JAKARTA - SEOUL SISTER CITIES AND ITS IMPLICATION TO THE TOURISM (2012-2015)
By
PUTRI AYU NINGRUM GUMAY ID No. 016201300117
A thesis presented to the Faculty of Humanities, International Relations Study Program President University In partial fulfillment of the requirements for Bachelor Degree in International Relations Major in Diplomacy Studies
January 2017
PANEL OF EXAMINER APPROVAL SHEET
The Panel of Examiners declare that the thesis entitled “Jakarta - Seoul Sister Cities And Its Implication To The Tourism (2012- 2015)” that was submitted by Putri Ayu Ningrum Gumay majoring in International Relations from the Faculty of Humanities President University was assessed and approved to have passed the Oral Examinations on February 10th, 2017.
Dr. Endi Haryono Chair – Panel of Examiner
Hendra Manurung, SIP., MA. Examiner I
Riski M. Baskoro, S.Sos., MA. Examiner II
ii
THESIS ADVISOR RECOMMENDATION LETTER
This thesis entitled “Jakarta - Seoul Sister Cities And Its Implication To The Tourism (2012-2015)” prepared and submitted by Putri Ayu Ningrum Gumay in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Bachelor of Arts in International Relations in the Faculty of Humanities has been reviewed and found to have satisfied the requirements for a thesis fit to be examined. I therefore recommend this thesis for Oral Defense.
Cikarang, Indonesia, 24 January 2017
Dr. Endi Haryono Thesis Advisor
iii
DECLARATION OF ORIGINALITY
I declare that this thesis, titled “Jakarta - Seoul Sister Cities And Its Implication To The Tourism (2012-2015)” is, to the best of my knowledge and belief, an original piece of work that has not been submitted, either in whole or in part, to another university to obtain a degree.
Cikarang, Indonesia, 24 January 2017
Putri Ayu Ningrum Gumay
iv ABSTRACT
Title: Jakarta - Seoul Sister Cities And Its Implication To The Tourism (2012- 2015)
International Relations as a discipline of major theoretical and analytical approach has established as the paradigm on describing the act of state with diplomacy put as polar system on international relations. Renowned as cooperation, which might be done by the local government directly, sister-city identified as a motion to stimulate tourism growth. The involvement of high-level government officials is integral to the credibility of the relationship. Republic of Korea‟s economic development has grown rapidly, and the cities have been forging sister city links with countries all over the world since the late 1970s. With the purpose of encouraging economic development, Republic of Indonesia has established the regional autonomy in accordance with tourism enhancement and promotes better bilateral relations. Thus, the sister cities movement sees as an important catalyst for tourism development, it can be accounted to foster local, regional, and international opportunities by strengthening the tourism, art and culture, infrastructure and investment within states. The central objective of this thesis is to achieve an understanding of the Jakarta and Seoul sister city relationships, and how to utilize the sister city network for tourism development. This thesis hence investigates the existence of influence the relationships pose to the region while presenting how it changes the country‟s and both cities tourism development. The main focus of this thesis is to elaborate two sides of theory in constructivism and complex interdependence leading of paradiplomacy, which is creating the vision to act as a sister-city or a unifier for many countries along the regional government.
Key words: sister-city, Jakarta and Seoul, tourism development, cooperation.
v ABSTRAK
Judul: Jakarta - Seoul Sister Cities Dan Implikasinya Terhadap Pariwisata (2012-2015)
Hubungan internasional sebagai disiplin pendekatan teori dan analisa, utamanya telah menetapkan sebagai paradigma dalam menggambarkan undang-undang pada negara dengan diplomasi sebagai kutub sistem hubungan internasional. Terkenal sebagai kerja sama yang dapat dilakukan oleh pemerintah daerah langsung, kota kembar diidentifikasi sebagai gerakan untuk merangsang pertumbuhan pariwisata. Keterlibatan tingkat tinggi pejabat pemerintah merupakan bagian integral untuk kredibilitas hubungan tersebut. Pembangunan ekonomi Republik Korea telah berkembang dengan pesat, dan telah melakukan kota kembar dengan kota-kota negara di seluruh dunia sejak 1970. Dengan tujuan mendorong pembangunan ekonomi, Republik Indonesia telah mendirikan otonomi daerah sesuai dengan peningkatan pariwisata dan mempromosikan hubungan bilateral yang lebih baik. Dengan demikian, kota kembar melihat gerakan kota sebagai katalis yang penting untuk pengembangan pariwisata, ini boleh dijelaskan untuk menumbuhkan peluang lokal, regional, dan internasional dengan memperkuat pariwisata, seni dan budaya, infrastruktur, dan investasi dalam negara. Tujuan utama dari tesis ini adalah untuk mencapai pemahaman tentang hubungan kota kembar Jakarta dan Seoul, dan bagaimana memanfaatkan jaringan kota kembar untuk pengembangan pariwisata. Tesis ini maka menyelidiki adanya pengaruh hubungan ke wilayah, sementara menyajikan bagaimana perubahan negara dan pembangunan pariwisata kedua kota. Fokus utama dari tesis ini adalah untuk menguraikan dua sisi teori Konstruktivisme dan terkemuka di kompleks saling ketergantungan dari paradiplomacy, yang menciptakan visi untuk bertindak sebagai kota kembar atau pemersatu bagi banyak negara sepanjang pemerintah daerah.
Kata kunci: Kota kembar, Jakarta dan Seoul, pengembangan pariwisata, kerjasama.
vi ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
These past three and a half months has become a challenging yet valuable part of my life. Where I can learn and gather all my knowledge and develop myself in the same time, this thesis comprises the process and result of my studies and thus, First of all, I would like to thank Allah SWT for His endless blessing so that I can reach the point where I am at now by accomplished my thesis, I might never be able to finish this without the strength from Him.
My greatest gratitude goes to my parents, Ismawi Basim Gumay and Dra. Hj. Herawaty for their existence, prayers, and supports during all this time, and my brother, M. Putra Gerut Gumay who always fun yet cute. Their sense of love leads me to be stronger and guides me to always pursue the greater things in life. They are always taught me the good things in life, grant me happiness, and gave me motivation, hope that I can make you proud of me. They are wonderful people who have no idea how grateful I am to have them in my journey.
I also would like to thank to the greatest adviser ever Dr. Endi Haryono and most smart kindest yet cute person Mr. Riski M. Baskoro for being endlessly excellent to guides me during the process of writing my thesis by providing substantial and structural advice that I could not possibly discovered. By the consultation from them, I had clearer thoughts about what to write next, and I am truly apologize for the absence and mistake that I‟ve made. In addition, I would like to thank to Mr. Eric Henda, Mr. Hendra Manurung, Mr. Makmur Widodo, Mr. Teuku Rezasyah, and Mr. Yugo, it is an honor for me to be taught by all of you, and staff in International Relations study program for sharing these experience and knowledge during the past three years.
Not forgot to mention great people from this university life, Widya HD, as my super duper kindest roommate who always cheerful and fun, Elok Andria Saraswati for the never ending galau and friendship she always offers, Tifany Azza Chairunisa as the most patients‟ friend who share the same problem
vii (sensitive skin) that us needs to survive during our life in Cikarang. I also grateful especially to SMH squad who kindly gave and share with me their joyful, silliness and assistance during the university life, Antonia Juanita, Natalia Stephaine Tiwang and Christine J. Scheele, thank you for sharing all those incredible moments and supports. For my orientation babe who always grant the idea of being happy for everyone, Adristya C. Dewi and Amanda Ariesta, lucky me to have you guys here. Furthermore, a bunch of thanks to my classmate, all the wolves of 2013, our future are coming soon, hope you all success in your own path and let‟s conquer the world!
Also, I would like to deliver an unconditional thanks to Pieter Immanuel Sinaga for always cheer on me, always believe that I can finish my thesis, success in this life and provides me the unlimited support and consolation, no matter what and how, thank you for always be there. Last but not least, thanks to all the lecturers and staff at President University, and may God bless you more.
Cikarang, 24 January 2017
Putri Ayu Ningrum Gumay
viii TABLE OF CONTENTS
PANEL OF EXAMINER ...... ii
APPROVAL SHEET ...... ii
THESIS ADVISOR RECOMMENDATION LETTER ...... iii
DECLARTION OF ORIGINALITY ...... iv
ABSTRACT ...... v
ABSTRAK ...... vi
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ...... vii
TABLE OF CONTENTS ...... ix
LIST OF FIGURES ...... xii
LIST OF TABLES ...... xiii
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS ...... xiv
CHAPTER I...... 1
INTRODUCTION...... 1 I.1 Background of the study ...... 1 I.2 Problem Identification ...... 4 I.2.1 Statement of problem ...... 6 I.2.2 Research Question ...... 6 I.3 Research Objectives ...... 6 I.4 Significance of the Study ...... 7 I.5 Theoretical Framework ...... 7 I.5.1 Paradiplomacy ...... 8 I.5.2 Constructivism ...... 10 I.6 Scope and Limitations of the Study ...... 13 I.7 Research Methodology ...... 14 I.8 Literature Review ...... 14
ix I.9 Outline of Chapters ...... 17
CHAPTER II ...... 19
THE DEVELOPMENT AND CHANGES IN SISTER CITIES RELATION ...... 19 II.1 Sister City Phenomenon ...... 19 II.1.1 Europe and the Sister City movement ...... 20 II.1.2 Views of Sister City movement ...... 21 II.2 The Evolution of Sister City ...... 23 II.2.1 Sister City Part of Foreign Policy ...... 26 II.2.2 The United Nations ...... 28 II.2.3 The Features of Sister City ...... 29 II.3 Rationale Behind Jakarta and Seoul Sister City Relationships ...... 30 II.3.1 Motivations ...... 33 II.4 Summary ...... 34
CHAPTER III ...... 36
THE DEVELOPMENT OF JAKARTA AND SEOUL TOURISM STRATEGIES AND IT RELATION OF THE COUNTRY ...... 36 III.1 Jakarta Tourism ...... 37 III.2 Seoul Tourism ...... 43 III.4 Nature of Tourism and how it fits into the sister city concept ...... 48 III.4 Summary ...... 52
CHAPTER IV ...... 54
TOURISM OF JAKARTA AND SEOUL AND THE DYNAMICS OF SISTER CITIES IN INTERNATIONAL AFFAIR ...... 54 IV.1 Analysis on Tourism Strategy ...... 54 IV.1.1 Tourism within Indonesia and South Korea Context ...... 55 IV.1.2 Economic Benefit from Sister City Tourism Relations ...... 58 IV.1.3 City Tourism as an attraction for tourist context...... 62 IV.2 Critical Assessment on Sister City Tourism Relationship ...... 66 IV.3 International Recognition ...... 68 IV.3.1 International Response on Sister City Tourism Relations ...... 70 IV.4 Summary ...... 71
x CHAPTER V ...... 74
CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION ...... 74
BIBLIOGRAPHY ...... 78
APPENDICES ...... 84
xi LIST OF FIGURES Chapter I Figure I.1Theoretical Framework ……………………………………………….12
Chapter III Figure III.1 Jakarta Tourism Logo……………………...………………………..39 Figure III.2 Seoul Tourism Logo…………...... ………………………..45 Figure III.3 Seoul Tourism Police……………………….………………………48
Chapter IV Figure IV.1 Visitor Arrivals from Republic of Korea 1975-1991…………….....55 Figure IV.2 Visitor Arrivals from Republic of Korea 2002-2014…..…………...56
xii LIST OF TABLES
Chapter III Table III.1 List of Republic of Indonesia Province by GRP Nominal per capita 2015…………..………………………………………...... 38 Table III.2 List of Republic of Korea Province by GRP Nominal per capita 2015…………………………...………………………………………………….46
Chapter IV Table IV.1 Republic of Korea Visitor Expenditure 2011 2014……..….…………………………………………………………………….57 Table IV.2 Data of Budget Revenue and Expenditure of DKI Jakarta in 2013...…….………………………………………………………………………59
xiii LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
AREX Airport Railroad Express Train BPLHD Badan Pengelola Lingkungan Hidup Daerah CDM Construction Design and Management CEMR Council of European Municipal and Regions CNG Compressed Natural Gas COEX COnvention centers and EXhibition halls DKI Daerah Khusus Ibukota EU European Union FTA Free Trade Agreement GDP Gross Domestic Products GRP Gross Regional Products IR International Relations JGS Jakarta Great Sale KEMCO Korea Energy Management Cooperation KOFICE Korea Foundation for International Cultural Exchange KOTFA Korea Travel Fair MDG Millennium Development Goals MOU Memorandum of Understanding NIS Newly Independent States PAD Pendapatan Asli Daerah (Regional Revenue) PATA Pacific Asia Travel Association RPJMD Rencana Pembangunan Jangka Menengah Daerah ROI Republic of Indonesia ROK Republic of Korea SCI Sister City International SCP Sister City Phenomenon SHRD Seoul Human Resources Department SMG Seoul Metropolitan Government
xiv TCTP Tacis City Twinning Program US United States UNWTO United Nation World Trade Organizations WCTE World Conference on Timber Engineering WTTC World Travel & Tourism Council
xv CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
I.1 Background of the study
International Relations (IR) known for its complexity and dynamical structure, considering the characteristics of international system, IR widen the scope toward national and international recognition by defining the political, security and social phenomenon by portray the systems of theory and practice as a major construction concepts. Many theories and philosophy has been appeared and used as a notions in this Political Science study, the nature of state as an anarchy is traditionally described and lies under the chaotic static of political actors mentioned specifically in realist approach, irresistibly the promotion of state‟s interest played a big role in the whole international affair (L. Taya, 2014:130).
Along with the development of IR as a discipline, major theoretical and analytical approach established as the paradigm on describing the act of state, learning from the International Actors concept, Diplomacy has raise as polar system on international relations in a past few decades (L. Taya, 2014:141). According to Garner, Ferdinand & Lawson (2012), in a time of Chinese city states enjoyed some certain autonomy, which seen as a diplomatic practices and one whole alliance system emerged in a multi-state warring system diplomacy, right before Europe did so, where diplomacy contemporary take a form as a methodology, diplomacy shows us as the way of communication process which indicated to covered regions. Not to mention, in this modern era, the International Actors together with the non-state actors have to be able and deal with the rapid changed of globalization in international community. Thus, the transnational relation between sub-state political entities was born as way of collaboration
1 between regional government, local government and other states to share power in order to cooperate.
The transcendental of globalization impacted on the stereotype of State-to- State maneuver, the terms of interactions between states is no longer seen as the only product of Diplomacy, every political instrument of a government has as big as opportunities to the partnership, regional autonomy use as a way of local government to liaise with the world (Duchacek et al, 1988). Within those enhancement, state and local government opening up the inter-city proficiency to establish the new utilizing tools in accordance to fulfill the needs of the city, known as “sister-city partnership” (San Jose City, 1903). In defining what a sister city is in the sister city phenomenon (SCP), Sister City International (SCI) explain that; a sister city relationship can be defined as a partnership which occurs between two communities and also usually between two countries and has the intention of lasting indefinitely. It should also be officiated by the members of the municipalities or regions in question who are recognized as the highest elected or appointed officials, and this should occur from both communities upon the signing off of an official agreement (SCI, 2015).
To recall, the idea of pairing cities together in an agreement, however, started to flourish in the mid-twentieth century. Two World Wars had torn the globe apart, and so people worldwide sought to press the reset button on their international relationships with one another; the SCP was thus proposed as a solution (SCI, 2015). European States, especially France and Germany as two former foes, began twinning their cities, leading to the creation of the Council of
Municipalities of Europe in 1951 (European Commission, 2011). Across the pond, The United States was also eager to join in on peacekeeping and the settling of conflicts, also seeking these linkages through SCI, which was created in 1956 under the auspices of President Eisenhower. Consequently, the linking of nation states worldwide began and bringing together countries, which had previously been locked in combat (European Commission, 2011).
2 Post independencies of Republic of Indonesia (ROI) might be determine as the turning point for the country to reform the International Relations, after the decades of colonialism, Republic of Indonesia‟s First President, Ir. Soekarno, open up the diplomatic activity. In September 1945 he announced Jakarta City Government named to National Jakarta City Government headed by a mayor and later stated on the Law No. 10 of 1964 Special Capital Region Kingdom declared as the capital city of the Republic of Indonesia under the name of Jakarta (Jakarta City Government, 2003). Particularly, stated in Law No. 22 of 1999 and it replaces as this article has been taken over by Act No. 37 of 1999 on Foreign Relations which underscored the role of Local Government to conduct foreign relations (Indonesia Ministry of Foreign Affairs, 2006). Officially by the invitation of mayor of DKI Jakarta, Tjokropranolo, on March 8, 1979 mayor of Jeddah, Mohammad Said Farsi come to talks and establish a sister city partnership continued with the signing of the Memorandum of Understanding (MOU) (Jakarta City Government, 2003). Since then Jakarta officially open up and become part of the global community under the sister city society.
The development of a city also coming from East Asia, Seoul, one of the historical cities in Republic of Korea (ROK) chosen as the capital when Baekje Kingdom dominates the country, the importance of Seoul as a city really started during the Joseon Dynasty and in 1910, the Japanese invasion took the regime of Korea as well as Seoul (Korean Government, 1978). Having the same historical background, not long after the independencies of Republic of Indonesia (ROI), right on the same date but different year, August 17th, 1948, the Republic of Korea is established as the independent country and pointed Syngman Rhee as their First President. With the establishment of Rhee's government, de jure sovereignty also passed into the new government. On September 9, 1948, a communist regime, the Democratic People's Republic of Korea (known as North Korea), was proclaimed under Kim Il-sung (Korean Government, 1978). However, on December 12, 1948, by its resolution 195 in the Third General Assembly, the United Nations recognized the Republic of Korea as the sole legal government of Korea (United Nations, 1948).
3 Jakarta and Seoul similarity is also referred as a center of culture, industry and the economy of a country. Sister city agreement with Seoul began in July 25, 1984 with the signing of the MOU by the governor of the city at the time, R. Suprapto and Yum Bo Hyun (Bangku Sekolah, 2015). Cooperation includes among other areas of the city administration and population control and environmental management, arts and culture programs and employment training programs. Considering that the two cities have the same characteristics in the region, it was agreed to further promote cooperation in sectors of common interest, therefore, sister city agreement had much developed nowadays. Jakarta and Seoul partnership cover various sectors such as exchange of visit among the city‟s officials, organize on traffic and transportation, trade-economic, education, arts and culture, sport, and tourism. Explained by Orada Sinurat, Head of the sub- section of Asia Pacific Cooperation, Inter-City Cooperation Bureau of the city government, currently, Seoul conducts free training for Indonesian workers to Korea as one of the real implementation from sister cities partnership (Jakarta City Government, 2003).
With such incredible history, it is not a wonder why Jakarta and Seoul cities tourism is always mesmerize the world, the tourism strategy from both countries is something to be looked up as the art and culture in the city is emphasize. Coming from the idea of Paradiplomacy, it is indeed interesting that the sister cities movement as an important catalyst for tourism development, as we may aware, Country‟s perspective towards sister cities has been little considered within previous research studies thus, in conclusion the author of this thesis believe the central objective of this thesis is to achieve an understanding of the Indonesian and Korean attitudes towards sister city relationships, and how to utilize the Jakarta and Seoul network for tourism development.
I.2 Problem Identification Republic of Indonesia as well as Republic of Korea used a variety of actor as a model of multi-track diplomacy to realize the objectives of their foreign policy; hence the act of Paradiplomacy is contributed. Paradiplomacy in conducting
4 foreign policy resulted in the emergence of elements of "transcendental" which thins the thick bulkhead that connects international factors and domestic factors in managing the diplomacy (Lecours, 2008). Means, diplomacy is no longer only be understood within the framework of the central role for projecting the national interests of the state to the outside, but also demands the ability and foresight of officials and agencies to "communicate to the outside world developments in the country", thus the term of sister cities applied.
Indonesia has been known for the growth of diplomatic foreign policy, DKI Jakarta as the capital city keen to support those foreign policy by eagerly work with diverse actors such as non-state actors for instance international organizations, Non-government Organizations, multinational corporations, minority groups, individuals and even regional level considered as a potential for the struggle of DKI Jakarta diplomatic method in international relations (Jamal & Robinson, 2009). In other words, foreign relations and cooperation can also be run by traders, businessmen, scientists, politicians, local officials, students, travelers and so on. Of course, foreign relations and cooperation in question must be consistent and must not conflict with country‟s foreign policy.
Not to mention, the rise of Korea as a new world‟s polar become an unavoidable notion, the peak of this movement marked with the Korean Wave as the new cultural approach in all over the world. The famous city Seoul is never seem deserted, crowded with people, the arts and culture of the city advertise internationally as well as the national outbound tourism market is growing rapidly and it is predicted to be the largest source of outbound tourists, which will be placed in this capital city.
The Sister Cities Phenomenon has been develop precipitously in this millennium era, count as the soft power for a country to achieving the national interest, sister city relationship may also play important roles in fostering tourism growth, and are initiators of economic development. Accordingly, this study is to evaluate the sister city relations between Jakarta and Seoul as stated in the document of collaboration between cities (the MOU), although sister-city
5 programs, a cultural and diplomatic relationship between cities are viewed curiously in various countries, fortunately, Jakarta and Seoul, not like many cities, have utilized this cooperation platform as an established development vehicle with thematic and professional focuses on heritage conservation.
I.2.1 Statement of problem
Despite the fact that sister cities are numerous and all over the world, there has been surprisingly little academic research documented in the field of sister city relationships, especially in the context of tourism. There is also very limited research on Indonesian and Korean sister cities. Because of this, this research seeks to create a better understanding of Jakarta and Seoul sister city relationships and their implications for tourism development. This research investigates the tourism potential through the usage of sister city relationships linkages, and how to put that knowledge to practical use. Furthermore, critical issues or problems of Jakarta and Seoul relationships are investigated from the Paradiplomacy logic, and Constructivism point of view.
I.2.2 Research Question
How did the sister cities cooperation contribute in providing Jakarta and Seoul cities to encourage tourism development?
I.3 Research Objectives
The research objectives of this thesis are mostly explanatory in nature. This thesis seeks to:
To critically examine the sister city relationship as a catalyst for tourism growth.
To understand the development of sister city relation in supporting the country‟s tourism.
6 I.4 Significance of the Study
The author of this thesis understands that the research will have two focuses which are the sister city phenomenon development on tourism and it effect on international political relations, thus, will give huge advantages for scholars and/ researchers interested on understanding the practice of Paradiplomacy as the matters in Asia-Pacific, and concerned on producing strategy of policy makers toward country and it local government. This thesis hopes to:
Improve the general knowledge about the functions and benefits of sister city relationships with regard to tourism.
Identifying the objectives, expectation, attitudes and perception of Indonesian and Korean sister city relation towards it country.
I.5 Theoretical Framework
In order to survive globalization, many historic cities are increasingly challenged by their responsibilities to preserve their cultural heritage, as well as keeping the living traditions flourishing under evolving conditions. To increase their capacities and the efficiency of public actions, many cities search for outside partners for institutionalized cooperation and joint actions where also supported by their central government hence, a platform for cities and regions from all over the world to exchange experiences and know-how to assist them in applying more and better-targeted cooperation is profoundly required. Generally, the outline envisions how sister cities relation internal and external environment is providing Jakarta and Seoul tourism development has encouraged the formation on sister city strategy, which influence the dynamic of a country in international system can be deciphered onto the Figure I.1.
Furthermore, in attempt to understand the proper model or framework on analyzing of the thesis, it is a compulsory for the author of this thesis to explain on how the concept of the abstract and the concrete, statement and observation as
7 well as shaping the what we see it and how we see it linkage and allow the author to mention aspect in several theory as fundamental argument and perspective specifically in Paradiplomacy and Constructivism.
I.5.1 Paradiplomacy
Diplomacy refers to a communication process between international actors that seeks to resolve, through negotiation, conflict short of war (White 2005:388). Diplomacy defines as the art on conducting the negotiations between nations, well known and practically becoming the most powerful way over centuries, diplomacy has been develop in many ways, in traditional system the organizer of diplomacy was in a bilateral basis and in secrecy, however, the new diplomacy identified to be less secretive and more subject to democratic control. By this evolution, state also not classify as the only actor in international affair as mentioned in international actors definition since regional governments can be international actors (L. Taya, 2014:120). In the journal Political Issues Of Paradiplomacy: Lessons From The Developed World (2008), the decentralization of political power or administrative responsibilities is a process that is studied mostly for its impact on political institutions and public policy. In this context, sub-state governments (regional or local) are treated as emerging or established actors in domestic politics. This is hardly surprising since regional governments are most noticeable for their design and/or implementation of public policy within the boundaries of their decentralized territory, and for their interaction with the central state (Lecours, 2008). Sometimes forgotten is the fact that regional governments also operate within the broader international context, that they can be international actors. This phenomenon of regional governments developing international relations, often called „paradiplomacy,‟ which has been most visible in Western industrialized liberal-democracies.
In thinking about paradiplomacy in developing, highlighting key decision that should be made and bringing up potential challenges stemming from the development by sub-state units of international relations may become a challenging experience for the state to choose. Regions in many developing
8 countries are already involved in some form of paradiplomacy. Several of Country‟s provinces have engaged in trans-border relations with sub-state governments to manage the movements of people and goods, by the help of Committees of Integration that are coordinated by the Ministry of Foreign Affairs in each country, for instance in India, state governments have negotiated directly with international financial organizations such as the World Bank, the Asian Development Bank and the United Nations Development Program, although these negotiations require the blessing of the federal government (Furmankiewicz, 2005).
Paradiplomacy divided into three layers; first, this layer corresponds to economic issues (Lecours, 2008). In this context, sub-state governments aim at developing an international presence for the purpose of attracting foreign investment, luring international companies to the region, and targeting new markets for exports (Lecours, 2008). This layer does not have an explicit political dimension, nor is it concerned with cultural issues. It is primarily a function of global economic competition. The prototypical example here is the American states whose international activity consists essentially of the pursuit of economic interests. The second layer of paradiplomacy involves cooperation (cultural, educational, technical, technological and others) (Lecours, 2008). Here, paradiplomacy is more extensive and more multidimensional insofar as it is not simply focused in economic gain. These relations, conceptualized as „decentralized cooperation,‟ take the form of development assistance, cultural and educational exchanges, as well as scientific and technical cooperation. The third layer of paradiplomacy involves political considerations (Lecours, 2008). Paradiplomacies with this layer tend to feature prominently the international expression of an identity distinct from the one projected by the central state, here, sub-state governments seek to develop a set of international relations that will affirm the cultural distinctiveness, political autonomy and the national character of the community they represent.
9 I.5.2 Constructivism
Constructivism indeed explains the theory sufficiently of the complexity in IR, the discussion should be focus on constructivism theoretical approach that have historically and currently occupied as the three central position together with realism and liberalism in the study of IR. The original insight behind constructivism is that meaning is “socially constructed”. This is also the source of the label “constructivism.” Constructivism is relatively a new phenomenon in IR theoretical discourse, it was introduced to IR by Nicholus Onuf in 1989 and becoming as the attractive attention for Alexander Wendt (1999) as a major emerging proponent of this approach. Wendt (1999, 396–7) says “a fundamental principle of constructivist social theory is that people act toward objects, including other actors, on the basis of the meanings that the objects have for them.” In a socially constructed world, the existence of patterns, cause and effect relationships, and even states themselves depends on webs of meaning and practices that constitute them. In other words, the example of this argument can be perceived from sovereignty as a social institution in the sense that a state can be sovereign only when it is seen by people and other states as a corporate actor with rights and obligations over territory and citizens (and they act accordingly). The price of sovereignty has changed over time, and the powers and identities of actually existing states have changed as well.
In world politics “social construction” is the position known as “materialism”, which suggests that material objects (bombs, mountains, people, oil, and so on) have a direct effect on outcomes that is unmediated by the ideas people bring to them (Wendt, 1999:390). Constructivism is a theory about how people learn. Based on the work of developmental psychologists, constructivism contends that people construct meaning through their interpretive interactions with and experiences in their social environments. It presumes that prior knowledge and experiences play a significant role in learning and form the basis for subsequent actions (Wendt, 1999:390).
10 In regards with tourism, the constructivism idea is later stimulate the tourism on the question why country believes in tourism and make use of the tourism as reality is the primary source which why this theory necessary after all. Prior to presenting the main ideas in international relations theory, it is a compulsory to define two key terms „cities‟ and „diplomacy‟, which will always be use as the central to discussion. According to the journal meets International Relations (2014), refers to the complex social construction of cities identities (and) behaviors in relation to each other. Fundamental, in the discourse on cities is the notion of power and power dynamics between society. Simply put, using the concept of city, analyze relations of power involving tourism and society, how that power is exerted, and how that interaction has been habitually, historically, and socially implemented over time and so „diplomacy‟ system become perpetuate (Cremer et al, 2001).
Overall, theory says that most of the key players in IR, such as diplomats, policymakers, heads of government, and academic professionals, have been, and still are, actors who come from national social and political backgrounds. Thus, discussions within IR remain largely constrained by those who lack consideration of local community‟s roles in world politics (because they have not been trained to value and include the perspective (Wendt, 1999). Should IR perpetuate the exclusion of cities from its discipline, along with their potential contributions and additional viewpoints, IR will remain a prime example of ideas, norms, concept and assumptions, in both its practice and accomplishments. Indeed, IR is reconsidering itself through the „social construction‟.
Continually, constructivism is an international relations theory, which expands upon the hypothesis of social cultural. Constructivism centers on the investigation of how thoughts regarding „project under construction‟ impact the global politics issues (Azizuddin and Sani, 2014:27). It is the correspondence between two postcolonial theories that mention before which are social and constructivism, and how they both have comparable key ideas in making identities matter in international affairs. Constructivists view relationships of
11 power differently than another traditional theory, which are realism and liberalism. Power and social are considered "integral elements in processes of construction," where as traditionalists believe power to be external. Major critiques in the constructivist presence of global politics have not received as much attention as realist does, however in this thesis the hypothesis of constructivism will be used as simulation and point of view on how tourism in sister cities developed, tends to reveal politics in every aspect of the research process, whether it's absence of action, silence of major concerns, oppression of community beliefs, and the power epistemology has on country tourism preconceptions (Wendt, 1999).
Social cultural & Examine Foreign Policy & Regional Economic Jakarta & Affect Seoul Affect Sister City Domestic Systemic
TOURISM International Sub-State The Jakarta and Seoul Recognition sister city tourism Government development
Figure I.1 Theoretical framework
12 To describe the proper logic and international relations theory in this thesis, the framework visualize how the Jakarta and Seoul sister city relations. This part of thesis provides the role of two paradigms and how both theories functioned. Constructivism will represent on social cultural and regional engagement affecting the domestic analysis by tourism strategy on the cities. Paradiplomacy seeks to explain the influence of foreign policy and economic condition by systemic structural analysis of international actors, which is sub-state government. After forming the theories which apply in the frameworks, the parameter situations oh how the this relation could influences in encouraging the tourism development, in this case, it will be measure by the international recognition and the role of sub-state government as a level of perception in international relations.
I.6 Scope and Limitations of the Study
Remembering the ultimate objective to better identify and analyze the prospect and difficulties of Sister city Relations, the theme has been centered on a particular country focusing on specific time period. The writer would like to limit the research on the Jakarta and Seoul city relation which place importance on developing long-term relationships, thus tourism, cultural and educational exchanges are essential in building up a successful relationship that can lead to economic development. The involvement of high-level government officials is integral to the credibility of the relationship.
Major issues in Indonesia had with South Korea cities are the lack of funding, language barriers and understanding (A. Subakti, personal communication, January 9, 2017). To establish long-term solid relationships with the South Korea, it is proposed that a tourism empowerment plan be implemented (Y. Hermawan, personal communication, January 16, 2017). As the author of this thesis decided the research's scope in order to keep the writing on the track, it will concludes that sister cities can be used as a place for country promotion technique to stimulate tourism growth and country‟s view on the future of sister cities as evolving into integral tools to achieve their goals by peaceful and constructive
13 means. The data taken from the year 2012 until 2015, in purpose to achieve the most effective sister city relationship, discussion and analysis are provided including inter-city cooperation, tourism marketing, projects and funding.
I.7 Research Methodology
Qualitative method is being used in this research in accordance with proper attitude, opinion, arguments and behavior of the theme. The author of this paper decided to use the collaboration between descriptive and analytical type of hypothesis to explain the phenomenon in this research. Descriptive affected on how the author present the variables, the approach to discover the cause, in other words, the author will has no control and can only report on what has and/ is happening during the research. Moreover, analytical research required in order for the researcher to use facts or data available to make a critical evaluation of the material by Individual interviews, observations, action research and data collection from documents, books, research reports and speeches to measure the development of tourism in both cities.
In conducting the research, the author if this thesis mainly uses library research to answer the research question. Analysis of historical records and other documents are essential in the process of making the valid research. The techniques of library research are recording or notes, content analysis, tape or film listening and analysis, statistical compilations, reference and abstract guides and contents analysis, not to mention, the provincial government of DKI Jakarta published many reports and journal regarding their sister city program activities, hence also use as the source of this thesis. There are also many other books and journals assessing the city diplomacy and reveal significant information that are not available in governments report thus, all of the data will be compiled and adapted precisely in order to gain the proper research.
I.8 Literature Review
The sister city concept had various antecedents which allowed for the setting of the stage for the future for the entities which we are familiar with today.
14 From the book, The Twinning of the World: Sister Cities in Geographic and Historic Perspective, Zelinski (1991) suggests that, one of the antecedents includes “political activities of a nongovernmental nature” wherein groups such as Christian missionaries would engage with others across the pond. Secondly, he also suggests that another antecedent could have been the advent of world fairs in the second half of the nineteenth century since one began to see the up rise of groups promoting social causes, including businesses and scientific conventions, contributing to the inference one can make that people began to have increased interest of making agreements with others across borders, as it was profitable. Lastly, he suggests that international relief that has occurred around the world in response to natural disasters and related incidents requiring outside aid could have also laid the groundwork for the Sister City Phenomenon.
From the above explanation, Sister Cites has been acknowledged and as a subject to be discussed in quite long time. Coming from the idea of sister city as mentioned before, source such as literature review is a written product, that helps to explore about what has already been written about a topic as well as what is unknown about the topic. To augment the data and research, books, journal and report is needed to qualify the quality of the information as the verified and valid data, the follow review is use as the epistemology of the topic discussed on the thesis. Among democratic country in South East Asia, Republic of Indonesia has become one of the pioneers in implementing the city diplomacy spirit, noted in early stage of colonialism, Daerah Khusus Ibukota Jakarta (DKI Jakarta), in that time named Batavia, already began its autonomy and collaboration with another countries. Under the Dutch Government, Batavia placed as the most important route for exchange during 1602, country such as English (later known as British) and Portuguese capitalize their trading in Spice as the main industry (Jakarta City Government, 2003). After bankruptcy that Dutch Government has, local government expand their power under the name of the Dutch Batavian Republic which in 1800 work independently, covered most of Indonesian Archipelago territories and in the 20th century form as the Republic of Indonesia.
15 Furthermore, the term city diplomacy or paradiplomacy has been applied to many types of international action by local governments. Nevertheless, it has increasingly come to mean the involvement of local governments in peace building (Sizoo, 2008). According to the book City Diplomacy: The Role of Local Government in Conflict Prevention, Peace-Building and Post-Conflict Reconstruction by Alexandra Sizoo as he mention that:
“The need to analyze the running state of affairs in the world of city diplomacy and is an inspiring aspect to local governments and international organizations is alike, it shall identify and distinguish between the conflict prevention, peace – building and post conflict resolution made by local governments in the domestic scope and beyond the conflicted areas and highlights the weaknesses of those efforts made by the local governments.” (Sizoo, 2008)
The book sure present the author a deep understanding on how Jakarta‟s local government is implementing the paradiplomacy which highlight the legal foundations of city to city diplomacy and states‟ justification in the practice of conducting paradiplomacy by emphasizing the prominent actor of local government in conducting diplomacies between cities that already became an international issue and phenomenon. However, the idea of the book only come from the prevention of conflict and the need to reconstruct a city after a conflict which slightly not quite correlate with the purpose of the topic.
Coming from the concept of the Melting Pot, DKI Jakarta lured by people from all aspects of life, the city is the central of collaboration between contemporary art and modern culture in Indonesia and as the central of creative industry as well. Therefore, all of the things happening in Jakarta, become the national attention and the center of wheel of history and modern life of Indonesia, thus, the tourism sector in this city is potentially increase. In line with this concept, the book Jakarta Capital City Government (1992) Compilation of The Need for Overseas Comparative Studies of Sister Cities of Jakarta‟s mentioning the form of City Diplomacy of Jakarta with many other cities in the world in the form of sister city relationships, the local government realizes it still need many experiences to have a better understanding in city planning by learning from the more advanced
16 cities in terms of technology and professionalism. This book also emphasizes that comparative studies must be done primarily in the Sister Cities of Jakarta to give an advantage for Jakarta itself and its sister cities, it greatly inform the author about the practice of the product City Diplomacy in the form of sister cities and the conduct partnership between each cities which also mention in Jakarta and Seoul relationship that mostly related with the topic of this thesis.
I.9 Outline of Chapters
This thesis is divided into five chapters. The first chapters serves to introduce the reader to the topic of Jakarta and Seoul sister city relation, along with the background information, problem identification, research question, scope and limitations and sofort.
Chapter Two presents the pertinent to the area of sister city relationships. It starts by introducing what sister city related research has been conducted previously and identifies the studies that have acknowledged tourism. The literature review then outlines the sister cities phenomenon, followed by a discussion of the features of sister city relationships and the aims/goals of sister cities around the world.
Chapter Three is dedicated to presenting the tourism strategies in Jakarta and Seoul, and it begins by the discussion on the cities‟ contribution toward national economy benefits, the branding of the city and continue on the activity or project description. Furthermore, the nature of tourism and how it fits into the sister city concept is examined. The logic approach in this chapter would be use constructivism and end with the summary for the chapter.
Chapter four will provide an in-depth analysis on the sister cities cooperation contribute in providing Jakarta and Seoul cities to encourage tourism development. Also, the critical assessment and international responses on Jakarta and Seoul tourism relations and how it will influence the recognition, especially in terms of its purpose to achieving success tourism integration.
17 Chapter five provides overall conclusion of the research, results and synthesis of all analysis of the discourse will be presented in a concise manner as a closure.
18 CHAPTER II
THE DEVELOPMENT AND CHANGES IN SISTER CITIES RELATION
From the ancient times until today, the reinforcement on managing international relations has established as the perfect combination of power and authority expansion for the state. Be that as it may, some element are changed in order to fulfill the needs, yet some still remain in order to conserve it heritage, meanwhile the dogmatic terms in state continue to develop, the way to conduct in politics, economy and socio-culture has gone through a gradual evolution and it is dynamically reserved to be more inclusive. In this chapter, the author of this thesis will focus on the development and the continuity of the Sister City relation through years, followed by the discussion of Indonesia‟s and Korea‟s shift in foreign policies and economic which cause on the reformations of sister city relation.
II.1 Sister City Phenomenon
In spite of the fact that the relationships and links between cities from various nations and regions have a long and extraordinary history, the sister city movement has gained its cutting edge significantly in the late 1960s in Europe by the establishment of the European Union, and later in the United States (US), the government understood the importance of such relations at the local level with the inclusion of people and this was cultivated by sister city (SCI, 2004).
The advancement of the sister cities' movement is hugely credited to US President Dwight D. Eisenhower when he proposed the idea in 1956, as a framework which rotated around a people-to-people program that was gone for enhancing relations between communities around the worlds to encourage world peace. As indicated by Eisenhower:
19 The Sister Cities Program is an important resource to the negotiations of governments in letting the people themselves give expression of their common desire for friendship, goodwill, and cooperation for a better world for all. (SCI 2004, 20-21).
The sister city movement was initially focused on creating peace and harmony between countries. It was believed that remedying problems at micro- levels would help to alleviate the problems of the post World War II. Today, sister city communities have a more extensive viewpoint, such as joining monetary advancement, education and cultural exchanges, thus, Jakarta and Seoul sister city relations also matter those valued.
II.1.1 Europe and the Sister City movement
As mentioned before, Eisenhower was not the first to start the sister city movement notion. The Europeans were the first after the end of World War II to start twinning between cities communities as one of their core values (CEMR, 2002) when an assembly of 50 European mayors convened together in 1951 to set up the Council of European Municipalities and Regions (CEMR). This had the motivation behind joining to modify and rebuild war-torn Europe with the aim of twinning and creating standard twinning contracts (Weyreter, 2003). In facts, it was Europe which pioneered the sister city movement with Germany at the front row, which had built up more than 100 twinning between 1950 and 1951. Weyreter's (2003) thinking was that Germany's political history and its geographical area in Europe were the main contributors for its dominance in twinning (sister cities) movement.
The sister city movement called "town twinning" or "jumelages" in Europe cities which goes for leading the development of European citizenship. The primary interest of town twinning in the European Union (EU) is really to contribute to European reconciliation by creating joint activities on the issues of regular intrigue, such as local integration, the environmental issue, financial advancement and social contrasts (EU, 2004). Along these lines, with a specific end goal to urge city-to-city connections, which would provide the common
20 values among the European nations, EU supports or awards various projects that would contribute effectively to European reconciliation.
Along with the Germany, French also early embracers of the sister city concept, began the process of twinning in an effort to define their interests on the international community. The primary purpose behind twinning was to help promotes world peace especially in the repercussions of the Cold War in the late 1940s (Vion 2002), which was basically a "war" including countries with various philosophies and did not usually lead to direct fight between the country‟s included. At first the French twinning were based in Europe and after that spread out to the rest of the world. To promote global understanding, a new French affiliation was formed in July 1951 under the name "Monde Bilingue" (The Bilingual World) and it received "twinning" as a feature of French-English bilingualism (Vion 2002). The main thrust of this affiliation was to exchanges ideas between different cities, particularly inside England and France, in order to promoting "Global Bilingualism" (Vion 2002).
Weyreter (2003) noted that half a century after World War II there appear to be very few European cities without several twins or sister cities. Today Europe has over 30,000 twinning and is considered to be a key component in international relations at grassroots levels:
Twinning is an essential part of Europe; it is about individuals and local authorities from different countries meeting face-to-face, exchanging information and experience. The European Union is not and cannot be a top down process; it is mainly about half a billion citizens living together. And twinning is the best way to involve citizens in the European Union (CEMR, 2002, p. 4)
There are differing motives or views of the sister city movement, and these are covered in the following section.
II.1.2 Views of Sister City movement
As indicated by Vion (2002) the center point of twinning is to encourage sustainable peace through political means. It is likewise highlighted by Vion that
21 diverse groups had varying thoughts of twinning. The federalists saw twinning as a method for uniting European districts with a specific end goal to guarantee a final political union, while bilingualists considered it to be an approach to advance universalize mutual understanding and to secure the fate of the French language (Vion 2002).
To repeat, diverse zones of the world had differing motives for pursuing the sister city movement or "twinning" as specified, the federalists in European regions had a more political focus while the bilingualists had the belief of facilitator in mutual understanding and protecting the French language.
The San Jose local government takes an alternate view, characterizing it as "an world wide program of linkages between cities in various nations. The general objective of the sister city program is to promote cultural and goodwill between societies through a grassroots program of cultural, educational, professional and economic trade programs" (San Jose City, 1903). San Jose additionally express that a "sister city relationship is a wide based, authoritatively affirmed and long haul association between two communities in two countries". Another definition is put forward by Ringrose (1999) defining sister cities as a progression of linkages between different cities around the world. It is characterized as a "long haul association between communities in various towns or cities. A link is a relationship implying commonality, and empowers partner communities to engage themselves in matters of mutual interest and which they themselves decide. The plan is open." (Ringrose 1999: 9). This is particularly, has also applied in Jakarta and Seoul sister cities cooperation.
The Council of European Municipalities and Regions (CEMR) utilizes "twinning" for sister city relationships, and it is defines as the "meeting between two municipalities to act together within the European perspective, confronting problems and developing increasingly closer and friendlier ties between one another" (CEMR, 2002) while Sister Cities International defines sister city relations as "the involvement of people and organized groups at all levels of the community in personal, citizen diplomacy with the hope that people-to-people
22 relationships, fostered through sister city affiliations, would lessen the chance of future world conflicts, such as World War II" (SCI 1997: referred to in Mackay 1999: 9).
Throughout the years the meanings of sister city relationships have remained fundamentally the same, with friendship and peace as a focus however evolving to encapsulate more economical empowerment goals to remain competitive in this globalized marketplace. Definitions of sister cities have become to be more engaged towards what cities positively expect to accomplish with their sister city relationship.
To know and see each other was the premise of the town-twinning movement that was born in Europe not long after the Second World War to encourage world peace. Today, twinning unites all cities through Europe, connecting them together in an extensive system of citizens. The European Commission goes on to say that twinning provides the opportunity for local citizens to find out more about the daily lives of others in other European countries, talk to them and exchange experiences and to develop projects in common areas of interest that pertain to the environment, economic development and cultural differences. Jan Figel, the European Commissioner for Education stated that "town twinning is an excellent example of what citizens can do at a local level to contribute to the more prominent combination of Europe, it is by sharing our diverse encounters that we become wealthier both culturally and socially" (European Commission, 2007).
II.2 The Evolution of Sister City
Other than the comparable approach of the EU equivalent, in the US an independent non-profit organization was set up under the name "Sister City International (SCI)" in 1967 to represent the worldwide groups that have a sister city organization with the US people. In spite of the fact that authorities support and encourage sister city relations, the advancement procedure incorporates a few guidelines and elements. As indicated by SCI, the fundamental administer is to
23 have one and only sister city in a nation (SCI, 2004). Nonetheless, the unwritten rule is that the two regions/district ought to be generally practically identical in size and that they have the fortitude for getting to be perfect accomplices (Baycan-Levent et al., 2008). Compatibility, thusly, infers some sharing of monetary, social, ideological, historical, recreational, or other sort of concern or maybe some valuable complementarities of interest (Zelinsky, 1991). Zelinsky claims that the decision of a sister city is not an irregular procedure but rather depends on various criteria including "authentic associations, shared monetary, social culture, recreational and ideological concerns, comparable or indistinguishable place names, and, to a certain extent, the friction of separation" (Zelinsky, 1991, p. 1). Additionally, the individual contacts and private initiatives likewise assist on setting up and managing city-to-city relationships (Baycan- Levent, 2008).
The development of relationships in time is classified under three phases, “associative phase”, “reciprocate phase” and “commercial phase”, by O‟Toole (1999). While the associative phase is based on notions of international friendship, cultural exchange and a general international awareness, the reciprocate phase is characterized by the growth of educational exchange systems and the commercial phase is an attempt to take the advantage of the relationship to further local economic aims and yet has discovered as one of the relevant implementation for Jakarta and Seoul sister city relations.
Jakarta and Seoul sister city relationships start by a cross-cultural fellowship, which is additionally prime motive to sustain this relationship; however in time, they have a tendency to make new job opportunity and economic activities (Zelinsky, 1991; Cremer, 1996, 2001; Ramasamy and Cremer, 1998; Ferguson, 2003; Jakarta City Government, 1992). For example, Cremer (2001) alluding to their early integration approach (see also Cremer, 1996; Ramasamy and Cremer, 1998) with regards to political culture, social and economical improvement of sister city connections stated that the cities of New Zealand in the past had established their relations from neighboring countries, i.e. Australia has
24 lately been driven more towards China for new relations where the monetary trades between two countries have expanded, other examples comes from ROK sister cities establishment with the neighborhood country which is, Taiwan and begin to twinning their capital cities in 1968 (SMG, 2012). Moreover, as indicated by the study of Zelinsky (1991), over the pas 40 years, more than 11,000 twinning have been formalized among an extensive variety of communities in no less than 159 countries. Zelinsky additionally noticed that since the beginning of sister city movement in the 1950s, the quantity of sporting and cultural activities has significantly increased and global tourism has developed to include as new destination. In this manner, the municipalities or local authorities have become "business visionaries" with a specific end goal to add to the economic and social dynamism of the cities.
Benefits of the sister city movement however are not statistically stated, evaluated by case studies (Zelinsky, 1990; Ferguson, 2003). Sister city linkages help in improving trade, business connections, investments, tourism activities and personal contacts. The connections developed with less-developed cities in this system consider the adoption of a poorer or struggling city as a humanitarian gesture (Zelinsky, 1990) and direct technical and financial aid flows between sisters cities. Mutual exchanges between sister cities can be defined as both the reasons for and the benefits of these connections. Nevertheless, historical and ethnic connections of cities can be evaluated as one of the main reasons in establishing city-to-city connections.
Against the above-mentioned background, it is obvious that today sister city relationships are beyond the limits of a simple friendship. As well as Jakarta and Seoul sister city, cultural exchange, mutual understanding and reciprocal confidence have led to the creation of new economic bonds for both cities. In this context, success of a sister city linkage can be measured by both the quality and the quantity of the shared activities.
25 II.2.1 Sister City Part of Foreign Policy
According to Sister Cities International (SCI, 2004), the motivation behind why cities are establishing sister cities everywhere throughout the world is the need for a 'global perspective' as the world shrinks. Communities face challenges along with opportunities to remain competitive in this new global environment, thus, the reinforcement of Seoul and Jakarta sister cities establishment most likely to be conduct. The sister cities program is progressively considered to be a necessary part of sub-national government in international relations. Jain (2005) has termed the approach to international relations as the „soft approach where sub- national governments have pursued after international exchange by means of a huge number of grassroots activities. While, as pointed out by Jain, the national government has underlined the 'formal diplomacy' of foreign policy with a specific end goal to accomplish there stated economic, political and strategic objectives, nonetheless ROI and ROK seems to enrich this bilateral relations by the link of sister city.
SCI states that on the most basic level, sister city relationship 'allow citizens to exchange ideas, gain an international perspective and increase their understanding of global issues'. Also, most sister city relationships integrate on the development of economic aspect to the program. SCI additionally support the idea of sister cities construct a solid platform for increase tourism and improvement of cultural awareness. Sister cities can likewise overcome any issues between the developed and third world nations and help facilitated the procedure of world peace (SCI, 2004).
It is widely supported in available literature that the growth of sister city relation, particularly those with Japan in the 1950s, was an integral part of American foreign policy. This American policy effectively integrated American principles into another culture without lifting a finger (Zelinsky 1990, 1991; O'Toole 2000, 2001; Cremer et al 1998, 2001). Yet, Indonesian sub-national governments did not consider sister city relations as a component of foreign policy, and generally have not made a special effort to advance sister city relations
26 (Jakarta City Government, 1992). Be that as it may, in the most recent 20 years, sister cities have changed into a "commodity for local governments to use in their quest for broader economic strategies" (Pickvance 1990: cited in O'Toole 2000:54). As well as in Jakarta, there is a developing pattern of making sister cities more liable through economic returns, for example, tourism, trade, and investment.
As an aftereffect of global interdependencies, the size of IR has extended especially for sub-national governments and this incorporates the sister city relations (Cohn and Smith, 1996). Jain (2005) has shown that sub-national governments of Japan have utilized sister cities as a major aspect of their "soft" way to approach foreign policy or IR. He states:
Economic foreign policy at the grassroots level...push sub national governments towards diverse international linkages through grassroots cultural ties. These actions put sub-national governments well ahead of central government initiatives in this area of international relations (Jain 2005: 63).
According to Jain (2005) sister city relations are basic instruments of "soft" diplomacy and expanding numbers of sub-national governments are using these to accomplish the local goals. To finish up, sub-national governments in their mission for their own particular foreign policy can use sister city relations as they are better ready to achieve the people-to-people linkage than central government. This is on account of they work at grassroots levels and have the pertinent experience and access to assets not accessible to central government. Jain (2005:86) recommends they have "taken international exchange well beyond symbolism into pragmatic engagements that involve cultural, economic and geo- strategic connections and influence national and local policies". Besides, sub- national governments have: "sought after sister city binds to address the local issues, create opportunities for their localities and establish their own role as international actors that constitute positively both to the Japanese nation as well as to their local constituency" (Jain 2005: 86).
27 With Indonesian foreign policy, A Million Friends and Zero Enemy, it does much to help manage its noteworthy development in foreign trade and investment in the sub-national government areas (Indonesia Ministry of Foreign Affairs, 2006). By this establishment of foreign policy, the central objective is empowering in the optimization all aspect that boost the financial benefit for the country, hence, the national tourism is one of the aspect that use as the relevant purpose. It is likewise discloses its hesitance to take sister cities positions as major integral way in conducting the foreign policy of Indonesia supported with the Act No. 37 of 1999. On the other side, South Korea‟s shifting political landscape has had a significant impact in recent years on the nation‟s external relations, including its political and strategic relationship with Indonesia. However, during 2012 until 2015, South Korea foreign policy focused on domestic issues like regulating big business and improving the lot of the middle class. While sister cities seen as the product on stimulating the economy, hence it needed opening up and diversifying, South Korea foreign policy also proposed a more moderate style of reform and consequently, it derive a better promotion for local governments to use in their quest for broader economic strategies (SMG, 2012).
II.2.2 The United Nations
The sister cities concept is presently being used by the United Nations in attempt and alleviate poverty issues using existing and new sister city networks by far and wide. Sister cities or city-to-city collaboration is viewed as a "promising tool for bigger scale activation of cities communities as accomplices being developed and in accomplishing the United Nation's Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) by 2015" (Campbell 2005:1). Such goals include abolishing extreme poverty and hunger and creating a global partnership for development. The city-to-city program with regards to the MDGs is dissimilar to poverty- reducing programs in that it is the results of 'Horizontal cooperation' at the metropolitan level, which is as of now very much created. It is a viable and effective institutional type of participation (Campbell 2005:3). Other extra objectives built up by the United Nations (UN, 2005) to be accomplished by 2015 include:
28 1. Universal primary education
2. Promote gender equality and empower women
3. Reduce child mortality
4. Improve maternal health
5. Combat HIV/Aids, Malaria, and other diseases
6. Ensure environmental sustainability
II.2.3 The Features of Sister City
To conclude section 2.2, the elements of sister cities should be set up. As indicated by Zelinsky (1991) there are various components of unique feature to sister city relationships 1) sister city relationships are framed through the signing of a formal arrangement 2) such agreement are signed with the expectation that the relationship will last indefinitely 3) they are progressing relationships and not restricted to one single project but rather an extensive variety of common projects and activities 4) the majority of people involved are usually unpaid volunteers 5) relationships are carried out at grassroots level and don‟t require or rely on support from national governments. Finally, sister city relationships should consist of “genuine reciprocity of effort and benefit, with neither community profiting at the expense of the other” (Zelinsky 1991: 3). Zelinsky goes ahead to distinguish a several antecedents that strived to set the phase for the approach of twinning. He points out that the World Fairs in the 1850s could have stimulated the requirement for people-to-people exchanges internationally. Likewise, according to Zelinsky (1991) the most recent century has seen the expansion of business and scientific conventions. The International relief campaigns were instigated for the Chicago Fire of 1871, Tokyo Earthquake of 1923 and the Great fire of London have made people-to-people movement on a worldwide scale (Zelinsky, 1991).
29 II.3 Rationale Behind Jakarta and Seoul Sister City Relationships
Today, economic benefits are viewed as more and more vital, with a high number of cities placing the monetary development benefits as the key purpose for establishing a sister city relationship (Smith and Ballingall 2003). However, the local government-to-local government connections are still critical in numerous countries, and these connections have basically centered around cultural, educational and knowledge sharing. According to Smith and Ballingall (2003), a high number of Developing Countries which is Indonesia's active sister city relationships still have this focus, with the economic focus moving towards being the integral objective.
Information technology could be another motivation behind why sister city twin the way they do today. It appears to some extent that Information technology of today unites the individuals (Ahmad, 2001). This is reinforced by Milne (2004) who support that Information technology can upgrade the community advancement and enhance the lives of residents. They demonstrate that sustainable economic development opportunities can be made (Milne, 2004). As per Ahmad (2001) city twinning is the initial phase in the positive direction of achieving global understanding, making utilization of systems of skill and common sharing of thoughts and solution to overcome some regular issues among cities throughout the world. Sister city relationships are seen as an organized and conscious effort to improve long term collaboration and cooperation amongst people in foreign countries, with the overall aim of improving the quality of life in cities (Ahmad, 2001). Jakarta and Seoul sister cities Vocational Training Program is one of the example, Seoul vocational training project for youth is an annual program organized by Seoul Metropolitan Government since 2001 in the framework of the implementation of the cooperation program which grain contained in the MOU Jakarta-Seoul sister city in the field of employment cooperation (Biro KDH & KLN Provinsi DKI Jakarta, 2015). The goal is to provide opportunities to the employees of private companies in the cities of sister
30 city of Seoul (including Jakarta) in order to improve professionalism on academics and business purpose.
Ahmad (2001) proposes the Tacis City Twinning Program (TCTP) as one great case of the European Union initiative to support improvement of market economies and law based social orders in the Newly Independent States (NIS) and Mongolia. The primary point was to transfer expertise and know-how through practical training to enhance certain areas of other countries. For instance, the City of Bristol (England) has exchanges programs with their sister city connections to permit their youth to learn new languages and experience diverse cultures, along these lines advancing between inter-cultural relations and understanding (Ahmad, 2001). Another example also comes from the exchange program of Jakarta city with SMG, the program named „Bro Sis Project‟ which becoming the annual most exciting program for youth where held in Seoul (Biro KDH dan KLN Provinsi DKI Jakarta, 2015). In order to fill the program of cooperation sister city and friendship city of Seoul (including Jakarta), Brother Sister (Bro Sis) project was asked to bring together youths in Seoul to exchange experiences and sharing their views on sustainable development of metropolitan areas (Biro KDH & KLN Provinsi DKI Jakarta, 2015).
Ahmad (2001: 4) stated that twinning (sister city relationship) ought to be created through the "sharing of a common vision and a willingness to take part in significant partnerships". Relationships between individuals of different cities are considered as long term and concentrate on the sharing of assets or resources and adjusting to each other's priorities, strengths and weaknesses to achieve common good (Ahmad, 2001). It was concluded by Ahmad that to have an effective sister city relationship, considerable involvement from the grassroots level is imperative. The TCTP and Bro Sis project gives a chance for local and regional governments to reestablish existing partnerships, along with the creation of new ones between the European Union, the NIS and Mongolia and another sister cities relations. This program is based around decentralized cooperation amongst local and regional government of the NIS and the European Union, likewise the
31 involvement of Jakarta and Seoul government. It endeavors to give co-financing of exchange and transfer of know-how in governments at local and regional levels, by providing local government officers from the NIS and Mongolia with job experience and practical training as well as applied in Jakarta-Seoul Vocational Training.
Duchucek (1990: cited in Hewitt 1999) has shown that world governments have utilized sister city linkages to achieve certain objectives, for example, participating in a range of international activities are aimed for empowering economic and technical advantages. These include:
The organization of foreign trade missions;
Meetings between politicians;
Foreign fact-finding missions;
Overseas trade and investment shows;
The establishment of foreign trade zones;
Participation in international conferences and organizations (Hewitt 1999: 437).
According to the Garrett Wasny, (cited in Mackay 1999:25) sister cities create channels for communities to tap into global markets. Wasny (1996: cited Mackay 1999) outlines steps for rural communities to tap into the global market by the following:
• Organize your own trade mission;
• Host a group of incoming buyers;
• Pursue sister city relationships;
• Influence the influencers;
• Roll out the welcome mat.
32 II.3.1 Motivations
The beginning of human civilization in finding global peace has changed the world in a remarkable pace possible. In any case, it is impossible for a state in a global group not to pursue their national interest in accordance to accomplish all holistic sustainability and international affirmation. The Han people (now seen as "Chinese" people) were the first to develop a nation state concept, based on their ability to write and pre-Confucian concepts of order (Korean Government, 1978). The Han people whom coming up from the Tibetan plateau to the Yellow River basin, and the people on the Korean peninsula (proto-Koreans & proto-Japanese) and many of the neighboring tribes were culturally influenced, and it were peaking during the Tang dynasty. After and during the Tang, the Koreans and the Japanese having incorporated many aspects of the Chinese culture (no longer only Han culture) they went on to develop their own unique cultures (Korean Government, 1978). However, Chinese "base" culture that stayed with the outflow of civilization from early China through out Asia still remains.
The majority of Korean or Chinese sister city relationships are the result of both accomplices looking for new economic opportunities through grassroots cooperation. The Korean or Chinese are additionally extremely keen on getting new technological know-how and high tech through sister city contacts (Jain, 2004). Jain likewise expresses that numerous Korean or Chinese sister cities are built up with the reason for finding out about the local administration and local economic improvement approaches of their new sister cities, in the woods sharing of knowledge. Mackay (1999) also underpins these ideas, backing them up with her research, which demonstrated that enhanced learning base, local government skills and the sharing of information between sisters cities were viewed as important advantages. Nonetheless, a few parts of economic improvement were not viewed as critical, for example, trade and business development. Tourism scored the most support for determined benefits of sister cities, while educational development and the foundation of fellowships had all the earmarks of being the most dominate perceived benefits (Mackay, 1999).
33 On a basic level, the motivations for Chinese Containment where Korean and Japanese are also included, establishing sister cities, as indicated by Cremer (2001) was to look for investment in their economy and the need to enhance the English language abilities. In any case, Cremer likewise indicates out that concentrate on these motivations can utmost and states clearly any sister city interface shaped with China and Korea must have different thought processes than simply economical profit i.e., it must be multi-faceted in nature. In 2013, both Indonesia and Korea hold the sixth round of negotiation for a bilateral Free Trade Agreement (FTA), walking in the same path, Indonesia and Korea is an enormous country that impossible to focus on Indonesia or Korea as just “one” market (A. Subakti, personal communication, January 9, 2017). To be successful, businesses will need to regard each province as equivalent to a „stand-alone country‟ that has their own set of rules, officials and needs. Indonesia needs to develop trade links in the different provinces that have areas in trade and expertise that will benefit Indonesia. This is where the idea of sister cities comes into play, as sister city relationships can act as ideal catalysts for friendship and trade. Korea is continuing to grow at an astonishing rate and the new found wealth of Korean middle class families will potentially create a huge demand for more of Indonesia unique exports and services (Wendt, 1999).
II.4 Summary
This chapter has tried to give a thorough comprehension of the idea of sister cities, and the rationale behind them. Sub-national governments are progressively utilizing sister cities as a major aspect of their international relations munitions stockpile in their quest for local interests, using international exchanges to undertake different grassroots activities. Basically, sub-national governments are becoming to be the key international actors on the global scene and through the medium of sister city relationships. The sister cities concept has evolved from holding just peace and fellowship ideals in the wake of World War II to encapsulating education, economic, technology, and cultural exchanges. O'Toole (2000) highlighted that sister city relationships have three distinct but inter-
34 linking stages. Sub-national governments progressively observe the third stage as a key tool in utilizing financial improvement. Cremer (2001) consolidated O'Toole's model through grasping the idea of municipal-community entrepreneurship.
The fundamental focus of the sister city movement should be to promote world peace and cultural understanding through a progression of series based at grass-roots level, aiming to include involve the local community as fully as possible, with the local municipal government in the background as initiator or facilitator. The role of tourism has an essential part to play that it can act as a facilitator of cultural understanding and tolerance. Depends on upon how sub- national governments can utilize sister cities in combination with tourism, it can lead to the establishment of cultural understanding and meaningful relationships. Thus, a platform is established for economic development exchanges between sister cities.
35 CHAPTER III
THE DEVELOPMENT OF JAKARTA AND SEOUL TOURISM STRATEGIES AND IT RELATION OF THE COUNTRY
The previous chapter has highlighted the role of Sister City Phenomenon in all places of the world as well as the evolution of Sister City in politics and economy. The establishment of sister cities throughout the world provides cities with unique opportunities to develop their tourist product through place marketing (Kotler, 1993). According to the Smith and Ballingall Economic Impacts Study (2003), sister city-related tourism is increasing all the time, thus providing cities opportunities to carve out sister city niche tourism. According to Sister City of New Zealand (2012), the scope and nature of sister cities has undergone a marked transformation over the last decade. Old perceptions and criticisms have been replaced with new ideas and drive to make sister cities work at grassroots levels. One most notable change is the level of strategic and quality planning now displayed in sister city relationships and the dramatic increase in activity reflected in thousands of people exchange movements annually. Hence, that strategic plan is now applied in numerous countries networks, Thereby, this chapter will provide the explanation of the development of several region‟s strategic environment and the significance of certain actors‟ interests in the region towards Sister City development by revealing the latter‟s relations and engagement with contending regions and major actors related with the establishment of Jakarta and Seoul tourism strategies.
36 III.1 Jakarta Tourism
As the capital city of Republic of Indonesia, it is an urge for the people to know exactly the Jakarta city is not just a place to work, to live and to exploit, but also a place to be enjoyed unconditionally. The term of unconditional cannot be resist with what we see on the perspective of the not so conditional aspect, in here the capital city should be the one whom take over the term and condition it self to embrace people in order to compose what capital city may give. Indonesian Government already aware on the importance performance of the capital city, as the vital city who contribute on the increasing number of Gross Regional Product Nominal (GRP Nominal) towards Indonesia‟s Gross Domestic Product (GDP) among all the city in the country, Jakarta sure take a significant role. For ROI, tourism accounted for 4.06% of GDP amounting to IDR 6.4 trillion and 7.4 million jobs (Kemenparekraf, 2011). The government also revised its visa-free access policy in 2015 to attract more foreign tourists; in 2015 the Indonesian government conceded an extra 45 countries visa-free access to Indonesia (Presidential Regulation no.69/2015 on Exemptions of Visit Visa) in attempt to support the tourism industry (Indonesian Government, 2012). Previously, citizens of these countries needed to get a visit visa before entering Indonesia. In March 2016 the amount of countries for which residents are permitted to enter Indonesia without a visa was raised again through Presidential Regulation no.21/2016 on Exemptions of Visit Visa, which means there are currently a total of 169 nations that not require a visa to enter and remain in Indonesia (for a most extreme time of 30 days).
The GDP, both at current and constant prices, is an important economic indicator to measure the economic condition in a given period in a country. According to the latest statistic of Indonesia‟s GRP Nominal, Jakarta‟s GRP Nominal worth IDR 1,983,420.5 or USD 143.79 with equivalent on the economic of Belgium country (WTTC, 2016). Along with the analysis of World Travel & Tourism Council (WTTC) stated that the tourism industry in Indonesia accounted for 9.1% of the total Gross Domestic Product (GDP) in 2012, even in 2013
37 increased to 10.1% of Indonesia's GDP (UNWTO, 2016). While the contribution of tourism (hotels, restaurants, trade) in GDP by an average of 16%, roughly the same as the role of the agricultural sector in each year. Through these contributions, the average annual foreign exchange earnings from tourism activities generally are ranked three or four national, after exports of oil and gas, exports of textiles and apparel as well as palm oil exports.
The role sub state government, nonetheless provincial government has give a biggest impact toward regional tourism development, by the help each autonomy in the region, tourism of every city is known to support the national tourism to be more eager in attracting tourist.
Table III.1 List of Indonesia province by GRP Nominal per capita 2015. (bps.go.id) The list (Table III.1) tells that the top 10 regions from Indonesian province who has been contribute to the growth of national economy in 2015, based on the rank per capita, DKI Jakarta‟s GRP Nominal is the highest with IDR 174,824,110 or USD 14,726.99, follow by East Kalimantan as the second place with GRP Nominal worth IDR 155,136,650 or USD 13,068.53 and Riau province as the third place with GRP Nominal per capita is IDR 109,832,520 or USD 9,252.17 (BPS, 2015). With this achievement, it is renowned the industry in DKI Jakarta has been develop significantly every year with the largest number to subsidize the DKI Jakarta‟s GRP Nominal from trade, transportation, financial sector, and
38 services sector, according to official website of DKI Jakarta. The sister city concept which applied in this capital city is intended for the economic development, in the fields of business, education and culture, including one issue or more which are important in the scheme of sister city, as well as crucial industry for the country which is Tourism.
It is important for the tourism industry of Indonesia upgrades its commitment towards the country's GRP Nominal and GDP since it will trigger more foreign exchanges income (as each foreign visitors spends between USD $1,100 and USD $1,200 per visit on average) while likewise providing work chances to the Indonesian people of each province (based on the latest Statistics Indonesia, the country's unemployment rate remained at 5.81 percent in February 2015) (WTTC, 2016). It is assessed that almost nine percent of Indonesia's total national workforce is utilized in the tourism sector. The number of foreign tourists visiting Indonesia‟s capital city per year, an average of 1 million people, in 2015, the number of visitors Jakarta approximately 1.4 million people. In the last few years, the per day tourists who come around is 3,000 to 4,000 people with response of visitors in 2015 is approximately 2,011,5 million, which approximately 39% was obtained from the accommodation (BPS, 2016).
Figure III.1 Jakarta Tourism Logo
With the huge support from the central government, DKI Jakarta‟s has established the tourism strategy with the tagline „Enjoy Jakarta‟. With the potential city on becoming a place to do business with leisure, Enjoy Jakarta has become the branding of Indonesia‟s bleisure destination as well as to replace the previous tagline “Jakarta: We do care” which seem to be less relevant with an
39 external background in the city (Disparbud DKI Jakarta, 2009). This rebranding program is positioning the Jakarta city as a modern capital city with rich history and multicultural society which will give an enjoyable experience to customers (tourist and business investors), this rebranding program purposely to improve the image of DKI Jakarta which tend to leave negative impression for the last few years, in addition to enhance people to visit DKI Jakarta, through this tagline, the tourism department of DKI Jakarta would like to introduce Jakarta as a city of global quality tourist destination.
The program "Enjoy Jakarta" is a brand created by the provincial Government of DKI Jakarta and Jakarta tourism and culture (Dinas Pariwisata dan Budaya) on March 21, 2005 as a form of cooperation in order to develop Trade, Tourism, and Investment (Disparbud DKI Jakarta, 2009). Branding for trade or trade is a bid on the abundance of opportunities in the areas of trading ever since Jakarta as Indonesia resources and become one of the city's port. Investment i.e. Jakarta as a thriving metropolitan city with a wealth of historical and cultural traditions of the community offers a range of investment opportunities because of its role as a financial and commercial center for Indonesia's economic growth.
Tourism, i.e. DKI Jakarta as the rapidly growing metropolitan city with a wealth of historical and cultural traditions of the community offers the experience of cultural, artistic and educational sessions that reflect the diversity of society Indonesia through museums and attractive cultural program activities. DKI Jakarta as the capital of the State, Government and business center, in the Medium Term Development Plan Jakarta (RPJMD) 2013-2017 mandated that the development direction and development to be achieved is as the "Service City" (Disparbud DKI Jakarta, 2009). The appeal of DKI Jakarta has created economic activity continued to rise nearing 20 percent of the Gross Domestic Product (GDP) of the National so that almost no other region in Indonesia were able to attract businesses to invest (BPS, 2014).
Through the strategic plan for tourism development of the tourism industry and cultural elements that can serve as a tourism attraction, it is expected as a
40 driver of the economy and the perfection of people's income, the community needs to be satisfaction with things inward, a conducive business climate in order to guarantee the tourism activities, as well as investment opportunities in order to increase tourism activities with the support of other facilities as well as increasing the regional revenue (A. Subakti, personal communication, January 9, 2017). DKI Jakarta from the beginning was greatly benefited by its position as the capital of Indonesia, due to presence as the administrative center, the city of Jakarta gradually flourished into a business city and eventually into a knot of business activities in Indonesia. Almost all of international company, which operated in Indonesia, is placed their headquarters in Jakarta. As a knot of existing business activities in Indonesia, Jakarta dominate as a place for business travel and tourism from various countries. Business traveler uses the opportunity for touring the city while run the business is one of the reason fostering the tourism revenue, especially concerning accommodation and various entertainment venues (A. Subakti, personal communication, January 9, 2017). According to the survey of, the visitors who come to DKI Jakarta very impressed with the shopping center, the famous wine and dine, as well as evening entertainment, which makes competitiveness Jakarta, boost to other cities in Asia (BPS DKI Jakarta, 2009). Thus perception of the city bringing up the idea that social construction is the position known as materialism.
Tourism and culture of Jakarta has also been implementing a marketing program through advertising on Jakarta's tourism both in print and electronic media. Jakarta also has an official site about tourism Jakarta, namely http://jakarta-tourism.go.id in order to be easily accessed by tourist to know information of tourist attraction owned by DKI Jakarta and "Enjoy Jakarta" is one of the marketing strategies of DKI Jakarta in the market potential attractions (A. Subakti, personal communication, January 9, 2017). Tourism strategy DKI Jakarta also located on the facilities and attraction to meet the needs of the city with shopping, 74 mall are scattered in various regions and county provides a range of branded products, not including thousands of shopping centers consisting of 153 traditional market and 23,000 modern markets where 14,000 of them is a
41 minimarket business group while the rest is the supermarket (BPS, 2015). The ease with which DKI Jakarta has to offer is help tourists to continue to implement trade without limits of time, during a year. Provincial government of DKI Jakarta staged several national and international events to attract tourists. The Organization of the event in the framework of the program "Enjoy Jakarta" DKI Jakarta provincial government support to promote the city tourism of Jakarta, many tourist destination cities in Jakarta that have not been optimized for its potential as a tourist attraction that draws and prospective enough. The Event Calendar Program "Enjoy Jakarta" among others are "Enjoy Jakarta" Food Festival, Enjoy Jakarta Great Sale (JGS), Enjoy a Sports Festival Jakarta, Pekan Raya Jakarta, Jakarta Marine Festival, Enjoy Jakarta Music Festival, the Festival of Heritage and Enjoy Jakarta Fashion Week (Disparbud DKI Jakarta, 2009).
Not limited to just the city tourism, beach tourism has also become an tourist attraction to come to the capital city. Jakarta has a cluster of small islands scattered in the waters of the Bay of Jakarta and is the nautical tourism area. Pulau Anyer, Putri, Koto, Sepa, Matahari and others have been developed as a "Resort Island", transport, accommodation and other support facilities such as equipment for water sports and dive has been available to support tourism activities (Disparbud DKI Jakarta, 2009). In addition to the beauty of the island and water activities that can be enjoyed by the tourist, these islands have the building remains since the 17th century of Netherland colonialism, though most now live rubble foundations course.
Though the tourism strategy seems to be normal on enhancing the synergy that the city offers such as infrastructure, entertainment and transportation, Jakarta seems to emphasizing on the tourism to be more gender friendly. With the rich culture and art, Jakarta provide traveler the beauty of traditional culture, women in this city known to be more enjoy with the art festival, lot of music festival and art performance are conduct in purpose to attract the women visitors, not to mention the performance artist also mostly done by a woman dancer. Known for the habits of shopping, women will always appealed with the sale or discount that offers;
42 hence one of the events named Jakarta Great Sale has been popular as a tourist attraction. In terms of security, Jakarta provide their tourist with the special privileged, there is a public transportation that purposely made for a women passengers, even in the public area, there is a park space that created specifically for women to use. The role of women also capitalize in the context of law enforcement officers, women police is placed right in the heart of the city in order to be construct the image of the city.
III.2 Seoul Tourism
The growth of South Korea's tourism industry, in turn, has prompted to a steady improvement in the quantity of international visitors to South Korea (hereinafter referred to as "Korea"). Korea is a popular vacationer goal for Japanese and Chinese guests, which both combined account for very nearly 60% of aggregate global guests in 2015. The geographic closeness and alluring tourism offerings take into account short getaway visits, especially the capital city Seoul. The Korean tourism industry is driven by the cultural trend called "Hallyu" or Korean wave. Beginning from popular media including performing K-Pop artist and TV shows where continuously spread to enterprises, for example, cosmetics, food, hardware, and so on. As indicated by the Korea Foundation for International Culture Exchange (KOFICE), the Korean wave impact on generation incitement was assessed to be around, KRW 15.6 trillion (USD 14bn) in 2015 (WTO, 2016). Among the various territorial tourism goals, Korea consistently positions as top 5 destinations for Chinese travelers throughout the previous 3 years.
The Korean Peninsula juts into the ocean amongst China and Japan. The west coast of the Korean Peninsula is bound by the Korea Bay toward the north and the Yellow Sea toward the south; the east drift is limited by the East Sea (Korean Government, 1978). Two hundred kilometers of vast water isolate the Peninsula from eastern China. The Japanese islands of Honshu and Kyushu are found 206 km toward the southeast. The aggregate zone, including the encompassing islands, measures 99,720 km2, of which around 99% (96,920 km2) constitutes the land region of the Republic of Korea (Korean Government, 1978).
43 There are around 3,000 islands having a place with the Republic of Korea. Jeju Island, which lies off the southwestern corner of the Peninsula, is the nation's biggest island. Most of the Korean populace of around 50 million does not hone any religion (43.3%), trailed by Christian (31.6%) and Buddhist (24.2%) (WTO, 2015).
Seoul is the capital and biggest city of South Korea. At a population of more than 10 million, the city is home to more than one-fifth of the South Korean population. Seoul is the heart of the nation's economy, governmental issues and culture with a rich history spreading over 600 years (Korean Government, 1978). Because of the advantageous air get to and aggressiveness of Korean air transporters, Seoul has been the primary benefactor of the 'Korean wave' phenomenon, greeting the majority of tourist to the country. With the help of Korean artist and K-pop, the purpose of the tourist remain dynamics, the holiday or vacation tourist seems to be replace with the fan girl type of travelers, they will come to the city in accordance to come to their „hallyu star‟ concert or even come to their entertainment office (KTO, 2016).
The city is served by two central airports, which are Incheon International Airport, and Gimpo Airport. Incheon International Airport opened in mid 2001, replacing the international functions of the old Gimpo Airport (KTO, 2016). The Incheon International Airport serves as the national center point for international arrivals, currently adjusted by 69 aircrafts, offering network to more than 160 destinations worldwide with yearly limit of 44 million travelers (KTO, 2016). Incheon airplane terminal is additionally connected with the local High Speed Rail System KTX, providing access to all major cities in he country. Gimpo Airport associates the city to mostly domestic destinations and five nor cities in East Asia that are located with a range of 2,000 kilometers - Beijing, Shanghai, Taipei, Osaka and Tokyo (KTO, 2016). The airport is currently served by five domestic aircrafts and six international aircrafts, with a yearly limit of 34.7 million travelers (IMF Korea, 2015).
44
Figure III.2 Seoul Tourism Logo (KTO, 2015).
The branding of Seoul is always ultimately unique, different with Jakarta, the brand of the city conduct by a polling that Seoul Metropolitan Government (SGM) done. The new slogan I.Seoul.U replacing the previous slogan Hi Seoul, which seem to be less relevant because at 2002 the slogan was choose by the politicians (KTO, 2015). This new slogan emerge the existence of two individuals where Seoul is placed in the middle of this co-exist. Numerous fruitful promoting efforts utilize popular superstars and influencers, for example, bloggers, to drive mark the information. In that capacity, item situations in prevalent Korean dramatizations and theatrical performances are usual, with their impact reaching out the coasts of South Korea. Most consumer substances and administrations in South Korea are supported by Korean big names while control bloggers were every now and again used to drive familiarity with substances and administrations (KTO, 2016). Despite the fact that South Korean customers knew that these bloggers are a piece of the showcasing procedure, their supports were still an imperative road for statistics on substances or administrations (IMF Korea, 2015).
Goals are additionally contending to expand their share of the lucrative Korean outbound market by working with media accomplices and VIPs. This is an approach that has turned out to be powerful. For instance, the "Boys over
45 Flowers" TV travel arrangement has driven go to the highlighted goals, profiting markets, for example, Taiwan, Peru and Croatia (KTO, 2015). It is very interesting because again, with the help of Korean artist, the Seoul branding is widespread. Seoul also popular with their cultural heritage, In spite of the fact that it is currently one of the extremely biggest cutting edge cities on the planet, its downtown region is encased by notable dividers that were initially worked more than 600 years prior and contains various important verifiable legacy including Royal Palaces, fortress gates, and old residential districts (Korean Government, 1978).
Table III.2 List of ROK province by GRP Nominal per capita 2015. (WEO, 2015)
Seoul has a very develop economy, and work as the business and monetary center point of South Korea. However, from the table III.2 we can see that Seoul represents just 0.6 percent of the country's territory range, 48.3 percent of South Korea's bank stores were held in Seoul in 2003, and the city created 23 percent of the nation's GDP general in 2015 (WTTC, 2016). In 2008 the Worldwide Centers of Commerce Index positioned Seoul No.9. The Global Financial Centers Index in 2015 recorded Seoul as the sixth fiscally most aggressive city on the planet (KTO, 2016). The Economist Intelligence Unit positioned Seoul fifteenth in the rundown
46 of "General 2025 City Competitiveness" with respect to future aggressiveness of cities (KTO, 2015).
Today, Seoul is viewed as a main and rising worldwide city, coming around because of a financial blast called the „Miracle on the Han River‟ which changed it to the world's fourth biggest metropolitan economy with a GDP of 845.9 billion in 2014 after Tokyo, New York City and Los Angeles (WEO, 2015). In 2015, it was evaluated Asia's most reasonable city with the second most astounding personal satisfaction all-inclusive by Arcadis (KTO, 2015). A world driving innovation center point fixated on Gangnam and Digital Media City, the Seoul Capital Area gloats 15 Fortune Global 500 organizations, for example, Samsung, the world's biggest innovation organization, and also LG and Hyundai- Kia (WEO, 2015). In 2014, the city's GDP per capita of $39,786 was practically identical to that of France and Finland (IMF Korea, 2015). Positioned 6th in the Global Power City Index and Global Financial Centers Index, the city applies a noteworthy impact in worldwide undertakings as one of the five driving hosts of worldwide meetings (WEO, 2015).
Seoul is the world's most wired city and positioned first in innovation preparation by PwC's Cities of Opportunity report (PWC, 2014). It is served by the KTX rapid rail and the Seoul Subway, giving 4G LTE, WiFi and DMB inside metro autos. Seoul is associated through Airport Railroad Express Train (AREX) to Incheon International Airport, appraised the world's best air terminal nine years in succession (2005–2013) via Airports Council International (KTO, 2015). Lotte World Tower, a 556-meter (1,824-foot) high rise with 123 stories, has been inherent Seoul and turn into the tallest in 2016, with the world's tallest craftsmanship gallery (Lotte World, 2014). Its Lotte Cinema houses the world's biggest film screen. Seoul's COEX Mall is the world's biggest underground shopping center.
47
Figure III.3 Seoul Tourism Police (KTO, 2015).
Again, the Korean tourism has acknowledge the role of every tire of social level which here, women on constructing the city, the tourist police of the city is known for their beauty, it might seems jeopardize but this kind of perception should discontinue, Seoul would like to use their beautiful tourist police as a first tourist friend (KTO, 2015). With this, women are people affected by and contributing to historical and contemporary society. Just like experiences of men are important, and people of other ethnicities, so is the study of women and the way they have contributed and been effected by society is recognize. Korean culture has renounced the patriarchy concept from 632 when the first queen Seondeok is coronate to rule the country and this recorder as the big (Korean Government, 1978). Different with Jakarta where there are a lot of women‟s privileged, the Seoul city offered their tourist for enormous gender equality, which can be seen, from the first female president elected who offers the big number of opportunity for women in the workforce hence, stimulate the shops, restaurant and cafeteria to established, and so the „gastrodiplomacy‟ begin.
III.4 Nature of Tourism and how it fits into the sister city concept All the accessible writing on sister cities that perceives the significance of sister cities in the role of economic development underpins the idea tourism is an undeniably critical economic substantial advantage that collects from city-to-city relationships (Zelinsky 1991; Cremer et al 1996, 2000 2001; MacKay 1999; O'Toole 2000, 2001; Ramasamy and Ramasamy 1998, 2005; Smith and Ballingall
48 2003; Foley 2005). Cities can make use of sister city relationships as 'place promotion' tools to promote themselves as destinations. Cities are progressively in charge of their own marketing, and need to discover proper strategies that make them stand out in a globalized marketplace, which is overflowing with competition (Kotler 2002). As indicated by Kotler (2002) places or communities which embrace and effectively actualize strategic planning will rise as strong economic contenders. Kotler likewise highlights that a place's capacity to secure a unique and positive images in the vast Asian market is a vital part of strategic place marketing and sister city relationships along with special occasions can provide the springboard needed to accomplish this. Sister city relationships permit communities to promote and market both their community as a destination and particular attractions that it possesses (Kotler et al 1993: 213). To comprehend what precisely place promotion is and how sister cities can potentially be utilized as one of a scope of place promotion tools, a definition is presented as "the conscious use of publicity and marketing to convey selective images of specific geographic localities or areas to a target group" (Ward and Gold 1994: referred to in Morgan 2004: 174). Place promotion can be sought through a variety of areas; the most widely recognized being through promoting, Internet and brochures and also through co-operation with media, movie rights, and traveler agencies (Morgan 2004). The sister cities system can potentially be a region that place-promoters or sub-national governments can utilize in the quest for economic and tourism improvement. As per Ward (1998: referred to in Morgan 2004) place promotions has three approaches: the marketing approach, the public policy approach are considered and the critical approach. Within the context of this thesis the combination of the marketing and the public policy approaches are considered, with an emphasis on the public policy approach. The public policy approach is concerned with the use of place promotion to encourage economic development, for example through urban tourism and mega events such as the Olympics (Morgan 2004).
The Seoul 1988 Summer Olympics represent as one such special event that offer a huge opportunity for Korea to promote and market itself to the world; it is
49 a chance for Korea to create a brand new image of itself, revolving around food, culture, business and their tourism products (Kotler et al 2002). It is recommended by Kotler et al (2002: 93) that a people marketing strategy is the most ideal one for marketing of a place and this can interpret on five structures: 1. Famous people, 2. Enthusiastic local leaders, 3. Competent people, 4. People with an entrepreneurial profile, 5. People who have moved to the place. The available literature recognizes the potential of the role of tourism, however does not offer much in depth detail on the best way to utilize sister cities as a springboard for tourism improvement in the respective cities.
To further elaborate on special event, Getz (2004: 410) states that they can corporate the following event such as festivals, cultural celebrations, sports, exhibitions and fairs, conferences, political and state occasions, entertainment, arts and cultural performances. If the event done accurately, special event can enhance a city's image and help to make it stand out. Accordingly, cities of today are progressively marketing themselves through this kind of special events. There is evidence of sister cities today utilizing the special event as mentioned before to attract the city tourism, for instance, the Sister City Basketball tournament which held by Jakarta as host city, this championship purposely invites the countries and cities that become 'Sister' of Jakarta such as Tokyo, Bangkok and Seoul (Jakarta Governance, 2011). Unfortunately, special events using the sister city links are very limited and is an area worth exploring.
Fry (1999) perceives tourism as an integral part of the economic growth strategies for a number of the sub national governments in the North American region. As indicated by Fry (1999) the sub national governments are utilizing international tourism as a 'stepping stone' for the improvement of exchange trade and investment linkages in other countries. Fry states: “Officials consider that if well-to-do foreigners visit their regions and have positive experiences, they will be more likely to consider establishing business ventures in these same regions” (Fry 1998: 83). Besides, Fry (1998) expressed that few states have established 'regional compact' agreement to promote tourism. One illustration Fry gave was a
50 joint marketing group that devised a 'Discover New England' (USA) tourism strategy which effectively attracts foreign visitors to the 'New England region'. Another illustration was a joint tourism program between Oregon, Washington and British Columbia States, which promoted a 'two nation vacation' (Fry 1998). Korea pursued an agreement along similar lines when on August 12 2014, Seoul and Copenhagen signed a tourism agreement with the goals of sharing practice and knowledge in relation with tourism as well as to promote the two cities (The Post, 2014). According to Jensen Frank, who is the City Mayor of Copenhagen:
“Seoul is a huge city that is growing, and with the agreement we hope that even more South Korean tourists come to Copenhagen, this agreement is questionably one of the most strategic initiatives activities for Copenhagen‟s future tourism and an extremely energizing development in the connections between our cities and countries” (The Post, 2014)
Other similar agreements include the Seoul - Hokkaido tourism agreement that was signed in October 2010 (Seoul Metropolitan Government, 2010) and the Seoul agreement with Bangkok to jointly promote tourism for Korean visitors (KTO, 2016). However, unlike the Seoul - Hokkaido agreement, these agreements do not have the local municipal element and are coordinated by the Korean central government. The Seoul - Hokkaido agreement could set a precedent for other municipal governments in the approach to tourism promotion between two cities.
As for Indonesia, the main objective of foreign policy is to promote and develop tourism as a contributor to economic development, international understanding, peace, universal prosperity, human rights and fundamental freedoms for all without distinction of race, sex, language and religion. Central government has assisted as members in the world tourism industry, which is believed to be an important factor in stimulating economic growth and create jobs, provide incentives for protecting the environment and historical heritage, and to promote peace and understanding between nations. Given the mainstay tourism is one of Indonesia as a foreign exchange earner, cooperating in international and regional forums such as the United Nation World Trade Organization (UNWTO) and the Pacific Asia Travel Association (PATA) is very important, especially to
51 collaborate training, investment, and exchange of experience. As one of the concrete forms, the Ministry of Tourism and Creative Economy as a focal point UNWTO in Indonesia, actively participate in various programs organized by the UNWTO, among others sit as a member of the World Committee on Tourism Ethics (WCTE) in 2003-2007 and 2007-2013 (Indonesia Ministry of Foreign Affairs, 2014). WCTE itself is an independent body consisting of figures recognized competence in the field of tourism, which is tasked to provide inputs to UNWTO members related to the protection of tourism in accordance with the code of ethics of tourism. Recently, the UNWTO General Assembly 19th in Gyeongju, Republic of Korea, 8-14 October 2011, Indonesia was elected as a member of UNWTO Executive Council for 2011-2013 (Indonesia Ministry of Foreign Affairs, 2006).
III.4 Summary
This section covered the Jakarta and Seoul tourism context in very detail terms; it discussed the opening and reforms of the Jakarta economy by the enhancement of it regional autonomy when the role of sub-state government has been established to officially spread out the paradiplomacy in international relations. These opportunities can be realized through sister city relationships and briefly affected on the tourism development, it can be realized that Jakarta and Seoul direct link confirmed to be one of the pillar for Jakarta sister city relations. The Jakarta tourism industry has very understood the Seoul visitors and provides them with quality and interactive tours with the branding of enjoyment that Jakarta offers. Since Jakarta sub-national government has been granted the freedom whether in activities, project and etc., they have been establishing multiple advantage on sister cities around the world. The aspect of tourism can certainly measured by the GRP per capita that Jakarta contribute to the national GDP each year, as the largest city where supporting the national GDP, Jakarta tourism shall remain popular as a tourist destination who motions the beauty of the city.
52 Along with Jakarta, Seoul tourism has been enormously popular destinations in Asia, with the help of Hallyu or Korean Wave, Seoul visitor‟s numbers are growing rapidly, mostly for the reason of sightseeing the city. The proportion of specific holidaymakers is not small and growing fast, the people‟s interest toward Seoul presenting the movement of South Korean entertainment as an appealing for tourist destination. The independent travellers market is very huge and the rise of South Korea economy is able to cater this huge number of market, at present, the opportunities to increase is because of the branding of its city, with I Seoul U, the city would always gives visitors a warm relax metropolitan atmosphere with rich culture that offers. Through the approach of constructivism, in this chapter we can clearly see the aspect that can segment the leverage existing relation of sister city in gender lens.
During the continuality on the tourism, it is best for us to understand the nature of tourism and how it fits in to the sister city concepts. Jakarta and Seoul present the sub-national government as a key tool in leveraging the economic growth, cities in here use as a 'place promotion' tools to promote themselves as destinations where cities are progressively in charge of their own marketing, strategic promotion in pursuit of local interest, thus, event and sport festivals, cultural celebrations, exhibitions and fairs, conferences, political and state occasions, entertainment, arts and cultural performances can be one of the important attraction for tourist to embrace. It shows that if the event done accurately, special event can enhance a city's image and help to make it stand out. The section have outlined the historical patterns of the sister city concept, while likewise it tend to addressing the foreign policy and tourism context which has served to enhance the understanding of the sister city concept and its potential roles.
53 CHAPTER IV
TOURISM OF JAKARTA AND SEOUL AND THE DYNAMICS OF SISTER CITIES IN INTERNATIONAL AFFAIR
Altruistic. The only word that can describe the act of nation in international relations perfectly same, no nation is altruistic enough to control their role-play. As we may aware, the cooperation is always meaning to aimed on achieving some strategies and goals, the nature of each goals of the country might different but still as mentioned in the previous chapter, internal and external condition is changed the initiations of it relation. It has shown the changes of Jakarta tourism into a very accountable prospect for various developments by forming international relations. Within the same spirit, Seoul has opened up it tourism and eager to challenged in order establishing international community. The continuity for the future elaboration should be engage with the commitment from both cities, thus, in this chapter, the author will examines the alteration of sister city relation of Jakarta and Seoul give to the tourism development which impacted on the society as well as the international affairs. Does the relation influence the tourism implication? Furthermore, how does the sister city cooperation fit in benefiting the countries and becoming an image for the sister city relation initiation? In order to answer those, the author of this thesis lays down the discourse on paradiplomacy logic. Subsequently, this chapter will observe the sister city cooperation and the response of actors to its establishment to understand how it affects the relation of sister city in international affairs.
IV.1 Analysis on Tourism Strategy
Understanding the nature of tourism is extremely important elements to identify the success of a nation long way with the sub-state relations. The needs to properly utilize the sister city relationships as a network can potentially spearhead
54 the two way of advantaging both actors, more jurisdiction on the decision making, coupled with the special economic zone, this has to be the exact strategy to prosper the relation of sister city and yet it is compulsory to analyze thoroughly and put a basic foundation on how it successfully implemented. Hence, analyzing the tourism strategy and it impact for both cities and the relation will affiliate the whole cooperation of sister city in tourism enhancement.
IV.1.1 Tourism within Indonesia and South Korea Context
As we may aware, tourism has been affecting as one of the main economic contributors of sister city relationships where sub-state government independently arrange their autonomy (Smith & Ballingal 2003, Foley 2005) it is relevant to dedicate an introducing section on overview of tourist visitors from Indonesia and vice versa so that the role of tourism within sister city relationships is justified.
At the end of December 2014, 370,142 Koreans visited Indonesia, making it Indonesia‟s seventh biggest market for tourism behind China, Japan, Hong Kong, Taiwan, Philippines and Thailand. This is quite impressive when in 1975 only 1,106 tourists from South Korea visited Indonesia (Figure IV.1); the number was increased rapidly until 1991 with 21,048 visitors from South Korea to Indonesia.
Figure IV.1 Visitor Arrivals from ROK 1975 -1991. ( Source: Statistic Korea Tourism Organization)
55 As can be seen from figure IV.1 the development in Koreans visitors is noteworthy, and this pattern is set to continue. 1984 is the year of MoU Jakarta and Seoul has officially signed and the number of Korean visitors slowly to increase. The rapid growth can be seen start to happening in the early 1990s and this marks the time when Minister Susilo Sudarman as tourism minister in the late 1980s (1989-1990) launched (officially 1991) the 'Sapta Pesona' which is an essential requirement of man in general, including us as the 'host' and tourists as the 'guest' as the main strategy to develop the Indonesia‟s tourism. To the extent that the Department of Culture and Tourism was when it was named, and until now still called, as 'Sapta Pesona Building'. With the help of news whether in written or electronic, Sapta Pesona started proclaimed itself as a tagline of Indonesia as a tourist destination, which provide the friendly atmosphere and beauty of Asia.
Continue in the early 2000, the Korean visitors arrivals indicate a slight weakening over 2002 with 210,581 visitors and decrease a year later to 201,741 visitors during 2003. However, this was happened due to the Bombing and Terrorism outbreak in Indonesia which impacted the travel market, the tourism sectors was knock down to the lowest number during the years of incident. The market recovers slowly after a few countries withdraw the Travel Warning to come to Indonesia. Furthermore, it is evaluated that travel to Indonesia continued on increasing at a rate of 20% per annum for the following five years (Figure IV.2), which is vaguely lessened from earlier years.
Figure IV.2 Visitor Arrivals From ROK 2002 – 2014. (Sources: Badan Pusat Statistic)
56 Supported with the Presidential Regulation Number 18 of 2003 on Visa Free for visiting Indonesia, as amended several times and latest by Presidential Decree No. 43 of 2011 shall remain valid with South Korea as one of the 75 Country Visa Free to travel to Indonesia. As can be seen from the figure IV.2, 2013 and 2014 has becoming the highest number of ROK tourist arrivals. In 2013, Indonesia received 717,784 tourist arrivals, with 343,627 tourists from ROK a 2.4 percent increase compared to 311,618 in 2012. The annual growth of ROK travelers promptly increase by 4 percent in 2014, with 370,142 tourist arrivals and 47 percent of the number has been visited DKI Jakarta (BPS, 2016). During 2015, the number of foreign tourist foreign exchange revenue exceeded the target at IDR 163 trillion (11.9 billion USD) or the attainment of foreign exchange of 113.2% of the target set (Rp. 144 billion). It is forecast that ROI will get 789,000 guests from ROI by the year 2020, and this speaks to an aggregate increment of 124% or 12.2% every year. These determined forecasted figures would make ROK the fifth biggest tourism advertise (TRC, 2006c). The Tourism Research Council's International Visitors Forecasting report recognized a solid development potential in the East Asian locale however distinguished concerns in regards to growth management and financial yields connected with a few markets (TRC, 2006c).
Table IV.1 Republic of Korea Visitor Expenditure 2011 – 2014. (Source: Badan Pusat Statistik)
From the visitor expenditure perspective, it is renowned that South Korea is Indonesia‟s ninth largest sources for expenditure visitor per trip with US$ 14,896,010 million was spend in December 2014 (BPS, 2016). In the 2013/4 the average spending by Korean Tourist was US$ 1,137 counted as the highest average of all the countries (see Table IV.1) with the cumulative growth 21,1 percent. Korean could influences this high figure on short term educational stays
57 or exchange student/participants in Indonesia (TRC, 2006a). It pointed out that the quantities of Korean guests is accomplished in view of a restricted number of agents in a few cities in South Korea who can offer visits to Indonesia (Seoul Metropolitan Government, 2015), which means the open doors for expanded numbers Korean guests are more noteworthy when limitations are lifted. As per the Tourism Research Council (TRC, 2006c) the standpoint for tourism from Korea is empowering and the Korean market can possibly get to be distinctly one of Indonesia's biggest tourism markets, yet have to be advised that it should be manage carefully.
It is clear that cities operate and compete in a different world today, By 2030, it is anticipated that the worldwide urban population will reach 75 percent, and more than 90 percent of global GDP will results from the urban activity (WTTC, 2016). As per research by WTTC, 33% of the world's GDP will originate from only 100 cities. At the heart of this change is globalization, which is expanding trade owns amongst region, and is shifting monetary power towards the emerging economies, precisely, the cities of these regions.
IV.1.2 Economic Benefit from Sister City Tourism Relations
The fact of economic benefits of sister city relationship are important has been proven from a long time ago, as confirm by a economic report by Smith and Ballingall (2003), which makes it more reasonable according to people in general and local government bodies alike. Tourism is an undeniable monetary advantage that can be measured, thusly in this research the concentration is guided at using sister city links to enlarge tourism potential without compromising the original goals of expanding cultural understanding and global fellowships.
According to Jakarta City Government (2015) there is an unmistakable economic contribution from Jakarta sister cities as in-bound visitors in 2015. The exceptionally moderate figure was IDR 4.3 billion for that year. International students from Jakarta's sister cities contributed in any event IDR 2.7 billion from 2012-2015 (Jakarta City Government, 2015). With the pending exchange students
58 and governmental staff between Jakarta and Seoul, and the stable growth of Jakarta‟s visitors to Seoul, both cities are hoping to solidify and reinforce their current sister city connections alongside building up new linkages. Tourism will be a major assistance that accrues from Korean sister city links.
Figure IV.2 Data of Budget Revenue and Expenditure of DKI Jakarta in 2013. (Jakarta Officials Website, 2011)
However, there is a contrast fact that half of the councils had a budget of less than IDR 60,644,437,030 or US$ 4,552,547 billion and six councils had a nil budget or under IDR 20,576,820,000 US$ 1,544,691 billion. Ramasamy and Cremer (1998) states that to support and develop a worthwhile sister city relationship government needs a budget of at least IDR 333, 024,730 or US$ 25,000. Hence, the economic benefit to be derived from the relationship is important resulting the budget correspondingly must be higher.
To-date, sister cities have primarily been utilized for educational exchanges (particularly as the Korean want to send their student overseas) and limited trade/economic exchange (Smith and Ballingall 2003; Cremer et al 2001). This gives a totally open scope to tourism. Nevertheless, as mentioned before, research and information about Korean sister cities is very limited (Y. Hermawan, personal communication, January 16, 2017). This absence of data means that
59 cities (Regional Tourism Organizations-RTOs, Councils, and so on.) have little data to use for establishing and maintaining effective and prosperous sister city relations. Subsequently, by enhancing the understanding of Jakarta and Seoul sister cities and their implication for tourism development during this research, the relationship between Jakarta and Seoul has give a critical perspective on how the work of paradiplomacy might affect the commitment of a sub-state government relations.
With a specific end goal to have effective relations of sister cities, cities need to precisely evaluate and distinguish common areas and cooperate all the time. Furthermore, local community attentiveness of sister city is basically imperative if the city going to grow and prosper. No to forget, the local people need to take responsibility for sister city relationship and guarantee it doesn't turn into a "junket" for local body politicians, a criticism which has been leveled at sister cities programs in the past (Cremer et al 2001). The most effective method for citizen to be more aware is to give them the ownership of the relationship as well as for the council administering for example the Jakarta Provincial Government; to ensure the relationship is handled through a community-based committee and yet should be separated with the government body.
Nonetheless, the development of Jakarta and Seoul sister city may measured by the expansion of areas cooperation since the first signing of MOU. It can be seen in 2012, the implementation of economy and technic cooperation where Jakarta Provincial Government and Korea Energy Management Cooperation (KEMCO) established the collaboration in the field of low-carbon economy (Biro KDH & KLN Provinsi DKI Jakarta, 2015). KEMCO and PT. Jakarta Propertindo (one of the Jakarta provincial government regional enterprises) working together in constructing several Compressed Natural Gas (CNG) stations in Jakarta region, by 2013 it is expected to be followed by programs / projects in the field of audit and energy savings as well as new programs and renewable energy deployment in residential, buildings, industry and transportations, Construction Design and Management (CDM) project
60 development and human resources training programs which empowering the regional business to be growth (Biro KDH & KLN Provinsi DKI Jakarta, 2015). In 2014, the short course program which held by Seoul Human Resources Department (SHRD) named „International Training Program on Sustainable Environment Management‟ in Seoul was continue after a gap of over two years since the first time in 2008, this training program aimed to increasing the knowledge and insight of human resources of the Jakarta provincial government through a real implementation in the forum so that the results in the implementation of development projects in the city can be held properly (Biro KDH & KLN Provinsi DKI Jakarta, 2015). Despite of the fact many short course was held for instance „The International Training Program on Eco-friendly Urban Transportation Policy‟ in Seoul, the knowledge from the course is seems to be more relevant with the employment exchange programs for both city government through Jakarta-Seoul employment program, however the programs is no longer held due to some issues (Y. Hermawan, personal communication, January 16, 2017).
In the field of academic, exchange program is not the only product of Jakarta-Seoul cooperation. SMG and DKI Jakarta provincial government have program named „Seoul‟s Master Degree Program‟ which make the government official can attend schools with postgraduate scholarships especially in the field of Public Policy Management (Y. Hermawan, personal communication, January 16, 2017). This program has provided the opportunity for municipality‟s of Seoul sister in improving knowledge, and in 2015 the quota given to the Jakarta administration to increase the number of participants from 2 local government officials per batch to 5 local government officials (Biro KDH & KLN Provinsi DKI Jakarta, 2015). Given the importance of the program, the achievement of which is in reach by Jakarta provincial government is very beneficial and not only in the economy but also in professionalization of local government employees in the areas of local administration. With this progression of cooperation, the Korea Travel Fair (KOTFA) and Hi Seoul Friendship Week, which initiate by Jakarta-
61 Seoul sister city relations becoming more appealing to promote Jakarta city as the tourist object and as facilitator to uphold the tourism industry for Jakarta.
IV.1.3 City Tourism as an attraction for tourist context
One of the challenges for city tourism research is to reexamine a large number of the presumptions, models and structures at present in vogue inside the more extensive area of Tourism Studies (Jamal and Robinson, 2009) in the light of prevailing theoretical in the field of social science. The most recently published book city tourism entitled 'Tourism: Change, impacts and opportunities' (Wall and Mathieson, 2006) is in reality an investigation of country and treads the well-worn way of ideas of city tourism, characterizing city tourism and strategies for analyze that phenomenon. Coming from the idea of the book, Jakarta and Seoul can be seen as an example of city which empower the city tourism as an industry that oversees and markets a various product and experiences it to people who have an extensive variety of motivations, preferences and cultural perspectives and are included in a dialectic engagement with the host community. The result of this engagement is an arrangement of consequences for the tourist, the host community and the businesses. All things being equal, while tourism happens in urban communities, as in different situations, this in itself does little to clarify the conceivable connections and communications amongst tourism and that multifaceted element, the city.
A key issue highlighted by Wall and Mathieson (2006) is how much change can be attributed particularly to tourism as opposed to non-tourism action. At the end of the day, Jakarta and Seoul find that the issue of progress and the impact of tourism do not center the talk around the urban way of city tourism and how, in this manner, it is characteristically not quite the same as rural, mountain, seaside or numerous other topographically differentiated tourisms. Assuming this is the case, and then what are the particular attributes of all or a few city areas that shape city tourism. The plural is necessary due to the fact that city tourism is not like other adjectival tourisms. The additional adjectives such as „cultural‟ (festival or art), „historic‟ („gem‟) and even „congress‟, „sporting‟, „gastronomic‟, „night-
62 life‟, and „shopping‟ could all precede „city tourism‟ as different clusters of urban features and services are utilized in the service of an array of tourism markets (Wall and Mathieson, 2006). This diversity lies at the center of the relationship between the city and the traveler yet is just a single portion of the between activity. If tourists make use of almost all urban features, they make an exclusive use of almost none. Therefore, understanding city tourism is dependent upon a prior comprehension of the urban context in which it is embedded.
Nothing less than a city view itself count as tourism, Jakarta and Seoul has been separately maximize their tourism to attractively gain the visitors by providing the enjoyment of metropolitan vibes. The question raised on why are tourist should be attracted to cities or who is this city tourist is a very common, hence, there are three major problems that have hampered attempts to answer these two stereotype questions. Initially, to reverberate a point effectively made in a different context, visiting a city and being attracted by its urban components may not be the same. Essentially, travel has developed massively and consistently in the recent years and quite of this has definitely involving cities if only because they contain the significant concentration of transport, accommodation and other travel related infrastructure that support that traveling, as highlighted in the various leveled distinctions amongst world and non-world cities. People simply travel more, and not just for tourism, and a visitors attracted by non-urban tourism encounters will nonetheless spend time in cities and yet the reversal is not the case. Accordingly it can't be expected that all tourist in cities are, in any significant sense, city tourist. Here it might be helpful to recognize tourism in cities, that is tourism located in urban areas but however would be similarly satisfying to the visitors in a non-urban milieu, hence that urban city is the primary motive for the tourist.
Furthermore, the scope of answers to the question 'why visit cities?' is probably going to include an extensive variety of human motivations. Cities are portrayed by thickness and assorted qualities, whether of capacities, offices, manufactured structures, cultures or peoples: it is this that distinguishes the urban
63 from the rural and describes the 'urban lifestyle'. Visitors are likely to be attracted in by any or these urban elements. It is this assorted of intentions and activities, and in addition the density and compactness of their areas, that is energized by the urban character of cities. It is worth noting that visitors reviews getting some information about what they really do, reliably uncover the popularity rather vaguely explained activities, such as, „sightseeing‟, „window shopping', 'taking in the city'. This apparently privileged behavior, which reflects on the key components of the urban in urban tourism motives whether in Seoul or Jakarta.
Thus, cities are accumulations of economic and political power (Church and Coles, 2006), associations and activity, as well as of cultural, entertainment and leisure interests. Along these lines a high portion of travel to cities is fundamentally inspired by the first instead of the second set of characteristics. Therefore major cultural tourism of cities, for example, Florence or Salzburg do not draw in a larger number of travelers than cities with more modest cultural claims, such as, Hamburg, Lyon or Zurich (van nook Berg, van der Borg, and van der Meer, 1995; van cave Borg, Costa, and Gotti, 1996). Similarly the excursion frequently can't be allotted totally to one arrangement of motives or the traveler be appointed only to the tourism or non-tourism classification. In fact, Hwang, Gretzel, and Fesenmaier (2006) classify the multicity trip pattern of international tourist behavior, which affirms the issue of shortened stay where the city is not the sole destination and a more complex urban touring itinerary exists.
The suspicion that we can recognize, seclude and look at a particular urban traveler must be addressed. In numerous different areas the economic, social, cultural and along these lines behavioral contrasts amongst vacationer and resident are clear however it is hard to recognize tourist and non-tourist uses of the city. In the first place, the tourist and the local resident cannot usefully be recognized in terms of motive or behavior. City tourism is a 'unique intrigue' activity, which is by definition just a continuation on vacation of usual interests and activity. The traveler is quite recently the resident on holiday: the resident simply the tourist between trips. Furthermore, travelers and residents make
64 utilization of much the same urban facilities such as shops, social attractions and exhibitions and even transport infrastructures. Thirdly, the management of ties includes unavoidably an inseparable variety of goals, partners/stakeholders and performing artists, which generally excludes any unmistakable and separate urban cultural or heritage tourism policy, thus it is likely that the urban tourist cannot be shaped by motivation, utilization of discrete resources, types of activities or separate field of management. The tourist is excessively inserted in other, much more extensive contemplations to be effectively recognized and detached.
As mentioned before, the relevancy of city tourism could be addressed by the progression of sister cities cooperation, until the year 2015, Jakarta-Seoul sister city development program has produced some work in accordance with particular attributes of city areas that shape city tourism. For instance, one of the cooperation which was established in 2009 are conduct in order to follow up on an agreement of cooperation (MOU) of Jakarta-Seoul sister city signed on July 25, 1984 in Jakarta, SMG has delivered the initiative proposed to the Government of Jakarta to develop/expand the fields of cooperation between the two cities, particularly in the field of control of climate change (Y. Hermawan, personal communication, January 16, 2017). This is based on the commitment that has been declared by both Governor of the city towards the development of the global issues that are a priority of the whole nation, along with sister city areas cooperation (Y. Hermawan, personal communication, January 16, 2017). That commitment is poured in a joint declaration of the world's major cities in C40, namely as a result of the 3rd C40 Large Cities Summit, at that time, Governor of Jakarta participate as a key speaker and during the summit, the Jakarta City Government along with SGM signing the Cooperation Agreement on C40 (Indonesia Ministry of Foreign Affairs, 2014). In the manuscript, both parties agree to implement programmed related to climate change, transportation, waste management, water works and sewage treatment management.
Based on the manuscript, by 2011 the Government of DKI Jakarta announced a blue print in the manuscript is ready to be implement. In the early
65 2012, the program started to flourish and until now the program still on progress, in the meantime, real examples on waste management, water works and sewage treatment work management can be seen in revitalizing of river in the capital city which built upon cooperation from private parties linked between the Badan Pengelola Lingkungan Hidup Daerah (BPLHD) and the Director of Climate change division SMG, the river revitalization expect to finish in 2019 (Y. Hermawan, personal communication, January 16, 2017). By this implementation of cooperation, the beauty of the city could measured as a central of city tourism, in the agenda of shaping the city, climate change initiation becoming the object of the tourism where river becoming the attraction for tourist, which SGM already implement with the Han river that become the place for tourist sightseeing.
IV.2 Critical Assessment on Sister City Tourism Relationship
Sister city relation in some cases do not have an ideal picture inside the general group, the greatest criticism being pointed that they are seen by the general group as 'political junkets' for local politician to spend citizens' cash. Cremer et al (2001) traces three classifications of critics. 1. Low level of awareness and apathy about sister cities 2. "Bizarre decision" of cities selected 3. Junket for legislators financed from ratepayer money. Generally the critics originate from individuals who don't see the tangible of economic advantages of sister city relationships. The criticism leveled at sister cities can be mitigated through raising the awareness of sister city connections. The economic benefit which studied by Smith and Ballingall (2003) affirms that substantial financial advantages derived from sister city relations are genuine. Local community may consider the decisions of sister cities are bizarre, they may not comprehend why the relationship was set up, making it is important to guarantee that steps are taken to educate the local community with concerns to the reasons why the relationship was exist, and outline the current and potential tangible benefit of the link.
Different reactions have originated from conflict with central national governments over jurisdiction, absence of resources to actualize project proposals and structural contradictions with partner cities (Hewitt, 1999). Another critics are
66 gone for the global goals of sub-national governments, which can degrade the desires of the country as a whole particularly in the moment that they are clashing. Hewitt argue that a country should speak with one voice on the international front, instead of numerous. The fact that many sub-national governments are included in foreign affairs weakens the "one" voice and prompts to the topic of "who" is representing the nation? Hewitt additionally point out that another part for criticism is the capability of citizens‟ view-point in international affairs abrogating that of central government, in this way causing the clashes between the sub- national level and national level. Sister cities allow local citizens to have more power in international affairs than they would regularly have at national level.
Moreover, according Kincaid (1989: cited to in Hewitt 1999) there are critics that aimed on sub-national government worker ability in international relations. Local citizens address sub-national government workers' competence to deal with global issues and politics of other nations. Frequently they trust these issues should be left to the national government. A survey conducted by Kincaid (1989) demonstrated that local citizens felt ratepayer money was not utilized properly, and did not respect their local council‟s resolutions on foreign policy as being appropriate (Hewitt ,1999: 438). This is additionally supported by studies performed by Cremer et al (1996, 2000, 2001).
In Jakarta there is an issue with public perception of sister city relationships, It was pointed out the primary understanding is that such relationship are a 'pointless luxury‟ for the mayor and council. This was reinforced in Jakarta‟s city survey, as it was shown that most governmental people who were involved in the management and in addition participating in the exchanges. It was proposed that focus on these individuals should be shifted to more community-orientated activities and exchange, and along these lines it could alleviate the critics leveled at sister city. Another criticism is the clear absence of unmistakable tangible benefits or returns of investment, and this is because of the fact that Jakarta council boards are not spending sufficient funds on their sister city relations and thus are not generating much consequently. This is supported by
67 Cremer et al (1996, 2001). As indicated by the Smith and Ballingall study (2003) measuring tangible or economic benefit is a difficult area when the local-level data is hard to obtain. It was proposed that by concentrating on how sister city relationship have help generate economic gains through projects and activities would be better than attempting to quantify on measure the aggregate economic benefit of sister city relationship in the country (Jakarta City Government, 2003). As of now there is no settled or perceived strategy for measuring the economic/tangible benefit in the available literature.
In case of Jakarta and Seoul sister city, the relations particularly to be more asymmetries (Y. Hermawan, personal communication, January 16, 2017). Due to the fact that Jakarta has always provided assistance that offer from SGM while Seoul is never been need any assistance from the Jakarta cities. In this kind of relationship, we can see that there is no mutual benefit that both cities could have, in other words one should be realize that advantages for both parties are important to continue on further relations (Y. Hermawan, personal communication, January 16, 2017). Jakarta emphasize the relations is lack of funding and it along with the lack of proactivity from Jakarta city (Y. Hermawan, personal communication, January 16, 2017). Hewitt (1999) conclude that sub- national governments will likewise need to consider the potential risks required in sister city linkages, or, as he terms it, "international cooperation program". The fundamental risks waiting to be monitor are that careless people can damage the goodwill, which has been developed between cities. The contextual analyses studies of Hewitt (1999) introduced to illustrate this risks showed that long term interpersonal troubles including key exchange participants truly affected the relationship of goodwill that had been developed. This is resulting the future opportunities for benefits and cooperation being seriously constrained.
IV.3 International Recognition
To build a proper integration in international relations, it is best for us to analyze the view of international recognition on sister city relationships. Cremer et al (2001, 1996) and Ramasamy and Cremer (1998) mentioned that sister city
68 relationships should be premise through formal sister city arrangement where the important actor play big role, “cities rediscover one of their original roles as meeting places between different people and cultures, and thus create a (market) place for economic and business activities” (Ramasamy & Cremer 1998: 449), within those perception, the role sub-national government as the central key to conduct has emphasis on the cultural aspect, sister city relationship required more than just combining the cultural and economic element together, according to Cremer et al (2001: 383) “strives for a balance of cultural, political, social, and economic development for both cities, and insists on tangible results in all of those priority areas.” Hence, the needs for international recognition are needed to prompt the trade and cultural initiative combination and the involvement of community to causing committing resourceful integration, which can shows in the international affairs as the tangible results on paradiplomacy.
From sister city relationships, local governments are displaying the entrepreneurial spirit which needed in order to encourage local economic development and resulting on the stimulation of employment growth. By this enhancement, the entrepreneurial partnerships operating simultaneously on the extension approach that mentioned before, this multi level known as „municipal- community entrepreneurship‟. By attempts on local municipal government, capitalizing the new opportunities for innovation and cooperation has renowned to be globalization-localization forces. “The successful sister city relationships are one of manifestation of municipal entrepreneurship and in as much as they make a contribution to economic and social dynamism of cities and the world” (Cremer et al 2001: 388). The shifting method from managerialism to entrepreneurialism in urban governance is form to be one aspect in Jakarta and Seoul sister city relations, with the activities held between academics, businessman and policy- making combination, developing the city seems to be more mutual. However, the urban government, in here the Jakarta and Seoul government need to show more initiative, innovation and entrepreneurial spirit to lift the sister city out from inactivity. The forces of globalization has made the increasing number of instability of the economy and lessening political control of independent state on
69 sister city, though, the international recognize as the privileged for both urban government and central government, it is aware as the very decent aspect for the country‟s branding.
During the dynamic of sister city relations, the level of community involvement is becoming the foundation for cities potential success. Cremer et al (2001) argue that the mix of municipal and community based is one of the biggest effort that create a mutual economic and social advantages, this municipal- community entrepreneurship known as fundamental aspect in international affairs when the specific, proactive steps to organize, establish, maintain and foster relationships and opportunities that directly or indirectly present at various levels is established, because of the local government are crucial to determine the fate of cities, an active community with solid local municipal support is encouraging the successful sister city relationship. In Jakarta and Seoul, the person-to-person link has enlarge the strong involvement of city officials especially mayor in which determine the sister city, to support strongly on the development of strategic plan. This sister city relationships demonstrate how local actors contribution on creating and maintaining ties in international relations. Jakarta and Seoul sister city has realized that current sister city connections are not exclusively about making business opportunities – it is perceived that building trust and creating fellowships is integral to working together in the Asia area which furnishes with a perfect stage for the „extend integrated approach' (Smith and Ballingall 2003). Further, the sister city relation has becoming as a platform to contextualize the world peace.
IV.3.1 International Response on Sister City Tourism Relations After analyze the recognition on previous discussions, the idea of multi level contribution naturally leads us to what is the response of it recognition. In the case of sister city, the international world sees that sister city tourism relations as “co-branding”. As place promotion in the area of marketing especially advertising, the idea of co-branding is highly known for the best synergy strategy. The major goals of co-branding are creating the most favorable attitude towards a product by the use pairing with existing product. Although the literature explicitly
70 pertaining to sister cities and co-branding is non existent, in this case of tourism relations, this co-branding apply in the context of improving the image of both cities in the eyes of international community. Jakarta with its branding of Enjoy Jakarta has controlled the international perspective on how enjoyable the city could offers, nonetheless, with the I Seoul U, Seoul persistent on providing the relaxation of the city. Both branding is quiet relevant on how this co-branding made, it maximize both tourism by maintaining the existent relations. For Jakarta, the city known for its shopping mall, cafés and nightlife bring out the place as a modern yet friendly city when everyone could enjoy every tire of city‟s entertainment, in this context, the place branding strengthen the city not just in national level but also in international level. With the structural tourism strategies that empower by Jakarta provincial government, strong brand qualities, marketed the history, place quality, lifestyle, culture and diversity would formed a cooperative partnership between city municipalities and it sub state government as an image for tourist to come to the city. The emerging for city branding in international world could be appealing for another country which compete on the uniqueness that obtain, it attract foreign investors on investing the city planner because the market is always grow. With the help of globalization, local citizens also sees as the global community who have an enormous option of being able to do business anywhere and everywhere in the world, it is wise to say the international world sees city as a decision to provide them what is best they could give with the most benefits they could get.
IV.4 Summary
The sister city idea has developed from holding just peace and friendship goals in the wake of World War II to exemplifying education, economic, innovation, and cultural exchange. Highlighted by O‟Toole (2000) that sister city connections have three distinct yet inter-linking connecting stages. Sub-national governments progressively see the third stage as a key instrument in utilizing economic development where the impact is received directly to the country. Despite the fact of websites detailed and number of research studies which
71 explore the tourism fragment within country as a major context of economy development lack of academic research, this chapter review has shown the sister cities tourism analysis. In this chapter, the economic impact also identified as a key component, resulting some economic impact statistically of the research. A review of recent economic of the country shows the role of sister city cooperation on tourism as an important part to play, it can act as cultural understanding facilitator who medium the linkage of sister city relationships, the city to city cooperation is little considered as part of nation development strategies and this could be an open area for future sister city motion. However, there being a plethora on a funding of sister city, yet Jakarta provincial government seems to see the program to be less important which causing the inactive project to initiate.
This chapter also finds that sister city relationships are important, first and foremost was because this cooperation has become the “windows” or “bridges” to the outside world, despite of the reason why city should have a sister city, on the review of critical assessment, the aspect such as similarities, government official, economic vehicle and political has considered comparatively central pertaining the tourism potential and sister city exchange. Yet there are a few criticisms toward the relation such as political misuse, overlapping jurisdiction and pointless relationship is significant areas highlighted for improvement. Both cities have an optimistic viewpoint of the future relation, and this become a key tool which paradiplomacy or sub national government use their quest for their own international relations.
As the world is turning out to be progressively globalized, sister cities can possibly act as essential spring boards with which communities can cooperate with each other around the world and to reduce threat from war, disunity, terrorism and etc. and attempt for a new world order, where „world citizens‟ can live together in solidarity and this, role of tourism has an imperative part to play that it can act as a facilitator of social comprehension and resilience. Depend upon how sub-national governments can utilize sister cities in combination with tourism, it can prompt to the establishment of cultural understanding and
72 meaningful relationships. In this way, the international recognition response towards sister cities is very helpful to not jus leash as a public diplomacy but also a platform to contextualize the world peace.
73 CHAPTER V
CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION
Deepen understanding of sister city relationship are needed in order to maximize in answering the question how sister cities cooperation contribute in providing Jakarta and Seoul cities to encourage tourism development. It began with the use of paradiplomacy where, the sub-state government play an important role, exclusively, sister city utilize as the link on marketing tools for promoting their tourism. In order to make a proper use of it links, both cities believed that tourism has an important role for the development of sister city relationships and yet the responsibility put under the sub-state government which is DKI Jakarta provincial government and Seoul Metropolitan Government. To encourage the tourism development, sister city use as a “windows” or “bridge” to open up the needs of the cities, by highlighting the tourism relations, the tourism development has been recorder to be more and more beneficial for both cities.
In order to implementing the success relationships contribution, Jakarta and Seoul sister city relationships view as an integral link to the outside world by providing both relation an opportunities including educational, cultural and most importantly economic opportunity. A major finding during the research was a large number of Jakarta provincial employee sees this sister city relations only active in 5 cities out of 22 sister city relation, it is indicated that the need to be more proactive should be proven. The tourism development also encourage from the event that held by the sub-state government, sport and student exchange is two largest number for contributing of the evolving of city tourism. Despite of the fact that Jakarta and Seoul tourism is developed by the sister city linkage, the opportunity that SGM offers mostly declined by JPG due to the lack of funding in the project. It is noted that on the tourism promotion, there are only two project
74 named Korea Travel Fair and Hi Seoul Friendship week as the place for officially promoting the Jakarta city, in the other hand, Jakarta have not any particular similar project to promote Seoul city. This relationship seems to be more asymmetric, although very beneficial.
Another way that sister city cooperation engage in order to develop the tourism is in a way to enhance the co-branding, this combinations of city branding is noteworthy because with the strong brand qualities, marketed the history, place quality, lifestyle, culture and diversity would formed a cooperative partnership between city municipalities and it sub state government. The offer is very limited on the city tourism, but with the strong branding sister city cooperation make the use of city tourism as a very appealing tourist destinations. With the constructivism in the logic, the city offered the beauty of culture and art including that most conducted traditional dance by women especially in the traditional puppet opera. It is very important for city tourism to make use of an image as a quality place and so the Jakarta and Seoul sister city obtain.
From the review of previous chapter, we can conclude that the Jakarta tourism industry has very understanding on Seoul visitors and provides them with quality and interactive tours with the branding of enjoyment that Jakarta offers. Jakarta sub-national government has been granted the freedom whether in activities, project and etc., it makes them to established multiple advantage on sister cities around the world. Certainly, the tourism aspect measured by the GRP per capita that Jakarta contribute to the national GDP each year, as the largest city where supporting the national GDP. Along with Jakarta, Seoul tourism has been enormously popular destinations in Asia, with the help of Hallyu or Korean Wave, Seoul visitor‟s numbers are growing rapidly, mostly for the reason of sightseeing the city. The tagline I Seoul U is offered in order for the city to always gives visitors a warm relax metropolitan atmosphere with rich culture.
There are a few criticisms toward the sister city relation such as political misuse, overlapping jurisdiction and pointless relationship is significant areas highlighted for improvement. Both cities have an optimistic viewpoint of the
75 future relation, and this become a key tool which sub national government use their quest for their own international relations. Depend upon how sub-national governments can utilize sister cities in combination with tourism, it can prompt to the establishment of cultural understanding and meaningful relationships. In this way, the international recognition response towards sister cities is very helpful to not jus leash as a public diplomacy but also a platform to contextualize the world peace.
To conclude the analysis, ROI and ROK perceive sister cities as the "window" to the international area. By using these windows they access more information and comprehension of the world. The obtaining of technology, investment and expertise from various countries is another strong motivating factor, as is the importance of educational and cultural exchanges is determined. While the utilization of sister city connections as possible spearheads for economic improvement, the statistical economic benefit has been analyze during the analysis on the Indonesia and South Korea tourism context, it is a solid underlying motive for cities to the significance of cultural and economic exchange cannot be overstated. There are two major aspect on observing the economy benefit which are the tourist arrivals and the expenditure thus enlarge the foreign exchange as well as tourism service attributes such as hotels, restaurant transportations and etc.
From the analysis of the city tourism, Jakarta and Seoul can be seen as an example of city which empower the „sightseeing‟, „window shopping', 'taking in the city' as an industry that oversees and markets a various product and experiences it to people who have an extensive variety of motivations, preferences and cultural perspectives and are included in a dialectic engagement with the host community. The result of this engagement is an arrangement of consequences for the tourist, the host community and the businesses; and thus the correlations of „cultural‟ (festival or art), „historic‟ („gem‟) and even „congress‟, „sporting‟, „gastronomic‟, „night-life‟, and „shopping‟ as urban features and services tourism markets. All things being equal, while tourism happens in urban communities, as
76 in different situations, this in itself does little to clarify the conceivable connections and communications amongst tourism and that multifaceted element, the city.
In conclusion, A positive outcome of this research study for Jakarta tourism industry is that tourism‟s role within sister city relationships here Seoul is recognized the importance of the relations, thus providing a potential to utilize the existing and future sister city relationships to encourage tourism. Special events can encourage greater travel between sister cities and encouraging greater interaction between the different cultures. Tourism is seen as one tool in achieving understanding and friendships between the two countries. Another insightful though also that this sister city relation has becoming the branding or image for the country, and this could utilize as a strong point to empower city tourism.
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83 APPENDICES
84 Jakarta and Seoul Memorandum of Understanding (MOU)
85 Transcript of Interview To The Department of Tourism and Culture, Government of DKI Jakarta Monday, January 9, 2017
Interviewer: Putri Ayu Ningrum Gumay
Interviewee: Agung Subakti (Kepala Promosi Luar Negeri Dinas Pariwisata
Pemerintah Provinsi DKI Jakarta)
Putri : What is the role of the Sister City in tourism to increase tourism in Jakarta? Mr. Agung : There is some event from Seoul Seoul event invites us to Friendship Affair around the month of may, they invite us to do and some other sister city there is the appearance of the arts, open the booth for tourism Jakarta with dl brochure, we also send Abang None as usher event. Putri : Do it every year there? Mr. Agung : Yes, every year. Putri : The event began in what year? Mr. Agung : I do not really know because actually I am new here, but there is data. It's been quite a long time. Putri : About two years? Or more? Mr. Agung : Yes, already more than two years. Putri : How do we promote Seoul itself? Mr. Agung : So far we have not created any events. Probably from the tourism ministry for the big event such as tourism fairs. I think the solution for tourism is just that I mentioned before. In addition there are also exchange student events. If the extent of Seoul guess the event just that.
86 Putri : How‟s the results of Seoul Friendship Affair which has been running for more than two years? Do they respond positively about Jakarta? Mr. Agung : If the nature of G2C (government to customer) and not to business so the effect is not too large. Putri : Do sister city help the tourism in Jakarta? Mr. Agung : Very helpful. Putri : Judging from what aspect? Mr. Agung : Sister city that the city is shallow so many similarities from the city of Jakarta with other sister city like Beijing. Putri : So in terms of tourism we have always been invited? Mr. Agung : Yes, invited. We're there to show our culture may, tourism, etc. Putri : What kind of culture Seoul Tourists like to Jakarta? Mr. Agung : Just like the Japanese people as possible. Like the food, the city also, so many things.
87 Transcript of Interview Bureau Chief of the Regional and International Cooperation (KDH and KLN) of DKI Jakarta Monday, January 16, 2017
Interviewer: Putri Ayu Ningrum Gumay
Interviewee: Yudi Hermawan (Kepala Kerjasama Luar Negeri Dinas
Pemerintah Provinsi DKI Jakarta)
Putri : Technically how the sister city cooperation can take place?
Mr. Yudi : Technically, actually from policy and bilateral relations
between Indonesia and South Korea or between Indonesia
and foreign countries. so if you have a reference or basis of
bilateral relations with these countries are easier to establish
cooperation interrelations between Jakarta and sister city
abroad. When there is a formal bilateral relations it
automatically from the Ministry of Foreign Affairs (MOFA)
nor the Internal Ministry (IM) will fully support for the
establishment of sister city between Jakarta and major cities
in the world.
Putri : For Seoul's own cooperation have been intertwined from
1984, so far what the effect on the city of Jakarta?
Mr. Yudi : An originally Jakarta-Seoul in the 1980s again booming sister city between Jakarta and major cities in the world, so indeed more because of cultural understanding that its main
88 focus to cultural tolerant among Nations. Yet at all technically touching transports waste processing, , making water management and many others. More focus how do I create cultural understanding between people-to-people. Putri : How does the Jakarta government see this sister city relationships? Mr. Yudi : For the Central Government as a value added that in addition to bilateral relations between countries with Indonesia or Indonesia with the city is also the cities in order to sister city are intertwined, so that's a plus for the Central Government, because the Government will have a point. for the Government of its own, especially the two Government that between Jakarta-Seoul has a very active relationship. This is seen from the Central Government, be it from MOFA or the Ministry of the Interior that the bilateral relations are also filled by local governments. From the local Government viewed this relationship is very important because strategies & each city has the same issue; public transportation, population, waste and so on. The main problem in the city is also not far from congestion, flooding and others. So we as information, experience, sister city how they change the garbage, sewage, river so that the city was safe. Many of the benefits to be gained. one common transportation, Jakarta could learn from Seoul because they were ahead of the Jakarta public transportation for itself. Jakarta's own LRT that Seoul cooperated with rapid transit transport/Seoul metro rapid transit. In General, the railway is almost the same so much to gain from cooperation of sister city between Jakarta and Seoul, Yes this question were small. Putri : How many areas of concern in the sister city cooperation? Mr. Yudi : There are a lot, such as public transportation, ecosystem, art
89 and culture, education and workforce training. Putri : The biggest Obstacle in carrying out cooperation? Mr.Yudi : Tourism promotion – budget, schedule the agenda annually published (no problem). Whether Jakarta would like maximum participation in Seoul Friendship Affair. It means all that promoting Jakarta had (tourism, crafts, culinary). The problem of existence in ego-sectorial in each Department/SEGWAY. We hope not just tourism promotion, but should be integrated with other SEGWAY SEGWAY-like KUKM. In KUKM there are handicrafts, there are culinary, batik this could be integrated. There is integrated policy origins and that‟s not a problem. Putri : The Government has no restrictions like MOFA (sister city), whether such restrictions become constraints? Mr. Yudi : MOFA is fully support, any activity between Jakarta-Seoul strongly supported. Any assistance from SSI Administration (MoU, MoU renewal and etc.) will be assisted by MOFA. MOI as a builder or local Government of DKI Jakarta, they will give an ultimatum to the positive Pemriv Jawa. If there is a renewal of MoU needs to be seen from the previous cooperation is beneficial or not, if less rewarding what needs replaced. All work together IM, MOFA, National Secretary, Java Local Government (user). Putri : Why can there be sister city that is not active? Mr. Yudi : hanging from both sides. Depending on the counterpart of both parties. If there is agreement from both parties is definitely the way. Depending on both sides want to create an event. Just like anniversary of sister city cooperation Jakarta-Casablanca along Buffalo commitment will automatically have budgeted activity. Although it is a little budget but should be organized makes such activities as a commitment.
90