad-Din Shah wrote, "They did some tala-shuyi script." Later, based on the recently translated cu- today. I didn't go. It was windy and dusty. I sent the neiform inscriptions and classical texts, George Butler, Mirza Ali Khan-e Mohaqqeq; [he came back Rawlinson published the first modern history of and said that] considerable gold, silver, and ob- ancient Iran from the Median to the Sasanian peri- jects were discovered."17 ods, in a series which eventually culminated in the Already, these destructive activities had raised publication of The Seven Great Monarchies of the An- considerable emotion among the educated elite of cient Eastern World.'2 the Qajar period. In 1877, after a visit to a number The long reign of Naser ad-Din Shah (1846- of European countries, Hajj Sayyah wrote, "I have 1896) witnessed both the rise of modern national- not seen a country as miserable as Iran or a nation ism and the beginning of archaeological research as unfortunate as Iranians. Other countries not only in Iran. In this period, Iranian interest in archaeo- preserve every menial remain left behind by an- logical material rarely advanced beyond mere trea- cient commoners of their own country with much sure hunting and antiquarianism, and the lack of effort, but spend a great deal to take antiquities of any serious appreciation for the cultural value of other lands to their country, investigate its date and archaeological sites or artifacts led to much destruc- its makers with painstaking accuracy and, indeed, tion. The new hobby was particularly appealing to are proud of this."'8

1994a, 1996;Negahban 1997;Karimlou 1999; Niknami 2000. 'Etemadal-Saltaneh 1978, 732. " Larsen 1996. "Schindler 1968, 206. '2Rawlinson 1885. The fifthmonarchywas theAchaemenids, '6'Etemad al-Saltaneh1978, 92. the sixth the Parthians,and the seventh the Sasanians. '7Abbasi and Badi' 1993, 36. '3'Etemadal-Saltaneh 1978, 407. 8 Sayyah1978, 41.

This content downloaded from 128.148.252.35 on Mon, 3 Nov 2014 09:40:15 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions 54 KAMYAR ABDI [AJA 105 Apparently, Naser ad-Din Shah's interest in antiq- [Khuzestan], formula des craintes au sujet de fanatis- uities gradually grew beyond excavation and he had me local, fit des rdserves concernant le tombeau de Daniel, exiga le partage des objets decouverts et a museum built in one of his palaces in Tehran. l'attibution au chah des mdtaux prdcieux, et nous ac- Schindler wrote in 1875 that "the Shahanshah [king corda l'autorisation de fouiller les tumulus elamites.22 of kings] has permitted some foreigners to dig at [some] mounds. It is a pity that these ancient arti- The Dieulafoys dug at Susa from 1884 to 1886. facts are being taken away from this land. It would be The artifacts they discovered and sent back to the a good idea to put everything like bricks, seals, etc. Louvre Museum in Paris raised considerable ex- in the Shahanshahi museum."'9 citement.23 This reaction encouraged the French The expansion of the royal collection of antiqui- government to plan future work at Susa on a larger ties in the Shahanshahi museum encouraged Morte- scale. But, after the 1886 season, the Iranian gov- za Qoli Khan-e Momtaz al-Molk, the nationalist min- ernment, because of the skirmishes that the French ister of Culture, Islamic Endowments, and Crafts af- excavations had caused in the Susa area, refused to ter the Constitutional Revolution of 1906 to estab- renew their permit. In fact, Naser ad-Din Shah was lish the National Museum of Iran in Tehran in 1910, annoyed by Marcel Dieulafoy, who, ignoring the a "historical step . . . of significant service to the Irani- terms of the concession, took all the finds to France. ans in the future."2? The Iranian government officially protested to the Perhaps the most important development in Irani- French government. In response, in 1889 the an archaeology in the late Qajar period was the begin- French government invited Naser ad-Din Shah to ning of the French excavations at Susa. After the ini- visit the new Persian exhibition at the Louvre. Nas- tial excavations by William K. Loftus in 1850 to 1852,21 er ad-Din Shah, joyful in finding a chance to travel the British, grossly underestimating the archaeologi- to Europe, accepted the invitation, viewed the ex- cal significance of Susa, dispatched Loftus to Meso- hibit, and withdrew the protest.24 Subsequently, in potamia to resume excavations at Warka and Kuyun- 1895, one year before his assassination, under the jik. The French took advantage of the British with- influence of Dr. Tholozan, Naser ad-Din Shah grant- drawal, and in 1882 Marcel and Jean Dieulafoy ap- ed the French the right to conduct archaeological plied to the Iranian government to excavate at Susa. excavations in the whole country. Two years later, Under the influence of his French physician, Dr. the French government founded the Delegation sci- Tholozan, Naser ad-Din Shah finally concurred: entifiqueFranfaise en perse,with Jacques de Morgan as its director. De Morgan soon established himself at Mon mari etait derneur6 dans les termes les plus Susa, built a fort on top of the Acropole mound, affecteux avec le docteur Tholozan, medecin et ami and embarked on the de Nasr ed-Din chah. Pendant la duree de notre pre- excavating site, using meth- mier voyage nous avions du a ses recommandations ods that by today's standards were inaccurate, to say de penetrer dans les mosqu6es les mieux closes; sou- the least.25 In 1900, motivated by the large number vent mfrne notre securite avait dependu de ses soins. of eye-catching discoveries at Susa, the French ob- Ce fut a lui nous emes recours. que tained the monopoly on archaeological excavations Pendent que notre ministre engageait avec le gouv- in Iran from ernement persan de nouvelles negociations, le doc- Mozaffar ad-Din Shah (1896-1905), teur Tholozan s'aressait directement au chah. I1 in- the son and successor of Naser ad-Din Shah.26 teressa la roi au succes de travaux qui devaient mettre Both concessions were completely in favor of the en lumiere l'histoire glorieuse de ses antiques predeces- French. According to them, all the antiquities dis- seurs; il lui parla l'estime que prendraient ses contem- covered in excavations were to be sent to France, porains pour le caractere d'un prince toujours heu- reux de favoriser les efforts du mondes savant. Si, en sa and the Iranian government would only be reim- qualite d'autocrate, Nasr ed-Din chah ne tolere pas bursed for objects made of gold and silver. This volontiers la contradiction et ne se laisse pas detourri- provoked a number of nationalists to protest against er aisement d'une idee comme homme il preconcue, the looting of the cultural heritage of Iran. Hajj est accessible a des considerations d'un ordre eleve, et Zein-al-'Abedin-e Maragheh-i, under the pseud- l'on ne fait pas un, vain appel a ses sentiments genereux. Nous, en eumes bient6t la preuve. onym of Ebrahim Beig, protested:27 "I heard the Le gouvernment persan presenta quelques obser- agonizing news that recently the right to excavate vations relatives aux tribus pillardes de l'Arabistan at Shushtar and Hamadan and elsewhere has been

"Schindler 1968, 206-7. 1997. 20Mostafavi1955, 348. 24Abdi1994a, 91. 21 Loftus 1857; Curts 1993. 25A. Mousavi1992, 1996. 22Dieulafoy1990, 22-3. 26Abdi1994a, 91-5. 23Gran-Aymaricand Gran-Aymaric1991,139-81; Chevalier 27Maragheh-i 1904, 133.

This content downloaded from 128.148.252.35 on Mon, 3 Nov 2014 09:40:15 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions 2001] THE DEVELOPMENT OF ARCHAEOLOGY IN IRAN 55 granted through the French ambassador to a French of Iran's history and mythology. Malek al-Shu'ara- company. The Iranian nation has not the faintest ye Bahar, a noted poet of the late Qajar period, for clue about these matters, but those who compre- example, wrote:32 hend its abusive are in calami- consequences great O ... Iranians, Iran is in nuisance that all those ancestral treasures our motherland ty The land of Darius is exposed to Nicholas has preserved for us Iranians in her bosom for ages ... is lost to a farangi.28" The land of kings is at the mercy of monsters Where is Islamic zeal? where is patriotism? THE LATE QAJAR PERIOD AND THE RISE OF HISTORICAL NATIONALISM IN IRAN My brave brothers, why such reticence? Iran is yours, Iran is yours. Devoid of any economic initiative, Naser ad- Din Shah distributed Iranian resources to eager Later that year, when the Russians occupied the foreigners to obtain easy revenues for his extrav- Iranian Azerbaijan, Malek al-Shu'ara wrote:33 agant court and luxurious The European trips.29 O ... the breeze who rise from the east lucrative tobacco concession to the Brit- morning granted Travel to Azerbaijan at dawn ish Major Gerald Talbot in 1890 was the last straw for middle-class Iranians, already frustrated with Mourn and cry for that land of darkness for me rose-colored soil the incompetence of the Qajar kings. The tobac- Kiss that Then travel to co affair triggered a chain reaction, leading in Azargoshasb Bewail in that fire temple less than a year to the withdrawal of the conces- In that ruined ivan sion, in six years to the assassination of Naser ad- If you see the spirit of Keyqobad and the soul of Kavous Din Shah, and in 16 years to the Constitutional Tell them, O ... the fortunate kings Revolution of 1906. 0. .. prides of the crown and worthies of the throne The of the Revolution of original instigators Shahanshahs of Ecbatana and Istakhr 1906 were three from Iranian the groups society: All found glory and pride in this land clergy, the merchants, and the intellectuals, only the latter with strong nationalist feelings.30 The This was the land of armies at the time of Cyrus clergy, without whom the revolution would not have The resting place of warriors and the camp of the succeeded, soon realized to their that the king dismay For the of the and his new would favor secularism. The games King prime system implicitly I see it now, captive in the claws of insurgents. merchant participants, on the other hand, were satisfied when the revolution fulfilled their mate- In the meantime, the new Shah, Mohammad-'Ali, rial demands. Lastly, the intellectuals, who had no who, as heir to Mozaffar ad-Din Shah, had endorsed previous experience in the deceitful world of pol- the Constitution in 1906, rejected the new regime itics, became disillusioned and drifted away when and, with the help of the Russian Cossacks, defeat- the British and the Russians resumed their pres- ed the Constitutionalists in Tehran. Mohammad- sure on Iran. The Anglo-Russian Agreement of 'Ali Shah was soon subdued by the Constitutional- 1907 is considered by many3' to be a turning point ists and chose to go into exile to Russia. British and in nationalism in Iran. According to the terms of Russian interference in Iran, however, remained this agreement, Iran would be divided into Brit- intact. The British and Russian antagonism toward ish and Russian spheres of influence, with a neu- Iran reached a climax when they ejected the Amer- tral buffer zone in the middle. The Iranian gov- ican Morgan Shuster, who was employed by the Ira- ernment refused to recognize this agreement but nian government to reorganize the administra- had no power to prevent it from happening. Irani- tion.34 The Anglo-Russian agreement of 1907 and ans were greatly offended and objected strenous- the following upheavals directed Iranian national- ly. Nationalist poets protested against the agree- ism into new, more subtle directions. It was in this ment with patriotic expressions recalling glories era that the seeds of the xenophobic aspect of Ira-

2 Farangi-derivedfrom Frank-is a somewhatderogatory paperHablal-Matin (July23,1907, 1) commented:"This is the term in Iran in the past to refer to Europeans. day that the nation of Iranwas liberatedfrom the burden of 2' Amanat1997. 6,000 yearsof despotism." 0"Despite their nationalist sentiments, it is interesting to 31 E.g., Cottam 1978, 166. see that a group of the early nationalistsregarded the long 3 Quoted in Aryanpour1971, 132. historyof Iran as a source of disgracerather than pride. E.g., 3 Quoted in Aryanpour1971, 132-3. on the firstanniversary of the revolution,the influentialnews- 34Shuster1912.

This content downloaded from 128.148.252.35 on Mon, 3 Nov 2014 09:40:15 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions 56 KAMYAR ABDI [AJA 105 nian nationalism were laid, later to resurface in the writing about ancient Iran. In 1927 Pirnia published Mosaddeq era and the Revolution of 1979. Ancient Iran, followed by Myths of Ancient Iran in 1928, The First World War and British and Russian and, in 1933, by his opus magnum, the compre- involvement with the Central Powers gave Iran a hensive History of Ancient Iran from prehistoric times chance to rejuvenate. But as soon as the war was to the fall of the Parthian empire.37 The last volume over, the British, free of their old rival, resumed of the History, on the Sasanian empire, was posthu- their imperialist policy in Iran. The Anglo-Persian mously completed and published by Sa'id Naficy. treaty of 1919 was interpreted by many nationalist Pirnia's History is a diligent piece of scholarship circles as transforming Iran into a British semi-pro- in which he consulted many sources in European tectorate. In the last years of the Qajar dynasty, Iran languages as well as ancient and modem Near East- was in complete disarray, with overwhelming in- ern texts. Furthermore, in order to provide an up- ternal problems and crass British interference in to-date text, he corresponded with many scholars governmental affairs. Not surprisingly, the 1921 investigating ancient Iran, especially Ernst Herz- coup d'etat by Seyyed Zia ad-Din Tabataba'i and feld, with whom Pirnia was in close contact through- Reza Khan was considered to be a deliverance for out the writing of the History. Interestingly, despite many Iranians. In its first official act, the new gov- Pirnia's strong patriotic feelings, the History is ex- ernment proclaimed the elimination of foreign onerated from biased interpretations that charac- influence and promotion of patriotism among its terize nationalist writings. This has made the Histo- major objectives.35 ry one of the most valued and widely read works of One year after the coup, when social and eco- historiography in modern Iran. nomic reforms by the new regime were commenc- In 1928 Pirnia was elected a member of the Com- ing, a group of nationalist elite founded the Soci- mission of Education. This Commission was estab- ety for National Heritage (Anjoman-e Asar-e Melli) in lished to reorganize the educational system in Iran Tehran. According to its declaration, this society and to provide, by means of writing and translation, was established "to enhance public interest in an- books for students on different levels. The Com- cient knowledge and crafts; and to preserve antiq- mission solicited Pirnia for a contribution on the uities and handicrafts and their ancient tech- culture and history of ancient Iran. The result was a niques."36 Also, the Society laid out the following as revised and combined edition of his Ancient Iran its primary goals: (1) building a museum and li- and Myths of Ancient Iran, published as The Ancient brary in Tehran; (2) ensuring the proper record- Iran in 1929. The Ancient Iran served as the textbook ing and registration of all remains that their pro- at the high school level for the next two decades.38 tection as national heritage is necessary; (3) mak- Another influential founding member was Mo- ing proper recording and registration of antiqui- hammad-Ali Foroughi (Zoka al-Molk), a prominent ties which are in possession of the government and politician in the early Pahlavi period, who served as national organizations. prime minister under both Reza Shah and Moham- Among the founding members of the Society for mad Reza Shah Pahlavi. As early as 1901, Foroughi National Heritage were three prominent intelligen- wrote a textbook, History ofIran, for the newly found- tsia with political backgrounds and strong nation- ed School of Political Science. This book demon- alist sentiments. First, Hasan Pirnia (Moshir al- strates an interesting juxtaposition of historical in- Dowleh) was a dedicated patriot and one of the formation on pre-Islamic dynasties of the Achae- most influential politicians of the late Qajar peri- menids, Seleucids, Parthians, and Sasanians de- od. He received his doctorate in law from Moscow rived from foreign literature, as well as traditional University in 1898 and served as the first prime Iranian history on legendary kingdoms of Pishda- minister after the Constitutional Revolution of 1906, dians and Kiyanians. In 1917 Foroughi published to reoccupy the position for four more times until a revised version of History of Iran that covered Irani- the fall of the Qajar dynasty in 1925. After his man- an history to the time of Mohammad-Ali Shah. The datory retirement by Reza Khan in 1925, Pirnia de- idea of writing a comprehensive history of ancient voted his time to cultural activities. He served as a Iran was conceived at a meeting between Pirnia and member of the executive committee of the Society Foroughi in 1927. Pirnia was assigned to write on for National Heritage and spent most of his time pre-Islamic Iran (see above), Seyyed Hasan Taqiza-

35Wilber 1975, 49. 37Pirnia 1933. :"Society for National Heritage 1922, 1. 38Bastani-Parizi 1968, 543.

This content downloaded from 128.148.252.35 on Mon, 3 Nov 2014 09:40:15 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions 2001] THE DEVELOPMENT OF ARCHAEOLOGY IN IRAN 57

Fig. 1. Persepolis, 24 November 1923. The official delegation led by Prince FiruzMirza in robe in the front greeting Ernst Herzfeld. (After Hennessey 1992, fig.2)

deh to write the history of Iran from Arab to Mongol In its first stage, the Society for National Heri- invasions, and 'Abbas Eqbal from the Mongol inva- tage organized several lectures on aspects of cul- sion to the Constitutional Revolution. Foroughi ture and history of Iran in pre-Islamic and Islamic played an important role in the abolition of the times and published eight booklets on related top- French monopoly on Iranian archaeology and rati- ics. In 1934, following the celebrations of the mil- fication of the Antiquities Law in 1930 (see below). lennial anniversary of Ferdowsi and the unveiling In December 1934, Foroughi resigned as the prime of his mausoleum at Tus, the Society was suspend- minister to spend more time in the Iranian Acade- ed by Reza Shah, only to resume work in 1943. my in the campaign to purify Persian from foreign NATIONALISM AND ARCHAEOLOGY UNDER words (see below). REZA SHAH PAHLAVI A third notable founding member of the Society for National Heritage was Nosrat ad-Dowleh Firuz Reza Khan (later Reza Shah) can best be de- Mirza (fig. 1) .39 A Qajar prince, Firuz (as he was com- scribed as a fierce nationalist. Of humble back- monly called) was of lower standing than Pirnia in ground, Reza Khan made his way up the military academic knowledge or Foroughi in political sta- ranks to a general in the Cossack division of the tus, but shared an equal patriotic affection. Firuz Iranian army. Whether Reza Khan had any pre- played a crucial role in the development of archae- planned designs for rebuilding Iran when he led ology in Iran when, in 1923, as the governor of Fars, the 1921 coup d'dtat with Seyyed Zia ad-Din Taba- fulfilled a long-time dream and encouraged Ernst tabayi is an open question. Later, however, realizing Herzfeld to conduct a preliminary study of the ru- his dominant position in a power vacuum, he took ins of Persepolis and explore the possibility of a advantage of his military support and his strong long-term project to excavate the Persepolis plat- personality to ascend to power as the new Shah of form (see below). Iran in 1925. In 20 years, Reza Shah restored Irani-

39'Aqeli1994.

This content downloaded from 128.148.252.35 on Mon, 3 Nov 2014 09:40:15 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions 58 KAMYAR ABDI [AJA105 an autonomy, removed foreign influence, and em- ple of self-reliance, have taken on the habit of adopt- barked on extensive industrial and military mod- ing foreign support as a means for making their living and ernization and socioeconomic reforms.40 for promoting their own designs. It is this activity alone which will to the Iranian nation Reza Khan's date to be- bring disgrace strong patriotic feelings whose chivalrous exploits, fame and eminence have fore the coup, and even back then he did not hesi- for ages been the ornaments of Iranian history.... It tate to openly express them. Patriotic expressions is incumbent upon every Iranian to maintain the glo- of Iranian with frequent references to Iran's past were an inte- ry history by learning to rely upon himself and upon the force of the nation.44 gral part of Reza Khan's speech. On December 7, powerful 1921, he told a group of gendarme officers, "Gentle- Reza Shah's career directly affected the develop- men! Our dear homeland is in urgent need of its ment of archaeology in Iran. The collapse of the brave sons. It is up to you to show lofty resolve in the centralized government at the end of the Qajar service of the country, and to make efforts to secure period prompted several locally powerful leaders the independence of your country. Be alert and dil- to declare nominal autonomy. One critical region igent; the dust of Ardashir is watching over you."41 was Khuzestan in southwestem Iran. This province In a proclamation on the first anniversary of the has had a mixed population of Arabs and Iranians coup, Reza Khan addressed the critics: "If you rem- of various ethnic groups, especially Lurs. Khaz'al, inisce a bit, you will realize that the land of Darius the Sheikh of Mohammareh (now Khorramshahr), was on the verge of destruction because of actions was one of the local leaders who opposed the rising of his evil and illegitimate children. ... I was un- star of Reza Khan. After attempts to ally himself with able to allow a group of intrigues to succeed in their the dying Qajar dynasty and the opposition group efforts to strangle this three-thousand-year-old coun- to Reza Shah in the parliament, Sheikh Khaz'al try merely so that they might make a profit. That is sought the support of the British, who were already why I brought about the coup d'6tat."42 excited about the prospects of the recent discovery Reza Khan had two overriding and inseparable of oil in Khuzestan. In an act of open rebellion goals that he pursued relentlessly: to restore Iran against Tehran, Sheikh Khaz'al declared himself to some of its former greatness and to establish him- the protector of Islamic shari'a against Iranian sec- self as the absolute power on top of the reconstruct- ularism and the defender of the Arab people of ed nation.43 In his first speech after he was appoint- Khuzestan, who had no ethnic or linguistic ties with ed prime minister in 1923, Reza Khan stated: the Iranians. Sheikh Khaz'al sought to persuade There are two sorts of misfortune either one of the nomadic chiefdoms of the Zagros to ally with which, if not remedied, is able to destroy the national him, thus transforming the Zagros Mountains into identity of any deteriorating race or people. These an impregnable barrier between Reza Khan and are domestic disorder and and chaos of insecurity Khuzestan. Sheikh Khaz'al's attempts met with no ideas and morals. thought, success, and in 1924 Reza Khan led a An examination of the recent events in Iran will personally show that these two factors, from which emanate all military campaign into Khuzestan. Sheikh Khaz'al, our troubles, existed throughout the country. The abandoned by the British, was defeated in a matter first source of adversity has, thanks to Providence, of hours.45 While in Khuzestan, Reza Khan paid a been eliminated. Now is the time to correct the sec- visit to Susa and, to his great despair, learned about ond and now is the occasion to lay a sound founda- crude archaeological activities at the site by the tion for Iranian nationality. French and the Concessions of 1895 and 1900.46 We are fully alert to the fact that the morale of the public has, in general, been lowered to a threatening Shortly afterwards, encouraged by nationalist fig- extent. There are many who, heedless of the princi- ures, especially General Faraj-Allah Aq-evli and

40 Banani 1961;Khalili-Khou 1994. entrustedwith "The took them [RezaShah and 41 thejob: guide Quoted in Makki1944, 354. his retinue] to a and showedan areathat he said 2 largeopen pit Quoted in Wilber 1975, 63-4. was the remains of one of the audience halls of the Achae- 4 Cottam 1978, 146. menid rulers,and added thata piece of cement from the floor Quoted in Wilber 1975, 73. wasin the Museumin Tehran.The Shah askedif nothing else 45Mostowfi 1945-1947, 4:478. had been found and wastold thatcolumns and statuetteshad 4t Ma'soumi1976,45. RezaShah paid more visitsto Susain been uncovered.Pressed further the guide added that these 1928 and 1937.Relations between Iranand Francewere sour pieces were all in the LouvreMuseum. The ruler remarked: duringReza Shah's 1937 visit as a resultofpublications in France 'Those thieves took all those objects to the Louvre and left of articlesoffensive to him in Februaryof that year,so he did the cement for Iran.'He wasso outragedand furiousthat he not want a French archaeologistto give him a tour of the ex- refusedto eat lunch with his suite, and went off to eat by him- cavations.An Iranian working with the French mission was self in the hut of the gendarme guards"(Wilber 1975, 179).

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Mohammad Ali Foroughi, the Majles abolished tries, especially the United States, launched archae- both Concessions on 17 October 1927 and ratified ological investigations in Iran. The University Mu- the Antiquities Law three years later.47 seum of the University of Pennsylvania sponsored According to the new regulations, activities of three expeditions: excavations at Turang Tappeh the French mission were restricted to Susa and its from 1931 to 1932 under Frederick R. Wulsin, ex- environs with an Iranian representative supervis- cavations at Tappeh Hessar from 1931 to 1932 and ing their excavations. To fulfill the long-delayed at Ray from 1934 to 1936, both under Erich. F. goal of the Society of National Heritage (see above), Schmidt. Under the auspices of the Oriental Insti- the Iranian government was required to build an tute of the University of Chicago, Schmidt also dug archaeological museum and library in Tehran. To at Istakhr from 1934 to 1939, carried out the first compensate the French for the abolition of conces- aerial reconnaissance in western Iran from 1935 to sions, the Iranian government accepted a French 1937, and led one of the first expeditions to Lur- citizen as the director of the newly founded archae- estan in 1934-1935 and 1937-1938. The Oriental ological body. Andre Godard (1881-1965) began Institute also sponsored excavations at Tall-e Bakun his job as the first director of the "Antiquities Ser- in 1932 and 1937 under Alexander Langsdorff and vice of Iran" in 1929.48 Godard was replaced by Ali Donald E. McCown. The Metropolitan Museum of Farahmandi as the director of this organization in Art sponsored excavations at Qasr-e Abu Nasr from 1934.49 The so-called Godard era in Iranian archae- 1932 to 1935 under Walter Hauser and J. M. Up- ology was marked by two accomplishments: inaugu- ton. Furthermore, Aurel Stein conducted exten- ration of the first Iranian journal of archaeology sive surveys and some test excavations in southern (Athar-e-Iran) and the design and construction of a and western Iran from 1932 to 1936, and the Sino- museum modeled after the great Sasanian palace Swedish expedition excavated at Shah Tappeh in at Ctesiphon. In 1936, antique collections were 1933 under T. J. Arne. The French also expanded transported from the old National Museum at their activities by digging at Tappeh Giyan from Mas'oudieh to the new building, and in 1937, after 1931 to 1932 under Georges Contenau and Roman the establishment of the headquarters of the An- Ghirshman, Tappeh Sialk from 1933 to 1934 and tiquities Service of Iran, the Iran Bastan Museum was 1937, and Bishapur from 1935 to 1941, both under officially founded by Reza Shah. Ghirshman. The Oriental Institute excavations at The elimination of the French monopoly opened Persepolis from 1931 to 1939, however, proved to up Iran to archaeological expeditions from other be of particular significance in promoting nation- countries. Prior to 1930, only a handful of archaeol- alist sentiments in Iran. ogists managed to break through the French mo- Persepolis has always been a great attraction for nopoly to conduct fieldwork in Iran. Raphael foreign travelers, historians, and archaeologists,5' not Pumpelly dug at Anau in 1903, Frank Earp briefly to mention the many Iranians who visited the site dug at Geoy Tappeh in 1903, Aurel Stein conduct- after its destruction at the end of the Achaemenid ed some surveys and excavations in southeastern period.52 As early as 1685, Engelbert Kaempfer Iran in 1915 and 1916, and Ernst Herzfeld made a pleaded for the protection and preservation of the general reconnaissance survey in 1905, some exca- monuments at Persepolis, which were being muti- vations at Pasargadae in 1928, and conducted a sur- lated or removed by vandals.53 As scholarly interest vey in western Iran in 1925-1926 and 1928.50 After in Persepolis grew during the 18th and 19th centu- the abolition of the French monopoly, other coun- ries, the prospect of excavations at the site became

47Malek Shalunirzadi1986, 140. seumfor salein an antiquitiesstore. The authoritieswere alert- 48Ma'soumi1976, 7-9. ed, and Godardwas invited to a dinner,given a medal,thanked, 49Godardcontinued to workin the ArchaeologicalService and put on a plane to Paris. for another 20 yearsor so. But, as his loyaltieslay elsewhere, 50Herzfeld accompanied Reza Shah and his entourage in he failedto earn the respectof the Iranians(Malek Shahmirza- his visit to westernand southewesternIran from 25 October di 1990, 410, n. 31) and soon rumorsbegan circulatingabout to 20 November 1928 and in the meantime conducted a gen- his involvementwith antiquitiesdealers, most scandalousof eral surveyof the area;see Herzfeld 1929. which probablythe "ZiviyehAffair" (Keykhosravi 1984). The 51Sancisi-Weerdenburg and Drijvers1991. mostserious blow to Godard'sreputation came when, in 1950, 52 Shahbazi1980. Persepoliswas so fascinatingto the Irani- he published a dealer's collection allegedly exeavated from ans that the firstmodern warshipof the IranianNavy, a 600- Ziviyeh(Godard 1950), but the oral traditionregarding Go- ton cruiserarmed with four Krupp guns purchased from Germa- dard'sdismissal was that Louis Vanden Berghe found a pot he ny in 1883,was named "Persepolis"(Curzon 1892, 2:394-6). himself had excavated,marked, and given to IranBastan Mu- 53 Wieseh6fer 1991.

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closer to reality. In 1772 Carsten Niebuhr cleared When I saw the structures of Persepolis, I was moved those colossal but parts of the eastern stairway of the Apadana Hall to by monuments, seeing them [in such I make sketches of the reliefs. Niebuhr's work was fol- impaired state] deeply depressed me. was none- theless [to learn] that such have lowed several more includ- delighted great kings by specialized surveys, ruled Iran and left these magnificent remains. Patrio- ing Frantz Stolze's pioneering photographic record- tism and national pride should be embedded in every ing of the site in 1872, and excavations at the Hall of Iranian soul.60 One Hundred Columns by Mo'tamed al-DowIeh (Nasr ad-Din Shahs uncle) in 1876 and 1877.54 After the beginning of excavations at Persepolis, In 1924, Nosrat ad-Dowleh Firuz Mirza, the gover- Reza Shah, who had already made acquaintance with nor of Fars and one of the founding members of the Herzfeld, ardently advocated his works at the site Society of National Heritage (see above) encouraged and personally ensured that the project would run Ernst Herzfeld to conduct a preliminary survey of smoothly. In his third visit to the site in 1932, he told the ruins of Persepolis.55 Herzfeld's report56 prompt- Herzfeld: '"Youare doing a work of civilization here, ed James H. Breasted, director of the Oriental Insti- and I thank you."61In his fourth and last visit to Per- tute of the University of Chicago, to apply to the Ira- sepolis in March 1937, Reza Shah praised the work nian Government for full-scale excavations at Perse- done at the site and encouraged Erich Schmidt to polis. Under the auspices of the Oriental Institute work faster to clear the entire platform (fig. 2).62 and with partial funding by John D. Rockefeller, Although Reza Shah enjoyed spontaneous patri- Herzfeld began excavations at Persepolis in 1931. otic feelings, it can be argued that it was a single Herzfeld continued the work until 1934, when, after event that exhorted his strong will to revive the glo- some administrative problems,57 Erich Schmidt re- ries of ancient Iran. On 22 April 1925, the Ameri- placed him as the director of excavations. Schmidt can art historian Arthur Upham Pope delivered a worked at the site until the outbreak of the Second talk on "The Art of Iran in the Past and the Fu- World War. After 1939 the work was continued by ture."63 The talk was in English, but it was concur- the Archaeological Service of Iran under Hosein rently translated into Persian for a large audience, Ravanbod (four months in 1939), Isa Behnam (1939- including Reza Khan (then prime minister and the 1940), Mahmoud Rad (1940), Ali Sami (1941-1959), Commander-in-Chief of the Army), his cabinet, and Akbar Tajvidi (1968-1976).58 members of the Majles, members of the Society for Reza Shah was a strong supporter of excavations National Heritage, and the American legation to at Persepolis. He visited the site four times. During Tehran. Pope presented a survey of Iranian art from his first visit to Persepolis in 1922, prior to begin- the Achaemenid to Sasanian and Islamic times, and ning of excavations there, he commented that "We stressed the cultural, artistic, and spiritual contri- should built a wall around Persepolis, so we could bution of Iran to world civilization. Pope empha- prevent more damage from happening to the site. sized that kings of Iran have always served as pa- We really have to do something about this site."59 trons of arts and crafts, and implied that a cultural After his second visit to Persepolis in 1928, upon and artistic revival in Iran required government his return to Tehran, Reza Shah remarked to an endorsement and encouragement. assembly of officials: Pope's talk left a deep and lasting impression on Reza Khan. Obviously the principal point was in har- History tells us about the splendor of ancient Iran. mony with his own impression of Iran's past glories, In the magnificent ruins of Persepolis one can wit- but of arts and culture was a ness this splendor without historians' bias, the ruins patronage new challenge speak for themselves and tell you the glory of ancient that he found particularly appealing. Consequently, Iranian monarchs. Reza Shah embarked on patronizing arts and crafts.

54Abdi1996, 170. he chose not to return to after his work in but 55 Germany Iran, ErnstHerzfeld (1879-1948) was alreadyan activefigure went to London in 1935 and then to the U.S., where hejoined in Iranianarchaeology. He wasamong the firstarchaeologists the Institute for Advanced Studies at Princeton. 5' to breakinto the Frenchmonopoly and conduct archaeologi- Herzfeld1928. calfieldwork in Iran.A scholarof colossalknowledge, Herzfeld 57Balcer 1991. wasnonetheless accused of being involvedin antiquitiesdeal- 58M. Mousavi 1990, 12. ing and even of makingforgeries of ancient artifacts.Between 59Quoted in Ma'soumi1976, 42. the 1900s and late 1920s he conducted extensivesurveys and 6 Quoted in Eskandari-Khoyini 1956, 72-3. some excavationsin Iran, and inauguratedthe first series of 61Quoted in Breasted 1933, 407. ArchiologischeMitteilungen aus Iranin 1929. Herzfeldexcavat- 6Wilber 1975, 180. ed at Persepolison behalf of the OrientalInstitute from 1930 63Pope1971; also reprinted in Gluck and Siver 1996, 93- to 1934. A professorat the Berlin UniversityofJewish faith, 110.

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Fig. 2. Persepolis, March 1937. Reza Shah, the crown prince, and their retinue in front of the Apadana reliefs.

Carpet-weaving was financially supported and other Archaeology in New York City in 1928. The Institute traditional crafts promoted. The government also sponsored several archaeological expeditions to Iran, sponsored restoration and conservation works on most importantly the Holmes expedition to Lurestan many historical monuments. The "Neo-Persian" art led by Erich F. Schmidt in 1934-1935 and 1937-1938, that had flourished in the Qajar period64 received and a series of nine architectural surveys from 1929 to state endorsement when the government ordered that 1939 primarily focused on recording and photograph- official buildings be built according to traditional Ira- ing pre-Islamic and Islamic monuments (fig. 3). The nian architectural models, rather than European American Institute for Iranian Art and Archaeology styles. The central branch of the National Bank of Iran, later evolved into the Asia Institute, with its adjunct the police headquarters, and the central post office School for Asiatic Studies. When Pope and his wife in Tehran were built imitating Achaemenid models, Phyllis Ackerman (1893-1977) settled in Iran in while the archaeological museum was inspired by the 1966, the Asia Institute was transferred to Shiraz and Sasanian palace at Ctesiphon. became affiliated with the Pahlavi University, with Among the foreign scholars who worked in Iran in Queen Farah as its official sponsor. the Pahlavi era, Arthur Upham Pope (1881-1969) Pope's influence on Iranian archaeology in the was perhaps the most influential in promoting Irani- Pahlavi era was remarkable. He edited the monu- an nationalism.65 Originally a professor of Greek phi- mental Survey of Persian Art (SoPA), originally in six losophy at the University of California-Berkeley, Pope large folio volumes published in 1938-1939 with later trained himself in the arts of South and East some 70 contributions from around the world. SoPA Asia. Pope made his first trip to Iran in 1925-the was republished in 1962 in 12 volumes with addi- same year he delivered his influential talk before Reza tional contributions. Pope and Ackerman served as Shah. Pope was so fascinated with Iran that he imme- advisors and dealers of Iranian art for many muse- diately abandoned his other preoccupations and fo- ums and private collections. They were also respon- cused on Iranian arts and crafts. Pope established the sible for organizing the International Congresses of American Institute for Persian (later Iranian) Art and Iranian Art and Archaeology.66 During their travels

64Cf.Lerner 1980, 1998. 1968, Oxford 1972, Munich 1976. There was also a semioffi- 65Gluck and Siver 1996. cial congress in New Yorkin 1940. Despite considerable ef- 66Therewere in total seven congresses:Philadelphia 1926, fort by Louis Vanden Berghe, the eighth Congress sched- London 1931, Moscow-Leningrad1935, NewYork-Philadel- uled to be held in Gent in 1979 never convened because of phia-Baltimore-Washington1960, Tehran-Isfahan-Shiraz the Iranianrevolution.

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f: I^I ; '.- ._ :r: ?,?e ' ?P- r , " ?e4 r r:.;?:a " -" a Zrg a, _ *: : -- .e Ya :: ,

Fig. 3. Iran-Afghan border, 5 November 1937. Members of the Eighth Architectural Survey in pustin (traditional Iranian trenchcoat) next to the new truck of the American Institute of Iranian Art and Archaeology. Arthur U. Pope second and Donald Wilber fourth from left. (After Gluck and Siver 1996, 265) and studies in Iran, Pope and Ackerman developed cavations at Malyan, but is better known for his liter- a close friendship with the Pahlavi family, and it has ary works. Among the early instructors at the De- been said that it was Pope who originally envisioned partment of Archaeology were two scholars who and suggested to Mohammad Reza Shah the idea of played important roles in promoting Iranian na- the celebration of the 2,500th anniversary of the foun- tionalism: Mohammad-Sadeq Kia and Ebrahim dation of the Persian empire (see below).67 Pourdavoud. Kia, the first professor of Middle Per- Perhaps one of the most significant develop- sian at Tehran University, later, with Zabih Behrooz ments in Iranian archaeology during the reign of and Mohammad Moqaddam, formed the Society of Reza Shah was the establishment in 1937 of the the Land of Iran and published the Iran Koudeh Department of Archaeology at Tehran University. series, which marked the climax of Iranian chau- The cornerstone of the University was laid by Reza vinism (see below). Pourdavoud, more moderate Shah on 4 February 1934. Inspired by the recent than Kia in nationalist sentiments, was the first pro- discovery of gold and silver foundation plaques at fessor of ancient Iranian culture and languages, Persepolis inscribed with cuneiform inscriptions and the first to publish a Persian translation and of Darius I, Reza Shah placed a gold foundation commentary of Avesta. plate in a marble box set in the cornerstone of the HISTORICAL NATIONALISM IN IRAN DURING University.68 The first student to graduate in 1941 THE EARLY PAHLAVI PERIOD from the Department of Archaeology was Fereydoun Tavalloli, who went on to pursue his career in ar- Between 1923 and 1925, when Reza Khan's march chaeology in Fars,69including the first series of ex- to power met with opposition from the clerical wing

67Gluck and Siver 1996, 427-32. factories. 68Wilber1975, 163. The tradition of laying gold founda- 69Emdad1985. tion plaqueswas repeated by RezaShah in severalnewly built

This content downloaded from 128.148.252.35 on Mon, 3 Nov 2014 09:40:15 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions 2001] THE DEVELOPMENT OF ARCHAEOLOGY IN IRAN 63 in the Majles, he launched a three-pronged propa- of the new year and as the major Iranian ceremony. ganda offensive in the press he controlled. This Furthermore, in 1925, shortly before his corona- propaganda was aimed at the educated middle- tion, Reza Khan chose the name Pahlavi as his fam- class Iranians who, like Reza Khan, were mostly in- ily name,72 thus emphasizing his cultural ties with different to religion. The first and second prongs pre-Islamic Iran. And at the end of 1934, the Irani- in Reza Khan's offensive against the clergy por- an government officially declared that hencefor- trayed them as backward political and social reac- ward the Country must be called "Iran" and the tionaries opposing reforms that promised a better name "Persia" should no longer be used. In a cir- life to Iranians and as a group devoid of national- cular that followed in 1935, the Ministry of Foreign ism feelings and ever willing to sell Iran to foreign- Affairs explained to all countries maintaining po- ers, especially to the British. The third prong, on litical relations with Iran that the Fars province, the other hand, was a comprehensive effort to re- which the name Persia is derived from, is only a awaken the memory of Iran's pre-Islamic past, es- geographical section of the land of Iran. But, since pecially the Achaemenid and Sasanian empires, the two major pre-Islamic Iranian dynasties of the and glorify Zoroastrianism as the original religion Achaemenids and Sasanians, known to the Euro- of Iranians.7" It was generally emphasized that the peans through the classical sources, originated in fall of the Sasanian empire and the Arab invasion Fars, the name of the province has become errone- of Iran in the seventh century was the biggest hu- ously synonymous with the country, whereas the miliation in Iranian history and that Arabs had com- correct name, Iran-the land of the Aryans-has pelled or tricked Iranians into giving up their an- been used by Iranians to refer to their homeland cient religion and converting to Islam. From the from pre-Islamic times. This change was instituted late 1920s, a new literary genre emerged in admira- at a time when the concept of an "Aryan race" was tion of Zoroaster and his faith,7' equating it with the subject of much debate and was being used in the generative force of ancient Iran and attributing political propaganda to justify increasingly harsh Iran's decline to the elimination of this force. For persecutions in Europe, and there is little doubt instance, Mirzade-ye 'Eshqi, the famous national that the Iranian government was unaware of these poet, composed Rastdkhiz (the Resurrection), an political currents. It has even been suggested that operetta in praise of Zoroaster and the ancient kings the impetus for the change of the name originated of Iran. Ebrahim Pourdavoud-later a professor at from the Iranian embassy in Berlin.73 the Department of Archaeology of Tehran Univer- The grand emphasis on nationalism and ancient sity (see above)-wrote a long poem, Amshdspanddn Iran that characterized the reign of Reza Shah left a (the Archangels), which told of an appearance of deeper impact on Iranian historiography and the Zoroaster to the author in a vision, and 'Aref-e Qaz- Persian language than the practice of archaeology. vini composed verses in glorification of Zoroastri- From the mid 19th century, Western-educated Ira- anism. Emphasis shifted from Islamic literature to nians and adoption of European sciences and crafts those celebrating ancient Iranian traditions and introduced hundreds of foreign words from Euro- teachings; Ferdowsi replaced Hafez and Sa'di as pean languages, especially from French and En- the most widely read Iranian poet. The national glish, into the Persian language. By the Constitu- anthem and other patriotic songs venerated pre- tional Revolution of 1906, the language used by Islamic times and called for greater glories for Iran. educated Iranians in the fields of science, politics, Religious holidays were limited and intense reli- and the military was so replete with alien terminol- gious ceremonies banned, especially the pageants ogy that the general public would have found it and self-flagellation of the Moharram mourning somewhat incomprehensible. As early as 1868, a period. Instead, civic and national holidays such as group of nationalist intellectuals with strong anti- the Mehregdn ceremony were introduced to cele- Arab and anti-Islamic sentiments led by Mirza Mal- brate ancient Zoroastrian rituals. Also, in 1925 the kum Khan proposed to rid Persian of Arabic words.74 solar calendar was promulgated over the more Is- In 1897 a group of primarily young courtiers formed lamic lunar calendar, with Nowruz as the beginning a society for furthering Persian grammar as well as

70 Haas (1946, 170) claimsthat Reza Shah even entertained polis in 1928,Reza Shah took Herzfeldaside and askedhim to the idea of revivingZoroastrianism as the official religion of explain whatPahlavi really meant. Iran, but there is no tangible evidence to verifythis. 73Wilber1975, 163. 71 See examples in Aryanpour1971, vol. 2. 74Algar1969. 72Accordingto Wilber(1975, 229) during his visitto Perse-

This content downloaded from 128.148.252.35 on Mon, 3 Nov 2014 09:40:15 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions 64 KAMYAR ABDI [AJA105 secondary and college education. Later, in 1924 an years Kasravi developed an idiosyncratic version of office was founded to coin equivalents for military Persian with extensive usage of partially fictitious terms, and another office in 1932 for scientific terms. etymology adopted from Old and Middle Persian In the meantime, the increasingly patriotic feel- and Avestan, among other old Iranian languages. ings in Iran and antagonism toward Arabs and Is- The ambitious book Varjdvand Bonyad (The Sacred lam promoted by the Pahlavi government stimulat- Foundation)77-considered by many as Kasravi's ed a number of extreme nationalists to introduce a opus magnum-is probably the most definitive new Persian prose characterized by extensive use manifesto of his Persian prose and ideas. of antiquated words or new constructs of antiquat- Kasravi's ideas and prose proved to be particular- ed words borrowed from Old and Middle Persian. ly appealing to a group of fanatic nationalists who This new style, which came to be called "the pure actively despised Arabs and Islam and attributed Persian" (Farsi-ye sar-e), not only aimed to replace Iran's decline to Islam and the Arab invasion of the European words with Persian ones, but to elimi- seventh century. Between 1944 and 1968, a group nate the large Arabic vocabulary in Persian. This of such nationalists under the name the Society of attempt soon led to complete disarray, prompting the Land of Iran (Anjoman-e Irdnvij) published Iran the government to create the Iranian Academy Koudeh, a series of 18 books and pamphlets on cul- (Farhangestdn-eIrdn). The primary duty of the Acad- ture, history, and languages of ancient Iran. The emy was to find Persian equivalents for foreign Iranvij Society seems to have had only three perma- words and to create a new, rigorous Persian vocabu- nent members: Zabih Behrooz, Mohammad-Sadeq lary and prose capable of handling extensive cul- Kia, and Mohammad Moqaddam, the latter two pro- tural interaction in a changing world. The Acade- fessors at Tehran University, including the Depart- my is probably one of the more successful cultural ment of Archaeology. The Iranian nationalism ad- institutions in Iran, creating in about 60 years the vocated by followers of the Irdnvij Society is better equivalents for thousands of European and Arabic described as chauvinistic, sometimes even racist. words to retain the character of the Persian as a They strongly believed in Iranian superiority over coherent language.75 other people in every aspect and greatly exaggerat- The Academy, however, proved to be of little suc- ed Iran's contribution to world civilization. This cess either in preventing the advocates of "the pure belief led them to gross misrepresentation of histo- Persian" from promoting their prose, or the growth ry. Behrooz, for example, published a number of of chauvinism among a number of Iranian intelli- ambiguous books, antagonistic to Arabs, the Arabic gentsia. Ahmad Kasravi was an early advocate of language, and to Islam, while promoting Iranian both.76 While under the Islamic Republic a persona culture, history, and the Persian language. Two of non grata and despised for his fierce attacks on Shi- these in particular, Calendar and History in Iran and ite Islam and clergy, some, nonetheless, consider The Nowruz Calendar,78stirred much controversy and Kasravi one the greatest historians in the recent criticism, as they both advocated implausible ideas history of Iran. In his career, Kasravi authored sev- about ancient Iran. eral meticulous historical studies, especially Eigh- Mohammad Moqaddam, still respected in Iran teen Yearsof History of Azerbaijan (Tehran 1937) and for his superb translation of Albert T. Olmstead's The History of Constitutionalism in Iran (Tehran 1940). monumental History of the Persian Empire, brought in a But, series of articles and books published af- antagonism toward Arabs and the Arabic language ter 1925, Kasravi chastised Islam and especially the to a new level.7" In a number of publications in the Shiite to ideology the point that led to his assassi- Iran Koudeh series, Moqaddam argued that a large nation in 1945 by religious fanatics. Kasravi, a seyyed number of Arabic words have Persian roots, and and a native of Azerbaijan, was, nonetheless, an that Arabic is a distorted version of Persian.8' Later outspoken nationalist and a firm promoter of Irani- in life he sought a Persian etymology for his Arabic an culture and the Persian language. During 25 name and changed it to Mahmad Mogdam, which,

7'TheAcademywassuspended on the personalorder of Reza 76For reviewsof Kasravi'scareer, see Dastgheyb1978 and Shah on 27 April 1938.Apparently, he wasunhappy with the Choubineh 1993. slowprogress the Academyhad made in purifyingthe Persian 77Kasravi1943. languagefrom foreignwords. Itwas, however, announced that 78Behrooz 1952, 1968. the Academywouldbe reconstitutedand resumeits work when 79 Zakeri 1993, 418. its bylaws were revised. This did not happen after Reza Shah's " Cf. Moghdam 1963. abdication.

This content downloaded from 128.148.252.35 on Mon, 3 Nov 2014 09:40:15 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions 2001] THE DEVELOPMENT OF ARCHAEOLOGY IN IRAN 65 according to him, had a Persian root and meant, Iron Age. While Vanden Berghe continued his respectively, "of grand position" and "of Magian surveys in Larestan in southern Fars, a Japanese soul." team under Namio Egami and Seichi Masuda con- Chauvinistic ideas of the sort advocated by the ducted further excavation at Bakun in 1956, fol- Iranvij group did not catch on, and only a handful of lowed by excavations in other sites in the 1960s. Iranian writers followed them.81 Yet their basic ideas, Lastly, Robert H. Dyson of the University Museum especially a mild tendency toward the pure Persian, of the University of Pennsylvania began excavations survived as an undercurrent in Iranian scholarship82 at Hasanlu in 1956. The Iranian Prehistory Project including the practice of archaeology. of the Oriental Institute of the University of Chica- go under Robert J. Braidwood in 1959-1960 and NATIONALISM AND ARCHAEOLOGY UNDER its successor projects, especially the regional sur- MOHAMMAD REZA SHAH PAHLAVI vey in Susiana by Robert McC. Adams in 1960-1961, In 1941, nearly two years after the outbreak of and excavations at Tappeh Ali Kosh in the Deh the Second World War, despite Iran's proclaimed Luran Plain by Frank Hole and Kent Flannery in neutrality, Allied forces occupied the country. Reza 1961 and 1963, marked the beginning of the mod- Shah abdicated in favor of the crown prince, who ern era in Iranian archaeology. assumed kingship in September 1941 as Moham- The Allies' occupation of Iran revived the dor- mad Reza Shah Pahlavi. The Allies' occupation of mant xenophobia of Iranian nationalism, under Iran put an end to archaeological field activities in wraps during the Reza Shah era. The British and Iran, except for excavations at Persepolis, which Americans evacuated the country shortly after the were continued by the Archaeological Service of conclusion of the war, but the Soviets supported Iran. After 1945 archaeological activities were re- puppet governments in Azerbaijan and Kurdestan sumed gradually over about 10 years. In 1949 Mah- in an attempt to separate parts of Iran. The attempt moud Rad and Ali Hakemi of the Archaeological failed, and with political pressure from the U.S. on Service of Iran excavated at Hasanlu in Azerbaijan, the U.S.S.R., in 1946 the Iranian Army recaptured where Aurel Stein's test excavations in 1936 had both provinces. In the period between the end of revealed Bronze and Iron Age remains. The French the Second World War and the early 1960s, Iran returned to Susa in 1946 under Roman Ghirsh- witnessed major socioeconomic changes and polit- man, though his main focus from 1951 to 1962 was ical oscillations, some of which had a direct con- the excavation of the Elamite ziggurat at Chogha nection with nationalism. Most importantly, the Zanbil. Donald McCown of the Oriental Institute Anglo-Iranian oil concession, which was left un- of the University of Chicago excavated at Tall-e touched during the reign of Reza Shah, led to an Qasir (Ghazir) in 1946 and 1947. T. Burton Brown upsurge of Iranian nationalism in the early 1950s, of Manchester University dug for a fortnight in 1948 otherwise known as the "Mosaddeq era." at Goey Tappeh near Urmia and established a pre- The Mosaddeq era is characterized by many his- liminary chronology for western Azerbaijan from torians of contemporary Iran as the "Nationalist" the fourth to first millennium B.C.E. Carlton S. epoque.But the nationalism promoted in this era was Coon of the University Museum of the University political, thus qualitatively different from the his- of Pennsylvania began the first systematic investi- torical nationalism such as that of the Iranvij group gation of paleolithic remains in Iran in 1949 by (above), which stressed the history and culture of exploring a number of caves in the Zagros Moun- ancient Iran. When in the early 1950s a group of tains and the Caspian coast in Mazandaran. In 1950 Iranians with Mohammad Mossadeq as their leader Rad and Hakemi excavated the Iron Age graves at adopted the title Melliyun (Nationalists) and estab- Khorvin near Qazvin on the foothills of Alborz lished a party called Jebhe-yeMelli (National Front), Mountains. Their work was continued in 1954 by their principal objective was to eliminate the con- Louis Vanden Berghe of Gent University. Before trol of the British over Iran's oil and the influence that, from 1951 to 1953, Vanden Berghe conduct- of the so-called thousand families over Iranian af- ed extensive surveys and some test excavations in fairs.83 The political nationalism of the Mosaddeq central Fars and established a preliminary chro- era, however, hoped to revive Iran's great past by nology for the region from the Neolithic to the diverting oil revenues from the British pocket to

XlFor a review, see Zakeri 1993. ":Cottam 1978, 211. s Farshidvard 1993, 345-54.

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Iran's. Although Mosaddeq and nationalists in his for distribution at the proper moment. In preparing the of party succeeded in nationalizing the oil industry plan operation, we realized that [Mohammad Reza] Shah would not dismiss unless and ejecting the British from Iranian soil once and Mossadeq pres- sured to do so. Pressure was applied, and he did issue for all, failed to the cri- they anticipate upcoming an imperial decree dismissing Mossadeq and another sis. As Mosaddeq drifted from his original path and naming General Zahedi as Prime Minister.... Our the threat of the leftist Tudeh party became immi- principal agents handed out thousands of copies of Shah's our nent, in 1953 the nationalist govemment fell to a decree, propaganda material flooded Tehran, clandestine raids were coup d'6tat sponsored by the CIA and MI-6, with papers appeared, mounted on Tudeh Party offices and presses. On the American architectural historian, Donald N. August 19 [1953] loyalist mobs were collected in south- Wilber (1907-1997), allegedly as one of its covert ern Tehran and were led into the modern quarters, designers.84 where they swept along soldiers and officers. General Wilber received his doctorate in architecture Zahedi emerged from hiding to climb into a tank and from Princeton in 1949. After be taken to the radio station, where he proclaimed University working the new as an artist for the Oriental Institute of the Univer- government. sity of Chicago in Egypt, and as an architect for ex- The 1953 coup put an end to the political na- cavations in Syria, Greece, and France in the 1930s, tionalism of the Mosaddeq era. In the decade that he served in a number of academic positions, in- followed the coup, Mohammad Reza Shah emerged cluding the Asia Institute in New York, where he as the absolute ruler of the country, with little con- met Arthur Upham Pope. After his initial visit to cern for either the constitution or the Majles. Iran in 1934, Wilber became involved with Iranian Backed by rising oil prices and foreign investment, archaeology and made several surveys of Islamic especially U.S. support, Mohammad Reza Shah fos- structures with Pope. He worked with the Office of tered an improper Westernization and poorly Strategic Services in Iran during the Second World planned industrialization of the country, which he War. In 1964 he served as the adviser to the govern- called the "White Revolution."87 Factories mush- ment of Afghanistan, and from 1960 to 1970 as the roomed without sufficient economic or industrial Chairman of the Iran Foundation in New York. Wil- infrastructure, imports skyrocketed at the expense ber authored several books and articles on contem- of the local craft production, while land and social porary Iran and the art and architecture of Iran in amelioration in the early 1960s put the Shah into a Islamic times, including the monumental The Is- collision course with the clergy, especially with Aya- lamic Architectureof Iran and Turan: The Timurid Peri- tollah Khomeini. od.85 Other books by Wilber, especially Iran: Past and The 1960s and 1970s witnessed such a major Present, which between its original publication in growth in archaeological activities that one scholar 1948 and 1981 reached nine editions, were influ- has been prompted to describe it as "the Explosive ential in promoting Iranian nationalism. Phase" in Iranian archaeology.88 Many expeditions Wilber was a member of the CIA from 1948 to embarked on fieldwork in Iran from European 1970. In 1952, he was the political attache of the countries, the United States, Canada, andJapan. In United States embassy in Tehran and a consultant addition, the Archaeological Service of Iran, now to the State Department and the Institute for De- an established organization, contributed consider- fense Analysis. On his role in the Operation AJAX ably to archaeological fieldwork in Iran. Further- CIA (the code name for the coup against Mosad- more, the Department of Archaeology of Tehran Wilber wrote:86 deq), University under Ezat O. Negahban began to play a more role in research in The fact of the matter is that I was the principal profound archaeological planner for Operation AJAX and was given authority Iran, both by undertaking its own projects and train- to an prepare operational plan..... Drawing on a ing archaeologists to serve in the Archaeological variety of sources, we [Wilber and Kermit Roosevelt] Service of Iran. Following Robert Adams' pioneer- began preparing propaganda material in Persian di- ing survey, Khuzestan became an focus rected against Mossadeq. It included cartoons, small important of to wall posters, short articles. Given high priority, it research, especially anthropologically orient- poured off the [Central Intelligence] Agency's press ed archaeologists, who introduced the "New Archae- and was rushed by air to Tehran, where it was stored ology" to Iranian archaeology.89 By the mid to late

84Wilber1986; Risen 2000. 87Pahlavi1967. :'Wilberand Golombek 1987. 88Young1986, 284. 8 Wilber 1986, 188-9. 9Hole 1995.

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1970s, the new approach was widespread in Irani- after confrontations with religious bodies, especially an archaeology, with focus gradually shifting from Ayatollah Khomeini in the early 1960s, Mohammad single-site excavations to regional surveys, and more Reza Shah increasingly distanced himself from reli- attention paid to other archaeological material be- gious institutions. As their influence, especially the sides architectural remains and objetsd'art. The foun- clergy, was curbed by the State in the 1960s and 1970s, dation of the Center for Archaeological Research Mohammad Reza Shah sought other means to legit- within the Archaeological Service of Iran under imize his sovereignty. It has been argued that invok- Firouz Baqerzadeh in 1972 and its sponsorship of ing pre-Islamic values by Mohammad Reza Shah was annual meetings of all archaeologists working in a means to achieve this.91 Indeed, stress on national- Iran marked the pinnacle of archaeology in Iran ism and pre-Islamic values and traditions had prov- prior to the Revolution of 1979. en to be an important asset in the time of his father, The archaeological research by academically Reza Shah. Therefore, Mohammad Reza Shah made trained archaeologists from Iran and abroad in the a great effort to present himself as the latest in a long 1960s and 1970s had the professional discipline to line of great Iranian kings extending back to his free itself from nationalist biases. Indeed, very little favorite ruler, Cyrus II (the Great). Like his father, in the archaeological literature of this period seems who chose Pahlavi as his family name to emphasize to convey particularly nationalist connotations." his links with pre-Islamic Iran, Mohammad Reza There was, however, another current in Iranian pol- Shah added another historical title, Arydmehr (the itics and among the intelligentsia that continued to light of the Aryans), to his many titles. promote such sentiments. This current was heir to The state-sponsored attempt to marginalize Islam the patriotism of the Reza Shah era, and following in favor of the supposed pre-Islamic values and tra- the same agenda, was trying to foster an ideology of ditions provoked criticism from both the clergy and nationalism by evoking the glories of pre-Islamic Iran, the liberal Islamie thinkers. Morteza Motahhari, an especially the Achaemenid and Sasanian periods. established Islamic theoretician, published a book Partially as a result of this, excavations were resumed emphasizing the dynamic historical interaction be- at Persepolis and Pasargadae, two major Achaemenid tween Islam and Iran,92 while Ali Shari'ati, one of capitals, and Bishapur, the capital of Sasanian em- the early advocates of Islamic political and social ide- peror Shapur I, while extensive conservation and ology, gave talks at Hoseini-ye Ershad in Tehran urg- reconstruction were undertaken at Persepolis. Not ing Iranians to abandon Western and pre-Islamic surprisingly, the impact of this current was more ef- traditions and return to their true Shiite self: "The fectively felt in Iranian politics. experts may know a great deal about the Sasanians, Iranian kingship of the Islamic period was tradi- the Achaemenids, and even the earlier civilizations, tionally associated with the Islamic shari'a, with the but our people know nothing about such things. Our king as the defender and protector of Islam. But people do not find their roots in these civilizations.

There '0 were only a handful of Iranianarchaeologists in destroyeda great deal of their remains,those bits and pieces these yearswho expressednationalist sentiments in theirwrit- left, nonetheless, testifyto that glorious culture. It would be ings, among them Ali Sami and Ali-AkbarSarfaraz. Ali Sami unfairthat we neglect the strugglesof our ancestorsand fail to (1910-1989) wasborn to a learned Shirazifamily. He wasserv- respecttheir effortsby not preservingtheir remains.... Thus as a teacher ing in his home townwhen he met ErichSchmidt the author [Sami], like other pioneers of the discipline,have in 1936 and became involved in work at Persepolis. After dedicated severalyears of his life to accomplish this task.... Schmidt'sdeparture, he servedas an assistantfor Hosein Ra- This effort was not a result of anythingbut a love of mother- vanbod,and in 1941 replacedhim as the directorof the Perse- land and praiseof the valuableremains of the ancestors." polis excavations,to be continued until 1949 and from 1952 Ali AkbarSarfarz was the one who resumed excavationsat to 1961. In the interval(1949-1951 ), Samiexcavated at Pasar- the Sasaniancity ofBishapur. In the introductionto his excav- gadae, the capitalof CyrusII (the Great).Sami authored more tion reportat a monumentalstructure of the Achaemeniddate, than 50 books and articleson variousaspects of ancient Irani- presumablyfrom the time of CyrusII, near Borazjan,Sarfaraz an civilization(seeA. Mousavi1990), including TheAchaemenid (1971, 19), wrote:"It is with great pleasure that with the aus- Civilizationin three volumes (Sami 1962-1969) and TheSasa- picious celebrationof the 2,500th anniversaryof the founda- nian Civilizationintwo volumes (Sami1963-1965). Bothbooks tion of the IranianEmpire and the year of Cyrusthe Great, are a tourde force of availableknowledge on these twoperiods the founder of the gloriousworld empire, the Iranianarchae- of Iranian In his history. introduction to the first volume of ologicalexpedition discovered and introducedone of the pre- The AchaemenidCivilization, Sami (1962, 3-4) elaborated on cious remainsand an example of architecturalgenius of this his motivationfor undertakingsuch a project:"The ancient magnificantking on the shores of the PersianGulf." people of this land [Iran] enjoyed a prosperousculture and 91Smith n.d. art. Although historicalevents and the passageof time have 2Motahhari 1970.

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J,

Fig. 4. Pasargadae,October 1971. MohammadReza Shah Pahlaviat the tomb of Cyrusthe Great.

are left unmoved the They by heroes, geniuses, myths, archaeology and ancient history by modern politics. and monuments of these ancient empires. Our peo- In October 1971, Mohammad Reza Shah held an remember from this ple nothing distant past and do ostentatious ceremony at Persepolis to celebrate the not care to learn about pre-Islamic civilizations. Con- 2,500th anniversary of the foundation of the Persian for us to return to our sequently, roots means not a empire by Cyrus the Great (fig. 4).95 Heads of all rediscovery of but a return to pre-Islamic Iran, our governments were invited to the ceremony, presum- Islamic, Shiite, roots."93 especially ably to reenact the scene on the Apadana stairway None of these criticisms, however, deterred Mo- showing emissaries from nations subject to the hammad Reza Shah from his grandiose plans to re- Achaemenid empire bringing tribute to the Persian vive Iran's with himself at the pre-Islamic glories, king. Many fell into the trap: one emperor, nine kings, zenith of the Iran. this in imperial Following path, three ruling princes, two crown princes, 13 presi- 1967 Mohammad Reza Shah received an official cor- dents, 10 sheiks, and two sultans showed up, while onation, and four later masterminded a years cere- some more observant heads of states cleverly excused described one observer as "The Show of mony by themselves and sent their vice presidents, prime or Shows,"94 perhaps, one of the biggest abuses of ministers, foreign ministers, or ambassadors.96 The

93 Quoted in Abrahamian1982, 470. Shawcross(1988, writesthat did 94 39) Pompidou not come be- Time,October 25, 1971, 32-3. causeMohammad Reza Shah refused to let him sitabove Haile 95The 1350 A.H. was year (1970-1971) alreadylabeled as Selassie,the Emperorof Ethiopia,and Francophoneheads of "the of the the year Cyrus Great."The celebrationalso marked states.Mozaffar Firouz, one of the Iraniandissidents in Paris, the 50th of the foundationof the Pahlavi anniversary dynasty, claims that he advisedGeorges Pompidou againstattending the 30th of MohammadReza anniversary Shah's reign, and thisceremony (Dolatchah-Firouz 1990, 479-80). In anyevent, the 10th of the "White anniversary Revolution." Pompidou'srefusal to attendthe ceremonyoffended the Shah 96Likeevery other head of state,President Georges Pompi- and souredFranco-Iranian relations. dou of France was also invited, but he refused to come.

This content downloaded from 128.148.252.35 on Mon, 3 Nov 2014 09:40:15 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions 2001] THE DEVELOPMENT OF ARCHAEOLOGY IN IRAN 69 guests were housed in an encampment of tents de- the ceremony for its excessive costs, while others, signed and made by the French decorator Jansen. including the Queen, were unhappy that it was so The rest of the parapheralia also came from Paris, much French and so little Iranian. For some histor- and the Maxim restaurant was entrusted with cater- ical nationalists the ceremony was a fictional recre- ing the food and beverages, all coming from Paris ation of Iranian history and a naive attempt by Mo- except for the caviar. The day after the banquet and hammad Reza Shah to elevate himself to the level the fireworks display, the guests sat down on the Per- of the great kings of ancient Iran by placing his sepolis platform and watched as the Iranian Army brief dynasty on a par with the Achaemenids and units-forbidden to shave for the past few months so Sasanians. Others described it as self-aggrandize- that their beards could be trimmed to resemble those ment by a megalomaniac and a cause for interna- of ancient warriors-paraded in front of them dressed tional humiliation and embarrassment for Iranians as the armies of Iranian dynasties from the Achae- in general."'? But perhaps the most fierce criticism menids to the Pahlavis. The official biographer of came from Ayatollah Khomeini in exile in Iraq. In the Queen Farah later described the scene:97 a declaration issued on 31 October 1971, he wrote: "Are millions of tumans [Iranian currency] of the The tight crippled beards of the Medes and the people's wealth to be spent on these frivolous and Persians; the small pointed beards of the Safavids, or absurd celebrations? Are the of Iran to have the fierce moustaches of Qajar troops. Shields, lanc- people es, pennons, broadswords and daggers of earlier war- a festival for those whose behavior has been a scan- rior's, all were there. Beneath a scorching sun, but dal throughout history and who are a cause of crime shielded for those in the by parasols need, guests, and oppression, of abomination and corruption, in who were seated on a rostrum below the pillared ru- the present age?"1"" ins of Cyrus' [sic] might, watched this de- impressive The to be more of a file. Achaemenian foot guards, Parthian warriors, the Persepolis ceremony proved cavalry of Xerxes, litters, chariots, tanks, Bactrian liability than an asset for the Pahlavi government. It camels. Fath Ali Shah's artillery, warriors from the failed to bring Mohammad Reza Shah either the or the Persian the Air the new Caspian Gulf, Force, international prestige or national respect that he Women's contingents of the armed forces ... all were expected. Less than eight years after the ceremony there; all attested to Iran's glories, past and present. and two years after the extravagant celebration of But the high point of the ceremony was when the 50th anniversary of the Pahlavi dynasty, the Rev- Mohammad Reza Shah stood before the tomb of olution of 1979 toppled the monarchy in Iran. Dur- Cyrus at Pasargadae and addressed him in a flat but ing the revolution, the Persepolis ceremony was emotional voice: frequently recalled as an example of intolerable Pahlavi excess. from the was oc- To you Cyrus, Great King, King of Kings, from Footage ceremony Myself, Shahanshah of Iran, and from my people, casionally played on national television in the first Hail! few years after the revolution to remind the people We are here at the moment when Iran renews its of the despotism they had overthrown. pledge to History to bear witness to immense grati- tude of an entire people to you, immortal Hero of NATIONALISM AND ARCHAEOLOGY UNDER founder of world's oldest lib- History, empire, great THE ISLAMIC REPUBLIC erator of all time, worthy son of mankind. Cyrus[,] we stand before your eternal dwelling place There is no need to discuss here the causes or and these speak solemn words: Sleep in peace forev- outcomes of the Revolution of 1979, but it should er, for we are awake and we remain to watch over be stressed that no event in the recent of your glorious heritage." history Iran transformed the political structure of the coun- With an estimated cost of between 200 and 300 try as deeply as the revolution. Beginning from 7 million dollars, while parts of Iran were suffering January 1978, when the revolution was triggered by from famine and the average per capita income was the publication of an article insulting Ayatollah about $500, the ceremony soon provoked massive Khomeini in a daily newspaper, Iran was gradually criticism. One of the Shah's ambassadors later cyn- engulfed in an extensive series of demonstrations, ically called the ceremony "some Technicolor epic strikes, and riots. Mohammad Reza Shah's depar- of Cecil. B. DeMille's . . . being projected onto the ture and Ayatollah Khomeini's subsequent return screen of the vast plain."99 Some Iranians resented to Iran in January to February of 1979 accelerated

97Blanch 1978, 134. " Cf. Firouz 1971. 8Quoted in Shawcross1988, 46-7. 0 Quoted in Algar 1981, 202. '' Quoted in Shawcross1988, 44.

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the revolution. On 11 February 1979, after a few community), and Iranian nationalism was rejected days of street fighting between the revolutionaries in favor of pan-Islamic agendas, emphasizing broth- and the last military troops loyal to the Shah, the erhood among Muslims of the world. As soon as the Pahlavi government collapsed. Islamic govemment was stabilized, nationalists were The elimination of the monarchy was frequently suppressed along with the leftists and royalists. Af- stressed as the revolution's primary goal. As early as ter a short period of remembrance with admiration, 1971, in the famous declaration, "The Incompati- Mohammad Mosaddeq, the symbol of Iranian polit- bility of Monarchy with Islam," against the celebra- ical nationalism, was discredited and his opponent, tion of the 2,500th anniversary of the foundation of Ayatollah Kashani, was eulogized."'4 the Persian empire, Ayatollah Khomeini stated: Fortunately, antagonism toward Iran's past never God only knows what disasters the Iranian monar- materialized into action. Although many govern- chy has given rise [to] since its beginning and what ment buildings, banks, liquor stores, and a number crimes it has committed. The crimes of of [the] kings of foreign embassies were attacked by the revolu- Iran have blackened the pages of history. It is the tionaries throughout 1978, there is no tangible ev- kings of Iran that have constantly ordered massacres idence that museums or or his- of their own people and had pyramids built with their any archaeological skulls.... Tradition relates that the Prophet (upon torical sites were vandalized."15 The rumors of an whom be peace) said that the title King of Kings, attempt to bulldoze Persepolis by a mob led by one which is born the monarchs of is the most by Iran, of the early revolutionary figures in the first few hated of all titles in the sight of God. Islam is funda- weeks after the revolution was never officially con- mentally opposed to the whole notion of monarchy. firmed or denied; however, the had been Anyone who studies the manner in which the Proph- damage et established the government of Islam will realize done. The character of archaeology in Iran had that Islam came in order to destroy these palaces of suffered enormously from the self-serving demon- is one of the most shameful and tyranny. Monarchy strations by the Pahlavi government. Consequently, disgraceful reactionary manifestations.1"2 the new ideology interpreted archaeology as noth- The impact of the new regime's anti-monarchi- ing more than a pseudoscience in service of the cal stance on Iranian society was profound. In the court to glorify despotism and justify royal oppres- first few years after the revolution, anything associ- sion of the masses, both inherently against the new ated with monarchy was despised, the noun 'shah' belief system. Accordingly, archaeology fell into was removed from many words or replaced with disfavor. The Department of Archaeology of Tehran nouns such as Islam or Imam (e.g., Shahabad was University, the only academic institution teaching changed to Islamabad, and Bandar-e Shah was re- archaeology in Iran at the time, was temporarily named Bandar-e Imam). The government even closed during the Cultural Revolution (1979- made an attempt to abolish the Nowruz festival or 1982), with an attempt to abolish or incorporate it shorten the new year holidays, but gave up after into the History Department only dropped after serious objections by the general public. Textbooks, objections by professors of archaeology. The Insti- especially those on the history of Iran, were rewrit- tute of Archaeology of Tehran University survived ten, 103 emphasizing the Islamic period and reli- only nominally, not to resume its activities until 1990. gious figures and movements, marginalizing pre- In a general sweep, most foreign archaeologists were Islamic times as the age of ignorance, and chastiz- indicted as agents and forbidden from working in ing Iranian kings as oppressive despots. Pre-Islam- Iran, while some Iranian archaeologists were forced ic monuments were recalled not as sources of na- to retire or leave the country. Although the Archae- tional pride, but as symbols of monarchical tyranny ological Service and the Office for Protection and imposed on the masses. Preservation of Historical Remains both remained In harmony with this antagonism toward Iran's functional, for the first few years after the revolu- past, nationalism was widely rejected as an askew tion, archaeological activities dwindled to only a Western concept promoted by colonialist powers few operations per year, mostly of urgent or salvage and "Westoxicated" (gharbzadeh) intellectuals. The nature. Problem-oriented research ceased, and ar- term mellat (nation) gave way to ommat (the Muslim chaeology became a mere bureaucratic activity.1"'

""2Quoted in Algar 1981, 202. for theirhelp. Itwasannounced immediatelyon the radiothat t"'Mehran 1989. this should not have happened and these objects belong to "'4Akhavi 175-6. 1980, people. All the stolen objectswere returned the next day. to "'5According rumors,during the streetfights in February 106Fora summaryof archaeologicalactivities between 1979 of the GolestanPalace was broken into and a few 1979, items, and 1984,see the ArchaeologicalService of Iran 1983;Deputy including a swordof Nader Shah,were taken.A curatorof the for Protectionand Preservation1984. palacewent immediately to the revolutionaryofficials and asked

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It took almost 10 years for archaeology in Iran to tum, and guards, operating from provincial and recover. On 30 January 1985 the Iranian Cultural regional offices, were assigned to protect archaeo- Heritage Organization (ICHO) was formed by the logical sites. Moreover, local societies were formed Government of the Islamic Republic of Iran by in- in rural areas for protection of archaeological and corporating the Center for Archaeological Re- historical sites. Clandestine excavations and loot- search, Center for Traditional Crafts, Center and ing of archaeological and historical sites, which had Museum of Ethnography, Office for Historical Re- become an ordinary activity in remote areas in the mains, Iran Bastan Museum, Office for Protection early years after the revolution, were widely prevent- of the Cultural Heritage of the Provinces, Office of ed, antiquities dealing was outlawed, and in 1990 the Museums, Office of Historical Structures, Of- the Government launched a massive crackdown fice of Palaces, National Center for Protection of against illegal diggers and antiquities dealers. An- Iranian Antiquities, and Office of the Golestan Pal- tiquities stores were closed, hundreds were arrest- ace Endowments. On 22 April 1988, the Majles rat- ed, tens of thousands of artifacts were confiscated, ified the constitution of the ICHO. The ICHO, ini- and a few staff members of some foreign embassies, tially working under the auspices of the Ministry of allegedly related to illegal diggers and antiquities Culture and Higher Education and later under the dealers, were expelled from the country. Ministry of Culture and Islamic Guidance, was en- The ICHO resumed problem-oriented archaeo- trusted with extensive responsibilities over recov- logical research in Iran. Since 1990, archaeologi- ery, protection, preservation, and introduction of cal activities have increased considerably. Several archaeological and historical remains in its broad- large-scale national projects involving survey, exca- est sense. In order to achieve this, the ICHO origi- vation, and conservation were designed, only two of nally consisted of four deputies: Deputy for Re- which, Hamedan and Soltaniyeh, are now operat- search, supervising Offices for Archaeological, Eth- ing on an annual basis. In addition, some projects nographic, Folk Arts, and Epigraphic Research; of smaller scale, including excavations at Bandiy- Deputy for Protection and Preservation of Archae- an, are now operating on a regular basis. Further- ological and Historical Remains; Deputy for Intro- more, for the first time after the revolution, a joint duction and Education; and Deputy for Adminis- ICHO-Oriental Institute of the University of Chica- tration and Finance. go expedition conducted some surveys in north- In September 1996, the ICHO was transformed western Fars in March 1995,1"s followed by a joint into a research institute. The former Offices in the excavation at Chogha Bonut in Susiana in Septem- Deputy for Research were transformed into five dis- ber-October 1996,"'9 and a joint Iranian-German tinct research centers: Center for Archaeological excavation at Arisman in April-May 2000. Research, Center for Research on Languages and The ICHO has also sponsored two symposia on Dialects, Center for Ethnographic Research, Cen- archaeological research in Iran, the first at Susa on ter for Architecture and Cultural-Historical Monu- 14-17 April 1994,1)? and the second in Tehran on ments, and Center for Conservation Research.107 18-21 November 1997.1l These symposia fur- The ICHO now functions under the supervision of nished Iranian archaeologists with an opportunity the Council of Research, consisting of the Director to meet and discuss the latest results of their re- of ICHO, the Deputy for Research, Directors of Re- search and problems in Iranian archaeology. The search Centers, and three to five established schol- second symposium was followed by the inaugura- ars from universities or other research institutes. tion of a new series, ArchaeologicalReports of Iran (ARI), In the Summer of 1997, the Center for Archaeolog- the official periodical of the Center for Archaeo- ical Research developed three departments to de- logical Research, primarily concerned with mak- sign, organize, and undertake research on prehis- ing reports of field archaeological projects avail- toric, historic, and Islamic periods. able to the public. AR] will join the small family of The foundation of the ICHO in 1985 marks the journals published by ICHO: Mirds-e Farhangi beginning of a new era in archaeological activities (1989- ), Asar (1980- ), and Muzehd (1980- ), as in Iran. Shortly after its foundation, the ICHO es- well as the Iranian Journal of Archaeologyand History tablished offices in centers of all provinces, with (published by Iran University Press, 1986- ). subsidiary offices in major towns. Registration of In addition to the Department of Archaeology archaeological and historical sites gained momen- at Tehran University, long the sole academic cen-

107 In November2000 a sixth center for Paleoanthropolog- "' Alizadeh 1997. ical and PaleolithicResearch was established. ""M.Mousavi 1998. 1'"Alizadeh 1995. 'l Chegini 1997.

This content downloaded from 128.148.252.35 on Mon, 3 Nov 2014 09:40:15 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions 72 KAMYAR ABDI [AJA 105 ter for teaching archaeology in Iran, there are now For the revival of nationalism, the Iraqi invasion archaeology departments in several other Irani- in September of 1980 perhaps provided a crucial an universities, including Tarbiyat-e Modarres impetus. Patriotism was a potentially powerful con- University (M.A. and Ph.D. degrees), Free Uni- tribution from the nonreligious segments of the versities at Abhar and Kazerun (B.A.), and Te- Iranian society to the war effort against Iraq,6" a hran (M.A.), and Zahedan University and Bu-Ali contribution that the Islamic government reluc- University in Hamedan (B.A.). The ICHO has tantly, but silently accepted. Not surprisingly, the also its own training center, with B.A. degrees in nationalism that emerged in Iran during the war several field including archaeology, museum with Iraq demonstrates some of the features that studies, and ethnography. characterized Iranian nationalism in earlier peri- ods. Xenophobia and anguish over foreign inva- NATIONALISM IN IRAN TODAY sions of Iran are among the most noteworthy as- The hostility toward history and nationalism that pects of contemporary Iranian nationalism. With characterized the Revolution of 1979 was inherent- the passage of time, as the Revolution of 1979 is ly incompatible with the Iranian culture. As revolu- slowly becoming an event in Iran's history, and es- tionary enthusiasm diminished, nationalism and pecially since the election of President Moham- concern for history returned. As early as January mad Khatami in May 1997 and the ensuing social 1981, only two years after the revolution, some schol- reforms, the early revolutionary idealism is giving ars called for a rapprochement with history.12 Since way to other concerns, including nationalism and the mid 1980s, with the formation of several institu- Iranian identity."7 tions-both private and government-sponsored- The historical nationalism that was dormant for a devoted to the study of history, and the opening of few years after the revolution is flourishing again. many private and public archives, historical studies Among the issues targeted by the contemporary were rekindled and received enthusiastic response Iranian historical nationalism are, not surprisingly, from both publishers and the general public."13 But the two major events in Iranian history: the Greek- a review of the historical literature published in Macedonian invasion and the fall of the Achae- Iran in the past few years114shows that pre-Islamic menid empire in 330 B.C.E., and the Arab invasion Iran has benefited very little from the recent en- and the fall of the Sassanian empire in 651 C.E. thusiasm, and the majority of historical studies is While under the Islamic Republic, implicit criti- concerned with Iran in recent centuries. cism of the Arab invasion and Iranian conversion to The new Islamic regime also slowly mellowed in Islam may prove to be hazardous; at least one repu- its antagonism toward pre-Islamic Iran. Officials table scholar has tried to present an alternative re- gradually began to participate in national ceremo- construction."1 The other argument-rejecting Al- nies, spoke in support of protection of national exander's campaign in Iran-as an actual histori- heritage, and paid visits to historical sites and mu- cal event,"'9 however, seeks its roots in the historical seums. Reconciliation with Persepolis, however, nationalism of the 1950s and 1960s, and largely came at last, when on 20 April 1991 President Ali- emanates from hardcore nationalist feelings rath- Akbar Hashemi Rafsanjani paid a visit to Persepo- er than professional historiography. lis and wrote in the guest book: Last, but not least, in the past few years the de- bate over the name of the Persian Gulf has become In the name of Allah, the merciful, the compas- sionate contentious among Iranians intellectuals, includ- Visiting the incredible remains at Persepolis pro- ing archaeologists.12" Needless to say, increasing at- vokes considerable national pride in every individual. tempts to distort the name of the Persian Gulf has By seeing these remains, our will discover their people greatly offended Iranians. What Iranians find par- own capabilities and the cultural background of their ticularly disturbing is that these are country, and will believe that they will recover their attempts incited the Arabs and a number of historical role in the future to uphold upon this tal- by supported by ent and foundation, the blazing torch of Islam to Western scholars working in Arab countries. In a the of other light path nations."5 recent paper, Majidzadeh traced the archaeologi-

ICf. Rajabi1981; Takmil Homayun 1981. "'7Cf. Sorush 1996. "'Amanat 1989. "8Hassuri1992. "4 Cf. Ettehadiehand MirMohammad Sadeq 1997. "9Cf. Hami 1984. " Reprinted in Miras-e Farhangi 2 (3-4), 5. 20 Cf.Azarnoush1993; Majidzadeh 1993; Abdi 1994b,1995. "' Brown 1990, 19-20, 88.

This content downloaded from 128.148.252.35 on Mon, 3 Nov 2014 09:40:15 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions 2001] THE DEVELOPMENT OF ARCHAEOLOGY IN IRAN 73 cal connection of the attempts to change the name tion with humanities rather than sciences, which of the Persian Gulf and criticized foreign archaeol- require development of specialized terminology and ogists who switched from Persian Gulf to one of the prose."23In the field of historiography, the old con- illegitimate names after their fieldwork in Iran was spiracy theories are slowly giving way to more realis- disrupted after the Revolution of 1979.12 tic studies based on internal elements of Iranian history.'24In this transitional period in Iranian schol- CONCLUSION arship, archaeology and the study of ancient history Nationalism and archaeology were both import- have proven to be more resistant to this new critical ed into Iran in the 19th century by Western-educat- perspective. One should bear in mind that archae- ed Iranians or the introduction of Western concepts ology and the study of ancient history suffered the and disciplines into the Iranian society. Not sur- most from the Revolution of 1979. Thus it is under- prisingly, for average Iranians, to whom the past was standable that they might be the last to emerge from a living projection of the present, both archaeology the post-revolutionary coma, and, despite consider- and nationalism were difficult to comprehend. The able quantitative increase, both are still among the past and its physical remains were scarcely consid- fields with the fewest practitioners. In the future, ered a subject worthy of scholarly investigation, only the revolution that is occurring in the humanities in as objects of antiquarian curiosity or monetary greed. Iran at the moment may extend to archaeology and Nationalism, on the other hand, was a direct re- the study of ancient Iran, and subsequently to the action to external interference that characterizes character of Iranian nationalism. past and recent Iranian history. It was only natural that with these premises, both archaeology and na- MUSEUM OF ANTHROPOLOGY tionalism would face obstacles as they developed. UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN Nationalism led to political manipulation and na- 1 109 GEDDES ive chauvinism, while archaeology went through ANN ARBOR, MICHIGAN 481 O- 1079 several stages of metamorphosis to emerge as an [email protected] established scientific inquiry. In the meantime, the development of nationalism and the study of an- Works Cited cient history in Iran are marked by symptom of an old chronic that exter- despondency, is, seeking Abbasi, M.R., and P. Badi', eds. 1993. The King of the nal scapegoats for internal perplexities that occa- Road: Diaries of Naser ad-Din Shah's Pilgrim to Holly sionally put Iranian culture into critical situa- Shrinesof Najaf and Karbala.Tehran: Foundation for National Documents (in Persian). tions.'22 Starting from pre-Islamic times, the Greeks Abdi, K. 1994a. "One Hundred and Thirty Years of Ex- or the Arabs were blamed for the Achae- destroying cavations at Susa." Mirds-eFarhangi12:87-106 (in Per- menid and Sasanian empires, ignoring the inter- sian). nal problems these two imperial systems faced. In . 1994b. Review of TheArabian Gulf in Antiquityby times closer to ours, the British, the Russians, and D. T. Potts. Iranian Journal of Archaeologyand History the Americans were resented for their interference 13-14:126-9 (in Persian). . 1995. Review of The the Arabian in Iranian affairs and blamed them for do- Archaeologyof many Gulf by M. Rice. Nashr-iDanish 15:51-5 (in Persian). mestic problems. .1996. "Capitalsof the Achaemenid Empire." In Although the old habit is still alive in some quar- Capitals of Iran: Ancient and Modern,edited by M. Y. ters, a new trend in Iranian scholarship is beginning Kiani, 147-234. Tehran: Iranian Cultural Heritage to look inward, to seek internal problems that have Organization. Abrahamian, E. 1982. Iran Betweenthe Revolutions. Princ- led to the decline of Iran in the recent past. Owing eton: Princeton University Press. to its pivotal place in Iranian culture, students of the Afshar, M. 1927. The Problem of Nationalism and the Persian language are the first to ask the relevant Unity of Iran. Ayandeh(Spring) :560-8 (in Persian). questions. The shortcomings of Persian in coping Atkinson, J.A., I. Banks, and J. O'Sullivan, eds. 1996. with an avalanche of new and terms that Nationalism and Archaeology:Scottish Archaeological Fo- concepts rum. Glascow: Cruithne. marks our era is no longer described as a conspiracy Akhavi, S. 1980. Religionand Politicsin ContemporaryIran. to the of corrupt symbol Iranian national identity, Albany: State University of New York Press. but is diagnosed as Persian speakers' preoccupa- Algar, H. 1969. "Malkum Khan, Akhundzada and the

121 123 Majidzadeh 1993. Cf. variouspapers in Kafi1993; see also Najafi1992. 124 '22Ashraf 1992. For a reviewof examples, see Amanat 1989.

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