Contesting the Postwar City: Working-Class and Growth Politics in 1940S Milwaukee Eric Fure-Slocum Index More Information

Cambridge University Press 978-1-107-03635-2 - Contesting the Postwar City: Working-Class and Growth Politics in 1940s Milwaukee Eric Fure-Slocum Index More information

Index

Note: Page numbers with ‘n’ refer to notes in the text

Abbott, William, 331–32, 334–35 Allis-Chalmers strike (1946–1947), 8, 35, Adelman, Meyer, 99, 163, 173, 175, 182, 202–6, 220, 229, 245, 294, 298, 307, 205, 285–86 314, 318 AFL. See American Federation of Labor American Association of University Women, Afﬁliated Taxpayers’ Committee, 298, 92–93, 281 324, 332 American Federation of Labor (AFL): African Americans, 36, 47 Milwaukee, 2–3, 6, 10, 43–47, 55, class and, 20, 21, 50, 125, 129, 348, 84–86, 89, 94–95, 138–39, 165, 350, 354 172–73, 178, 207, 210, 241–47, 254, Great Depression and, 49 258, 286, 302–3, 330–34, 338, Hillside protest and, 310–16 355–56, 362 home ownership and, 68–70, 300 national, 43 housing and, 20, 61–65, 70–77, 82, Wisconsin, 43, 89 87, 92, 247–48, 253n98, 283, 310, 319 See also Federated Trades Council (FTC) the “Negro housing” project, 97, 326 American Institute of Architects, 105 as recent migrants, 49, 129, 274, 283 American Institute of Real Estate Appraisers, residential geography of, 21, 48–49, 77, 105 188, 348, 354, 361n99 American Legion, 105, 138, 281–82, 294, segregation and discrimination, 48, 64–65 297, 302, 331, 336, 338 Sixth Ward, 48, 68, 71, 77, 91, 98 American Veterans Committee (AVC), 247, Sixth Ward Better Housing Community 259, 281, 282, 285, 331, 338 Club, 62 Americans for Democratic Action, 201, unemployment or undesirable jobs for, 49, 247–248n83, 328 65, 70, 125, 127, 162 Anderson, Perry G., 6–7, 227 See also bowling and bowling alleys; civil annexation, 56, 238–39, 271n24, rights; labor force; leisure; parades; 369 policy games (number games); racial anticommunism, 35, 186, 201–9, 298–99, conﬂict and tension; racial 306–8, 319–21, 326, 328, 352, 355, egalitarianism; racial liberalism; racial 362, 365 segregation; urban conditions; vagrancy antimonopoly, 197–98 Allis-Chalmers, 41, 43, 47, 157, 165–66, A.O. Smith, 41, 161–62 173, 175, 179, 182. See also United Association of Catholic Women, 92, Auto Workers, Local 248 247–248n83

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© in this web service Cambridge University Press www.cambridge.org Cambridge University Press 978-1-107-03635-2 - Contesting the Postwar City: Working-Class and Growth Politics in 1940s Milwaukee Eric Fure-Slocum Index More information

386 Index

Association of Commerce, Milwaukee, 85, building trades, 85, 95, 234, 241–43, 253, 221, 261, 324 264, 286, 291–92 automobiles, 4, 40, 57 business, 59, 110 business leaders, 53, 65, 86, 108, 165, baby-bond program. See municipal finances 175, 182–84, 211–12, 219–26, 229 Barr, Inez B., 122 business organizations, 65, 101, 104, 164 Bauer, Catherine, 78, 249 leaders living in suburbs, 233–35, beer, 38, 40, 138, 146, 187, 192 240, 245 Berger, Victor, 53 Milwaukee businesses, 40, 56 The Best Years of Our Lives, 159 public housing and, 101–3, 266, 282, 324, Biemiller, Andrew, 220n22, 255, 327, 327– 343, 347, 362 328n24 slum clearance and, 295, 337–38, 346 bingo: bingo halls, 3, 12, 34, 110, 114–15, wartime profits, 41, 164, 167 141–55, 159 Buse, Robert, 173, 181n39, 205, 285, 292 “bingo rebels,” 110, 117–18, 154–55, 226 capitalism, 25n40, 29, 39, 104, 116, 166, extent of, 110, 113, 143, 146–48 190, 368 history of, 110–14, 143–45 Casey, Francis, 229, 259 opposition to, 111, 112–13, 140, 148, Catholic Charities, 105 154, 170 Catholic Herald-Citizen, 302 wartime leisure and, 110–56 Catholic Social Welfare, 92, 247–248n83 women and, 34, 141, 145, 149, 151 Catholics, 231n48, 302 working-class neighborhoods and, 12, Catholic churches, 52, 113, 144–46 110 Centurama, 216–21, 279–80 Bitker, Bruno, 302n95, 306 Chicago, 246, 319 blacks. See African Americans child care. See nursery schools and child care Blessed Virgin of Pompeii Church, 52 Christoffel, Harold, 43, 173, 205, Blount, Frances, 96 208–9, 292 B’nai B’rith, 194, 302 CIO. See Congress of Industrial Board of Public Land Commissioners Organizations (CIO) (BPLC), Milwaukee, 57, 104 Citizens’ Anti-Slum Committee (CASC), boarders, 67 335n46, 337–40, 357 Bobrowicz, Edmund, 206–8 Citizens’ Committee on Housing, 100, 106 Bohn, John L., 55, 72, 87–88, 94–96, 99, citizenship, language of, 353 108, 219n21, 259n108, 271n24 City Club of Milwaukee, 104, 215n12 bowling and bowling alleys: bowling City Hall. See Milwaukee City Hall leagues, 192–93 civic boosters, 112–13, 136 Bronzeville All-Star bowling team, 193, civic reformers, 16, 21–22, 112, 131 198–99 civil rights, 20, 299–302, 307n110, 329 Bronzeville Bowling Association/League, Double Victory campaign, 188–89 193–94 integration, 302–6, 318–19, 348–49 CIO and, 190–91 race first strategies, 189, 199 CIO’s interracial tournament, 195–97, Clardy, Erma, 311–13 202 Clarke, Glenn, 284–85, 303 female bowlers, 193, 195–96 class: analysis of, 20, 60 Milwaukee reputation for, 192 leisure and, 1, 111–17, 125, 129, 145, racial discrimination and, 193–95 153, 156, 197 racial egalitarianism and, 194, 196–98, urban geography and, 21, 36, 77, 117–19, 202–3 136, 229, 237 union culture and, 202 See also growth politics; housing, public, unions’ interracial tournament, 34, 160, low-income and working class; 195, 202 working-class politics See also American Bowling Congress Cold War, 203, 242 Brophy, John C., 207, 243, 327 fears associated with, 2, 32, 36

Index 387

housing and, 306, 321, 326, 328–29, construction, 68, 73, 95, 100–101, 104, 256, 355, 365 260, 264, 278, 286, 290–91, 294n72, labor and, 307 334 study of political culture and, 9, 14, 20, consumption, 23, 57, 73, 163, 184, 209, 24, 35 226, 236, 262 collective bargaining, 23 shopping and shoppers, 5, 146, 226, 251 Collins, Robert, 16 Council of Churches, 92–93, 122 Columbia Savings and Loan, 69 Council of Economic Advisors, 16 Committee for Economic Development, Council of Jewish Women, 92, 281 164 Council of Social Agencies, 92, 150 Common Council of Milwaukee, 6, 53–54, County Property Owners for Public Housing 65, 85, 90, 92, 94, 101, 134–36, 331, (CPOPH), 356 347–48 Buildings and Grounds Committee of, Davis, Richard, 98–99, 211–12, 255, 337 271, 275 debt and debt-free policies. See municipal Housing Committee of, 325–26 finances Nonpartisan caucus of, 72, 84 defense production, 47, 63, 86, 94, 114, 161, Communism, 206, 245, 352, 355. See also 179–81 anticommunism democracy, 1–37, 167, 215, 263, 335, Communist Party, 12n22, 85, 123n30, 167, 369–70 173, 206, 306 agonistic pluralism, 5, 23 Congress of Industrial Organizations (CIO) capitalism and, 39, 167 [Milwaukee CIO unless otherwise direct democracy, 313–14, 318, 327 noted], 2, 6, 7, 43, 140, 165–66, liberalism and, 17–18, 28, 54, 368 168 pluralism and, 18, 100, 171, 318 African Americans and, 45, 49–50, 62, postwar, 5, 9, 30, 37, 66, 155, 319, 368 63n5, 283–84 public housing and, 63, 156, 313, 335 Committee to Abolish Racial race and, 99–100, 194, 316 Discrimination, 187 Democratic Party, 10, 44, 55, 83, 206–9, housing and policy priorities of, 47, 230, 232, 242, 244–45, 289, 327, 61–62, 74, 83–86, 177, 181–89, 247, 345–46 285, 328–29, 353, 362 Democratic Organizing Committee, 286, leadership of, 44, 95, 99, 162–63, 166, 302n95, 331, 346 172–73, 183, 191, 200, 286 Wisconsin, 255, 346 militancy in, 34, 159, 165–66, 170–75, Detroit, 47, 128n45, 194–95, 201, 212–13 189–210, 369 dignity. See working-class politics Milwaukee Industrial Union Council Dolan, Julia, 81 (Milwaukee CIO Council), 6, 7, 43, 83, Dorsey, James, 125–26, 128, 136, 312, 339 89, 163, 166–67, 172–75, 187, 195, Downing, Willard, 342 203, 205–6, 247, 283–84, 303, 320, downtown, 1–8, 21, 34–35, 157–59, 175, 332, 338 211–12, 218, 221–29, 233, 238–39, national, 89 249, 251–55, 259–60, 363, 367, 369 rank and file in, 44, 157, 172, 178–80, “Magnificent Mile,” 226 186, 200 planning for, 2, 35, 218–19, 226–29, 260 Wisconsin, 44n7, 338 retail and, 226, 251 See also bowling; racism; United Auto See also Wisconsin Avenue; V-J Day Workers (UAW); United Steel Workers Downtown Association, 2–8, 104, 175, 221, of America (USWA) 227, 234, 239, 261, 345 conservatism, 24, 225–26 homeowner conservatism, 239, efficiency. See growth politics 362–363n100 egalitarianism. See working-class politics; middle- and upper-class conservatism, racial egalitarianism 9, 14 Eisenscher, Edmund, 178, 199, 204, 208 working-class conservatism, 236, 362 Eisenscher, Sigmund, 298

388 Index

electoral politics: 1946 Congressional racism and, 130–33 elections of Milwaukee, 35, 206–7 to supplement income, 67, 124, 129 1948 Milwaukee mayoral election, 255, syndicates, 121, 135 267, 337, 346, 361–62 Thomson Anti-Gambling Law (1945), 1948 presidential election, 55, 209, 327 153 See also Democratic Party; Republican See also bingo; pinball and slot machines; Party policy games (number games) Ellis, Joe, 61, 99 Garden Homes, 66, 82, 84, 286 Employment Act of 1946, 16 gender, 43, 87, 114, 140–43, 193, 281, 316 Erchul, Fred, 320 growth politics and, 226, 249 ethnicity, 50–52, 113 wartime and, 141n77, 143, 154, 162 Central and Eastern European, 50, 140, working-class politics and, 14, 174, 146 186, 198 German, 38, 50–51, 140, 143–45, 221, 231 General Contractors’ Association of Italian, 51–52 Milwaukee, 105 neighborhoods and, 43, 51 General Motors, 164, 166 Polish, 50–51, 146, 206–7, 339 G. I. bill, Servicemen’s Readjustment Act See also electoral politics; labor (1944), 169, 291 organizations; leisure; Mexican Goodland, Walter, 153 Americans; working class politics Gordon, Rev. B. G., 128 Governor’s Commission on Human Rights, Fair Deal, 209, 341 202n77, 302, 306 Fair Employment Practices Committee Great Depression, 10, 15, 23, 31–32, 38, 54, (FEPC), 50, 187 66, 116, 158 Farmer-Labor Progressive Federation, 55, fiscal independence and 35, 235–37 125 gambling and, 124, 127, 143 farming and farmers, 77, 176 workers and, 49, 68, 70, 95, 169, 180 Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI), 124 See also housing shortages; labor Federal Housing Administration (FHA), organizations; labor strikes and actions; 266, 290–91 municipal finances; baby-bond program Federal Public Housing Authority, 80, 270 Greater Milwaukee Committee (GMC), 222, Federated Trades Council (FTC), 43–44, 52, 246n79, 260n110, 261, 263, 345, 66, 83, 85, 88–89, 95, 232, 241, 243, 367. See also 1948 Corporation 253, 338 Greendale project, 82, 84, 91, 230, 285 femininity, 184, 186, 211 Greenfield Trailer Camp, 300–310, 315–16, financial institutions and banks, 69, 80–81, 319, 324 221–23, 235–36, 276, 345 growth politics: efficiency and, 73, 104, 118, fiscal policy. See municipal finances 237, 368 Fisher, Cecil (Reverend), 96, 127–29 facets of, 1, 16–27, 31, 36, 59–60, 172, Fitzgerald, Harold, 222, 245 319, 369–73 foreclosures, 68, 235 gambling and, 143, 152–55 “four freedoms.” See Roosevelt, Franklin D. housing and, 100, 105, 108, 216, 263, Friedrick, Jacob, 232, 244 289, 322, 359–60, 363–65 full employment, 14, 16, 163, 174, 180–84, labor and, 5, 109, 169–70, 175, 209 188, 190 leisure and, 118 Futuristic Ballroom, 110, 112, 146 market demands and, 8, 18, 32, 367–68 municipal finances and, 213, 245, gambling, 110–56 255–58, 261–62, 346 addiction and, 113, 130 overlap with working-class politics, 5, alcohol abuse and, 113, 139 19, 60 antigambling campaigns, 34, 112, racism and, 32, 171, 308–9 117–18, 122–24, 129–36, 142–44, social and policy clashes and, 1 152–53 See also power arrests for, 119, 124, 132–33 Gurda, Leon, 96

Index 389

Hall, Lillie Mae, 131 anti-public housing campaign, 103–4, Hambley, Genevieve, 93, 246–48, 279–82, 107, 260, 263, 277, 285, 291–98, 293, 298, 330–31 320–66 Harris, Clinton (Joe), 127–28 controversies over tax-exempt status and Hartley, Fred, 292 Payment-in-Lieu-of-Taxes (PILOT), 80, Heithaus, Fr. Claude H., SJ, 302n95, 350, 352n76, 358 303n97, 304, 331 fight over first federally funded, 80, 83 Hillside Terrace, 98, 273, 278–79, 310–11, low-income, 72, 75, 77–78, 81, 88–92, 314, 317–19, 358 97–98, 248, 256, 260, 273, 286, 333 Hillside Terrace Tenants’ Committee, 311 “political housing”, 86, 288–89, 363 Hoan, Daniel, 3–4, 53, 55, 72–74, 82–85, race and, 71, 74, 76–77, 82, 87, 91–92, 120, 230n47, 232, 240n68, 242, 251, 98–99, 274–75, 317, 319, 328 258, 371–72 tax-exempt status of, 80, 82, 102 housing commission begun by, 71–72 veterans’ housing, 36, 75, 101, 247–49, Holz, Alice, 333 259–74, 278–84, 287–305, 322, Home Builders Association, 88, 102 327–29, 330–39, 342, 349–50 home ownership, 67–70, 103–4, 291 wartime defense housing, 97, 273 home values, 359 working class and, 320–66 House Un-American Activities Committee, See also housing projects, Milwaukee 204 housing referenda. See referenda fights housing: conditions, 47, 61–63, 66–71, housing shortages: crowding, 47, 63, 76–77, 273–74 265–66, 300n88 controversies about, 1, 63–66, 72, 79–87, impact of Great Depression on, 66, 72 95, 99, 103 Parklawn project and, 75, 82–84, 91, 107–8 costs, 107, 260, 265–66, 275, 286, 294, postwar, 35–36, 75, 64, 68, 71, 75, 80, 90, 327 100–1, 107, 267, 323, 345 prefabricated, 297, 300 wartime, 33, 47, 63, 70n17, 71, 86–87, rentals, 69–70 91, 94, 101–2, 106–7, 300 See also housing, public housing, temporary, 267, 270, 280–81, Housing Act, (1937) Wagner-Steagall Act, 297–98, 300, 348, 358 78, 81, 341 Quonset huts, 266, 270 Housing Act (1949), Taft-Ellender-Wagner trailers, 270, 300–1, 358 [T-E-W] housing bill, 249, 277, 322, Hunt, Leigh, 96 324, 340–41, 343–45, 364 Housing Act (1954), 364n101 immigration, 50–52. See also ethnicity; housing authorities, 34, 63n5, 65–66, 72, migration 83–94, 107, 214n10, 241 Improve Milwaukee Now Committee Housing Authority of Milwaukee, 96–105, (IMNC), 245–47, 249, 250–54, 259–61 108, 242, 247–48, 265–66, 270–272, industrial cities, 1, 5, 8, 12, 38, 58, 66, 275, 279–80, 293–97, 310–15, 323, 167–68, 289, 319, 368, 370 326–29, 332, 337, 341–44, 349–50, inflation, postwar, 160, 162 358 Interracial Federation, Milwaukee, 302, Housing Expediter, 266 304, 306, 312 housing projects, Milwaukee: Berryland, Interracial Labor Relations Council, 89, 187 271, 329n27 Garden Homes, 66, 82, 287 Jirikowicz, Otto, 303 Northlawn, 271–72, 277, 329n27, 358 Joint Action Committee for Better Housing Southlawn, 271–72, 329n27, 358 (JACBH), 92–93, 100–1, 246–49, Westlawn, 277 259–60, 277–85, 293, 296, 298, 307, See also Hillside Terrace; Parklawn project 314n123, 328, 330–31, 337–40, 342 housing, public, 13, 62–66, 72, 84, 86, 99, Joint Veterans’ Housing Council, 259, 271, 271 282 anticommunism and, 292–93, 298–99, juvenile delinquency, 123–24, 149–51, 250, 319, 352 273, 295

390 Index

Kalvelage, Clem, 282, 297 United Packinghouse Workers of Keep Milwaukee Debt Free Committee, 230, America, 338 234, 239, 251 See also American Federation of Labor Kelley, William, 302–3 (AFL); Congress of Industrial Kennedy, Fr. Franklyn J., 302n95, Organizations (CIO); Federated Trades 303n97 Council (FTC); United Auto Workers Kerwin, James J., 110, 148, 153–54 (UAW); UAW Local 248 (Allis- Keynesianism, 8, 15–16, 23–24, 35, 181, Chalmers); United Labor Committee; 214 United Steelworkers of America Kirkpatrick, Frank, 87–88, 102, 298, (USWA); working-class politics 323–24 labor strikes and actions: Fansteel sitdown Kloppenberg, James, 24, 25n40 strike, 173 Konkel, Joseph, 6 general and Milwaukee postwar strike Korade, Stanley, 179 wave, 14, 45 Kraus, Henry, 166, 177, 288, 289n61 rates of strike activity, 45–46, 86, Kroll, Jack, 183 164–66 Krug, Lucille, 333 Wehr Steel strike (1934), 45 Krzycki, Leo, 206 wildcat strikes, 45 Kuryer Polski, 206–7 World War II no-strike pledge, 179 See also Allis-Chalmers strike Labor Day parades. See parades LaFollette, Robert M., Jr., 55, 121, 207n85 labor force, 41–42, 252, 256 landlords, 21, 48, 62, 71, 72n17, 88, 99, laborers, 42, 138, 254, 361–62 267, 324, 332, 350, 353, 355. See also operatives or semiskilled workers, 41–42, real estate interests and organizations 44, 138, 196, 254, 257–58,,346, League of Women Voters (LWV), 74, 83, 91, 361–62, 377 96, 134, 247–48, 261, 281, 293n68, professionals, 22, 188, 224, 302, 305 330 service workers, 42, 50, 372 legitimacy, 18, 32, 34–35, 108, 111, 127, skilled workers, 42, 44, 136, 138, 253–54, 131, 136, 139, 145, 164, 169, 191 355–56, 361–62 leisure: African Americans and, 118–23, See also working-class politics 125–31, 193–98 Labor Housing Conference, 78 women and, 34, 112–14, 118, 131, 138, labor organizations: Amalgamated Clothing 141, 148–51, 172, 197 Workers of America, 338 working class and, 34, 114, 131, Bakery Workers, 356 139–56 Brewery Workers, 338 See also bowling and bowling alleys; Cold War impact on, 168, 203–7 bingo; pinball and slot machines; policy growth in the 1930s and 1940s of, 43, 63, games (number games) 86, 175, 202 Lewis, R. A., 217, 308–9 housing issues and, 320, 328–34, 337–38, liberalism, 22, 237, 239–40, 255 353, 356–57, 362 anticommunist liberalism, 209–10 International Brotherhood of Electrical class, the city, and, 33, Workers (IBEW), 242 democracy and, 24, 28 International Fur and Leather Workers, growth, 36, 255 61–62, 206 housing and, 308 Knights of Labor, 39–40 postwar racial, 23, 315–19, 369 Office and Professional Employees Los Angeles, 234n55, 370 International Union Local 9, 330, 333 lotteries, 111 Plumbers and Gasfitters Local 75, 95 Loving, Julius, 310–11, 312n120, 315n127, race and, 20, 49, 50, 90, 129, 186–90, 316n129, 324, 328 283 Lutheran churches, 113, 143–44 racial egalitarianism and, 64, 187 United Electrical Workers, 176–77, 191, “Magnificent Mile,” 226 195, 331 Maier, Henry W., 346, 369, 372n9

Index 391

manufacturing: female employment in, Sixth Ward, 48, 68, 71, 77, 91, 96, 98, 42, 115 188, 248, 274 jobs, 40–42 snow removal and, 246 as sector of Milwaukee economy, 38, socialism and, 12, 232, 240, 325 40–41, 43, 57, 369, 371 South Side, 67, 135–36, 141, 146–47, Marcus, Arthur, 282n48, 283n49, 294 157, 176, 193, 206, 234, 252, 256–58, masculinity, 142, 184, 217–18 270, 342 Master Builders Association of Wisconsin, Tenth Ward, 48, 69, 71, 274 105 Third Ward, 51–52, 360 Master Plan, 223–25, 228, 248 Twentieth Ward, 67 Central Area Plan, 224, 260 in 21st century, 35, 371–73 Mattison, Walter J., 100, 229, 271n24 Twenty-fourth Ward, 68, 252 Mattson, Joseph, 195 Twenty-sixth Ward, 67, 68, 359–60 Mayor’s Commission on Human Relations, Twenty-third Ward, 88 Milwaukee, 302, 306n108 West Side, 228 Mayor’s Housing Commission, Milwaukee, See also African Americans; Centurama; 71–72 downtown; labor organizations; Master Mayor’s Post-War Planning Conference Plan; suburbs/ suburbanization. (1943), 89, 92 Milwaukee Advertising Club, 101–2, 221, McBride, Ray, 315–19 234n53, 241 McCarthy, Joseph R., 79, 121, 207, 244, Milwaukee Association of Building Owners 275–77, 292–97, 352 and Managers, 324 McCarthyism, 208–9 Milwaukee Board of Realtors/Milwaukee McGuire, Milton, 269 Real Estate Board, 85, 88, 90, 96, McLin, Rev. William J. G., 312–13, 338 101–2, 104–5, 227, 240n67, 261, McMurray, Howard J., 62, 244 323–25 Merton, Robert K., 288–89 Milwaukee Builders Association, 294, Metropolitan Crime Prevention 323–24 Commission, 128 Milwaukee Building and Construction Mexican Americans, 51–52n19, 124n34 Trades Council, 83, 94–95, 105, 234 Meyer, Maynard, 223–25 Milwaukee Chamber of Commerce, 104 Meyer, Stephen, 206 Milwaukee City Hall, 36, 76, 94, Meyers, Fred P., 125, 136, 310, 312, 312– 217, 283, 310, 315, 318, 320–23, 339, 313n121 353, 370 migration, 48, 274, 303, 312, 354–55. See Milwaukee Civic Alliance, 104 also African Americans, as recent Milwaukee Commissioner of Health, 71 migrants Milwaukee Common Council. See Common “militant minority,” 172, 313 Council of Milwaukee militant unionism, 152, 167, 169–70, 177, Milwaukee Council of Church Women, 92, 189, 193, 205, 209, 315n126 247n83, 281 Milwaukee: Eighth Ward, 135 Milwaukee County Conference on Social Eighteenth Ward, 67, 233, 251, 256, Legislation (later called Wisconsin 359–60 Conference of Social Legislation), 84 Fifth Congressional District, 327 Milwaukee County Council of Churches, 92 First Ward, 346, 360 Milwaukee County Industrial Union Fourth Congressional District, 243, Council (Milwaukee CIO Council), 6, 258, 327 43, 83, 162, 166, 173, 175, 219, 320, Fourth Ward, 360 332, 338 Fourteenth Ward, 51, 67, 207, 252–53 Milwaukee County Parks Commission, 270 as industrial city, 1, 5, 24, 41, 57, 66, Milwaukee County Property Owners 167–68, 373 Association, 295, 319–21, 324, 332, near-north, 69, 71, 74, 87, 91, 98 354 population of, 274 Milwaukee Electric Railway and Light Sixteenth Ward, 69, 77 Company, 3

392 Index

Milwaukee Globe, 311 National Association for the Advancement Milwaukee Housing Authority. See Housing of Colored People (NAACP), 83, 85, Authority of Milwaukee 92, 96, 124n34, 125, 129, 188, 194, Milwaukee Housing Council, 83–84 281, 312, 338 Milwaukee Journal, 61, 118, 133 National Association of Home Builders, as city leader, 2, 7, 9, 80, 87, 94, 98, 108, 100, 102, 105, 291, 336 134, 148, 150–52, 211, 222, 227, 250, National Association of Manufacturers, 164 308, 314, 345–46, 361, 367 National Association of Real Estate Boards, Green Sheet of, 176 89, 291, 335–36 Milwaukee Junior Chamber of Commerce, National Bowling Association (formerly 103–5, 221, 228, 261 National Negro Bowling Association), Milwaukee Labor Press, 2 194 Milwaukee Leader, 121n24, 333 National Committee for Fair Play in Milwaukee Metropolitan Plan Association, Bowling, 201 96, 104, 224–25 National Housing Agency, 87 Milwaukee Ministerial Alliance, 302, 312 National Industrial Recovery Act (1933), 4, Milwaukee Mutual Housing Association, 14 286 National Labor Relations Act (1935). See Milwaukee Sentinel 147, 152n110, 203, Wagner Act 222, 250, 326n20 National Negro Congress, 187 Milwaukee Urban League (MUL), 50, National Public Housing Conference, 78 73–74, 83, 90, 105, 123, 124n34, 125, Nedved, Rudolph, 96, 266, 275 129, 188, 247, 281–83, 302–3, 311–12, Negro Businessmen’s League, 283 329–30, 338–39 neighborhoods. See African Americans; Milwaukee Woman’s Club, 22, 83, 92, 120, ethnicity; Milwaukee 122–23, 134, 281, 331 Nelson, Herbert, 335 Minneapolis, 192n60, 201, 214, 261–62 neoliberal city, 9, 9n17, 27, 373 modernization, 2, 4, 7, 16, 155, 217, 241, New Deal: continued postwar support for, 8, 367–68 21–22, 31 Montgomery, David, 52 housing and, 34, 64–66, 82–83, 103–8, mortgage loans, 38, 69, 107, 290, 326, 354 285, 291, 319 FHA mortgage insurance program, labor and, 10, 40, 55, 167 290–91 opposition to, 14, 21, 30–31, 86 Veterans Administration mortgage political culture and, 55, 168–70, 207 guarantees, 290–91 New York, 58–59, 370 Mouffe, Chantal, 25n40 1948 Corporation, 221–29, 234, movie theaters, 114, 143, 146 239–40, 245–51, 254–55, Municipal Enterprise Committee, 55, 255 258–63, 367 municipal ﬁnances, 213–14 Nonpartisan caucus, 84 autonomy and, 216, 233 Norquist, John, 372 baby-bond program, 235–36 Norstrand, Josephine, 306–7 bonds, municipal, 216, 233, 256 North Avenue, 77, 193 debt-free policy, 213, 215–17, 233–34, numbers. See policy games (number games) 251 Nunn, Henry L., 337 long-term municipal debt, 214–15 nursery schools and child care, 47, 183, 185 pay-as-you-go policy, 215, 217, 227, 239, 255–56 Ofﬁce of Price Administration (OPA), 266 postwar cities and, 213 public debt, 227–29, 233–34, 236, 241, parades: Centurama, 219–20 245–56, 259–63 Junior Chamber of Commerce, 228 turtle logo, 227 Labor Day parade 1945, 34, 159, 175–90, See also Keep Milwaukee Debt Free 199, 202 Committee; payment-in-lieu-of-taxes Labor Day parade 1951, 1–3, 5, 8, 27, 37, (PILOT); taxes, property taxes 51, 204, 367, 371

Index 393

parade ordinance conflict (1947), 6–8, 60, 163–69, 172–77, 181, 183, 189–90, 169, 210, 255, 258, 371 196–98, 202–3, 206, 209–10, 286, 315, Parklawn project: income and, 73, 78–79 318, 368 political controversy and, 65–66, 72 private enterprise, 18, 79, 81, 86, 101, 103, race and, 76–77, 329 248, 355–56 siting of, 74 private sector, 226, 235–36, 256, 263, 286, taxes and, 80 288, 290, 292, 298, 331 patriotism, 104, 111, 117, 139, 177, 179 economic expansion and, 16–17, 33, 36 pay-as-you-go policy. See municipal responsibilities of, 28, 63, 72, 101–2, 179– finances; referenda fights 80 payment-in-lieu-of-taxes (PILOT). See productivity. See growth politics housing, public Property Owners’ Bureau, 105 Perrin, Richard W.E., 96, 296–97, 314, 343– property taxes. See taxes 44, 347–49, 358 public housing. See housing, public Pieplow, William, 239–40, 325, 351–52 Public Housing Referendum Committee, pinball and slot machines, 34, 111–14, 117, 326, 344, 345n61, 351 131–33, 144, 152, 155 public sector, 17, 32, 63, 88, 91, 93, 106–7, gender and, 140–43 180, 240–43, 259, 263, 284, 297, 371 licensing of, 134–35 Public Works Administration (PWA), 72, 76 1942 pinball vote, 134–37 Pulaski Council, 331 tavern owners and, 134–36, 138–39, 142 See also Zeidler, Carl racial conflict and tension, 21, 128, 309, planners, planning profession, 4, 15, 57, 74, 363, 371 76, 176, 213, 217, 219, 223, 248–49, gambling and, 119–20, 125–26, 131–32, 370 134, 145, 153, 155–56 Plantz, Edward, 325, 332, 342, 354 growth politics and, 175, 299, 309–10, pluralism, 23, 93, 152, 170–71, 315, 368 349, 352, 358–59 police, 43, 53, 110, 112, 121–26, 132–33, housing and, 20, 36, 48, 61–65, 69–77, 198, 237–38, 295, 302, 320–21, 357 82, 87, 92, 174, 248, 289, 299–301, policy games (number games), 34, 110, 310, 315–19, 321–22, 325–30, 347, 152–55 356–66 economy and, 124–29 labor and, 20, 45, 47, 49–50, 155–56, fears of, 118–134 160, 162, 171, 174, 187, 189, 195 policy wheels, 125 language of, 130 race and, 118–136, 145 middle-class respectability and, 129 See also Harris, Clinton (Joe) negative depictions of African-American political culture: Introduction (1–37), neighborhoods and, 132–33, 145, 274 Epilogue (367–73), 42–43, 59, 66, 100, whiteness and, 50 103, 109, 155, 171–72, 213 working-class politics and, 50, 198, 303, anticommunism and, 203, 298, 307 319 class and, 210, 216, 231, 236, 250, 258, youth and, 124 263, 319 See also African Americans; civil rights; race and, 108, 130 migration; policy games (number games) “political housing.” See housing, public racial egalitarianism, 12n22, 36, 47, 64, 116, Popular Front, 11, 167, 187, 206, 306 160, 189, 190–91, 210 housing and, 62, 84, 328 racial liberalism, 23, 36, 299, 302, 315, 317 poverty, 124, 127–28. See also housing, racial segregation, 33, 36, 48–49, 65, 189, public: low-income 192–93, 195, 200, 210, 283, 299, 301, power, 7, 20, 63, 85, 127–128n43, 188, 304–5, 349, 370 199 radio, 83, 143, 163, 220, 241, 251, 285–86, postwar growth politics and, 2, 3, 9, 13, 323, 330, 339 16, 25–28, 32, 85–86, 93, 103–9 raffles, 110, 153n113 working-class, 4, 8–15, 18, 36, 39, 57, 66, Ranney, Frank, 241–45 86, 111, 113, 116, 142, 155–56, 159– Raskin, Max, 8, 83–84, 144, 235

394 Index

real estate interests and organizations, San Francisco, 213, 370 33–34, 61, 73–74, 88–89, 95, 99, 105, Saunders, Laurence, 311–13 285, 332, 334, 356, 362, 370. See also Savings and Loan League: Milwaukee Board of Realtors/ Milwaukee, 79, 88, 324–25 Milwaukee Real Estate Board; National Wisconsin, 105, 325 Association of Real Estate Boards See also U.S. Savings and Loan League reconversion, 100, 160–62, 167, 176, 180– Schlitz brewery, 162 82, 206, 264 Schoemann, Peter, 94–96, 241–45, 293–94 recreation. See leisure Schroedel, Francis, 294 Red Arrow housing and redevelopment plan, Scott, Mel, 213, 296n76 346 Second Bill of Rights. See Roosevelt, Red Cross, 297, 323 Franklin D. Red Cross Housing Bureau, 266–67, 282 security, 27 redevelopment. See urban redevelopment African American, 189–90 referenda ﬁghts: 1947 bond issue CIO and, 34, 159–163, 180–85, referendum, 216, 227, 245, 202–3, 209 249–59, 280 economic, 42, 168–69, 174–77, 234, 1951 housing referenda, 320–365 236–37 Referendum News, 340, 357 Seidel, Emil, 53 reformers, 9, 16–17, 21–23, 31, 34, 38, 231 Sewell, William H., Jr., 29, 30n47 antigambling, 34, 81, 93, 111–13, Signal Battery Company, 161–62 117–125, 128, 130–31, 134–35, 138, Simkhovitch, Mary, 78 141–49, 152–56 slum clearance, 33, 62, 64, 73–74, 96, 248– housing, 64, 78, 83, 249, 255, 260, 273, 49, 285, 295, 297, 321–22, 336–48, 294, 317, 327, 333, 337, 341–46, 352 356, 370 middle-class, 52–52, 78, 118, 129, 231 blight elimination, 97, 101–2, 105–6, 118, See also women, reformers 255, 259, 271, 273, 280, 327, 358 refrigerators, 57, 73, 262 social citizenship, 353 Reisner, Rev. Ensworth, 331, 337 socialism, 21, 24–25, 231–32, 325 Reith, Nora, 248, 342 municipal socialism, 240, 245 religion/ religious groups, 52, 91–92, 113, Socialist Party (Social Democratic Party): 120, 136, 139, 144, 146, 168, 192, 201, accomplishments of, 3, 8, 53, 65–66, 217, 247, 279, 286, 302, 327, 331, 335, 72, 74, 78, 113, 171, 215, 231, 241, 337, 370 327 rent control, 70n17, 247n83, 321, 359 decline of, 12, 44, 55, 85, 89, 103, 232 Renters League, 283 legacy of, 17, 40, 52–54, 231, 233, 243– Republican Party, 55, 121, 153n113, 243– 46, 286, 371 44, 293 South Division Civic Association, 234, 239 Resettlement Administration, 65n8, 82 Soviet Union, 207 Reuss, Henry, 255–59, 271n14, 346 Stanger, Fred R., 97, 265, 272, 279 Reuther, Walter, 201, 205–6 Steffes, Herbert J., 122, 145, 152–53 Roache, John J., 99–100 Stocking, Lewis, 298, 332 Roosevelt, Franklin D., 55, 62, 103, 258 Stoll, Dick, 195–97 Second Bill of Rights (“four freedoms” Straus, Nathan, 79–82, 84, 352 speech), 168 streetcars and buses, 2–5, 12, 42, 47, 149, Runge, Carl, 126, 130–31 153, 196, 198 Rust Belt, 1, 370–71 streetcar strike (1934), 3–4n5 strikes. See labor strikes and actions sacriﬁce, wartime, 104, 110–11, 114, 117, suburbs/ suburbanization, 5, 30, 55–59, 139, 148–49, 151, 154, 157, 159, 171, 192, 209, 228, 233, 251, 256–67, 262, 177, 179–84, 188, 249 290–91, 333, 354, 369, 371 St. Mark’s AME Church, 96, 131 Shorewood, 238–40 St. Matthews CME Church, 47, 312 West Allis, 176, 203, 238 Sanders, Albert J. and Rogelia, 300–9, 315 Sun Belt, 14

Index 395

Taft-Hartley Act (1947), 14, 46, 208 USWA Local 1527, 180, 184 taverns and bars: as centers for men, 34, 114, USWA Local 2181, 185 137–38, 140, 142–43 United Taxpayers Association, 85 gambling in, 112, 134, 138–39 University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee, 342 racism in, 187 urban conditions: fears of disorder or decay, women and, 115, 141, 150–51 2, 21, 32, 98, 117, 120, 123, 132, 134, working class culture and politics in, 12, 143, 149, 153 113, 135, 155, 159, 225 postwar conflict, 90, 159, 206 See also bingo; pinball and slot machines signs of decline, 211–12 taxes, 250, 323–24 See also civic boosters; civic reformers; poll taxes, 188 municipal finances; slum clearance property taxes, 68, 80–82, 102, 236, 239– urban policy, 8, 27, 36, 100, 105, 172, 250, 40, 325–26, 350, 355–58, 261, 286, 319, 337, 364 362, 372 national, 341, 365 Tehan, Robert, 346–47 urban redevelopment: contests over, 1, 33, Teske, Roland, 323 52, 89, 100–1, 275, 321–22, 368 Thrall, Helen, 110, 154–55 efficiency and, 18, 213, 369 Trenkamp, Alfred, 323 growth liberalism and, 36, 100 Trotter, Joe William, Jr., 48n13, 63n5, housing and, 195, 249, 260, 280, 337, 70n18, 123n30, 129n47 341–49, 356, 359, 360, 363–65 Truman, Harry, 55, 205, 255, 292, 305, Urban Redevelopment Corporation, 346 322, 327–28 vacancy rate, 68, 265 unemployment, 161, 163, 371 vagrancy, 132–33 African Americans and, 49, 70, 125, 127 veterans, 6, 143, 176, 179–80, 183–88, 307, Milwaukee’s Unemployment 317. See also housing, public; housing Compensation office, 161, 182 shortages postwar unemployment, 57, 127, 160, Veterans Administration (VA), 290–91 162, 179–82 veterans’ housing program, 247n83, women and, 102 270–71, 300n88 unions. See labor organizations “vital center,” 8, 23 United Automobile Workers. See United Vliet Street Recreation Center, 270–71 Auto Workers (UAW) V-J Day, 34, 141, 157–59, 162–63, 175, United Auto Workers (UAW), 6, 84, 175, 183–84, 202 191, 194, 197–98, 201, 205–6 Fair Practices Department, 201 Wagner Act, 14, 167, 169, 204 Local 75, 177–78, 180, 184, 195 Wallace, Henry, 328 Local 248 (Allis-Chalmers) 90, 157, 160– War Housing Center, Milwaukee, 87 67, 172–73, 179–80, 186–87, wards. See Milwaukee 190, 206, 208, 220, 292, 294, 307, 338 wartime unity, 34, 51, 88 See also Allis-Chalmers; Allis-Chalmers Wasielewski, Thaddeus, 182, 206–7, 243 strike; Reuther, Walter Wiley, Alexander, 182 United Labor Committee, 94, 244 Wisconsin, 55, 207n85, 255, 264, United States Census Bureau, 58, 265 284, 346 United States Congress, 53 Wisconsin Avenue, 1, 7, 158, 159, 169 House Education and Labor Committee, 1947 ordinance fight on, 6, 8, 34, 371 204 1951 parade on, 2, 4, 5, 8, 37, 172, 177, United States Housing Act, 204, 292 190, 371 United States Housing Authority (USHA), Wisconsin CIO Council (Wisconsin 78–85 Industrial Union Council), 181n39, U.S. Savings and Loan League, 291, 336 203, 338 United Steel Workers of America (USWA), Wisconsin CIO News, 183, 195, 197, 200 180–85, 195 Wisconsin Civil Rights Congress, 306, USWA District 32, 182 307n110

396 Index

Wisconsin Employment Peace Act (1939), egalitarianism and, 107, 181, 202 14, 167 facets of, 1–37, 367–369 Wisconsin Enterprise-Blade, 131 housing and, 64, 82, 108, 236, 290, 322, Wisconsin Federation of Women’s Clubs, 105 353, 359, 362–65, 368 Wisconsin Housing Authority Act, 92 labor and, 7, 12, 43, 65–66, 109, 159–60, Wisconsin Mortgage Bankers Association, 170–75, 183, 194, 209 102 language of, 20–21, 258 Wisconsin State Conference for Social leisure and, 12, 117, 142, 152, 190 Legislation (formerly Wisconsin overlap with growth politics, 5, 19, 60 Conference on Social Legislation), power and, 4, 112–13, 169 84n54, 247n83, 307n110, 328 social and policy clashes and, 1 Wisconsin State Federation of Labor, 241 urban priorities, 213, 216, 225, 232 Wolfe, Alan, 16 See also power women: kids’ delinquency and, 149–51 Works Progress Administration (WPA), 71, leisure and, 114, 119, 125, 131, 141–156, 79, 147 192–96 World War I, 38, 57, 66, 81, 126, 160 race and, 304, 323 World War II, 9, 20, 23, 30, 34, 36, 41, 45, reformers, 22, 31, 74, 82–84, 91–93, 96, 48, 51, 54, 68, 86, 117 103, 120, 125, 134, 247–48, 278–81, 321, 330, 333, 335, 345 YMCA, 92, 105, 266, 312 unemployment and, 161–62, 174, 182–86 YWCA Negro Department, 92 wartime employment of, 10, 42, 47, 49, 115, 185 Zablocki, Clement J., 207–208n85, See also bingo 327–28 Women’s Court and Civic Conference, 91, Zeidler, Agnes, 87n61 120, 330 Zeidler, Carl, 55, 85, 120–22, 134–36, Women’s International Bowling Congress, 230–31 193 Zeidler, Frank P., annexation Women’s Service Club, 339–40 and, 56, 369 Women’s Trade Union League (WTUL), background of, 12, 120, 230 280, 330–31, 333 election as mayor, 55, 140, 322, 361 Woodbury, Coleman, 342 housing and, 322, 330, 332–37, 345–46, working-class politics: access and, 112–13, 358, 364 118 as leader against debt referendum, autonomy and, 112–13, 118 230–40, 251–55, 321 dignity and, 25, 168 Zillman, Erwin, 331