Literature assessment on drought in Sudan
By Ali Abdel Kareim Hameed, Salahaddeen Abdalla Alebaid, Hashim Mohamed El Hassan, Sumaya Ismaeel Abdella and Fathia Salih Musa
November 2011
DCG Report No.69
Literature assessment on drought in Sudan
Ali Abdel Kareim Hameed, Salahaddeen Abdalla Alebaid, Hashim Mohamed El Hassan, Sumaya Ismaeel Abdella and Fathia Salih Musa
DCG Report No.69 November 2011
The Drylands Coordination Group (DCG) is an NGO-driven forum for exchange of practical experiences and knowledge on food security and natural resource management in the drylands of Africa. DCG facilitates this exchange of experiences between NGOs and research and policy-making institutions. The DCG activities, which are carried out by DCG members in Ethiopia, Eritrea, Mali and Sudan, aim to contribute to improved food security of vulnerable households and sustainable natural resource management in the drylands of Africa.
The founding DCG members consist of ADRA Norway, CARE Norway, Norwegian Church Aid, Norwegian People's Aid and The Development Fund. The secretariat of DCG is located at the Environmental House (Miljøhuset G9) in Oslo and acts as a facilitating and implementing body for the DCG. The DCG’s activities are funded by NORAD (the Norwegian Agency for Development Cooperation).
Extracts from this publication may only be reproduced after prior consultation with the DCG secretariat. The findings, interpretations and conclusions expressed in this publication are entirely those of the author and cannot be attributed directly to the Drylands Coordination Group.
© By Ali Abdel Kareim Hameed, Salahaddeen Abdalla Alebaid, Hashim Mohamed El Hassan, Sumaya Ismaeel Abdella and Fathia Salih Musa Drylands Coordination Group Report No. 69, 11, 2011. Drylands Coordination Group c/o Miljøhuset G9 Grensen 9B N-0159 Oslo Norway Tel.: +47 23 10 94 10 Fax: +47 23 10 94 94 Internet: http://www.drylands-group.org
ISSN: 1503-0601
Photo credits: cover: T.A. Benjaminsen, Gry Synnevåg.
Cover design: Spekter Reklamebyrå AS, Ås. Printed at: CDDU Grafisk AS, Oslo.
TABLE OF CONTENTS LIST OF TABLES ...... IV LIST OF FIGURES ...... IV ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ...... V 1. CHAPTER ONE: BACKGROUND ...... 1 1.1. INTRODUCTION ...... 1 1.2. CLIMATE ...... 1 1.3. TOPOGRAPHY ...... 2 1.4. SOILS ...... 2 1.5. WATER RESOURCES ...... 2 1.6. FORESTRY ...... 2 1.7. RANGELANDS AND PASTURE ...... 2 1.8. AGRICULTURE ...... 3 2. CHAPTER TWO: GENERAL APPROACH AND METHODOLOGY ...... 4 2.1. PURPOSE OF THE STUDY ...... 4 2.2. METHODOLOGY ...... 4 2.3. STUDY TEAM ...... 4 2.4. TERMS OF REFERENCES ...... 5 3. CHAPTER THREE: WORKSHOP I ...... 6 3.1. SCIENTIFIC APPROACH TO COMBAT DROUGHT IN SUDAN ...... 6 3.2. WORKSHOP PROCEEDINGS ...... 6 3.2.1. Climate Changes and the Impacts in Sudan and the Future Prospective to mitigate the extreme climate changes ...... 6 3.2.2. Biomass Consumption and Alternatives, their Constraints and Impacts on Environment ...... 6 3.2.3. Food Gaps in the Drought Affected Areas in Sudan ...... 7 3.2.4. Working groups ...... 8 4. CHAPTER FOUR: WORKSHOP II...... 9 4.1. INDIGENOUS KNOWLEDGE AND ITS ROLE IN FOOD SECURITY DURING DROUGHT PERIOD IN SUDAN ...... 9 4.1.1. The development of alternative and supplementary livelihood systems to reduce pressure on land based resources in Sudan dry lands ...... 9 4.1.2. Promotion of Local Peoples’ Traditional Knowledge to Secure Their Food in Drought Prone Areas ... 9 4.1.3. Pastoralists and the Economic Transformation in the Dry Lands of the Sudan ...... 10 4.1.4. The Contribution of Rural Women to the Sustenance of Food Production in the Dryland of Sudan . 11 5. CHAPTER FIVE: SUMMARY OF THE SURVEY ...... 12 5.1. DROUGHT AND DESERTIFICATION ...... 12 5.2. HISTORICAL DROUGHT OCCURRENCE IN SUDAN ...... 13 5.3. DROUGHT AND CROP PRODUCTION ...... 16 5.4. IMPACTS OF DROUGHT AND DESERTIFICATION ON PASTORALISM IN SUDAN ...... 21 5.5. DROUGHT MONITORING ...... 21 5.6. DROUGHT POLICY AND STRATEGY ...... 21 6. CHAPTER SIX: CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS ...... 23 6.1. COPING STRATEGIES OF RURAL COMMUNITIES ...... 23 6.2. RECOMMENDATIONS ...... 24 REFERENCES ...... 27 ANNEXES ...... 29 ANNEX 1: THE AVERAGE OF SEED OIL CROPS ...... 29 ANNEX 2 : THE AVERAGE OF GRAIN CROPS PRODUCTION ...... 29 ANNEX 3: THE EXTREME WEATHER AND CLIMATE EVENTS IN SUDAN ...... 30 ANNEX 4: TRADITIONAL DIVISIONS OF LUNAR MONTH CALENDAR ...... 31 ANNEX 5: WILD (I NDIGENOUS PLANTS ) WHICH WERE CONSUMED IN KORDOFAN AND DARFUR ...... 32
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LIST OF TABLES
TABLE 1: THE ECOLOGICAL ZONES OF SUDAN ...... 1 TABLE 2: LIVESTOCK POPULATION IN SUDAN (MILLIONS HEADS ) ...... 3 TABLE 3: CONSULTANT 'S NAMES AND THEIR ASSIGNED REGIONS ...... 4 TABLE 4: INDICATORS FOR DROUGHT MONITORING ...... 8 TABLE 5: DESERTIFICATION STATUS IN SUDAN ...... 14 TABLE 6: FORESTS IN WESTERN SUDAN REGION ; AREA , STATUS , INDICATORS AND CAUSES OF DESERTIFICATION ...... 15 TABLE 7: FOREST COVER CHANGE AND ANNUAL RATE OF FOREST CLEARANCE DURING THE PERIOD 1980-2005 ...... 15
LIST OF FIGURES
FIGURE 1: INTERRELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN METEOROLOGICAL , AGRICULTURAL , HYDROLOGICAL AND SOCIOECONOMIC DROUGHT . .. 12 FIGURE 2: DROUGHT AREAS IN SUDAN ...... 13 FIGURE 3: SUDAN NORMAL RAINFALL IN MM FOR THE PERIOD 1971-2000 ...... 16 FIGURE 4: PRODUCTION SYSTEMS IN SUDAN ...... 17 FIGURE 5: MAIN CEREAL CULTIVATED AREA IN THOUSANDS HECTARE IN SEASONS (89-1990 UP TO 07-2008)...... 18 FIGURE 6: MAIN CEREAL CROPS PRODUCTION IN THOUSANDS TONS IN SEASONS (89-1990 UP TO 07-2008) ...... 18 FIGURE 7: MAIN OIL SEEDS CROPS CULTIVATED AREA IN THOUSANDS HECTARE IN SEASONS (89-1990 UP TO 07-2008) ...... 19 FIGURE 8: MAIN OIL SEEDS CROPS PRODUCTION IN THOUSANDS TONS IN SEASONS (89-1990 UP TO 07-2008) ...... 19 FIGURE 9: AREA AND PRODUCTION OF VEGETABLES AND FRUITS ...... 20 FIGURE 10: FLOW DIAGRAM TO SHOW THE IMPACT OF DROUGHT ON AGRO PASTORAL GROUPS AND NATURAL RESOURCES ...... 20 FIGURE 11: PASTORALIST MOVEMENT ACCROSS SUDAN ...... 22 FIGURE 12: TERUS CULTIVATING SYSTEM IN THE DRYLANDS IN SUDAN ...... 23
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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Our sincere thanks are due to the Drylands Coordination Group (DCG) for their assistance and support that made this work possible.
Special thanks are also extended to National Drought and Desertification Control Unit (NDDCU) staffs who worked hard during the workshops.
Special thanks to ADRA Sudan who facilitated the financial part of this project.
We are very grateful for the cooperation of the workshop participants, the governmental institutions and community leaders we met during the implementation of the activities .
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Literature assessment on drought in Sudan 1. CHAPTER ONE: BACKGROUND
1.1. INTRODUCTION
Sudan, the largest country in Africa, covers an area of about 2.5 million km 2. It lies between latitudes 3 o 30´ and 22 o 20´ North and longitudes 22 o 17´ and 38 o 20´ East and is bounded by nine countries: Egypt in the north; Eritrea and Ethiopia in the East; Kenya, Uganda, and DR Congo in the South; Central Africa, and Chad in the West; and Libya in the North-West. Administratively, the country is divided into 26 federal states.
1.2. CLIMATE
Ecological conditions of the Sudan vary greatly, from the desert region of the North, the arid and semi-arid areas of the centre to the tropical rainforest of the South. Average annual rainfall varies from almost zero in the North to more than 1000mm in the South. The country’s ecological zones, the land area they occupy and their general characteristics are presented in the table below.
Average temperatures are generally high throughout the year. Mean annual temperature varies between 26 o C and 32 o C, except for elevated points such as Jebel Marra in the west (22.6 oC), Red Sea hills in the east (22.8 oC), and Amatong Mountains in the extreme south (18.1 oC).
Table 1: The Ecological Zones of Sudan
No. Ecological Zone % Land area Characteristics 1. Desert or Hyper arid zone 28.9% Virtually no rain or vegetation. Vegetation is confined to wadis and oasis. Geological formations. Nubian and Sandstone basins are rich in underground water. The narrow riverine strip along the Nile constitutes very productive agricultural land. 2. Semi-desert or arid zone 19.6% Rainfall maximum 300mm, very erratic in time and space. Important for grazing and browse for nomadic herds of camels, sheep, and goats. 3. Low rainfall savanna on 27.6% Confined to western Sudan. The soil is sand or semi-arid zone typically Goz or stabilized sand dunes. Rainfall between 300-400 mm. Vegetation cover is mostly annual with some perennial herbaceous plants. Trees are mostly Acacia species. Traditional farming systems of millet, sesame, and ground nuts.
The gum Arabic tree is part of the system.
There is considerable pressure on
resources due to the growing population, and a fragile environment determined by rainfall.
4. Low rainfall savanna 13.8% Rainfall between 400-600 mm. 1
Drylands Coordination Group
No. Ecological Zone % Land area Characteristics clay or semi-arid zone Original vegetation has been removed to develop irrigated agriculture in the central plains. Mechanized farming has been developed in the south-eastern plains. Tree cover severely decreased. 5. Heavy rainfall savanna or 9.8% Rainfall between 600-800 mm. dry sub-humid zone Retains much of its original natural vegetation. 6. Montane or humid zone 0.3% Volume of flooding determines the extent of permanent and seasonal flooding. The swamps control the quality of the Nile waters by acting as a giant filter. Source: Mahgoub G. Zaroug , Horn of Africa Food Security Initiative, Pastoralists development in Sudan, Exploratory Mission Report, FAO, August 2002.
1.3. TOPOGRAPHY
The main feature of Sudan’s topography is the large plain that extends about 2000 km from North to South. The plain is relieved by Jebel Marra massif in the West, the Red Sea Hills in the East, the Nuba Mountains in the centre and the Imataong hills to the southern borders.
1.4. SOILS
In the North, desert soils dominate, whereas in western Sudan the goz sands (the stabilized sand dunes) cover extensive areas. Cracking clays (vertisols) cover the eastern areas and many parts of southern Sudan, with the South-East dominated by iron-stone plateau.
1.5. WATER RESOURCES
River Nile and its tributaries are the main source of water in Sudan. Precipitation, ground water and surface water such as seasonal streams, permanent lakes and hafirs are important water sources in several parts of the country.
1.6. FORESTRY
Forest area in Sudan as estimated by Harrison and Jackson (1958) was to be between 36% and 43% of the total country area. Forest resources assessment by the FAO in 2005 estimated that the tree cover is 29%. In 1997 the Forests National Corporation (NFC) in cooperation with the FAO conducted a survey on the area between latitudes 10° and 16° north which covered the central part of the country (622.700 km2 or 24.9% of the total area of the Sudan). The inventory resulted in a forest cover of 12% based on the FAO definition of forest (10% Canopy cover).
1.7. RANGELANDS AND PASTURE
Rangelands in Sudan are very variable and extend throughout the different ecological zones. They are estimated to be 110 million hectares (Higher Council for Environment and Natural Resources, 2009), and their total forage (dry matter) production is about 85.6 million tons, including 62.4 million tons natural range production and 23.2 million tons as agricultural 2
Literature assessment on drought in Sudan residue, green fodder, dry fodder, and concentrates. These variations support the diversity of vegetation and production systems (Sudan’s Fourth National Report to the Convention on Biological Diversity. 2009).
Rangeland covers have been subjected, particularly in the semi-desert and savanna ecological zones, to recurrent droughts since the late 1960s. They are now showing decrease in the palatable species and increase in the unpalatable and invader species (Wakeel et al., 2008). Livestock populations are tremendously increasing, even though high rates of mortality of livestock were reported during drought. Livestock figures in Sudan are as shown in table 2.
Table 2: Livestock Population in Sudan (millions heads)
Year Sheep Goats Cows Camels 2003 48 42 40 3.5 2004 49 42 40 3.7 2005 50 43 40 3.9 2006 50 43 41 4.0 2007 51 43 41 4.0
Source: Ministry of Animal Resources and Fisheries. Annual Report, 2008.
1.8. AGRICULTURE
Agriculture dominates the economy of the Sudan and agricultural production is practiced under several different farming systems. The department of statistic under the Sudanese ministry of agriculture classifies theses farming systems as:
1. Irrigated sector which includes the areas irrigated from the Nile and its tributaries flush irrigated areas, and irrigation from bore holes. It is dominated by large national schemes such as Gezira, New Halfa, Rahad, and sugar factories. The size of tenancies ranges from 4.2 to 16.8 hectares. The total area of this sector is estimated to be 5 million hectares. 2. Mechanized rainfed sector which covers areas in the central clay plain. Mechanization is practiced in land preparation and threshing. The total area of this sector is estimated at 6.3 million hectares, with average size of holdings at 420 hectares. 3. Traditional rainfed sector which covers all areas under traditional production where non- mechanized farming tools are predominantly used. The total cultivated area of this sector is estimated at 8 million hectares.
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Drylands Coordination Group 2. CHAPTER TWO: GENERAL APPROACH AND METHODOLOGY
2.1. PURPOSE OF THE STUDY
The purpose of this study is to review the available literature and studies relevant to the disaster of drought and desertification in Sudan.
2.2. METHODOLOGY
1. Conduct two workshops: a. The first workshop is under the topic “Scientific approach to combat desertification”. b. The second workshop is under the topic: “National workshop on indigenous knowledge and experience to secure food during drought period in Sudan”. 2. Collection of data from the drought affected regions.
2.3. STUDY TEAM
The mission team was made up of four consultants specialized in the field of drought and desertification and natural resources management. They were selected by the National Drought and Desertification Control Unit (NDDCU) according to their CVs and experience.
The mission team conducted the study in one month in November 2008. Each consultant prepared his/her report about his/her specific region in December 2008.
The mission is accomplished through the efforts of the consultants presented in table 3:
Table 3: Consultant's Names and Their Assigned Regions
Name State Region Red Sea Fathia Salih Musa Kassala Eastern Gedarif Gezira Sinnar Hashim Mohamed El Hassan Central White Nile Khartoum Western Darfur Sumaya Ismaeel Abdella Northern Darfur Western Northern Kordofan The Northern Salahaddeen Abdalla Alebaid Northern Nahranneel
The team leader collected the four regional reports from the consultants and compiled the final report.
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Literature assessment on drought in Sudan 2.4. TERMS OF REFERENCES
Activities to be implemented by the consultants were:
• Assess the situation of drought within the affected regions, • Study the coping mechanisms used in the affected regions to mitigate the effect of drought, • Collect data and information about climate, population, animal population, food security, and all relevant material, • Draw maps of drought effects (impacts) and discover the needed preparedness to be used and analyzed, • Review of relevant documents, policies, programs, and projects to assess the past experience.
Data was collected from the relevant governmental institutions, research institutions, international NGOs, national NGOs and CBOs. A questionnaire was used to cover the most relevant information.
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Drylands Coordination Group 3. CHAPTER THREE: WORKSHOP I
3.1. SCIENTIFIC APPROACH TO COMBAT DROUGHT IN SUDAN
The workshop came as an integral activity of the ongoing Drought Literature Review Project. It had the objective of guiding the ongoing data collection process undertaken by the review project. This was to be accomplished through identification of drought monitoring information requirements based on indicators and roles and capacities of the involved institutions to obtain and disseminate information.
3.2. WORKSHOP PROCEEDINGS
3.2.1. Climate Changes and the Impacts in Sudan and the Future Prospective to mitigate the extreme climate changes Ismail Fadel-El Moula - Khartoum, Met. Authority, Ismail Elgizouli - Higher Council for Environment & Natural Resources
Climate plays a key role in socioeconomic activities. The understanding of climatic conditions such as the occurrence of climatic extremes would benefit in early warning programs and mitigation procedures for food security. Sudan climate zones vary from desert in the North to humid areas in the South.
Sudan is affected by extreme weather and climate disasters, mostly droughts and floods. The frequency of these extremes increased in the last 20 years and is expected to continue in the future. For these reasons there is a strong need to factor climate and weather in the various sectors for sustainable development and safety.
There is reported a clear change in the climate during the last three decades of the twentieth century. This can be detected from the performance and trend of rainfall, showing a decline, and rising temperatures in most parts of Sudan. Also, the climate zones reported a southwards shift. Sudan is particularly concerned with impacts of climate change on the country’s temperature and precipitation, its fragile ecosystem, its weak infrastructure and economy and the food security and livelihood of more than 70% of the country‘s population who are directly dependent on climate-sensitive resources. The expected climate change is leading to socioeconomic impacts including: drought, which implies limited natural resources, hence preparing the ground for tribal conflicts; food security collapse, leading to famine followed by displaced people; refugees, and then misuse of the remaining natural resources; floods, implying migration of people from rural and remote areas to the cities, causing stress on service infrastructure and spoiled stability and security conditions.
3.2.2. Biomass Consumption and Alternatives, their Constraints and Impacts on Environment Talaat D. Abdel Magid - Faculty of Forestry and Range Science, Upper Nile University El Nour A. El Siddig - Faculty of Forestry, University of Khartoum Abdel Salam A. Abdel Salam - Nile Basin Initiative, Nile Transboundary Environmental Action Project.
The biomass area in Sudan has been gradually declining as a result of extensive conversion of woody biomass for agricultural purposes and for wood uses. Because forests are a source of greenhouse gas concentration in the atmosphere, losses in biomass contents in Sudan have a major impact on climate change. Biomass is the primary source of energy in Sudan,
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Literature assessment on drought in Sudan contributing by 70% of the total energy supply. Petroleum, on the other hand, contributes by 25%, and electricity 5%. This makes the carbon dioxide emission contribution by forests and other non-wood biomass conversion sources 83%. This is the biggest among the Sudanese’s sources of energy according to the national inventory of the green house gases made in 1998.
Since 1980 the annual clearance of forests falls in the range of 0.4-0.45 million hectares. The total forest cover changed from approximately 34.956 million hectares in 1980 to 22.0 million hectares in 2005. The total loss of forest cover was approximating 10.706 million hectares in twenty five years.
Consideration should be directed towards management and conservation of forest resources associated with development on environmental and social sustainability, institutional strengthening, research, forestry education and good governance.
3.2.3. Food Gaps in the Drought Affected Areas in Sudan Eng. Babikir Haj Hassan Ibrahim Food Security Department Manager - Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry
Agriculture represents the backbone of Sudan’s economy, contributing 85% of GNP and 80% of country exports excluding oil. The sector provides 65% of work opportunities and 50% of raw material for industry. Sorghum, wheat and millet represent the main food sources in Sudan. Sudan produces more than its need from sorghum. About 60% of the country’s need for wheat is imported. Sudan depends entirely on local production to meet need for millet, with only small amounts occasionally being imported.
The following states have been in cereals excess: Gedarif, Gezira, South Kordofan, Sinnar, White Nile, Blue Nile, River Nile, Northern State, and Southern states.
States in deficit in producing their need for cereals include: Kassala, Red Sea, North Darfur, West Darfur, North Kordofan and Khartoum.
Difference between states can be attributed to the distribution of rain rather than the amount of rain, as well as an apparent decline in productivity.
The spells of drought is clearly manifested in desert creep, and some of the regions are subjected to famine (particularly during 1983/84) as well as tribal conflicts. As a consequence, massive displacements took place in many areas where the residual drought effect still was observable in the suffering of affected communities.
The UN, through the World Food Programme (WFP) provide appreciable food amounts to the needy communities in response to natural disaster and conflicts. International and national humanitarian aid organizations have also been active in the last years to address food gaps.
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Drylands Coordination Group
3.2.4. Working groups The following table contains indicators suggested by the workshop participants for monitoring drought
Table 4: Indicators for Drought Monitoring
Concerned Drought indicators Information need Institution capacity institution Ambient and soil Temperatures, Meteorology Poor instruments temperatures humidity Department Amounts of Meteorology Rain gauges stations are Precipitation precipitation and Department insufficient and poorly distributed distribution Laboratory and field methods, soil Soil humidity Soil institutions characteristics, Satellite station Density and geographical National Help to study green cover in terms Green cover distribution Research Center of area and varieties. Lack of appropriate technologies Remote sensing institute Rate of Ministry of Hunger malnutrition Health Bureau of Poverty Income index War and displacement Statistics Productivity and Market information prices of food Indigenous Coping strategies Local authorities,
knowledge surveys communities Ecology Animal behavior Traditional techniques observations,
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Literature assessment on drought in Sudan 4. CHAPTER FOUR: WORKSHOP II
4.1. INDIGENOUS KNOWLEDGE AND ITS ROLE IN FOOD SECURITY DURING DROUGHT PERIOD IN SUDAN
This workshop was carried out while following the capacity building approach in order to build capacity and share experiences between the dryland inhabitants of Sudan. It was carried out mainly through active participation and discussion.
4.1.1. The development of alternative and supplementary livelihood systems to reduce pressure on land based resources in Sudan dry lands Mohamed Elamin Abdelrahman Natural Resources Director
The main types of livelihood systems in the drylands of Sudan depend entirely on agriculture and animals. The traditional rain-fed shifting cultivation is the main crop production system. It relies on natural fallows for soil fertility maintenance. Under this system farmers clear the land, burn cleared vegetation and cultivate plots of 10-15 ha.
Also Turus cultivation is practiced in the alluvial deposits along wadis in the western part of the country and in clay soils of central Sudan. Small dykes are usually constructed along contour lines for water harvesting (moisture conservation).
Gum production from the acacia tree is considered as an important cash source for farmers.
Pastoralism is the way of life for the nomads. Pastoralists have their heritage and cultural background, and have developed efficient frameworks for their own traditional institutions. A pastoral household obtain most of its energy requirements from milk and milk products, and more than 50% of its income from livestock and animal products sales.
There is a remarkable increase in human and animal population, and consequently an increasing demand for food and fodder. This leads to many problems like overgrazing, rangelands degradation, fodder shortage, land tenure problems and natural resources based conflicts like blood shade and tribal conflict. Therefore, it is the time to look for other alternatives and techniques used to enhance the livelihood of the drylands inhabitants, like water harvesting techniques and ranching.
4.1.2. Promotion of Local Peoples’ Traditional Knowledge to Secure Their Food in Drought Prone Areas Prof. Omar Mohamed Salih Abdelmuti Food Research Center
As the other parts of Africa, Sudan has been subject to regular famine. Until recently, Sudan has been a considerable body of local knowledge regarding wild plant food resources. These wild food plants or emergency foods are important and ignored indigenous plants. These plants manifest their nutritional importance during food shortages as they are drought resistant. Due to these plants’ adaptation and their abilities to stand drought and desertification, 75% of the inhabitants of Darfur and Kordofan managed to survive during the famine of 1984 by resorting to these food plants.
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Drylands Coordination Group Based on the limited nutritional information available (Berry, 1985) wild food plants used in western Sudan appear to have comparable food values to that of normal dietary components. With regard to nutritional value, Mukheit ( Boscia senegalenis ) and Koreeb ( Dactyloctenium aegyptium ) could be compared with standard cereals, and Doum palm Kernel ( Hyphaene thebacia ), Nut-legume and Kawal (cassia obtusifolia ) with cultivated vegetables.
Previous study on the emergency foods classified the wild plants into three main groups according to importance and methods of consumption as a food. The following groups were classified:
Foods with high starch content which are used as substitute for starchy foods for the preparation of Kisra (local type of food originally made from grain) and porridge. In this group the most important foods are Haskaneet , koreeb , Difra , Jungle rice and Bafra which are used as substitutes for sorghum and millet.
Foods with high protein content which are used for the preparation of soup and stew. Mukheit , Maikah , Wild water melon and Foul umgawy are the plants of which the seeds have a high protein content. They are similar to legumes in shape, and as they very similar to white phaseolus, lentils and horse beans they are used for the preparation of stew.
Wild plants with high carbohydrates content. There are many plants pertaining to this group, like Laloub , Nabag , Daleib, Doum , Aradeib, Tabeldi, Gaddeim, Gogahn and Greegdan.
4.1.3. Pastoralists and the Economic Transformation in the Dry Lands of the Sudan Sumaya IsmaeelAbdella Drought and Desertification Control Unit
Pastoralism in Sudan is a well-established pattern of live. It is a systematic, well organized way of life that is geared to the wellbeing of its people and their livestock. It is a rational adaptation of human life to the environment. There are three types of pastoralism practiced in Sudan:
Pastoral Nomadism : This is a regular movement of people, including whole families and their domestic animals, in search for good pasture and water throughout the year in both the savannah and the semi-desert regions of the northern part of the Sudan.
Semi-Nomadism : This is the situation where part of the family is left in the Dar while the remainder moves about with the livestock in search for good pasture and water.
Agro pastoralism : This type of pastoralism is very often included in the definition of pastoralism in Sudan. It is a highly developed form of pastoralism practiced by sedentary cultivators whose major economic activity is agriculture.
The pastoral sector is a very important sector in Sudan because it owns about 50% of the total national herd, estimated at around 136.7 million head in 2005, to 138.2 in 2006. It therefore plays a vital role in the GDP of the country. Also, pastoral communities make up a considerable number of the Sudanese population. They play a vital role in food security as any drawbacks in this sector will lead to famine and disaster. Most of the pastoral areas in Sudan have witnessed severe conflicts and wars.
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Literature assessment on drought in Sudan There is an ongoing transformation of the pastoral sector and the pastoralists in the Sudan. The transformation takes many shapes, and the most prominent are the economic, social, and cultural transformations. Transformations are sometimes being associated with conflicts between different land users.
Different indigenous knowledge of the pastoralists played an important role during the transformation processes.
The pastoral communities have developed their own means of adaptation and coping strategies confronting the crisis of successive droughts and secure livelihoods. Many of these adaptation and coping strategies were developed within the different kinds of pastoralism practiced in the country. These adaptation strategies helped the pastoralists to pass and mitigate effects of drought, and encouraged a rational use of the natural resources.
4.1.4. The Contribution of Rural Women to the Sustenance of Food Production in the Dryland of Sudan Fathia Salih Musa - Free Lance consultant
Rural women have the dual responsibilities of contributing to the economic resources of the family and at the same time bearing the domestic labor. They are considered the corner stone of the socioeconomic role in the pastoral communities.
Women perform many activities to provide economic benefit directly to the family:
Herd management: take care of small animals, goats, sheep and young animals at sucking age. During rainy season women heavily engage in milk processing to produce sour milk and ghee for marketing purposes.
Subsistence cultivation: millet crop production in western Sudan is mainly carried out by semi-nomadic women.
Handicraft: is practiced for domestic use and for market. They produce rugs, bags and mats.
The main cooking fuel source for the pastoral communities is wood collected by the pastoral women. The same women are the consumers of fuel wood. Sometimes, and due to the scarcity of fuel wood, they have to walk for several kilometers to collect fuel wood for their daily needs.
In general, both men and women in the pastoral communities contribute to land degradation through the process of deforestation, overgrazing and over cultivation.
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Drylands Coordination Group 5. CHAPTER FIVE: SUMMARY OF THE SURVEY
5.1. DROUGHT AND DESERTIFICATION
In 1985 Wilhite and Glantz categorized the definitions in terms of four basic approaches to measuring drought by type, as meteorological, agricultural, hydrological and socioeconomic.
Meteorological drought is usually defined on the basis of the degree of dryness (in comparison to some “normal” or average amount) and the duration of the dry period. Definitions of meteorological drought must be considered as region specific since the atmospheric conditions that result in deficiencies of precipitation are highly variable from region to region.
Agricultural drought links various characteristics of meteorological (or hydrological) drought to agricultural impacts, focusing on precipitation shortages, differences between actual and potential evapotranspiration, soil water deficits, reduced ground water or reservoir levels, and so forth.
Hydrological drought is associated with the effects of periods of precipitation (including snowfall) shortfalls on surface or subsurface water supply (i.e. stream flow, reservoir and lake levels, ground water).
Socioeconomic drought differs markedly from the other types of drought because it reflects the relationship between the supply and demand for some commodity or economic good, such as water, livestock forage or hydroelectric power, which is dependent on precipitation.
The interrelationship between these types of drought is illustrated in Figure 1.
In Sudan there are two types of drought, namely, widespread drought, which occurs all over the country and localized drought, which affects some parts of the country. Each drought brings crop failure, loss of livestock and loss of pastureland.
Figure 1: Interrelationships between Meteorological, Agricultural, Hydrological and Socioeconomic Drought.
Source: National Drought Mitigation Center, University of Nebraska–Lincoln, USA (In: World Meteorological Organization, 2006) 12
Literature assessment on drought in Sudan 5.2. HISTORICAL DROUGHT OCCURRENCE IN SUDAN
Frequent droughts and environmental degradation are the major obstacles to livelihood security and food self-reliance in Sudan. Over 80% of Sudan's population lives in rural areas, depending on agriculture and livestock to make a living.
The famous wide spread drought which occurred in 1888, caused the infamous year locally known as “ Sanat Sittah ”. Since the early 1960s it is evident that the Sahel has moved into a drier phase and since that period the northern parts of Sudan have been subjected to a series of more frequent drought shocks, the most notable in 1984/85, and in 1990. The period 1961-98 witnessed episodes of drought which have inflicted the country with varying severity. Episodes of drought became more visible after the famous Sahelian drought of 1967/73. Subsequent land surveys have confirmed that land productivity have deteriorated to the extent that it is becoming largely a desert. Series of localized drought during 1987, 1989, 1990, 1991, and 1993 were recognized mainly in western Sudan (Kordofan and Darfur) and parts of central Sudan. A key example of localized drought is that of 1996 which affected western Sudan (Geneina and Nyala). This region has reported rainfall below the normal while at the same time central and eastern Sudan reported above normal. Studies on the area between latitudes 10° -18° north between years 1992-1994 using rainfall data showed that the 400 mm isohyets have retreated southwards (Fadel-El Moula, 2005).
Figure 2: Drought Areas in Sudan
Source: Fadel-El Moula (2005).
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Drylands Coordination Group The most vulnerable to drought are the farmers in the traditional rainfed sector of western, central and eastern Sudan, where severity of drought depends on the variability of rainfall both in amount, frequency and distribution. The most heavily affected were Northern Kordofan and Darfur states. This means the loss of usable land and increased pressure on remaining land for considerable periods of time over wide areas. Vegetation yield have decreased and dust storms have increased. The National Drought and Desertification Control Unit (NDDCU) has reported figures on the extent of desertification as shown in Table 5. The data shows the area affected and desertification classes within each ecological zone. One third of the Sudan or a total of 420,000 km 2 north of latitude 10° is affected to some degree.
Table 5: Desertification Status in Sudan
Rainfall Total area Latitude Area affected Recent Desertification (mm) (1000 km 2) (Deg. North) (1000 km 2) Affected (%) Class 0-100 307 14-18 74.91 24.4 Desert 100-300 414 13-14 136.21 32.9 Very severe 300-600 513 12-13 208.79 40.7 Moderate 600-800 25 11-12 0.5 2.0 Very Slight >800 0.8 10-11 0.06 7.5 Very Slight Total 1 260 420.41 33.3
Source: Eltigani M. S., The Geographical extent of Desertification in Sudan, 1996.
Indicators showing forest deterioration: • The most important reason in the region: Heavy tree cutting and uprooting for wood production or for cleaning the land for traditional crop cultivation. This has increased recently to compensate the low crop productivity. • Unstable security situations in the biggest Darfur States and the establishment of the displaced people‘s camps sometimes by or inside the forests, substantially increased tree felling in those forests. • As poverty increases more poor people turn to forests to secure livelihood opportunities by selling more forest products, especially wood products. • Overgrazing, agricultural and residential extensions on the expense of forest areas and the absence of effective forest management are among the harmful human practices against forests. • Natural adverse conditions e.g. drought, low rainfall amounts, sand encroachment, soil erosion, and high temperatures are important factors behind forest deterioration. • Military forces’ individuals cut down big numbers of forest trees for trade.
Table 6 illustrates the forest areas (natural, planted and protected forests) in each of the Western Sudan Region States and the percentages of degradation in each forest kind. Forest degradation is very high, especially in North Darfur State and North Kodofan State.
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Literature assessment on drought in Sudan
Table 6: Forests in Western Sudan Region; Area, Status, Indicators and Causes of Desertification
% of current 2 Kind of Indicators/ causes of deterioration Area in km States deteriorated forests - Tree cutting and uprooting have increased 30 5,568.60 Natural due to displacement, drought and lack of rain. - Establishment of displaced people camps 80 137.50 Planted NDS near these forests has increased tree felling, low rainfall - Overcutting of trees 180.00 Protected - Climatic conditions, unstable security 18 23,081.80 Natural conditions, displaced people camps. - Military force individuals to cut big numbers of trees, tree felling, overgrazing, 4,713.50 Planted WDS agricultural and residential extensions on forests land, sand creeping, soil wind erosion. - No management, over cutting, fire- 40 33,600.00 Natural outbreaks. - Lack of management and follow-up, lack of 20 4,200.00 Planted NKS extension, overcutting, overgrazing etc. - Mismanagement due to lack of staff, tree 50 2,100.00 Protected felling. NDS=Northern Darfur Sate NKS=Northern Kordofan Sate WDS=Western Darfur State Source: Ministry of Agriculture and Natural Resource. Annual Reports 2007, Sudan.
Sudan’s economy is solely based on natural resources including agriculture, animal wealth, fisheries and vegetation cover which provide the means of livelihoods for 75% of the population and contribute about 25% to GDP. Oil production contributes with the other 75%. The livelihood and source of internal and external trade is based on primary commodities.
The country is primarily an agricultural economy which is divided into three main sectors: irrigated, mechanized rainfed, and traditional. The mechanized rainfed constitutes 60%.
About 97% of the Sudan export trade is in the form of low value primary commodities or agro-based industrial production. Principal exports are cotton lint, groundnuts, sesame seeds, gum Arabic, sorghum grains, livestock, hides and skins together with cotton seed cake and meat. Forests products go directly to the household and to small enterprises.
Table 7: Forest Cover Change and Annual Rate of Forest Clearance During the Period1980-2005
Forest Area Removal Annual rate Year (hectare 1000) (hectare 1000) (hectare 1000) 1980 34,956.20 1990 30,949.20 4,007.00 400.70 2000 26,500.00 4,449.00 440.00 2005 24,250.00 2,250.00 450.00 Source: Ministry of Agriculture and Natural Resource. Different Accumulation Reports (1980-2005), Sudan.
Despite substantial resources of rainfed and irrigated arable lands, petroleum potential, sizable livestock herds, considerable remittances from abroad, and a relatively well-educated portion of the nation’s workforce, the economic potential has yet to be realized. Sudan is still
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Drylands Coordination Group considered to be one of the least developed countries, within the low-income category of the Gross National Income Per Capita (World Bank, 2007).
5.3. DROUGHT AND CROP PRODUCTION
Sudan’s economy, like many developing countries, is dependent on agriculture. Although not yet fully modernized, agriculture and the associated industries are the major employment sectors in the country. The dependency of the majority of farmers on rainfed agriculture and pastures has made the economy extremely vulnerable to the vagaries of weather. As a result, failure of rains and occurrence of drought during any growing seasons may lead to severe food shortages/loss of animals if there is lack of strategic planning. The agricultural production has suffered serious problems, mainly the continuous cycles of droughts and the extension of desertification in the dryland which affected the rainfed economy regions. The inhabitants of these regions have faced great food gaps since 1984 up to now. The affected population is displaced to urban areas. Here they are looking for alternative livelihoods that can ensure their abilities to acquire and maintain other diversified income sources to strengthen their family’ positions and to increase their flocks.
Figure 3: Sudan Normal Rainfall in mm for the period 1971-2000
HAL 22.00 WHF
ARB 20.00 ABH PSD DNG
DESERT KRM TKR AQQ
18.00 HDBATB
SHN
ARM SHM 16.00 KHA KSL HLG
HAS SEMI-DESERT WMD SHW DUM GDF FSH BAR 14.00 GEN SNR KHW OBD KST UMB NHD ABN
NYL 12.00 DRY RSH RNK DMZ BNS KDG SEMI-DRY KUR
10.00 MLK
NSR RAG SUB-HUMID 8.00 WAU
PIB
6.00 HUMID MAR JUB KAP TOR YAM NAG 8.00 4.00
22.00 24.00 26.00 28.00 30.00 32.00 34.00 36.00 38.00 Source: Meteorological Corporation, Khartoum, Sudan (2001)
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Literature assessment on drought in Sudan
Figure 4: Production Systems in Sudan
Source: Food Security Administration, General Administration For Planning and Agro-Economic. Annual Report, 2007.
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Drylands Coordination Group The figures below show the productivity of the main crops in some regions of Sudan. Figure 5: Main Cereal Cultivated Area in Thousands Hectare in Seasons (89-1990 up to 07-2008)
Source: Food Security Administration, General Administration For Planning and Agro-Economic. Annual Food Security Report, 2008.
Figure 6: Main Cereal Crops Production in Thousands Tons in Seasons (89-1990 up to 07-2008)
Source: Food Security Administration, General Administration For Planning and Agro-Economic. Annual Food Security Report, 2008.
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Literature assessment on drought in Sudan
Figure 7: Main Oil Seeds Crops Cultivated Area in Thousands Hectare in Seasons (89-1990 up to 07-2008)
Source: Food Security Administration, General Administration For Planning and Agro-Economic. Annual Food Security Report, 2008.
Figure 8: Main Oil Seeds Crops Production in Thousands Tons in Seasons (89-1990 up to 07-2008)
Source: Food Security Administration, General Administration For Planning and Agro-Economic. Annual Food Security Report, 2008.
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Drylands Coordination Group
Figure 9: Area and Production of Vegetables and Fruits
Source: Food Security Administration, General Administration For Planning and Agro-Economic. Annual Food Security Report, 2007. The expansion of irrigated agriculture into the pastoral reserved area for the dry seasons by investors using mechanized production system or/and by pastoralist who lost their livestock during drought, led to massive losses of natural vegetative cover which is contributing to further rainfall reduction.
The continuation of the civil war has diverted resources and focus away from the longer term concerns of environmental change, land degradation, increase in level of poverty, destruction of livelihoods and food security in all the regions. Figure 10: Flow Diagram to Show the Impact of Drought on Agro Pastoral Groups and Natural Resources
Shrinking of biodiversity Desertification Scarcity of in the plant and wild life drinking water
Displacement Severe drought to seek new impact livelihood in urban centers Deterioration of Deforestation forest and pasture
Failure of crop in Thirst Great loss of Bushes, trees and rainfed agriculture domestic animals pasture died
Prevailing of Abandoned of Malnutrition Death of children poverty pastoralism diseases and elders
Breakdown of social community Settlement relationships
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Literature assessment on drought in Sudan 5.4. IMPACTS OF DROUGHT AND DESERTIFICATION ON PASTORALISM IN SUDAN
Pastoralists and traditional farmers are the most affected groups by drought. For example the drought of 1984/85 on semi-desert and low rainfall savannah has caused great shocks to the different rural communities who were engaged in rainfall cultivation and pastoralism through declined crop production and death of great numbers of animals. Poverty and famines prevailed among most of the nomads who lost most of their animals, and experienced high death rates among children and elderly in many of those areas. Historical evidences show that these strategies enabled people to survive in such harsh regions for hundreds of years and helped them to recover after the drought cycles, outbreaks of famines and shocks. These adaptive strategies reveal the outcome of long experiences, deep understanding and comprehensive indigenous knowledge.
5.5. DROUGHT MONITORING
It is a type of an early warning system that helps official authorities to avoid the negative effect that may result from the onset of drought. In Sudan little attention has been devoted to the issue of drought. Some planners believe that drought is inseparable from desertification and others consider it as a trigger for it. Drought must be given the attention it deserves especially in a country like Sudan where most of the rural people depend on rainfall for sustaining their livelihoods in arid and semi-arid areas. Moreover, the effect of drought is direct and seasonal so preparedness to mitigate the effect of it should be highly considered. Politicians and some planners as well use the term "food gap" when they refer to the time between drought effect and the moment relief is provided to the affected community.
Communities think the problem has been solved. The root cause of the so called food gap must be directly addressed; otherwise the accumulation of food gaps will lead to hunger that may end up into displacement or death of some people from the affected communities. The first step for setting things right is to establish a real and effective drought monitoring mechanism. This mechanism must set its own indicators as a prerequisite for achieving successful outcomes.
5.6. DROUGHT POLICY AND STRATEGY
There is no clear drought plan all over the country. Rural people are left to practice their trial and error experiments over seasons. They believe in their fate and see no way of avoiding it. When they are severely hit by drought they simply leave their homes and become displaced.
The absence of plan refers to absence of policy and strategy. This indicates that the official thinking is relief-oriented rather than preparedness and development-oriented. Also, there is no direct collaboration between the governmental institutes in regard to information sharing and early preparedness.
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Drylands Coordination Group
Figure 11: Pastoralist Movement Accross Sudan
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Literature assessment on drought in Sudan 6. CHAPTER SIX: CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
6.1. COPING STRATEGIES OF RURAL COMMUNITIES
As a result of the frequent cycles of drought, many coping mechanisms have been used by drought affected communities to enable them to cope and live with drought. In the field of agriculture, sowing date is normally when rain starts, however under drought conditions they practice so called dry sowing, particularly in the sandy soil of Western Sudan. Under this system sowing takes place before the rainy season to make use of any single drop of rain.
It is possible to reduce the competition on the soil moisture between crops by increasing the space between plants and rows to be two steps apart.
Terus cultivation along wadi beds and on clay plains is another method of efficient water use. This is done by constructing small dykes to harvest the sheet flow, checked and spread for a few meters behind the dyke. Land behind the terus will be moist enough to support sorghum, okra and watermelon production in Sudan arid lands.
Figure 12: Terus Cultivating System in the drylands in Sudan
Photo: Mohamed Elamin Abdelrahman (2008).
Pastoralists on the other hand have devised their own coping mechanisms to deal with livestock production. They move from one place to another and even cross the borders to avoid drought impact. They keep goats all the time for meat and milk; simply because they are the most resilient and tolerate adverse drought conditions. They make use of their indigenous early warning systems that depend on their observations on daily temperature, presence or absence of clouds, wind direction and speed, absence of some migratory birds, etc. to decide what animal to keep and which way to go.
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Drylands Coordination Group There are other general coping strategies that attempt to deal with crisis arising from drought and famine. The severity and duration of food shortages is reflected in the complex sequence of diverse strategies adopted by farmers.
Economic diversification which includes both male migration and settlement of nomadic people: • Herd modification, diversification of animal species and distribution to protect their herds against heavy losses. • Economic diversification by engaging in different activities such as out migration labor and trade beside keeping animals and practicing rainfed cultivation. • Cropping strategies by growing varieties of crops and increasing the cultivated areas. • Hunting and gathering of wild food to supplement to their diet.
Women’s contribution to the sustenance of food production in dryland is conditioned by all the obstacles characterizing the traditional economics of the rainfed sector featured in seasonality, in stability of production, poor delivery systems and adequacies in meeting the food and cash requirements of the household.
Hence improvement of women’s production capabilities in the area of field crops should be addressed in the context of the traditional agriculture innovation and upgrading in the dry land. We conclude that women are really feeding the world, particularly in the developing countries.
6.2. RECOMMENDATIONS
There is a considerable need and potential for the development of a wide spread, long term intervention that seeks to address the poverty in Sudan’s arid and semi-arid lands. These interventions can be addressed through a general strategy for drought, targeting all the affected states in the Sudan.
This study has come out with some recommendations beside the workshop outcomes, listed as bellow: Establishment of an information base and monitoring system for regions prone to desertification and drought, including the economic and social aspects, even at local levels. Creation of strong drought policies with a well-defined strategy. These policies should deal with drought as a problem in the first place and the aim should be that its negative impact must be removed. It must depend on an effective and efficient information system. Also it should regard coordination among the concerned entities as a prerequisite for achieving successful planning and implementation as well. Attention must be given to the recurring waves of drought that may end up in desertification. Policy should incorporate traditional knowledge as an essential component in the planning process. Policy also should treat rural communities as partners rather than being recipients. The overall goal of policy must be to lessen the impact of drought to the minimum possible level. Establishing an early warning system for drought with consideration of the following indicators: - Delay of rains or poor distribution for longer periods. - Shrink of rainy season and stop of rains before the normal time. 24
Literature assessment on drought in Sudan - Scarcity of water resource. - Increased normal weather dryness, drop in water levels in rivers and valleys and decline in the rate of feeding surface and underground water. - Increase in temperature. - Poor vegetation cover and appearance of transformed drought resistant plants. - Signs of soil erosion and sand movement. Natural resources management through intensified soil conservation, forestation and reforestation activities. Developing and strengthening integrated development programs through eradication of poverty and promotion of alternative livelihood systems in areas prone to drought. This should be achieved through community based participation and activities. Developing comprehensive drought preparedness and drought relief schemes including self-help, for drought prone areas. Programs should be designed to cope with environmental refugees. Encouraging and promoting popular environmental education, focusing on desertification control and management of the effects of drought. Develop a comprehensive policy on livestock and range management to include pasture, compatible with forest and crop production practices. Strengthen livestock extension efforts to encourage efficient management of rangeland resources by all rangeland users and managers. Address the practice of grazing systems which are culturally and environmentally acceptable. Raise the awareness of farmers and nomadic communities of the upsides of raising productive animals instead of large unproductive herds. Rehabilitation of the Sudan Meteorological Authority (SMA) operating networks; of surface observation network, Upper Air observing network, rainfall stations and satellite receiving equipments. Provide an integrated local enterprise policy which encourages small enterprise development within existence food production systems. Building of women institutions and strengthen women’s development in rural societies. Make use of water harvesting techniques as coping mechanisms to increase food/fodder production rates in Sudan arid lands. Adoption of agro-forestry by including acacias in rainfed millet/sorghum producing areas as two course rotation system. Establishment of an agro-pastoral system to incorporate livestock in crop rotation system since crop production is defined as raising of both crops and livestock in the same allocated piece of land. Make use of indigenous knowledge as far as moister conservation and food preservation are concerned Dissemination of different indigenous knowledge among pastoralists provides chances towards suitable pastoral economic transformations and rational use of the natural resources.
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Drylands Coordination Group Establishment of a database about pastoral transformation and adaptation strategies helps in pastoral development and rational management of the natural resources in the dry lands.
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Literature assessment on drought in Sudan REFERENCES
1. Berry, A. 1985. Famine foods and the process of adaptation to extreme food shortages. Nutrition Department of the London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, London, U.K. 2. Bird, G., Chenje, J. and Medina, S. (eds.). 2002. Africa Environmental Outlook; Past, present and future perspectives , UNEP. 3. Eltigani, M. S. 1996. The Geographical extent of Desertification in Sudan. NDDU, Khartoum. 4. Fadel-El Moula, M.I. 2005. Assessment of the Impacts of Climate Variability and Extreme Climatic Events in Sudan During 1940-2000 . Meteorological Corporation, Khartoum, Sudan. 5. FAO. 1997. State of the World's Forests 1997 . FAO-Forestry Department, Oxford, UK. 6. FAO. 2005. Global Forest Resources Assessment . FAO Forestry Paper 147. Rome. 7. FAO/WHO. 1988 . Traditional Food plants . FAO Food and Nutrition paper 42. Rome. 8. Food Security Administration. 2007. Annual Report . General Administration for Planning and Agro-Economic. Sudan. 9. Food Security Administration. 2008. Annual Report. General Administration for Planning and Agro-Economic. Sudan 10. Gentile, A. R. 1998. “From national monitoring to European reporting: The EEA framework for policy Relevant, Environmental Indicators”. In: Enne, G. et al. (eds.). Proceedings of the international seminar on indicators for assessing desertification in the Mediterranean . Porto Torres (Italy), 18-20 September, pp. 16-26. 11. Harrison, M. N. and Jackson J.K. 1958. Ecological Classification of the Vegetation of the Sudan . Forest bulletin No.2, Khartoum, Sudan. 12. Higher Council for Environment and Natural Resources. 2003. Sudan’s first national communication under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change , Volume (1), Main Communication . Ministry of Environment and Physical Development, Khartoum, Sudan. 13. Higher Council for Environment and Natural Resources. 2007. National Plan for Environmental Management (NPEM) in post-conflict Sudan . Ministry of Environment and Physical Development, Khartoum, Sudan. 14. Higher Council for Environment and Natural Resources. 2009. Sudan’s Fourth National Report to the Convention on Biological Diversity . Ministry of Environment and Physical Development, Khartoum, Sudan. 15. ITDG – Practical Action. 2003. Sharing, The Newsletter of ITDG Sudan . Issue No. 4, October 2003. 16. Kaawerah, El A. M. A. 1977. Solaem El Wojud (in Arabic). Sudan. 17. Ministry of Agriculture and Natural Resources. 1980-2005. Different Accumulation Reports. Sudan. 18. Ministry of Agriculture and Natural Resources. 2007. .Annual Report. Sudan 19. Ministry of Agriculture. 2008. Animal Resources and Fisheries, Agricultural Planning administration. Annual Report. Sudan. 27
Drylands Coordination Group 20. Ministry of Environment and Physical Development. 1997. Sudan Country of biodiversity . HCENR, UNDP, IUCN, CBD. Sudan. 21. Pauw, E. De. 2010. Mapping drought extent, severity and trends using the Standardized Precipitation Index - A case study in Sudan . International Conference on Food Security and Climate Change in the Dry Areas - 1‐ 4 February 2010, Amman, Jordan. 22. Teklu T., Von Braun, J.and Zaki, E. 1991. Drought and Famine Relationships In Sudan: Policy Implications . International Food Policy Research Institute; Report 88. Washington, USA. 23. UNEP. 2006. Annual Pastoral Migration Routes in Sudan. UNEP-DEWA/GRID- Geneva, accessed on 03.04.2012 on http://www.grid.unep.ch/products/4_Maps/www_2006_ddp_pastoral_climaticb.jpg 24. UN/ISDR. 2007. Drought Risk Reduction Framework and Practices: Contributing to the Implementation of the Hyogo Framework for Action. United Nations secretariat of the International Strategy for Disaster Reduction (UN/ISDR), Geneva, Switzerland. 25. Wakeel, A.S. El and Abusuwar, A.O. 2008. Sustainable Use of Dry Lands for Forage and Range Production in Sudan . UNESCO Chair on Desertification’s. National Symposium on Sustainable Use of Dry Lands in Sudan. 26. Wegialla, W. El.T. (Gen.). 2003, Disaster Management in Sudan. Former Secretary General of Higher Council of Civil Defense, Sudan. 27. Wilhite, D.A. and Glantz M.H. 1985. Understanding the Drought Phenomenon: The Role of Definitions. Water International 10(3):111–120 28. World Bank. 2007. List of economies . 29. World Bank. 2007. Open Data. World Bank website accessed on 03.04.2012 on http://data.worldbank.org 30. World Meteorological Organization. 2006. Drought monitoring and early warning: concepts, progress and future challenges ; WMO-No.1006; ISBN 92-63-11006-9. 31. Zaroug, M.G. 2002. Pastoralists development in Sudan, Exploratory Mission Report – FAO Sudan Profile . Horn of Africa Food Security Initiative.
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Literature assessment on drought in Sudan ANNEXES
ANNEX 1: THE AVERAGE OF SEED OIL CROPS
Peanut Sesame Sunflower IR RF AV IR RF AV IR RF AV 1990 89/ 748 89 418.5 - 53 53 152 152 1991 90/ 789 64 426.5 - 72 72 90 99 94.5 1992 91/ 851 164 507.5 - 76 76 147 147 1993 92/ 789 162 475.5 - 83 83 333 177 255 1994 93/ 867 114 490.5 - 60 60 346 195 270.5 1995 94/ 931 245 588 - 53 53 363 200 281.5 1996 95/ 953 185 569 - 87 87 320 200 260 1997 96/ 951 250 600.5 - 94 94 375 246 310.5 1998 97/ 767 239 503 - 75 75 214 389 301.5 1999 98/ 801 194 497.5 - 78 78 278 179 228.5 2000 99/ 782 249 515.5 - 65 65 250 156 203 2001 /000 1019 230 624.5 - 63 63 500 222 361 2002 /001 1025 249 637 - 78 78 154 154 2003 /002 1026 254 640 - 65 65 739 167 453 2004 /003 1041 248 644.5 - 106 106 667 286 476.5 2005 /004 684 130 407 2006 /005 1100 273 686.5 92 92 684 333 508.5 2007 /006 1088 246 667 91 91 652 370 511 2008 /007 1081 266 673.5 99 99 200 292 246 IR= Irrigated schemes RF= Rainfed Schemes AV= Average Source: Ministry of Agriculture, Animal Resources and Fisheries, Agricultural Planning administration.
ANNEX 2 : THE AVERAGE OF GRAIN CROPS PRODUCTION
Sorghum Millet Wheat IR RF AV IR RF AV IR RF AV 1990 89/ 519 136 327.5 167 43 105 666 - 666 1991 90/ 555 117 336 - 54 54 623 500 561.5 1992 91/ 659 276 467.5 286 115 200.5 934 500 717 1993 92/ 630 242 436 364 120 242 584 500 542 1994 93/ 666 174 420 500 87 293.5 558 - 558 1995 94/ 615 207 411 200 126 163 678 500 589 1996 95/ 696 175 435.5 250 66 158 753 389 571 1997 96/ 1013 217 615 200 113 156.5 830 519 674.5 1998 97/ 813 186 499.5 1000 96 548 972 375 673.5 1999 98/ 587 256 421.5 167 102 134.5 514 375 444.5 2000 99/ 686 178 432 200 87 143.5 1005 286 645.5 2001 /000 872 177 524.5 333 92 212.5 1079 857 968 2002 /001 907 244 575.5 333 85 209 910 500 705 2003 /002 877 168 522.5 273 100 186.5 1079 857 968 2004 /003 740 252 496 154 122 138 975 500 737.5 2005/004 818 209 513.5 273 100 186.5 958 333 645.5 2006 /005 778 245 511.5 400 135 267.5 980 500 740 2007 /006 952 262 607 364 160 262 989 500 744.5 2008 /007 924 202 563 385 131 258 1093 500 796.5 IR= Irrigated schemes RF= Rainfed Schemes AV= Average
Source: Ministry of Agriculture, Animal Resources and Fisheries, Agricultural Planning administration.
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Drylands Coordination Group
ANNEX 3: THE EXTREME WEATHER AND CLIMATE EVENTS IN SUDAN
Type of Affected Event Vulnerable areas Negative Impacts Occurrence sectors Areas within the Agriculture, Loss of lives, crops and River Nile basin livestock, livestock, insects and and low areas. water diseases (plants), resources epidemic and vector Floods Frequent and health. diseases, decline in hydroelectric power and damage in service infrastructure and settlement areas. North of Western Agriculture, Loss of crops and Sudan (North livestock, livestock (food Kordofan and water shortage), decline in the Drought Darfur), Kassala resources hydroelectric power, Frequent (Desertification) State and some and health. displacement wildfire. parts of the rain- fed areas in central Sudan. Central and Transport Air and land traffic Dust storms Frequent northern parts of (aviation and accidents and health. Sudan. land traffic). Thunder- Rainfed areas in Aviation. Loss of lives and Infrequent storms Sudan. properties. Northern, central Health, Loss of life, livestock and parts of Sudan agriculture & crops. Heat waves Rare besides the Red livestock. Sea State. Central and north Settlements Loss in lives and central Sudan. and service properties and damage Strong winds Rare infrastructure. in the infrastructure (High Gusting) systems (electricity and telephone lines.
Source: Wegialla, 2003.
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Literature assessment on drought in Sudan
ANNEX 4: TRADITIONAL DIVISIONS OF LUNAR MONTH CALENDAR
El Manazil Duration Remarks El Saratan 22 April-4 May El Bitain 5 May-17 May El Tyria 18 May-30 May El Dubran 31 May-12 June El Hagaah 13 June-25 June El Hanaah 26 June-8 July El Duraa 9 July-21 July The Beginning of the Rainy Season El Natra 22 July-3 Aug. The True Beginning of the Rainy Season El Tarfa 4 Aug.-16 Aug. El Jabha 17 Aug.-30 Aug. El Kharasan 31 Aug.-12 Sep. El Surfa 13 Sep.-25 Sep. El A`Awa 26 Sep.-8 Oct. El Samak El Aazal 9 Oct.-21 Oct. El Gefar 22 Oct.-3 Nov. El Zaban 4 Nov.-16 Nov. El Ekleel 17 Nov.-29 Nov. The Beginning of Winter Season El Galub 30 Nov.-12 Dec. El Shulah 13 Dec.-25 Dec. El Na`Aem 26 Dec.-7 Jan. El Balda 8 Jan.-20 Jan. Saad El Dabeh 21 Jan.-2 Feb. Saad Bala`a 3 Feb.-15 Feb. Saad El Suaad 16 Feb.-28 Feb. Saad Gl Auhbya 1 Mar.- 13 Mar. El Fareg El Mugadam 14 Mar.- 26 Mar. El Fareg 27 Mar.- 8 Apr. Batun El Hoot (El Rasha) 9 Apr.- 21apr.
Source: Kaawerah (1977)
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Drylands Coordination Group
ANNEX 5: WILD (INDIGENOUS PLANTS) WHICH WERE CONSUMED IN KORDOFAN AND DARFUR.
Kordofan State Darfur State % % Plants Name Plant Name Scientific Name Plants Family usage usage Mukheit 38 Mukheit 64 Boscia senegalensis Capparidaceae Maikah 32 - - Dobera roxburghii Salvadoraceae Wild 21 Wild Watermel 21 Citrullus lanatus Cucurbitaceae Watermelon Nabag 30 Nabag 30 Ziziphus spina Christi Rhamnaceae Haskaneet 12 Haskaneet 36 Cenchrus biflorus Gramineae Koreeb 18 Koreeb 74 Dactyloctenium aegyptiaca Gramineae Gregdan 6 - - Dombeya multiflora Sterculiaceae Guddeim 3 - - Grewia Tenax Tiliaceae Lalob 28 Lalob 33 Balanites aegyptiaca Balanitaceae Dirra 3 Difra 54 Echinochloa colonum Gramineae Gugkhan 32 - Dopspyros mespilifrmis Ebenaceae Tebeldi 32 Tebeldi 9 Adansonia digitata Bombacacese Aradeib 21 Aradeib 6 Tamarindus indecus Leguminosae Doum 11 Doum 11 Hyphaene thebaica Palmae Daleib 11 Daleib 6 Borassus aethiopum Palmae - - Foul Umgawi 20 Gardenia Lutea Rubiaceae Karkar 11 - - Randia genipaeflora Rubiaceae - Ruz al Wadi 6 Oryza punctata Gramineae Karmadodah 5 - - Nauclea latifolia Rubiaceae Bafra 5 - - Manihot esculentus Euphorbiaceae
Source: FAO Food and Nutrition paper 42. Rome.
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Literature assessment on drought in Sudan
List of Publications
Reports: 1 A. Synnevåg, G., Halassy, S. 1998: “Etude des indicateurs de la sécurité alimentaire dans deux sites de la zone d’intervention de l’AEN-Mali: Bambara Maodé et Ndaki (Gourma Malien)”, Groupe de Coordination des Zones Arides et Noragric, Agricultural University of Norway.
1 B. Synnevåg, G. and Halassy, S. 1998: “Food Security Indicators in Two Sites of Norwegian Church Aid’s Intervention Zone in Mali: Bambara Maoudé and N’Daki (Malian Gourma)”, Drylands Coordination Group and Noragric, Agricultural University of Norway.
2 A. Aune, J.B. and Doumbia, M.D. 1998: “Integrated Plant Nutrient Management (IPNM), Case studies of two projects in Mali: CARE Macina programme and PIDEB”, Drylands Coordination Group and Noragric, Agricultural University of Norway.
2 B. Aune, J.B. et Doumbia, M.D. 1998: “Gestion Intégrée de Nutriments Végétaux (GINV), Etude de Cas de deux projets au Mali: Programme de CARE Macina et PIDEB”, Groupe de Coordination des Zones Arides et Noragric, Agricultural University of Norway.
3 A. Berge, G., Larsen, K., Rye, S., Dembele, S.M. and Hassan, M. 1999: “Synthesis report and Four Case Studies on Gender Issues and Development of an Improved Focus on Women in Natural Resource Management and Agricultural Projects”, Drylands Coordination Group and Noragric, Agricultural University of Norway.
3 B. Berge, G., Larsen, K., Rye, S., Dembele, S.M. et Hassan, M. 1999. “Rapport de synthèse et quatre études de cas sur Les Questions de Genre et Développement d’une Approche Améliorée concernant les Femmes et les Projets d’Agriculture et de Gestion des Ressources Naturelles”, Groupe de Coordination des Zones Arides et Noragric, Agricultural University of Norway.
4 A. Sydness, M., Ba, B. 1999: “Processus de décentralisation, développement institutionnel et réorganisation des ONG financées par la Norvège au Mali”, Groupe de Coordination des Zones Arides et Noragric, Agricultural University of Norway.
4 B. Sydness, M. and Ba, B. 1999: “Decentralization Process, Institution Development and Phasing out of the Norwegian Involvement in Mali”, Drylands Coordination Group and Noragric, Agricultural University of Norway.
5. Waktola, A. and Michael, D.G. 1999: “Institutional Development and Phasing Out of the Norwegian Involvement, the Case of Awash Conservation and Development Project, Ethiopia”, Drylands Coordination Group and Noragric, Agricultural University of Norway.
6. Waktola, A. 1999: “Exploratory Study of Two Regions in Ethiopia: Identification of Target Areas and partners for Intervention”, Drylands Coordination Group and Noragric, Agricultural University of Norway.
7. Mossige, A. 2000: “Workshop on Gender and Rural Development – Training Manual”, Drylands Coordination Group and Noragric, Agricultural University of Norway.
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Drylands Coordination Group 8. Synnevåg, G. et Halassy, S. 2000: ”Sécurité Semencière: Etude de la gestion et de l’approvisionnement en semences dans deux villages du cercle de Ké-Macina au Mali: Kélle et Tangana”, Groupe de Coordination des Zones Arides et Noragric, Agricultural University of Norway.
9. Abesha, D., Waktola, A, Aune, J.B. 2000: ”Agricutural Extension in the Drylands of Ethiopia”, Drylands Coordination Group and Noragric, Agricultural University of Norway.
10. Sydness, M., Doumbia, S. et Diakité K. 2000: ”Atelier sur la décentralisation au Mali”, Groupe de Coordination des Zones Arides et Noragric, Agricultural University of Norway.
11. N’Dior, P. A. et Traoré, N. 2000: ”Etude sur les programmes d’épargne et de crédit au Mali”, Groupe de Coordination des Zones Arides et Noragric, Agricultural University of Norway.
12. Lode, K. and G. Kassa. 2001: ”Proceedings from a Workshop on Conflict Resolution Organised by the Drylands Coordination Group (DCG), November 8-10, 2000 Nazareth, Ethiopia”, Drylands Coordination Group and Noragric, Agricultural University of Norway.
13. Shiferaw, B. and A. Wolday, 2001: “Revisiting the Regulatory and Supervision Framework of the Micro-Finance Industry in Ethiopia”, Drylands Coordination Group and Noragric, Agricultural University of Norway.
14 A. Doumbia, M. D., A. Berthé and J. B. Aune, 2001: “Integrated Plant Nutrition Management (IPNM): Practical Testing of Technologies with Farmers Groups”, Drylands Coordination Group and Noragric, Agricultural University of Norway.
14 B. Doumbia, M. D., A. Berthé and J. B. Aune, 2001: “Gestion Intégrée de Nutriments Végétaux (GINV): Tests Pratiques de Technologies avec des Groupes de Paysans”, Groupe de Coordination des Zones Arides et Noragric, Agricultural University of Norway.
15. Larsen, K. and M. Hassan, 2001: “Perceptions of Knowledge and Coping Strategies in Nomadic Communities – The case of the Hawawir in Northern Sudan”, Drylands Coordination Group and Noragric, Agricultural University of Norway.
16 A. Mossige, A., Berkele, Y. & Maiga, S., 2001: “Participation of Civil Society in the national Action Programs of the United Nation’s Convention to Combat Desertification: Synthesis of an Assessment in Ethiopia and Mali”, Drylands Coordination Group and Noragric, Agricultural University of Norway.
16 B. Mossige, A., Berkele, Y. & Maiga, S., 2001: “La Participation de la Société Civile aux Programme d’Actions Nationaux de la Convention des Nations Unies sur la lutte contre la Désertification”, Groupe de Coordination des Zones Arides et Noragric, Agricultural University of Norway.
17. Kebebew, F., D. Tsegaye and G. Synnevåg., 2001: “Traditional Coping Strategies of the Afar and Borana Pastoralists in Response to Drought”, Drylands Coordination Group and Noragric, Agricultural University of Norway.
18. Shanmugaratnam, N., D. Mamer and M. R. Kenyi, 2002: “From Emergency Relief to Local Development and Civil Society Building: Experiences from the Norwegian Peoples’ Aid’s Interventions in Southern Sudan”, Drylands Coordination Group and Noragric, Agricultural University of Norway.
19. Mitiku, H. and S. N. Merga, 2002. “Workshop on the Experience of Water Harvesting in the Drylands of Ethiopia: Principles and practices”, Drylands Coordination Group and Noragric, Agricultural University of Norway.
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Literature assessment on drought in Sudan
20. Tesfai, M., V. Dawod and K. Abreha, 2002. “Management of Salt-affected Soils in the NCEW ‘Shemshemia’ Irrigation Scheme in the Upper Gash Valley of Eritrea”, Drylands Coordination Group and Noragric, Agricultural University of Norway.
21. Doumbia, M. D., A. Berthé and J. B. Aune, 2002: “Gestion Intégrée de Nutriments Végétaux (GINV): Tests Pratiques de Technologies avec des Groupes de Paysans- Rapport de la Campagne 2001”, Groupe de Coordination des Zones Arides et Noragric, Agricultural University of Norway.
22. Haidara, Y., Dembele, M. et Bacha, A. “Formation sur la lutte contre la désertification atelier organisé par groupe de coordination des zones arides (GCoZA) du 07 au 10 octobre 2002 à Gossi (Mali)”, Groupe de Coordination des Zones Arides et Noragric, Agricultural University of Norway.
23. Aune, J. B. 2003. “Desertification control, rural development and reduced CO 2 emissions through the Clean Development Mechanism of the Kyoto Protocol - an impasse or a way forward?” Drylands Coordination Group and Noragric, Agricultural University of Norway.
24. Larsen, K. and Hassan, M. 2003. “Sedentarisation of Nomadic People: The Case of the Hawawir in Um Jawasir, Northern Sudan”, Drylands Coordination Group and Noragric, Agricultural University of Norway.
25. Cissé, I. et Keita, M.S. 2003. “Etude d’impacts socio-économique et environnemental des plaines aménagées pour riziculture au Mali.” Groupe de Coordination des Zones Arides et Noragric, Agricultural University of Norway.
26. Berkele, Y. and Mossige, A. 2003. “Indicators to Promote Civil Society’s (NGOs and CBOs) Participation in the implementation of Ethiopia’s National and Regional Action Programs of the United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification. A guideline Document”, Drylands Coordination Group and Noragric, Agricultural University of Norway.
26B. Berkele, Y. and Mossige, A. 2003. “Indicateurs visant à promouvoir la participation de la société civile (ONG et OCB) à la mise en oeuvre en Ethiopie des Programmes d’action national et régionaux de la Convention des Nations Unies sur la lutte contre la désertification”. Drylands Coordination Group and Noragric, Agricultural University of Norway.
27. Assefa, F., Dawd, M. and Abesha, A. D. 2003. “Implementation Aspects of Integrated Pest Management (IPM): Policy and Extension Gap in Ethiopia”, Drylands Coordination Group and Noragric, Agricultural University of Norway.
28. Haile, A., Selassie, D.G., Zereyacob, B. and Abraham, B. 2003, “On-Farm Storage Studies in Eritrea”, Drylands Coordination Group and Noragric, Agricultural University of Norway.
29. Doumbia, M.D., Berthé, A., Aune, J.B. 2003, “Gestion Intégrée de Nutriments Végétaux (GINV): Tests Pratiques et Vulgarisation de Technologies”, Groupe de Coordination des Zones Arides et Noragric, Agricultural University of Norway.
30. Mossige, A. and M. Macina 2004, “Indicateurs visant à promouvoir et suivre la participation de la Société Civile (ONG et OCB) dans la mise en œuvre des Programmes d’Action National, Régional et Communal de la Convention des Nations Unies sur la lutte contre la désertification”, Groupe de Coordination des Zones Arides et Noragric, Agricultural University of Norway.
31. Tesfay, Y. and Tafere, K. 2004. “Indigenous Rangeland resources and Conflict Management by the North Afar Pastoral Groups in Ethiopia. A Pastoral Forum Organized by the Drylands Coordination Group (DCG) in Ethiopia, June 27-28, 2003, Mekelle, Ethiopia”, Drylands Coordination Group and Noragric, Agricultural University of Norway.
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Drylands Coordination Group 32. Kebede, D. and Retta, S. 2004. “Gender, HIV/AIDS and Food Security, Linkage and Integration into Development Interventions”, Drylands Coordination Group and Noragric, Agricultural University of Norway.
33. Kidane, A., Araia, W., Ghebremichael, Z, and Gobezay, G. 2004. “Survey on striga and crop husbandry practices in relation to striga management and control of sorghum (Sorghum bicholor) in the Goluge sub zone: Lessons to be learned and creating awareness”, Drylands Coordination Group and Noragric, Agricultural University of Norway.
34. Kibreab, G., Berhane, T., and Ghezae, E. 2004. “A Study to Determine the Extent and Use of Environmental Impact Assessment of Agricultural Development Projects – A Case Study from Eritrea”, Drylands Coordination Group and Noragric, Agricultural University of Norway.
35. Meehan, F. 2004. “Female Headed Household in Tigray, Ethiopia. A Study Review”. Drylands Coordination Group and Noragric, Agricultural University of Norway. 36. Doumbia, M. Berthe, A., Aune, J. B. 2005. “Integrated Plant Nutrient Management in Mali. Summary Report 1998-2004”. Drylands Coordination Group, Miljøhuset G9, Norway.
37. Kaya, B., Traoré, C. O., Aune, J.B. 2005. “Etude d’identification des prototypes d’EcoFermes au Mali. Rapport diagnostic et plan d’action pour 2005“. Groupe de Coordination des Zones Arides, Maison de l’Environnement G9, Norvège.
38. Nedessa, B., Ali, J., Nyborg, I. 2005. ”Exploring Ecological and Socio-Economic Issues for the Improvement of Area Enclosure Management. A Case Study from Ethiopia”. Drylands Coordination Group, Miljøhuset G9, Norway.
39. Makenzi, P. 2005. “Natural Resource Management in the Didinga Hills. A Baseline Study from Budy County, South Sudan”. Drylands Coordination Group, Miljøhuset G9, Norway.
40. Ogbazghi, W., Bein, E. 2006. “Assessment of Non-Wood Forest Products and their Role in the Livelihoods of Rural Communities in the Gash-Barka Region, Eritrea”. Drylands Coordination Group, Miljøhuset G9, Norway.
41. Kouyaté, S., Haidara, C. M. 2006. “Etude sur la Problématique des Périmètres Irrigués Villageois au Nord du Mali”. Groupe de Coordination des Zones Arides, Miljøhuset G9, Norvège.
42. Haile, A. 2006. “On-Farm Storage of Chickpea, Sorghum, and Wheat in Eritrea”. Drylands Coordination Group, Miljøhuset G9, Norway.
43. Ask, V. 2006. “UNCCD and Food Security for Pastoralists within a Human Rights Context”. Drylands Coordination Group, Miljøhuset G9, Norway.
43B. Ask, V. 2006. « La CCD et la Sécurité Alimentaire des Pasteurs Dans le Contexte des Droits de l’Homme ». Drylands Coordination Group, Miljøhuset G9, Norway
44. Desta, M., Haddis, G., Ataklt, S. 2006. “Female-Headed Households and Livelihood Intervention in Four Selected Weredas in Tigray, Ethiopia.”. Drylands Coordination Group, Miljøhuset G9, Norway.
45. Araia, W, Haile, A. 2006. “Baseline study on crop husbandry, in-situ conservation and informal seed supply system in Eritrea”. Drylands Coordination Group, Miljøhuset G9, Norway.
46. Emana, B., Gebremedhin, H. 2007. “Constraints and Opportunities of Horticulture Production and Marketing in Eastern Ethiopia”. Drylands Coordination Group, Miljøhuset G9, Norway.
47. Malifu, E., Tefera, H., and Mekiso, M. 2007. “Evaluation Report on Training of Trainers on UNCCD/NAP”. Drylands Coordination Group, Miljøhuset G9, Norway. 36
Literature assessment on drought in Sudan
48. Assefa, D., Belay, M., Tsegay, D., and Haile, M. 2007. “Transplanting Sorghum as a Means of Ensuring Food Security in Low Rainfall Sorghum Growing Areas of Northern Ethiopia”. Drylands Coordination Group, Miljøhuset G9, Norway.
49. Tsegaye, D., Balehegn, M, Gebrehiwot, K.,.Haile, M., Samuel, G.,Tilahun, M., and Aynekulu, E. 2007. “The Role of Dobera glabra for Household Food Security at Times of Food Shortage in Aba`ala Wereda, North Afar: Ecological Adaptation and Socio-economic Value. A Study from Ethiopia”. Drylands Coordination Group, Miljøhuset G9, Norway.
50. Teklehaimanot, G. and Haile, M. 2007. “Women in Backyards: Root Crop Production and Biodiversity Management in Backyards”. Drylands Coordination Group, Miljøhuset G9, Norway.
51. Bengtsson, Frida. 2007. “Review of Information Available on Seed Security and Seed Aid Interventions in Ethiopia, Eritrea, Mali and Sudan”. Drylands Coordination Group, Miljøhuset G9, Norway.
52. Tesfay, Haile. 2007. “Assessment of Institutional Setup and Effect of Household Level Water Harvesting in Ensuring Sustainable Livelihood. A Case study of Kobo, Almata and Kilte Awlaelo Woredas in Amhara and Tigray Regions of Ethiopia”. Drylands Coordination Group, Miljøhuset G9, Norway.
53. Elias, E. 2008. “Pastoralists in Southern Ethiopia: Dispossession, Access to Resources and Dialogue with Policy Makers”. Drylands Coordination Group, Miljøhuset G9, Norway.
54. Meles, K., Nigussie, G., Belay, T., and Manjur K. 2009. “Seed System Impact on Farmers’ Income and Crop Biodiversity in the Drylands of Southern Tigray”. Drylands Coordination Group, Miljøhuset G9, Norway.
55. Mengistu, E., Regassa, N and Yusufe, A., 2009. “The Levels, Determinants and Coping Mechanisms of Food Insecure Households in Southern Ethiopia: A Case study of Sidama, Wolaita and Guraghe Zones” Drylands Coordination Group, Miljøhuset G9, Norway.
56. Emana, B., Gebremedhin, H., and Regassa, N., 2010. “Impacts of Improved Seeds and Agrochemicals on Food Security and Environment in the Rift Valley of Ethiopia: Implications for the Application of an African Green Revolution”. Drylands Coordination Group, Miljøhuset G9, Norway.
57. Traoré, C.O., Aune, J. B., and Sidibé, M. M., 2010. “Rapport Final du Projet Ecoferme au Mali. Synthèse des quatre années 2005-2008”. Drylands Coordination Group, Miljøhuset G9, Norway.
58. Megersa, B., 2010. “An epidemiological study of major camel diseases in the Borana lowland, Southern Ethiopia”. Drylands Coordination Group, Miljøhuset G9, Norway.
59. Bayu, W., Bayissa, M., Manjur, K., Yeshanew, A., Agdo, E., Sime, G., Tolera, A., Belay, T., Meles, K., Aune, J. B., Ayele, A. A., 2010. “Results of Ecofarm Action Research Activities in Three Project Areas in Ethiopia”. Drylands Coordination Group, Miljøhuset G9, Norway.
60. Coulibaly, A., Aune, J. B., Sissoko, P., 2010 “Etablissement des cultures vivrières dans les zones sahélienne et soudano sahélienne du Mali”. Drylands Coordination Group, Miljøhuset G9, Norway.
61. Tesfay, G. 2011. “On farm water harvesting for rainfed agriculture development and food security in Tigray, Northern Ethiopia: investigation of technical and socioeconomic issues”. Drylands Coordination Group, Miljøhuset G9, Norway.
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Drylands Coordination Group 62. El-Hag, M. A. F., Osman, A. K., El-Jack, F.H., Wagiyalla, N. A., Mekki, M. A., and Khatir, A. A., 2011. “Changes and threats facing nomads under drylands – the case of the Shanabla tribe in Western Sudan”. Drylands Coordination Group, Miljøhuset G9, Norway.
63. El-Dukheri, I., Oyiki, C. O., El Wakeel, A., S., Meseka, S., K. 2008. “Review of the Food Security and Natural Resource Situation in Sudan”. Drylands Coordination Group, Miljøhuset G9, Norway.
64. Kebede D. and Adane H. 2011. “Climate change adaptations and induced farming livelihoods”. Drylands Coordination Group, Miljøhuset G9, Norway.
65. Regassa, N. and Taye M. 2011. “Impact of Resettlement on the Livelihood, Food Security and Natural Resource Utilization in Ethiopia.” Drylands Coordination Group, Miljøhuset G9, Norway.
66. Gebreyohannes, G. and Hailemariam, G. 2011. “Challenges, Opportunities and Available Good Practices Related to Zero-Grazing in Tigray and Hararghe, Ethiopia.” Drylands Coordination Group, Miljøhuset G9, Norway.
67. Osman, F. M., and AbdelKariem A. 2011. “Livelihood Assessment of the Dryland Community, Um Jawasir - Sudan.” Drylands Coordination Group, Miljøhuset G9, Norway.
68. Haji, J., Gelaw, F., Bekele, W. and Tesfay G. 2011. “The ‘Black-Box’ of Ethiopian Agricultural Produce Price Formation and its Determinants within the Current Liberalized Market Policy.” Drylands Coordination Group, Miljøhuset G9, Norway.
69. Hameed, A. A. K., Alebaid, S. A., El Hassan, H. M., Abdella, S. I. and Musa, F. S. 2011. “Review of literature on drought in Sudan.” Drylands Coordination Group, Miljøhuset G9, Norway.
Proceedings: 1. Drylands Coordination Group. 2000. Seminar on the Formation of DCG Ethiopia-Sudan. Proceedings from a Seminar organised by the Drylands Coordination Group in Nazareth, Ethiopia, April 10-12, 2000. DCG/Noragric, Agricultural University of Norway, Ås.
2. Drylands Coordination Group. 2001. Seminar on the Formation of DCG Eritrea. Proceedings from a Seminar Hosted by the National Confederation of Eritrean Workers (NCEW) in Asmara, Eritrea, March 26 th -28 th , 2001. DCG/Noragric, Agricultural University of Norway, Ås.
3. Amha, W. 2001. Revisiting the Regulatory and Supervision Framework of the Microfinance Industry in Ethiopia. Proceedings from a Seminar Organised by the Relief Society of Tigray (REST), on behalf of the Drylands Coordination Group in Ethiopia and Sudan, In Mekelle, August 25, 2001. DCG/Noragric, Agricultural University of Norway, Ås.
4. Mossige, A. and Berkele, Y. 2001. Civil Society’s Participation in the National Action Program to Combat Desertification and Mitigate the Effects of Drought in Ethiopia. Proceedings from a Workshop organised by the Drylands Coordination Group (DCG) in Ethiopia, Debre Zeit, September 13-14, 2001. DCG/Noragric, Agricultural University of Norway, Ås.
5. Maiga, S. et Mossige, A. 2001. Participation de la Société Civile dans la Mise en Oeuvre Programme d’action pour la Convention Sur la Désertification (CCD) au Mali. L’atelier Organise par le Groupe Coordination sur les Zones Arides (GCOZA) Au Centre Aoua Keita, Bamako, Les 5 et 6 novembre 2001. GCOZA/Noragric, Agricultural University of Norway, Ås.
6. Drylands Coordination Group. 2002. Do conventions need civil society? A critical review of the role of civil society in the implementation of international conventions. Proceeding from a Seminar Arranged by the Drylands Coordination Group and Forum for Development and Environment (ForUM) in Oslo, January 15 th , 2002. DCG/Noragric, Agricultural University of Norway, Ås.
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Literature assessment on drought in Sudan
7. Berkele, Y. 2002. Workshop on training of trainers in UNCCD/NAP implementation in Ethiopia. Proceedings from a workshop arranged by the Drylands Coordination Group in Ethiopia, Nazareth, June 10-15, 2002, DCG/Noragric, Agricultural University of Norway, Ås.
8. Drylands Coordination Group. 2002. Sustainable livelihoods of farmers and pastoralists in Eritrea. Proceedings from a workshop organised by DCG Eritrea in National Confederation of Eritrean Workers Conference Hall, Asmara, November 28 –29, 2002. DCG/Noragric, Agricultural University Of Norway, Ås.
9. Drylands Coordination Group. 2003. DCG networking seminar 2002, 15 th -22 nd November 2002, Khartoum, Sudan. DCG/Noragric, Agricultural University of Norway, Ås. 10. Soumana, D. 2003. Atelier d’information, d’échange et de réflexion sur l’élargissement du Groupe de Coordination des Zones Arides (GCoZA) au Mali, Au Centre Aoua Keita, Bamako, Les 18 et 19 février 2003. DCG/Noragric, Agricultural University of Norway, Ås.
11. Ati, H. A.and Nimir A. A. H. 2004. Training Course On The Role Of Local Institutions In Regulating Resource Use and Conflict Management, Um Jawaseer, June 2003. DCG/Noragric, Agricultural University of Norway, Ås.
12. Berkele, Y. and Ayalew, B. 2004. Training of Trainers in Implementation of UNCCD/NAP in Ethiopia. Third Round, 10-14 Nov. 2003. DCG/Noragric, Agricultural University of Norway, Ås.
13. Macina, M. 2004. Atelier National et Campagne d’Information et de Sensibilisation sur la CCD. Un Atelier organisé par la Coordination des Associations et ONG Féminines au Mali (CAFO) en partenariat avec le Groupe de Coordination des Zones Arides (GCoZA). Les 29-30 novembre 2004 à Bamako, Mali. DCG/Noragric, Agricultural University of Norway, Ås.
14. Musnad, H.A. and Nasr N. K. 2004. Experience Sharing Tour and Workshop on Shelterbelts and Fuel Wood Substitutes in Sudan. DCG/Noragric, Agricultural University of Norway, Ås.
15. Gakou, M. 2005. Atelier d’information et de formation des ONG membres de GCoZA sur le montage des projets/ synergie entre les conventions de la génération de Rio et de la convention de Ramsar. Le 28 décembre 2004, à Bamako, Mali. GCoZA, Oslo.
16. Berkele, Y., Mossige, Anne. 2005. Awareness Promotion and Experience Sharing on the Implementation of UNCCD-NAP to Enhance Pastoralist Areas Development. Workshop organized by the Drylands Coordination Group Ethiopia for the Pastoral Affairs Standing Committee and the Natural Resource Development and Environmental Protection Standing Committee, Members of Parliament - Ethiopia. December 17-19, 2004 in Nazareth, Ethiopia. DCG, Miljøhuset, Oslo.
17. Esheteu Bekele, E., Azerefegne, F., and Abate, T. 2006. Facilitating the Implementation and Adoption of Integrated Pest Management (IPM) in Ethiopia. Planning Workshop, 13-15 October 2003, Melkassa Agricultural Research Center, EARO. Jointly organized by the Association for Advancement of IPM (ASAI) and the Ethiopian Agricultural Research Organization (EARO). DCG, Miljøhuset, Oslo.
18. Kodio, A. 2006. Atelier de Formation des Membres du GCoZA Mali à l’Approche Epargne Crédit Musow ka Jigiya Ton (MJT) au Mali. Atelier organisé par CARE Mali et le GCoZA Mali du 1er au 5 août 2005 au Centre Gabriel Cissé de Ségou au Mali. DCG, Miljøhuset, Oslo.
19. Belal, A. A. and Hussein, F. S. 2006. Awareness Raising Workshop on the Implementation of the United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification. Workshop organized by DCG Sudan for the Parliamentarians and other Stakeholders. December 28th and 29th 2005 in the Green Hall of Sudan’s Parliament, Omdurman, Sudan. DCG, Miljøhuset, Oslo.
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Drylands Coordination Group 20. Dembelé, T., Berthé, A. et Yattara, M. 2006. Atelier de formation en matière du Guide Programme Communal d’Action Environnementale (PCAE) et des techniques Gestion Intégrée de Nutriments Végétaux (GINV). Atelier Organisé par GCOZA Mali et le Consortium Synergie – AMAPROS ACD pour les membres de GCOZA et des trois communes (Saloba, Souley et Sana). Du 20 au 22 juin 2005 à la Maison du Partenariat à Bamako, Mali. DCG, Miljøhuset, Oslo.
20B. Yattara, M. 2006. PCAE ani GINV baarakqfqqrqw dùnniyaw dqmqnan lajqkalan kùnùkow sqnsqnnen. Lajqkalan sigilen sen kan GCOZA Mali ani xùgùndqmqjqkulu AMAPROS ACD fq, ka xqsin GCOZA tùndenw ni Saloba, Suleyi ani Sana komini saba kùnùmùgùw ma. K’a ta san 2005 zuwqnkalo tile 20 ma, ka se a tile 22 ma Mali la, xùgùndqmqjqkuluw ka soba la Bamakù. DCG, Miljøhuset, Oslo.
21. Touré, B. 2007. Atelier de Renforcement des Capacités des Organisations de GCoZA Mali sur les Mécanismes de Financement des Projets et Programmes pour la Mise en Oeuvre de la Convention des Nations Unies sur la Lutte contre la Désertification (CCD). Atelier Organisé par la Coordination des Associations et ONG Féminines du Mali (CAFO) et GCoZA Mali pour les membres de GCoZA Mali. Du 11 au 13 septembre 2006 au Mémorial Modibo Keita à Bamako, Mali. DCG, Miljøhuset, Oslo.
22. Negassi, A. and Beyene, Y. 2007. Bridging the Gap Between Research, Extension and the Farmer in Eritrea. DCG, Miljøhuset, Oslo.
23. Anage, A. and Lulu, M. 2007. Awareness Raising Workshop on UNCCD/NAP and Experience Sharing Sessions on Drylands Development Issues in Ethiopia. Workshop organized for the Pastoral and Natural Resources and Environment Affairs Standing Committees of the Parliament of the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia. December 8th -10th 2006, Adama Mekonen Hotel, Nazareth, Ethiopia. DCG, Miljøhuset, Oslo.
24. Sterling, L., Nagoda, S., Tveteraas, A. 2008. Moving from emergency seed aid to seed security - linking relief with development. Workshop organized by the Drylands Coordination Group Norway and Caritas Norway, in collaboration with Norad and The Norwegian Ministry of Foreign Affairs in Oslo May 14th 2008. DCG, Miljøhuset, Oslo.
25. Anage, A. 2009. Capacity Building for Regional Council Members, Sector Offices & Academic Institutions & CSOs of Oromya, Gambella and Benshangul-Gumuz National Regional States on UNCCD/NAP in Ethiopia. Workshop organized by EACD and the Drylands Coordination Group Ethiopia. July 3rd and 4th 2008 at Nekemte Municipality Hall, Wollega Zone, Ethiopia. DCG, Miljøhuset. Oslo.
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Literature assessment on drought in Sudan
Drylands Coordination Group Addresses in Norway:
Secretariat of the Drylands Coordination Group Grensen 9b, 0159 Oslo, Norway Tel: +47 23 10 94 90, Fax: + 47 23 10 94 94 E-mail: [email protected]
ADRA Norge Postboks 124, 3529 Røyse, Norway Tel.: +47 32 16 16 90, Fax: +47 32 16 16 71 E-mail: [email protected]
CARE Norge Universitetsgt. 12, 0164 Oslo, Norway Tel: +47 22 20 39 30, Fax: +47 22 20 39 36 E-mail: [email protected]
Development Fund Grensen 9b, 0159 Oslo, Norway Tel: +47 23 10 96 00, Fax: +47 23 10 96 01 E-mail: [email protected]
Norwegian Church Aid Postboks 7100, St. Olavs plass, 0130 Oslo , Norway Tel: + 47 22 09 27 00, Fax: + 47 22 09 27 20 E-mail: [email protected]
Norwegian People’s Aid P.O. Box 8844 Youngstorget, 0028 Oslo, Norway Tel: + 47 22 03 77 00, Fax: + 47 22 17 70 82 E-mail: [email protected]
Noragric, Department for International Environment and Development Studies University of Life Sciences, P.O. Box 5003, 1432 Ås, Norway Tel: +47 64 94 99 50, Fax: +47 64 94 07 60 E-mail: [email protected]
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