The Question of Ethical Decision in and Ethics

Anton Jamnik Revista Cultura Económica Año XXIX • Nº 80 Agosto 2011: 41-53

Marketing raises some of the most widely suggesting a framework according to which and hotly disputed ethical issues regarding present work in that might business. Whether it is , retailing, better be understood and to identify areas of , , or (to future work. The aim of such work must be name just a few marketing areas), marketing twofold: to develop an evaluative response has been charged with engaging in practices to present ethical challenges to marketing, that involve dishonesty, manipulation, invasion and, proactively, to create an ethical theory of privacy, creating unsafe products, as well as to tell us how marketing activities ought the exploitation of children and vulnerable to be morally constituted to avoid those consumers. Two general studies which refer charges. Such an ethics must evade the to these (and other) criticisms of marketing Scylla of irrelevant idealism, but also the are John Tsalikis and David J. Fritzsche (1989) Charybdis of an unwarranted defense of the and Bol et al. (1991). status quo. Accordingly, an ethical theory for In the preparation of this paper, I have marketing cannot limit itself simply to current drawn primarily on articles and books which assumptions about present capitalist markets. are to be found within the “marketing ethics” It must examine these assumptions as well literature. This means that there are numerous as the activities which take place within their other articles and books outside of marketing confines. (This view contrasts with that of (so defined) which have implications, both Robin and Reidenbach 1993: 104), who seek direct and indirect, for the topics and issues to measure the ethical or unethical nature discussed here on which I did not draw. I of basic marketing functions “within our adopted this approach to give yet a further understanding of their history, the times in sense of the state of marketing ethics today. which they are applied, the context in which Whether this shortcut best serves the topics they are applied, the expectations of society, discussed, the reader must decide for him the requirements of capitalism”). or herself. However, because some sort of The creation of a marketing ethics is not marketing activities are necessary in any simply a matter of theoretical interest, but society beyond the most undeveloped, the also one of practical concern. This has been elimination of marketing is not the answer to demonstrated by the creation, in the past the problems listed above. Rather, we must century, of significant regulations and regulatory look to the formulation and implementation bodies to oversee marketing activities, for of an ethical theory for marketing. example the Food and Drug Administration, In the past several decades, a great deal has the Federal Communications Commission, been written about the ethics of marketing. and the Federal Trade Commission. The This article attempts both to provide a brief development of these agencies has been, in overview of the main currents of this literature part, a response to concerns about the ethics and to participate in the development of of marketing. A marketing ethics will provide marketing ethics. I do the latter, in part, by a basis whereby the actions (or omissions)

Revista Cultura Económica 41 of such agencies and regulations may be ethics, to normative and analytical marketing appraised. It will also, however, furnish the ethics without particular notice being given grounds upon which those in marketing, of the transitions involved. The danger is those who are the targets of marketing, and that the criteria which are appropriate for society more generally, may morally judge the one area may not be similarly appropriate to activities and relations marketing engenders. discussions in other areas of marketing ethics. Thus, for example, the standards by which we would judge a discussion of what we mean (or I. Ethics and marketing: initial distinctions should mean) by “honesty,” “confidentiality,” “privacy,” or “vulnerability”, will differ from A marketing ethics will not be a simple thing. those we would use in judging whether a To emphasize this, some initial distinctions marketing researcher who secretly codes concerning both ethics and marketing will survey forms so as to identify respondents, be useful. When people speak of the ethics have done something morally permissible or of marketing, they refer most generally, to morally wrong. the principles, values and/or ideals by which Since we are interested in the ethics of marketers (and marketing institutions) ought marketing, it is also appropriate to say to act. Arguably, these “norms” are the core of something, briefly, about the nature of a marketing ethics, since we are interested in marketing. The nature of marketing was the how marketing morally ought to be organized source of considerable dispute, particularly and undertaken. As such, a marketing ethics during the 1960s and 1970s. Battles raged over is a normative ethics. It tells marketers how whether marketing must necessarily be linked they morally ought to act. However, this leaves simply with market exchanges (Luck, 1969), empirical and analytical (or meta-ethical) as opposed to whether it may be conceived discussions of marketing ethics, which are to include transactions and exchanges of crucial to its normative ethics, without a home. a much broader nature (Kotler and Levy, It would be better to use the rubric “marketing 1969). What is clear is that those in favor of ethics” more broadly to encompass: broadening marketing to include the marketing • descriptive (or empirical) studies of the moral of traditional non-business activities, such as values, beliefs and practices of marketing religion, education and politics, have prevailed. • analytical studies of the nature of ethically As such, the American Marketing Association relevant marketing concepts and the kinds has defined marketing to refer quite broadly of justifications which can be offered for to activities involved in conceiving, pricing, normative ethical marketing claims promoting and distributing ideas, goods and • normative studies of the values, principles, services so as to create exchanges that satisfy and ideals to which marketers should be held. individual and organizational objectives. For Though descriptive and analytical studies the American Marketing Association's definition can be engaged in for their own sakes, of marketing, see Assael (1993: N-l). ultimately they should serve to enhance our Two ethical implications of this development development of a normative ethics. “Marketing are worth noting. First, the ethics of marketing ethics” then, refers to this comprehensive today encompasses a much wider range of study of the ethics of marketing from these activities than before. When religion, politicians three different directions. To develop such a and education (among other traditional marketing ethics would be to respond to the non-market arenas) are viewed as products call by Murphy and Laczniak (1981: 262) for or services to be marketed, the range of a “global theory of ethics”. Unfortunately, ethical questions regarding the ways in which these distinctions are not often made, with marketers' skills and knowledge may benefit the result that the same discussion may move (or harm) its objects is greatly extended. seamlessly from one approach to marketing Accordingly, marketers must address standard ethics to another. The article by Laczniak ethical questions regarding (for example) and Murphy (1991) nicely illustrates the manipulation, truth-telling and freedom over a seamlessness by which discussions of marketing much wider and more diverse area than in the ethics may move from descriptive marketing past. Second, the broadening of marketing's

42 Año XXIX • Nº 80 • Agosto 2011 reach also raises ethical questions concerning marketing do societies such as the US and whether these areas, heretofore outside India maintain? marketing, are being transformed through It should be obvious that a wide range marketing into forms of markets, subject to the of marketing descriptive studies may fall values, standards and expectations of markets. within this category. Such studies empirically Thus, questions concerning the “selling” of investigate a moral value, belief or principle ideas, the “packaging” of politicians, and the people hold, or they investigate empirical commercialization of religion, raise significant conditions which bear directly on the realization ethical issues in their own rights about the of moral values or principles. Accordingly, a moral integrity of these domains. In short, the brief summary of such studies is impossible nature or scope of marketing may not simply to provide. raise particular moral questions regarding However, there is one area of descriptive the instrumental support that marketing marketing ethics which is particularly worthy may give to other areas, but also important of more detailed consideration, due to the ethical questions about the transformation attention it received within the last twenty of the areas to which marketing is extended. years. This is the empirical study of ethical decision making in marketing. These studies take two major forms, which are not always II. Descriptive marketing ethics distinguishable. On the one hand, some have investigated various influences on the ethical A complete marketing ethics, as I have decision-making behavior of marketers. On indicated above, would include a descriptive, a the other hand, researchers have tried to normative and an analytical ethics. Normative devise models which will describe and/or moral discussions of marketing depend, explain the ethical decisions marketers make. either directly or indirectly, on empirical Among the former, the influences on individual ethical decision behavior have matters. Consider the following hypothetical: been divided into two rough categories: suppose that it is morally wrong to advertise individual and situational. The individual to children, if they are unable to discern category includes variables associated with the nature and purpose of the advertising the individual decision maker such as directed at them; suppose that, if various sex, nationality, education, religion, age, marketing activities unnecessarily promote employment, personality, attitudes, and values. environmental degradation or cause the poor The results of these studies are many times to pay more for their products and services, mixed. For example, some find that there is no those activities are morally wrong. distinction between men and women when it The hypotheticals in these claims involve comes to various modes of moral reasoning in empirical questions. It is of no small import­ance, organizations (Derry, 1989; Schminke, 1997), then, for marketers to address such crucial while others find that gender is a significant empirical issues as follows. factor (Fritzsche, 1988; Konovsky and Jaster, • In what ways do advertisements influence 1989). Fritzsche, for example, reported that people? male respondents are less likely to pay a bribe • What cognitive conditions are required than female respondents, but more likely for an individual to discern the purpose(s) to ask for a bribe than female respondents of advertisements? (Singhapakdi et al., 1996: 638). Chonko and • What moral problems do marketers and Hunt (1985) found that female marketers are consumers believe they face? more likely to perceive ethical problems than • What are the effects of marketing on male marketers. However, Singhapakdi and economic development, the environment Vitell (1991) found no relationship between and the poor? the gender of a sales professional and his or • What processes do marketers go through her perception of an ethical problem. The when they seek to make ethical decisions? role of gender in moral decision making • How do customers or marketers morally remains one of the more hotly contested rationalize unethical behavior in the market? disputes regarding influences on individual •What different moral beliefs regarding ethical decision behavior.

Revista Cultura Económica 43 Situational factors include peer group 3) Two kinds of evaluations take place: influence, organizational climate and/or one looks to the inherent Tightness or culture, top management influence, codes wrong-ness of each alternative (deontological of ethics, corporate ethical values, rewards, considerations); and, one considers sanctions, organization size and level, and the probability and desirability of the various industry factors such as industry type consequences of each alternative as well as and competitiveness (Ford and Richardson, the importance of the relevant stakeholders 1994; Akaah, 1996: 605). For example, Akaah (teleological considerations). looked at organizational rank and role as 4) These two evaluations are merged to ethics correlates, and found that “marketing form a single ethical judgment. professionals of lower organizational rank 5) Such ethical judgments impact on a do not differ significantly from marketing person's behavior through the intervening professionals of upper organizational rank in variable of his or her intentions, which may, ethical judgments”. However, he also found however, differ (due to other preferred that “marketing professionals of executive consequences) from what he or she judged role reflect higher ethical judgments than to be ethical. marketing professionals of research role” 6) The resulting behavior may vary from (Akaah 1996: 612). the individual's prior intentions and ethical One concern in such studies is that the judgments, depending on “the extent factors whose correlations are examined to which the individual actually exerts are truly empirically separate, rather than control in the enactment of an intention conceptually linked. It is not obvious that this in a particular situation” (Hunt and Vitell, point is always recognized. It is the distinction 1993). between descriptive ethics and analytical 7) Personal characteristics, as well as ethics. Thus, when Singhapakdi et al. (1996: organizational, industrial, professional and 641) claim that “our survey results generally cultural environments directly influence indicate that professional values do influence a service professional's ethical perceptions in steps 1-3 above. a positive way as hypothesized”, one might While the Hunt and Vitell model encompasses wonder whether an individual having certain many, if not most, of the factors which are professional values necessarily or conceptually included in models of moral decision making, (rather than empirically) involves having others theorists emphasize some steps more certain ethical perceptions. Suppose, for than others or introduce them at different instance, that the individuals in this study had stages. In addition, other models inject not had the appropriate ethical perceptions. various decisions rules (Fritzsche, 1991), Would the investigators conclude that they ideological frameworks, or interpretations nevertheless had those professional values but of moral development which are not part simply did not see the scenarios as involving of the preceding model. In general, all such ethical problems, or (instead) that they did theories move from the recognition of an not have those professional values? ethical problem, to the search for alternatives, The other kind of study of individual ethical evaluation, choice and behavior. However, decision making involves the development of the devil is in the details and here they go explanatory models and frameworks of ethical their separate ways. decision making which seek to identify the The descriptive studies of marketing ethics various steps involved in arriving at ethical noted above and empirical studies of ethical decisions. One of the more elaborate accounts decision making are useful for a marketing is that of Hunt and Vitell (1993), who take a ethics in a variety of ways. The former help cognitive, multi-staged perspective: us to understand the effects of marketing 1) An individual must, first, perceive an on various groups of people, as well as what ethical problem. excuses are used to deflect moral criticism. 2) The individual seeks to identify various The latter help us to see more clearly how alternative actions that might solve the ethical marketing decisions might actually be problem and what their consequences made. The upshot of models of actual ethical would be. decision making may lead to the redesign of

44 Año XXIX • Nº 80 • Agosto 2011 organizational and strategic mechanisms for and justice - are used to criticize marketing improving ethical decision making (Laczniak for various ethical failures. Accordingly, with and Murphy, 1985). Ferrell and Gresham regard to truth, advertisements, purchase (1985) claim that in making these changes, agreements, and promotions have been attacked individual, organizational and opportunity for dishonesty or misleading customers (Carson variables will require attention. Further, et al., 1985; Jackson, 1990). The nature and these models may reveal ethical conflicts and limits of puffery (hyperbole) in advertising has tendencies which marketers would not have been a constant source of concern (Preston, otherwise suspected. As such, descriptive 1975; Pollay, 1986). Marketing researchers marketing ethical studies can play a significant have been criticized for using hidden codes role in directing the attention and research to identify supposedly anonymous response of normative marketing ethical studies. questionnaires, for sending undercover However, these studies do not always investigators into stores to observe the recognize their own limitations. For example, behavior of customers and employees, and for some descriptive studies conclude from the not revealing the nature of their research to diversity of moral decisions they survey, their informants (Crawford 1970; Tybout and that it is impossible to say what is right or Zaltman, 1974; Akaah and Riordan, 1989). wrong (Ferrell and Fraedrich 1997: 105). Studies of the ways and occasions on which Similarly, on the basis of his empirical decision marketers have provided their customers with model, Fritzsche (1991: 851) speculates that correct information about their products are decision makers are practicing situational much less frequently part of the normative ethics rather than absolute ethics. However, marketing ethics literature. these conclusions do not follow simply from The value of freedom lies behind criticisms such descriptive studies. Instead, they are of forms of promotion which pressure or conclusions which can only follow from an coerce vulnerable and ordinary consumers (Beauchamp, 1993). Morally unscrupulous analytical marketing ethics, for instance, a marketers are said not to value the freedom study of the forms of justification available of choice of the elderly, the grieving, and to marketing ethical judgments. In short, the young, when they manipulate them into though descriptive marketing ethics plays a buying what they do not need or understand vital role in any general theory of marketing (Paine, 1983; Gentry et al., 1994). In channels ethics, its relation to normative and analytical of , large retailers are sometimes studies requires close attention. accused of coercing small suppliers to accept agreements they would not otherwise accept. And since freedom is usually understood in III. Normative marketing ethics terms of lack of constraint, the intrusiveness of some marketing activities (e.g. telemarketing Two broad streams of discussion - the during the evening) has increasingly raised applied and the theoretical - address the moral questions of freedom as well as privacy normative ethics of marketing. The former (Morris-Lee, 1996). uses various moral (and non-moral) values and In particular, the development of new principles to evaluate marketing and to engage technologies (computers, scanners, monitoring in efforts to change those practices. These devices) has become a threat to freedom accounts tend to mix, sometimes uncritically, and is one reason that privacy has become a descriptive and normative considerations paramount concern. Thus, many have raised regarding marketing. normative ethical questions concerning the Four basic sets of values are prominently nature and amount of information that can appealed to in these discussions - truth, be gained today through scanning devices, freedom, well-being, and justice - although computer records of credit card purchases, and some marketers still speak of the main ethical Internet purchasing. Once again, normative issues facing marketers as the “key values of studies of the ways in which current marketing trust, honesty, respect and fairness” (Smith practices that involve such technologies might and Quelch, 1993: 11). Most often, in applied enhance the freedom of their customers, are accounts, the values - truth, freedom, well-being relatively rare.

Revista Cultura Económica 45 The well-being of people is partially charge is that marketing has either failed to captured by concerns about the quality safeguard these values or has given one an and safety of products, as for example, the unjustified priority over another. The value Ford Pinto, drugs, pesticides, food, breast of competition, for example, which might be implants. Various motorized vehicles, such captured under freedom, is less frequently as the Suzuki Samurai, All Terrain Vehicles, heard in these accounts (Nelson, 1978). The among others, have been criticized due to importance of efficiency, which might be their performance features, as well as the brought under well-being, is also infrequently ways in which they have been promoted and heard when it comes to the wages of employees advertised (Smith and Quelch, 1993). The or the use of greater amounts of information marketing of tobacco, both in the US and in so as to be able to tailor products to various developing countries (where the percentage specific customers (Maitland, 1997). Right of women smokers and lung cancer in women or wrongly, the pressures that marketers has greatly increased), has been attacked for are under are often not taken into account. its lack of concern for the well-being of its Accordingly, many times the criticisms focus users. In addition, marketers are criticized on individual instances, rather than address for encouraging people to acquire new the systems within which those cases arise. To products, go into debt more deeply, collect this extent, they appear to accept a market new experiences and participate in rampant system but chide marketers for ethical failures forms of consumerism (Korten, 1995; Jacobson within it. and Mazur, 1995). Their accumulation of Theoretical normative discussions information on consumers, through the have sought to formulate the values and various sources noted above, has been said standards to which people ought to appeal to threaten individual privacy (Fost, 1990). in marketing. They also attempt to provide Finally, justice (or injustice) has underlain normative guidelines for managers to follow criticisms of the prices of products, debt in resolving moral disputes as well as in moral arrangements, and the targeting of children. investigations of functional areas of marketing, The marketing of alcohol (e.g., PowerMaster) for instance, marketing research, advertising, to inner-city residents and of tobacco through and retailing. These normative studies come the use of Joe Camel have occasioned strong in two main types. On the one hand, there justice-based objections. Various forms of are normative models of the substantive steps marketing are said to constitute forms of which individuals should take in making exploitation, such as the target marketing moral decisions. Articles on this topic have of certain alcoholic beverages to inner-city become much more prominent in the last blacks and the use of women in the Swedish couple of decades. On the other hand, some Bikini Club commercial. Exploitation of normative accounts, apparently despairing of a very different form has been the charge identifying any small set of moral principles, in developing countries, where marketers simply list a number of normative questions have been accused of paying very low wages which marketers should ask when making to workers, even though these companies moral decisions. frequently pay above the average wage in Examples of the former approach include those countries. Disney, the Gap, Nike and the limited relativist theory of Robin and many other businesses have been criticized Reidenbach. In their view, moral issues in for their policies in the use of foreign labor marketing are to be decided according to and suppliers. These objections raise difficult the actions and policies that promote a questions regarding what is a just wage and the “well-structured and happy life” within the role that local conditions should play in such a constraints of a society's history, capitalist determination. On the other hand, marketing objectives and human psychological limitations has been praised for bringing efficiency and (Robin and Reidenbach, 1993: 102). They economic progress to developing countries. suggest such a marketing ethics is a form of The moral appeal in these cases is both moral relativism, inasmuch as it is constrained to mid-range and fundamental values or by the preceding limitations and relies heavily principles. In each of the above cases, the on descriptive ethics. As such, they reject the

46 Año XXIX • Nº 80 • Agosto 2011 tradition of grand narratives and overarching “the concrete circumstances of actual cases, moral principles such as Utilitarianism and and the specific maxims that people invoke Kantianism. Nevertheless, it would seem in facing actual moral dilemmas”, rather that their view has strong sympathies with than an emphasis on “universal rules and utilitarian moral philosophy. invariant principles” (Jonsen and Toulmin, A rather different approach is taken by 1988: 13). Nevertheless, no one has explored Smith and Quelch, who offer a continuum this connection. of moral decision making criteria (from Laczniak and Murphy (1991), for example, caveat emptor to caveat venditor) which may defend what might be called a multiple provide benchmarks for marketing managers. responsibilities test which involves a “sequence However, they maintain that one criterion of questions” that each marketer should use on this continuum is superior to others for to determine whether a contemplated action ethical decision making: consumer sovereignty is ethical. This test includes questions which test (Smith and Quelch, 1993: 20-34; Smith, ask whether the action is: legal; contrary to 1995). This normative guide is composed of widely accepted moral obligations; violates three sub-criteria: the consumer's capabilities any special obligations; has a harmful regarding understanding the product and intent; imposes major damages on people or purchase decision, the information provided, organizations; is the alternative that produces and the consumer's ability to choose among the best consequences for affected parties; products. This normative guide is, however, of does not infringe on inalienable rights; or limited usefulness. As Smith (1995) notes, it does not leave others less well off (Laczniak can only be applied in a narrow band of issues and Murphy, 1991: 267; 1993: 48-51). They which arise for marketers and consumers. do not claim that if an action passes all these It does not extend more broadly to other questions it is moral, only that the action “is normative issues marketers might face in quite likely to be ethical” (Laczniak and Murphy, marketing research, channels of distribution, 1991: 268). Crucial for this test is that the environmental questions, etc. Further, how implications and effects on all stakeholders much consumer sovereignty (capability, would be weighed. However, they do not information and choice) is required? Must the say how these multiple considerations are sub-criteria of this test be maximized in some to be weighted, whether some ought to have manner or other? Smith and Quelch provide greater weight than others, or what should some tentative suggestions for determining be done when the answers are opposite. It is how adequately these criteria are fulfilled by exactly these difficulties that have driven other referring to various consumer expectations marketing ethicists to take the first approach and preferences. Thus, they ultimately above, which seeks basic normative principles say that the answer is “likely to change as by which to make these determinations. society's expectations of business change” Several general observations regarding (Smith and Quelch, 1993: 34). But then the the above normative ethical studies are consumer sovereignty test provides no means appropriate. First, it is striking that many to judge society’s expectations, which may applied normative studies of marketing offer be unreasonable or even unethical. Further, ethical criticisms with little reflection on the it derives the moral criterion for marketers system within which marketers are operating. simply from the fact of social expectations, an It is also noteworthy that many marketers are “ought” derived from a fact, something which more concerned with consumer complaints requires further explanation and justification. from the standpoint of how to identify and The second normative approach noted above control them so as to enhance the bottom is followed by those who do not propound a line, rather than satisfy them in an ethically single or small number of general principles, but appropriate manner. If there is to be normative instead turn to a list of norm-laden questions ethical progress, both groups need to consider which they would have marketers to ask in their cases more broadly. order to arrive at justified moral judgments. Second, a large number of the scholarly This kind of approach has affiliations with studies of marketing ethics in the US occur casuistry, as for instance, the attention to at the meso level (the marketing institution)

Revista Cultura Económica 47 and the micro level (individual manager and impractical) and Craig Smith (1995: 86) has customer) - which contrasts with the more suggested, in reply, that by focusing on ethical systematic (or macro-level) approach of many issues as they relate to the various functional European business ethicists. For example, many areas of business, for example, marketing, one US marketing texts take the view point of the “...is more likely to produce theory useful to marketing manager. Numerous articles examine marketing decision makers”). managers’ ethical beliefs and also attempt to The topic of the justification of basic develop practical guidelines and theoretical marketing ethical norms has received attention statements regarding ethical decision making in a number of recent accounts. The options by managers. However, not everyone in, or here include skeptical, relativist, objectivist affected fay, marketing is marketing manager. and absolutist views. For example, Chonko If moral reflection is to consider one's action (1995: 39) rejects ethical relativism, which in light of the full circumstances and the he interprets (in an analytical, rather than moral point of view, micro and meso-level a normative, sense) as the view that “no studies carry an important limitation. Thus, ethical guideline has any greater claim to for example, if a marketer claims that the use objectivity and universality than any other”. of “push money” to sales associates “to He understands this means that one cannot present the manufacturer's products to the justify any value judgments at all. Since he store's customers” is a legitimate form of sales apparently thinks that this is so obviously promotion, we might wonder whether they false, he does not argue against it. have overlooked the view point and interests Nevertheless, he maintains that “there are of others, for example, customers. In short, no universally accepted absolute standards...” one might regard “push money” differently (Chonko, 1995: 23). Accordingly, he accepts depending upon whether one saw the retailer some form of descriptive ethical relativism as a selling agent for manufacturers or as a (i.e., people in fact accept different basic buying agent for customers (Langrehr, 1994). moral norms), but not analytical relativism Accordingly, it would benefit the development (all justifications are equally valid). As such, he maintains that ethics requires absolutes of a marketing ethics if scholarly studies took (1995: 20). Then, how are these “absolutes” a broader view, while the practical critics of justified? Chonko says little on this, though marketing ethics would find their accounts he refers to his own Christian religious deepened if they considered the specific preferences and seems to suggest that the contexts or situations within which the issues justification of absolute standards derives they discuss arose. from this religious source. Other marketers have advocated a more relativist or contextualist approach to the IV. Analytical marketing ethics justification of moral beliefs. Drawing on Maclntyre, Robin and Reidenbach (1993) Though marketers rarely characterize defend a view of marketing ethics which is their work under the heading of “analytical bounded by the constraints of history, time, marketing ethics”, this is a distinct area, properly and context. Such an account tells us how identified, for their discussions of such topics to justify normative moral standards, rather as the nature of various marketing concepts, than defend any particular standard. So the kind of justification that can be given to characterized, theirs is clearly a relativist basic marketing moral judgments, whether account. It is for this reason that they speak of marketing ethics is a separate ethics from “boundaries”, rather than principles or values. ordinary ethics, and why marketers ought to Indeed, they reject the use of deontological be worried about being moral. Clearly, these and utilitarian principles, as well as all grand kinds of studies are more theoretical than narratives (Robin and Reidenbach, 1993: 97). applied, but, as others have said, (normative) However, to make their account more marketing ethics has suffered from the lack of realistic, they introduce four other boundary a theoretical basis (Laczniak, 1983). It might be conditions in addition to history, time and noted that Andrew Stark (1993) has criticized context (1993: 101): as being too theoretical (and 1) The constraint of morality viewed as

48 Año XXIX • Nº 80 • Agosto 2011 having the basic purpose of ameliorating made “in relation to the more context specific the negative outcomes of life influences that are exerted by corporate 2) Societal constraints of laws and the culture”. And this leads to this acceptance satisfaction of consumers' needs of the view that “significant disparities may 3) Constraints relating to capitalism arise between the logic of moral reasoning including meritarian justice, the reward of used in private and professional contexts”. risk taking, creativity, and industriousness Thus, Thompson's contextual view rejects 4) Constraints related to human capacities not only the absolutist or objectivist views of and limitations, such as psychological Chonko, but also the bounded relativism of egoism. Robin and Reidenbach. Unfortunately, these additions undo their The upshot is that there is little agreement relativist marketing ethics. First, by invoking among marketers on what kind of justification as the purpose of morality, the aim of creating can be offered for normative moral judgments conditions so that individuals may “pursue made regarding marketing. There is also a well-structured and happy life”, Robin considerable disagreement on whether and Reidenbach (1993: 100-102) provide a marketing ethics is (or should be) separate non-relativist touchstone for the justification from the rest of business ethics - or, indeed, of moral beliefs. And, second, their invocation from the ethics of (non-business) society. Again, of one form of justice and advocacy of certain Chonko (1995: 24) holds that “marketing values (e.g., industriousness) amount to the professionals do not operate under an ethical identification of certain normative bases code different from those of us in society”, a which any marketing ethics must adopt. As position that Peter Drucker (1981) strongly a consequence, their analytical ethics is not defended years ago. However, the result of relativist in the standard sense that an objective Thompson's view is that the logic of the two is justification of moral beliefs cannot be given, different. Robin and Reidenbach (1993: 103) but only in the sense that the justification of claim that a separate marketing ethics must be moral beliefs is relative to the features they developed, that would take into account the identify. But given these values and purpose “mission, constraints, and directives created of morality, this would permit a non-relativist for [marketing] by others...” At the same time, justification of moral beliefs. In effect, Robin marketing's “own” ethical philosophy must and Reidenbach have restricted their relativism recognize “the history, time and context of out of existence. Nevertheless, their paper is its pronouncements”. The upshot of their an explicit and sophisticated effort on behalf view seems to be that the logic of ordinary of an analytical marketing ethics. Where other and marketing ethics may be the same, but accounts of marketing ethics simply assume the results diverge due to the boundary or briefly mention their relativistic views on conditions. Accordingly, the justification of justification, Robin and Reidenbach have basic marketing ethics norms clearly requires looked much more closely. considerably more attention. A somewhat similar approach has been Why should marketers bother about taken by Thompson (1995: 183), who morality? Why should marketing organizations argues that “a person's moral viewpoint... attempt to foster ethical behavior? Laczniak [is] fundamentally entwined with cultural and Murphy have responded by noting the belief and value systems, that is, a person's various significant personal, organizational understanding of ethical dilemmas ensues and societal costs involved if they do not do from a socialized perspective rather than so (Laczniak and Murphy, 1991: 262; 1993: from a detached perspective of society”. Now 6). They also note that “the obvious answer this might be the case in a causal sense, in [is] that being ethical is simply the proper which those who reject ethical relativism could thing to do” (Laczniak and Murphy, 1993: 6). agree. However, Thompson further claims Like all others, however, marketers continue that our moral reasoning and its justification to struggle to find answers to why they or are logically tied to the contexts in which they marketing organizations ought to do the are situated. Accordingly, our assessment of morally right thing, rather than simply the the moral reasoning of marketers should be expedient or profitable thing. Clearly, one of

Revista Cultura Económica 49 the difficulties faced by those seeking to answer What ethical limits should marketers adopt this question is the primacy of self-interested regarding the ways in which they should justifications which marketing (and business) reach customers and how much they should tend to assume. Only if this assumption is know about the customers they seek to reach? successfully challenged, will answers to the Additional technological developments will present question seem defensible. only increase the need for answers to these These studies in analytical marketing ethics already important questions. are particularly important if marketers are to A second important source will be the understand the moral situations and dilemmas increasing influence of global competition. that face them, not only in national but also in Product development, pricing strategies, and international marketing. They need to formulate advertising programs will raise, with greater a theory which tells them when (and which) intensity, questions about the ethical propriety moral principles or standards are justified, of products produced, the prices charged and and whether the domain of that justification the ways in which they are advertised and is restricted to particular societies or extends promoted. The homogenization of lifestyles, to all societies. Do such principles hold, for the sustainability of forms of production, and example, simply for developed (capitalist) the justice of using sophisticated marketing nations or do they hold cross-culturally? Do techniques on those in developing nations they hold regardless of what people believe or who lack experience and training regarding only because of what they believe? These are, such forms of marketing, are important ethical admittedly, theoretical questions of the first challenges which will be increasingly heard. order, but they are also questions which carry Third, the continued expansion of marketing direct practical implications for marketing activities into non-traditional business areas ethics. For example, answers to these problems will serve as an additional source of ethical will affect the positions marketers take on challenges. For example, secondary schools the cross-cultural role of human rights, the are increasingly an arena for marketing. treatment of women, nepotism, gift-giving Principals and teachers have been involved and bribery. Marketing ethicists must face in marketing efforts. Marketers now reach these issues in one manner or another. into churches, not only on behalf of religious institutions but also political campaigns. Further, marketing efforts are undertaken to V. New directions and challenges gain support for legislation, which has yet to come before the Congress. The expansion of Both the ethics of marketing itself and marketing efforts will continue throughout ethical theorizing about marketing will be society - we may become the “marketed” challenged, in the coming years, from a society - on school buses, in schools, embedded number of different directions. Many of the in movies, cartoons and television, on the ethical challenges for marketing will come Internet, wherever people may be reached. from three present sources. Prominent among Some marketers wish to buy the right to name these has been the development of various streets after their companies or products. As technological innovations involving, for example, these efforts and the techniques of persuasion computers, systems which monitor customers' they use become more subtle, powerful and purchases, the Internet, pagers, faxes, e-mail, pervasive, we can be confident that ethical etc. Electronic marketing of books, music, questions regarding marketing will continue medical and legal advice, and education are to arise. among many of the developments which will Challenges to the further development provide increasingly more complex ethical of a marketing ethics will involve continued challenges to marketing. Low-cost television studies on the interrelation of descriptive screens will advertise goods and services in and normative marketing claims. The effort new and unexpected places. New technologies here is to develop a normative ethics that may be developed to permit monitoring would be realistic in order to be applied to what shoppers look at while visiting a store practical situations and yet not simply be a and to alter their moods while shopping. stamp for approval of present affairs. Towards

50 Año XXIX • Nº 80 • Agosto 2011 this end, some have urged that efforts should led to their occurrence. If it turned out that be made to expand the range of theories important changes have been primarily due to relevant to questions of marketing ethics. external moral forces in society, for example, Laczniak (1993: 94) has urged the application monitoring by private watchdog groups rather of more diverse theories: deconstructionism, than internal developments of moral codes, feminism, Eastern Religions, humanistic ethics workshops, or ethics ombudsmen criticism, and non-Kohlbergian models of moral within productive organizations engaged development. He also has advocated greater in marketing, this would have significant cross-cultural explorations and evaluations. implications for future work in marketing These would involve descriptively comparing ethics. In any case, such a self-critical turn and contrasting the beliefs and practices is appropriate if marketing ethics is to know of a wide spectrum of culturally diverse whether it has helped to respond to the many managers and companies. Marketers might current ethical challenges to marketing noted also look to the implications of postmodern at the outset of this article. philosophy (Robin and Reidenbach, 1993). These challenges might fruitfully expand the vision of marketing ethical theorists. References These efforts might have salutary effects on overcoming some of the limitations of Akaah, I. P. (1996) “The influence of orga- current marketing ethics. For example, there nizational rank and role on marketing has been a strong individualistic bias shared professionals' ethical judgments”. Journal by those doing research in marketing ethics. of Business Ethics, 15(6): 605-13. Marketing ethicists have tended to focus on Akaah, I. P. and Riordan, E. A. (1989) “Judg- the ethical decision making of individuals ments of marketing professionals about (usually managers) in marketing. Though ethical issues in marketing research: a this is clearly an important area of marketing replication and extension”. Journal of ethics, the emphasis on individuals has Marketing Research, 26: 112-21. led to the neglect of moral evaluations of Assael, H. (1993) Marketing: Principles & marketing as an institution or activity, as well Strategy, Fort Worth. Texas: The Dryden as the neglect of collective forms of moral Press. responsibility. Indeed, some moral problems Beauchamp, T. L. (1993) “Manipulative ad- at the individual level can only be solved by vertising”. In T. L. Beauchamp and N. E. moving to a higher organizational or system Bowie (eds). Ethical Theory and Business,. level, a move that De George (1993: 97-99) Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. Inc. calls “displacement”. Bol, J. W., Crespy, C. T. Stearns, J. M., and The introduction of a wider range of theories Walton, J. R. (1991) The Integration of Eth- might also expand the amount of effort that ics into the Marketing Curriculum. Need- is expended on international marketing ham Heights, MA: Ginn Press. ethics. Though there has been a number of Carson, T. L, Wokutch, R. E., and Cox, J. discussions of international marketing ethics, E. ]r (1985) “An ethical analysis of decep- these remain fairly modest in light of the tion in advertising”. Journal of Business increasing amount of marketing, which has Ethics, 4: 93-104. international implications and impacts. Chonko, L. B. (1995) Ethical Decision Mak- Finally, marketing ethics is due for some ing in Marketing. Thousand Oaks, CAL: self-reflection on whether, and to what Sage Publications. extent, it has been successful. Has it had any Chonko, L. B. and Hunt, S. D. (1985) “Eth- significant effects on the ethics of marketing? ics and : An em- (Thompson, 1995: 177; Laczniak and Murphy, pirical investigation”. Journal of Business 1993). In short, an important area of empirical Research, 13: 339-59. and analytical research in marketing ethics Crawford, C. M. (1970) “Attitudes of mar- might be to identify those moral changes keting executives toward ethics in mar- which have occurred in marketing over the keting research”. Journal of Marketing, 34 years, and attempt to determine those factors (April): 46-52.

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