The Role of the Internet and Online Technologies in Destination Choice for Australian Cycling Tourists

Dennis James Puniard

Master of Surveying and Mapping Science (UQ), Bachelor of Applied Science (Surveying) (RMIT), Diploma of Cartography (RMIT), Post Graduate Diploma in Military Science (qtc) Royal Military College of Science (RMCS) (UK)

A thesis written in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of PhD in Management

University of Canberra

August 2013

ABSTRACT

This research investigates how cycling tourists use online technology to help choose their desired destination for cycling away from their home base. It provides an insight into cycling tourism in Australia, and, in particular, the online world of cycling tourists. The thesis examines the academic literature in respect to tourist motivation, information search models and destination choice modelling. It constructs two conceptual models on the motivations of cycling tourists and their information search patterns.

Whilst we know from statistical data collected over a number of years that cycling is a significant activity for a large number of Australians, we do not have a good knowledge of how many of these cyclists are cycling tourists, either in Australia or overseas. This work, together with that of a small number of other research efforts, is expanding this knowledge base. There is a body of work now that provides some evidence that this is a significant niche sector in tourism.

The elements of online technology explored in this thesis included the use of websites, online maps, blogs, wikis and social media. The research employed a mixed methods approach using focus groups, an online survey and data discovery through a number of online sources. The approach was one of “dominant/less dominant design” where the primary technique used was a quantitative method using an online survey with focus groups and data discovery taking a secondary role.

Much of the previous research in this field has been focussed on a narrow definition of cycle tourism, concentrating on the exploits of recreational cyclists. This research, together with a small body of other research, indicates that cycle tourism is much more than just recreation, with mountain biking now a significant sector. Competitive cycling events and challenge events attract substantial numbers of tourists and are significant contributors to tourism income for regions where they are held.

Through this research the information needs of cycling tourists and how they want to access this information are now better understood. The research has shown that maps are an important information source for cycling tourists and that the cyclists who responded to the online survey used for this research are very active in online forums dedicated to cycling. Social media is identified as an important emerging source for gathering and sharing information about cycling for this group.

Whilst this research has addressed a number of questions related to the use of online technology by cycling tourists, it gives an indication of the role and importance of online technology and online mapping as information sources in the decision-making processes in the broader tourism market. The outcome of this research has the potential to assist urban planners, event managers, cycling associations and clubs, regional tourism bodies and researchers to better understand their constituents and markets and how to service them better using modern technology.

This research is a first step in exploring the use of online technology by cyclists as tourists. This is a rapidly evolving world with the uptake of this technology being fanned by lower costs of entry, more effective tools and a rapid expansion of mobile communications. The results reported here are from data captured in 2009-10 and if the surveys were repeated now at the time of writing (August 2013) some significant changes would be evident. This field of research is deserving of more attention to understand better the use of this technology, and the related access and information requirements of users.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

As a mature age PhD candidate on yet another different career path, I found this quote from Sir Hubert Opperman (Oppy) rather apt. Oppy was one of Australia’s greatest competitive cyclists on the road and track in the 1930s and 40s, and then went on to a distinguished career as a Federal Politician as the member for Corio and as a Minister in several of Menzies’ cabinets in the 1950s and 60s, before becoming a Diplomat as Ambassador to Malta and eventually retiring to his home city of Geelong in Victoria. He wrote in the introduction to his autobiography.

“I once read that a man is never retired, only retreaded – in a different pattern” (Opperman,1977).

In taking this journey, and in reaching the end, my first acknowledgement is to my wife Margaret who has been my backstop through the whole journey. Not only has she given me support and encouragement but, as my editor in chief, she has read this thesis from top to bottom many times over, and provided invaluable advice on its content.

During this journey, I have had the privilege of working with four primary supervisors. I started the journey with Professor Brent Ritchie who was my initial inspiration and mentor. After Brent moved to another University, Associate Professor Tracey Dickson stepped up to the mark and provided guidance through a critical period of the topic development. When Tracey took a break, Professor Trevor Mules took on the task of guiding me through the middle stages, where most of the survey work was completed. When Trevor retired at the end of 2010, I was lost for a short while, however I discovered that Professor Keith Lyons had an interest in my topic and was quite keen to help me through the final stages. Keith has been an absolute marvel in his ability to encourage, support and, at the same time, constructively critique my writing efforts and the thoughts behind them. His ability to respond to draft chapters in but a few days has been incredible. Keith also fully supported my efforts to run a major conference on Cycle Tourism in the latter part of this journey in early 2012. That would not have been the success it was without his enthusiastic input.

In travelling down this path there have been a number of other academic staff and support staff at the University of Canberra who have made my task much less arduous than it could have been. Through the journey there have been three Associate Deans for Research in my Faculty of Business and Government and Law. Anni Dugdale was the first, Deb Blackman the second and Don Fleming the third. Each has been most supportive of my work, and always there when needed. Sue Uzabeaga has been the Administrative Officer for research students in the Faculty of Business, Government and Law for the past two years and before that was the Administrative Officer for the Tourism Discipline. Sue has been a major support in making all the right things happen at the right time.

It would be remiss of me not to mention two other key groups within the University as they have made this an easier path for me. Joelle Vandermensbrugge, the Convenor in the Graduate

Research Office has provided much of the training, shorts courses and external support that underpins much of the learning to make the journey productive and worthwhile.

The staff in the Research Students Office at the University of Canberra, Cath Raby in particular, have always been excellent sources of advice on the process required to finish the tasks needed to complete the journey.

In my time on this journey, I have shared space, ideas and frustrations with several colleagues who were undertaking the same journey toward a PhD. Pam Faulks was the first to complete and Brian Weir and Naomi Dale are about to complete. Shane Fudge from Canada also shared our space. These great people all have given support, encouragement and, at times, borne the brunt of my frustrations. They have shared the journey and made it a much more pleasurable one.

In completing the major part of this research I have been given great support from a number of cycling organisations, especially in the distribution of my online survey using their communications to their members. Thus the executives and support teams at Pedal Power ACT, ACT Veteran’s Cycling Club, Canberra Cycling Club, Vikings Cycling Club, Bicycle NSW, Bicycle Victoria, Bicycle Queensland, Bicycle South Australia and Canberra Off Road Cyclists (CORC) have made much of the input to this thesis possible. Thanks!

Lastly I thank all of those who participated in the Focus Groups and those who took the time to respond to my survey, often making a considerable effort to provide critical information beyond just completing the survey. The results are due to their support and input.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Abstract iii

Certificate of Authorship v

Acknowledgements vii

Table of Contents ix

List of Tables xix

List of Figures xxiii

Chapter 1 Introduction and Context for the Research 1

1.1 Background to the Research 1

1.2 The Research Problem 4

1.3 Justification 5

1.4 Models and Theoretical Framework 7

1.4.1 How do Cycling Tourists Choose their Travel Destinations? 7

1.4.2 Events as Attractors for Cyclists 9

1.4.3 Search Processes, Information Sources and the Evaluation of Alternative Destinations 11

1.4.4 Some Conceptual Models for Cycle Tourism 12

1.4.5 Destination Attributes for Cycling 13

1.4.6 Information Search and the Cycle Tourist 15

1.4.7 Internet Use in Destination Choice for Tourists 16

1.4.8 Online Maps, Tourism and Cyclists 17

1.4.9 Cycle Maps Online 17

1.5 Research Aim 19

1.6 Research Questions 20

1.7 Research Methodology and Methods 21

1.7.1 Research Methodology 22

1.8 Outline of the Thesis 25

1.9 Definitions 25

1.10 Delimitations 26

1.10.1 Geography and Activity 26

1.10.2 Surveys 26

1.10.3 Focus Groups 26

1.10.4 Timing 27

1.11 Conclusion 27

Chapter 2 Literature Review 29

2.1 Introduction 29

2.2 Cycle tourism – its Scope and Size 29

2.2.1 Defining Cycle Tourism 29

2.2.2 Elements of Cycle Tourism 33

2.2.3 How Big is Cycling? 34

2.2.4 Cycling Events and Tourism 37

2.2.5 Other Cycle Tourism Research 39

2.3 Tourist Motivation, Destination Choice and Cycle Tourists 42

2.3.1 Defining what is a Tourist 42

2.3.2 Connection between Tourism, Recreation and Leisure 44

2.3.3 Definition of Tourism as an Industry 44

2.3.4 Scoping Tourism as an Area of Research 45

2.4 Tourist Motivation 46

2.4.1 Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs 47

2.4.2 The Push and Pull Factor Motivation Model 49

2.4.3 Social Situation Analysis 52

2.4.4 Tourist Behaviour Patterns (Typologies) 52

2.4.5 Travel Career Model – the Leisure Ladder 56

2.4.6 Tourist Roles and Destinations 58

2.4.7 Lifecycle Stages and Tourism 59

2.4.8 Ritual Inversions 60

2.4.9 Motivation Theory – is it useful? 61

2.5 Destination Choice Models 61

2.5.1 Activities and Destinations 64

2.5.2 Search Processes and Evaluation of Alternative Destination 66

2.5.3 Summary of Destination Choice Models 71

2.5.4 Application to Cycle Tourism 71

2.6 Online Technologies and Information Gathering for Cycle Tourists 72

2.6.1 Internet Use in Destination Choice for Tourists 72

2.6.2 Online Maps, Tourism and Cyclists 79

2.6.3 Cycle Maps Online 82

2.6.4 Social Networking and Tourism 83

2.6.5 Facebook in Australia 89

2.6.6 Twitter in Australia 90

2.7 Profiling Social Networkers 91

2.8 Favorite Australian Websites 94

2.9 Recent Additions to the Literature 95

2.10 Conclusion 99

2.10.1 Cycling is Big 99

2.10.2 Cycle Tourism Scope and Definition 99

2.10.3 Tourist Motivation and Destination Choice Models 100

Chapter 3 Research Methodology and the Approach to Data Collection 101

3.1 Introduction 101

3.2 Research Methodology and Methods Adopted 102

3.3 The Approach to Data Collection 109

3.3.1 Ethical Considerations 109

3.3.2 Research Methods 110

3.4 Data Exploration and Discovery 110

3.5 Focus Groups 112

3.6 The Questionnaire and its Distribution 113

3.7 Conclusion 115

Chapter 4 Data Analysis and Results 117

4.1 Introduction 117

4.2 Focus Groups 118

4.3 Online Survey Results 127

4.3.1 Demographics of Survey Respondents 128

4.3.2 Comparison with other demographic data 131

4.3.3 Cycling Interests of Survey Respondents 135

4.3.4 Motivations of Cycle Tourists 140

4.3.5 Accommodation Preferences for Cycle Tourists 145

4.3.6 The Attractors for Cycle Tourists 147

4.3.7 Information Sources for Cycle Tourists 150

4.3.8 Use of Online Technologies 153

4.3.9 Online Maps and Cycle Tourists 156

4.4 Data Discovery 157

4.4.1 Some Recent Research in the Capital Region 157

4.4.2 Selected Outcomes from the Survey 158

4.5 Cycling Events as Tourism Attractors 160

4.6 Summary and Conclusion 163

Chapter 5 Cycling Websites and Maps 167

5.1 Introduction 167

5.2 Cycling Websites 170

5.3 Results from Online Survey 170

5.3.1 Favourite Cycling Websites 171

5.3.2 Information Sought from Websites 174

5.3.3 Favourite Websites for General Tourism Information 179

5.4 Maps, Tourism and Cyclists 181

5.4.1 What Guides and Maps are out there? 184

5.5 Results the Online Survey of Cycle Tourists on Mapping 186

5.6 Use of GPS and Portable Navigation Technology 190

5.7 Signage for Cyclists 190

5.7.1 Roads ACT Main Community Route Signage Project 191

5.8 Conclusion 193

Chapter 6 Social Networks, Blogs and Cycling 197

6.1 Introduction 197

6.2 Social Networks and Cycling 197

6.2.1 Social Network use by Cycling Disciplines 202

6.3 Cycling Blogs and Wikis 206 6.3.1 Content Analysis of top 8 Blogs and Wikis 208 6.3.2 Comparing Websites, Blogs and Wikis 222

6.4 Data discovery through Some Online Forums, Blogs and Wikis 223

6.4.1 Social Media Discussions from 2010 and 2011 223

6.4.2 Time Stamp on Social Conversations Online. 231

6.5 Conclusion 232

Chapter 7 Summary of Outcomes, Discussion and Conclusions 235

7.1 Introduction 235

7.2 Limitations to the Research 236

7.3 Research Outcomes from the Literature Review 238

7.3.1 How big is cycle tourism? 238

7.3.2 Cycle tourism has been defined narrowly 239

7.3.3 Tourist motivation and destination choice models applied to cycle tourism 239

7.4 Summary of Outcomes of Research 240

7.4.1 Demographics, Education, Income, Experience and Cycling Preferences 241

7.4.2 Motivations for Cycling 239

7.4.3 Cycling Events as Attractors for Cycle Tourists 240

7.4.4 Road Safety as a Factor for Cyclists 244

7.4.5 Information Sources for Cycle Tourists 245

7.4.6 Accessing the Technology 245

7.4.7 Websites and Online Maps as Information Sources 246

7.4.8 What Information are Cycle Tourists Looking for Online? 247

7.4.9 Use of GPS and Portable Navigation Technology 249

7.4.10 The Use of Social Networks by Cycle Tourists 249

7.4.11 Cycle Tourists and the Use of Online Blogs and Forums 250

7.4.12 Comparing Websites, Blogs and Wikis 251

7.4.13 Data Discovery through some Online Forums, Blogs and Wikis 251

7.5 Review of Research Questions and Conceptual Models 253

7.5.1 Conceptual Models and the Research Outcomes 256

7.6 Discussion of Outcomes 262

7.7 Recommendations and Future Research 265

7.7.1 Cycle Tourism Development and Marketing Destinations for Cycle Tourism 265

7.7.2 Urban Planning and Facilities Development for Cycle Tourism 266

7.7.3 Implications for Cycling organisations 267

7.7.4 Future Research Opportunities 267

7.8 Concluding Statement 268

Reference List 271

Appendices

Appendix A List of Online Mapping Sites 287

Appendix B Survey Questionnaire for Cycle Tourism 295

Appendix C Detailed Tables of Responses 311

Appendix D University of Canberra Ethics Approval 331

LIST OF TABLES

Table 2.1 Participation rates in top 5 physical activities 2009 35

Table 2.2 Participation rates in cycling by gender and State/Territory for 2009 36

Table 2.3 Types of leisure traveller 58

Table 2.4 The family lifecycle (European/North American model) 59

Table 2.5 Examples of inversion in Tourism 60

Table 2.6 Graburn’s original inversions 60

Table 4.1 Input from focus group 1 119

Table 4.2 Input from focus group 2 123

Table 4.3 Gender and cycling discipline 128

Table 4.4 Age distribution of survey respondents 129

Table 4.5 Qualification levels 130

Table 4.6 Employment status and income 130

Table 4.7 Children at home 131

Table 4.8 Gender across the population 132

Table 4.9 Age distribution across survey data sets 132

Table 4.10 Qualification levels across survey data sets 133

Table 4.11 Comparison of employment categories 134

Table 4.12 Comparison of children at home data 135

Table 4.13 Cycling interests and time involved 135

Table 4.14 Cycling interest other than prime interests 136

Table 4.15 Bicycle ownership by type 136

Table 4.16 Age and cycling discipline 137

Table 4.17 Value of bicycles 138

Table 4.18 Spend on cycling equipment 139

Table 4.19 Cycle club membership 139

Table 4.20 Use of own bike and frequency of travel 142

Table 4.21 Travel means to destination 143

Table 4.22 Travel party composition 144

Table 4.23 Time spent on a cycling trip 144

Table 4.24 Travel destination for cycling 145

Table 4.25 Accommodation preferences on a cycling trip 146

Table 4.26 Desired accommodation features in relation to cycling 146

Table 4.27 Desired destination features in relation to cycling 148

Table 4.28 Desired cycling facilities at destination for cycling 149

Table 4.29 Information sources for cycling destinations 152

Table 4.30 Cyclists use of online technologies 153

Table 4.31 Cyclists use of online technologies 155

Table 5.1 Favourite cycling websites table from survey questionnaire 173

Table 5.2 Detailed responses on information sought from websites 176

Table 5.3 Additional information sought from websites taken from Survey Questionnaire 177

Table 5.4 Tourism websites table from survey questionnaire 180

Table 5.5 Use on online maps by cycle tourists 188

Table 5.6 Cycle maps table from survey questionnaire 187

Table 6.1 Use of online tools by cycle tourists 200

Table 6.2 Analysis of use of online tools by cycling discipline 201

Table 6.3 Cyclist tourists’ social networking usage 202

Table 6.4 Social networking and cycling disciplines 203

Table 6.5 Facebook and cycling disciplines 204

Table 6.6 Twitter and cycling disciplines 204

Table 6.7 LinkedIn and cycling disciplines 205

Table 7.1 Summary of Outcomes 261

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1.1 An activities based model of destination choice 9

Figure 1 2 The destination selection process from Weaver and Lawton 12

Figure 1.3 Destination choice and information search model for cycling tourist 14

Figure 1.4 Information flows for the cycling tourist 18

Figure 1.5 Outline research methodology 24

Figure 2.1 Iso-Ahola’s intrinsic motivation/optimal

arousal approach to motivation 50

Figure 2.2 US Population distribution by psychographic type 54

Figure 2.3 The leisure ladder for theme park settings (domestic visitors) 57

Figure 2.4 A model of the relationships between research areas relevant to

understanding the destination choice process 63

Figure 2.5 A model of the pleasure travel destination choice process 70

Figure 2.6 Internet use in Australia 2009 77

Figure 2.7 Social networking in Australia in 2009 85

Figure 2.8 Internet use in the Asia Pacific 87

Figure 2.9 Internet use by gender and age in the Asia Pacific in 2010 88

Figure 2.10 Social networking across the Asia Pacific in May 2010 89

Figure 2.11 Reach of Twitter in the Asia Pacific Region 90

Figure 2.12 Age profiles vs technographic profiles of US internet users 93

Figure 3.1 Four elements in the research process 102

Figure 3.2 The four elements of research process expanded 103

Figure 3.3 Theoretical perspectives in the social sciences 104

Figure 3.4 Underlying assumptions of the positivist and interpretive paradigms 105

Figure 3.5 Positivist research process 106

Figure 3.6 Quantitative, mixed and qualitative methods 107

Figure 3.7 Research framework 108

Figure 3.8 Outline research methodology 110

Figure 3.9 Characteristics of differing survey typologies 114

Figure 4.1 Motivation for travel by cycle tourists 147

Figure 4.2 Means of accessing the internet 154

Figure 4.3 Cyclists and online map use 156

Figure 5.1 Recommended general tourism websites 179

Figure 5.2 Desired features of online maps for cyclists 189

Figure 5.3 Path directional signage Lake Burley Griffin shared path 192

Figure 5.4 Three lake recreational directional signage types 193

Chapter 1 Introduction and Context for the Research

1.1 Background to the Research

This thesis investigates the role of the Internet and online maps in destination choice for Australian cycling tourists, a specific group of tourists within a wider cycle tourism community. Cycling tourism has received little attention in the tourism literature. Cycling tourists are those that ride their bicycles at their chosen travel destination. They have specific needs and interests as cyclists and tourists that should be considered by tourism researchers, planners, managers and operators.

Internationally, the European Parliament and the European Cyclist Federation (ECF) have been very active in developing cycle tourism and associated infrastructure (Eijgelaar, Peeters and Piket, 2013). The European Cycle Network Eurovelo Study (European Parliament, 2009) has examined a whole range of issues and initiatives to develop cycle tourism across Europe. In North America, an example of significant resources being allocated to the development of cycle tourism is the Velo Quebec organisation (see http://www.velo.qc.ca) with forty full-time staff devoted to the development and promotion of cycle tourism products across the province of Quebec in Canada.

In Australia, a number of government organisations have recognised that cycle tourism is a niche and growing sector of tourism activity. The South Australian Government recognised this some time ago and developed a cycle tourism strategy for the period 2005-2009 (South Australian Tourist Commission, 2005). This has seen substantial growth in cycle tourism in that State, especially in activities for cyclists blended with the Tour Down Under, the first International Cycling Union (UCI) sanctioned professional road race in the calendar year. The State of Victoria has developed a similar strategy with its Cycle Tourism Action Plan 2011- 2015 (Tourism Victoria, 2010).

There has been considerable growth in tourism activity in regional Victoria with the staging of national and international road races and the expansion of the rail trail network, aimed

specifically at increasing cyclists’ tourism activity. Other smaller regions in Australia have recognised the potential and special character of cycle tourism too. The Southern Flinders Ranges have developed a Master Plan (Southern Flinders Ranges Development Board, 2008). The implementation of this plan has seen the emergence of this region as a very attractive destination for mountain bikers, especially in the Melrose/Mt Remarkable area. The Murray to Mountains group of councils in Victoria has developed a cycle tourism strategy (Rural City of Wangaratta, 2008) and the Australian Capital Territory government commissioned a study to explore options for development of the cycle tourism market in the Capital region (Puniard, 2011).

Over the last seven years, Australians have purchased 16.15 million bicycles compared to 7.25 million cars (Cycling Promotion Fund, 2006; Cycling Promotion Fund, 2010). Cycling, which includes mountain biking and BMX, is the fourth most popular physical activity for adults in Australia and remains more popular than golf and tennis (Australian Sports Commission, 2010). According to a 2009 survey by the Cycling Promotion Fund there were 1,115 cycling organisations around Australia with 185 local cycling organisations conducting 8,154 cycling activities in 2009 which attracted more than 45,000 participants (Cycling Promotion Fund,

2009).

Cycling is a major part of life for many Australians:

• A significant proportion of the Australian population own bicycles; • 1.9 million Australians used them regularly in 2009; • 10% of the Australian population use their bicycles at least once a week; • The Australian Capital Territory (ACT) leads the nation in bicycle use (16.8% cycle weekly); • There are 1 million active cyclists in NSW and Victoria.

Australian surveys and research papers indicate that cycle tourism is a strong and growing sector of the tourism market (Faulks, Ritchie and Fluker, 2006; Faulks et al, 2008). Researchers based at the University of Canberra have been prominent in this space with other key Universities engaged in this area being Southern Cross University and Latrobe University. Professor Brent Ritchie, now at the University of Queensland, but until 2008 head of Tourism at University of Canberra, was one of the early researchers in this field. His work on New

Zealand cycle tourists was the first serious examination of the topic in this part of the world (Ritchie, 1998; Ritchie, 1999).

Much of the research into cycle tourism has concentrated on recreational cycling using road or hybrid type bicycles, however there is evidence that cycle tourism extends beyond that sector of cycling and should include mountain biking and competitive and challenge events. Each cycling activity has its own type of bike, with specific characteristics related to weight, gears, brakes, and frame-type and size (see, for example, Rio 2016 (http://rio2016.com/en/the- games/olympic/sports/cycling) and Cycling Australia (http://www.cycling.org.au/?Page=7956)).

From the existing studies, bicycle sales statistics, cycling club memberships and cycling event statistics, it is apparent that the two major cycling activities in Australia are on-road cycling and mountain biking. The research presented here focuses on these two activities as the key elements of the cycling tourism market. For each of these two groups, the study will explore recreational cycling (independent or groups) and competitive cycling, making four distinct market sub-segments to be investigated:

1. Competitive road cycling events, including “challenge” events, and associated training activity; 2. Competitive mountain bike events; 3. Recreational road cycling including the use of dedicated or shared cycle paths; 4. Recreational mountain biking – primarily off road;

Tourist motivation (Moscardo et al, 1995) and destination choice models (Weaver and Lawton, 2006) can be adapted to the cycling tourism market and extrapolated to encompass cyclists’ needs and motivations. These can be used to investigate the information needs of cycling tourists and explore the delivery of this information. This research proposes a conceptual model of motivation and choice modified specifically to encompass cycling tourism. This research aims to develop and test cycling tourism and destination choice models to discover how cyclists in four distinct sectors of cycling tourism use the Internet, social networking tools and online maps to make their choice of destination for travel and cycling.

The Internet, social networking and online technologies increasingly encompass many aspects of the lives of most Australians. Research published by the Centre of Excellence for Creative Industries (Ewing, 2008) concluded that 72.6% of Australians were internet users, with 69% of users stating that for general information the internet was important or very important to them. A survey of cycle tourists (Faulks et al, 2008) showed that 53% of those surveyed used the internet in planning their holiday, the single most important source identified. This research explores how cycling tourists use these tools in their destination choice.

1.2 The Research Problem

Published research on cycle tourists and their choice of particular destinations, to date, has been concentrated largely on recreational cycling (Ritchie, 1998; Lumsdon, 2000). There has been very little work on how cyclists choose their travel destinations and virtually no work on how they use Internet technology in their information gathering processes, particularly in regards to their use of social networking tools and online maps.

The author’s attendance at cycling events and venues around Australia has led to the observation that many bicycle owners are regular riders outside their home regions and often travel with their bicycles. However, there is little or no data available on the scale, demographics, travel patterns, motivations for travel or information gathering habits and needs of the extended cycle tourist market. Some event data obtained by the author from event managers at Australian major events such as the Tour Down Under in South Australia (Bicycle South Australia, 2006), the Scott 24 Mountain Bike event in the ACT (Canberra Off Road Cyclists, 2007), and major challenge rides in which he has participated provide some indicative data on participants’ home base and demographics, which will be explored further in this research.

There is a growing number of websites specifically for cyclists and many web based maps are available for tourists and cyclists in particular with Google Earth (Google, 2012) and other similar web based maps being used widely to preview proposed cycling routes or locations. In addition, social networking sites such as Facebook, Twitter and LinkedIn are having a major impact on how people communicate about where and when they ride. At the time of this research there was little published research on how cyclists use these emerging technologies

and what expectations they have of them.

The most recent study into cycle tourism in Australia (Faulks et al, 2008) explored in some detail demographics, motivations, information sources and desired destination attributes for cyclists across South Eastern Australia whose primary interests are in recreational cycling. There are two benchmark Australian studies on the use of Rail Trails by cyclists (Willard, 2004; Beeton, 2006). Whilst these studies give some understanding of the demographics of rail trail users as being more mature age and with fairly even gender balance they looked primarily at economic aspects of one area (Murray to Mountains Rail Trail) for a few days at a specific time of year, and did not address technology use relevant to this research.

Whilst there is reasonable knowledge of the demographic mix of recreational cyclists, there is little published work on other cycling sectors, although observation of these groups and some initial analysis of some membership and event data from cycling groups (ACT BMX, 2007; Canberra Off Road Cyclists, 2007) indicates that mountain bikers and BMX riders are possibly younger and probably more attuned to the use of technology in making their destination choices. Australian Sports Commission (2010) data show that across the board for cycling the highest participation rate is the 35-44 year age bracket with 30% (513,000) of all participants in that age group.

This thesis reports data collected to identify major characteristics of each of these sectors and links these characteristics to their use of technology active cyclists.

1.3 Justification

The Internet pervades our lives. Increasingly, travellers use the Internet to research tourist destinations, and to book accommodation, cars, tours, and review attractions. Despite this, at the time of this research, there was a very limited body of research into how tourists use the Internet to choose destinations and virtually nothing on cyclists’ use of the Internet in their destination choices.

Motivation models (Moscardo et al, 1995; Weaver and Lawton, 2006) outline push factors in destination choice. However, information-gathering models do not address the extent of use of online and social networking tools (blogs, Facebook, LinkedIn, Twitter, wikis, YouTube) in influencing travel destination choice through the advice of friends or colleagues. There is little extant research about how people access online maps (e.g. Google Earth, MapMyRide) to choose their travel destinations. This is especially so for cycling tourists.

In an academic context, there has been considerable research on tourist motivation models but limited research on motivations for cycling tourists. Information needs of cycling tourists can be extrapolated from some studies (Faulks, Ritchie and Fluker, 2006; Faulks et al, 2008) but the cycle tourism sectors examined in these studies have been limited to recreational cyclists and have neglected Mountain Bikers, racing cyclists and BMX riders. Thus there is limited understanding of cycling tourist motivations and their information needs and virtually no research on the use of online technology and communication tools to discover this information. There is some Australian research (Ewing, 2008) on how different groups use the Internet but this has not been related to tourism. There is no current research on how different groups of cyclists with different demographics use these technologies to choose their travel destinations.

In a practical sense, if the information needs of cyclists are understood better, along with how different groups use technology in their information search processes, then destination managers and marketers will be better placed to meet their needs, and cyclists needs will be better served. This research investigates what cyclists expect from the Internet, social networking and cycling related websites. In particular, it explores how cyclists use online technologies and maps in their destination choice processes and their perception of content, presentation and format of these tools.

1.4 Models and Theoretical Framework

1.4.1 How do Cycling Tourists Choose their Travel Destinations?

As previously noted, there is little published research on destination choice related specifically to cycling tourism, however, there is a solid body of research on general tourism destination choice. A number of models have been developed to explore tourist choice behaviour and information search methods in the last twenty years.

Decrop (1999) has investigated the role of personality types in destination choice. Moscardo et al (1995) have examined the role of activities at destinations as drivers of destination choice. Weaver and Lawton (2006) considered the role of push and pull factors in destination choice. Mansfield (1992) pointed to risk aversion in the destination choice process. Shaw and Williams (1988) have investigated the role of image makers in search processes for information and Um and Compton (1990) have conducted extensive research based on the development of an awareness set for a destination and how this evolves to an evoked set and an eventual choice. This literature is more fully reviewed in Chapter 2, however none of these studies has considered the role of online technologies in their models, since the Internet has really only become popular information source in the last decade. The tourism literature has not addressed this topic in detail, and thus it is now appropriate to investigate the role these technologies play in destination choice and to develop or modify models to reflect this.

Motivation to travel leads a tourist to the exploration of destinations and the choice of a holiday experience and location. By matching of tourists’ preferential, evaluative and factual images, we can progress towards determining what type of holiday maker goes to what type of destination.

Moscardo et al (1995) argue that “activities are the critical link between tourist motivation and destination choice” (my emphasis, p.109). They assert “activities are critical attributes of destinations which are evaluated by travellers according to their ability to satisfy needs” (p.111) and that “previous empirical research has been almost exclusively concerned with images of destinations” (p.110). They developed and tested a model in which travel motivations are related through activity preferences to holiday destination choice. They concluded that there are consistent relationships between travel motivation and activities and between activities and features of preferred destinations. This body of work is particularly relevant to cycling tourism where activities can be described as cycle events.

Moscardo et al (1995) contend that many of the studies up to that time on market segmentation have been “destination dominant”, whilst much of the research on motivation has been traveller dominant. Figure 1.1 below presents destination choice in an integrated model. Studies since 1995 have expanded upon these concepts but in relation to this topic Moscardo’s work is seen as the most relevant and her concepts not affected significantly by the passage of time (Moscardo and Pearce, 2004; Moscardo, 2011). The model illustrated at Figure 1.1 proposes that motives and marketing feed the image of destinations where activities at the destination are a major attractor. The authors propose that the destination choice is driven largely by the perceived activities at a destination matching the tourist’s preferred activity list. They see destination managers developing and promoting their activities to market segments suited to their product. They conclude that “motives can be seen as providing travellers with expectations for activities and destinations offer the activities” (Moscardo et al, 1995, p.112). This concept melds neatly into models such as that of Weaver and Lawton (2006) where activities are significant pull factors.

Traveller/Socio-Psychological Variable

Experience Motives Lifecycle Income

Available time

Images of Destinations - activities as attributes

Marketing variables/ external inputs - Destination Choice - based on a match between perceived information about activities offered and preferred activities destinations

Destinations (offer and promote activities)

Figure 1.1 – An Activities Based Model of Destination Choice (Moscardo et al, 1995)

1.4.2 Events as Attractors for Cyclists

For cycling tourists, the application of the Moscardo model can be connected to cycling events at the destination. Cyclists in all four major segments investigated in this research travel extensively to participate in organised events ranging from national and international championships, through club competitions to Challenge Events and Big Rides. The calendars of the various cycling clubs and state cycling bodies have comprehensive lists of these events on their websites. It is thus important in the context of this research to examine the nature of some of these events and their participants in order to understand better the information needs of these cyclists and how they source that information.

Challenge Events are generally longer routes over sometimes difficult terrain with a competitive element for individuals and teams but are not races. Some of these Challenge Events over longer distances attract significant numbers of participants with Around the Bay in a Day in Victoria (200+ km) having 16,000 participants in 2010. Sydney to the Gong and Brisbane to the Gold Coast (around 100km) each attract 10,000 plus riders.

Big Rides are multiday recreational events over considerable distances with often scenic routes with organised accommodation catering and social elements together with support services such as bike repair and pick up vehicles. These events are aimed at specific needs of the various groups and have some similarities, such as using dedicated facilities, but there are also significant differences. Faulks et al (2008) have listed some of the major events in the recreational sector. Notable amongst these for the number of riders they attract are the multi day Big Rides organized by recreational cycling organisations such as Bicycle Victoria, Bicycle NSW and Bicycle Queensland. The Big Victorian ride has attracted up to 8,000 riders in recent years. A race at a velodrome is a short duration event whilst a multiday ride requires several days of effort. The information needs for potential participants in these events thus varies considerably.

Road racers at the elite/professional level travel to participate in National, State and Regional championships and there are special grades in these events for juniors and veterans as well as women and open men’s competition. These events attract hundreds of competitors and a substantial number of spectators.

The two regular big professional road events in Australia are the Tour Down Under in and around Adelaide each January and the Herald Sun Tour in Victoria held each October. These attract a significant international contingent and some thousands of spectators. In recent years, a number of complimentary events have developed around these professional races that provide racing, challenge and “fun” ride opportunities so followers can ride themselves as well as observe the stages of these major races. One-off international events such as the World Mountain Bike Trails and Championships and the World Road Racing Championships (held in Canberra, 2009, and Geelong, 2010, respectively) attract large numbers of national and international visitors.

In Mountain Biking (MTB) there are national and international competitions that attract large numbers of competitors and many spectators. There are a growing number of “challenge” events in MTB that attract large numbers of competitors and spectators. The Scott 24 Hour held in Canberra regularly attracts over 2,500 riders and 7,500 spectators or supporters. The “Highland Fling” held near Bundanoon in NSW has over 1,000 riders and the Urban Polaris in Canberra has around 700 each year (personal correspondence with event managers).

BMX has national and international competitions with large numbers of riders and spectators. It is an Olympic sport and is gaining in popularity. BMX freestylers have their annual BMX Games, a national event that is very well attended by riders and spectators.

The next section discusses how tourists, and in particular cycling tourists, search for information to meet their needs in choosing a destination for their travels.

1.4.3 Search Processes, Information Sources and the Evaluation of Alternative Destinations

Weaver and Lawton (2006) provide a valuable insight into why destination choice models are important in a practical sense. They contend that “destination marketers need to identify and understand the elements of the destination choice process” (p.203) so that they can influence potential tourists in their choice. Marketing people can have significant influence in the “pull” factors such as brochures, advertising and marketing campaigns but little influence over the “push” motivations already established in tourist perceptions of their ideal holiday. Weaver and Lawton (2006) have examined a number of different decision making flows and have described the destination selection process quite succinctly as outlined in Figure 1.2.

In this model, push factors largely drive the decision to travel whilst the pull factors drive the destination choice process. Both the decision to travel and the destination choice process are stimulated by inherent existing tourist characteristics defined by their personality, base motivations, cultural factors, gender, health, age, education, family circumstances and previous life experiences (Weaver and Lawton, 2006). Interestingly, Weaver and Lawton (2006) contend that consumers will reach a final destination choice after serious consideration of only three to five destinations although their original “awareness set” may have consisted of up to hundreds of destinations. They note also that a “final” decision can change at the last minute due to changes in push or pull factors such as an unexpected change to employment

conditions or a change of environment (for example, a natural disaster) at the chosen location. These are important factors to investigate in relation to motivations driving destination choice for cyclists and the information content of online sources addressed in this research.

1 Box A

Push factors Decision to Travel Personality Motivations Culture

Life experience 2 Gender Health

Evaluations of Education alternatives from awareness set of destinations Pull factors Information Search 3

Final destination selection

4 Modification of image Tourism

experience

Recollection and evaluation

Figure 1.2 – The Destination Selection Process from Weaver and Lawton (2006)

1.4.4 Some Conceptual Models for Cycling Tourism

For cycling tourists there are a number of push factors at work that can be related to the factors in Box A in Figure 1.2. It is suggested that these include social needs related to cycling peers’ experiences and expectations, concerns about personal safety due to road or track conditions or other road traffic, the challenge aspect of the cycling event or route, the competitive nature of a rider in relation to competitive races or events and may be influenced by advice from cycling friends about certain events or locations.

The pull factors identified by Weaver and Lawton (2006) are destination attributes which, in the case of cycling tourists, can be connected to events at a location (similar to Moscardo’s model) organised cycling tours, the cycling related facilities at a location, accessibility to the location by bicycle, transport options for support at location and the availability of cyclist friendly accommodation. The information search process is thus driven by both push and pull factors and potential travellers will then seek information that has the potential to satisfy their needs as cyclists and tourists.

Figure 1.3 below is a conceptual model that draws together Moscardo et al’s (1995) activities (events) in relation to cycling based activities, and the push and pull factors identified by Weaver and Lawton (2006). Should this model prove to be an accurate reflection of cyclists’ information needs then promoters of a certain destination would endeavour to make available the information sought by the traveller relating to these identified needs.

1.4.5 Destination Attributes for Cycling

The major pull factors investigated in this research included the role of cycling infrastructure and facilities as key attributes in destination choice. It is suggested in the conceptual model at Figure 1.3 that this infrastructure is a significant pull factor and thus potential tourists will be seeking information about this infrastructure before making a decision to travel. Thus this would be important information to include in any online information sources and is an important aspect of the research question on information content of online sources.

For recreational cyclists there has been some thoughtful work on Rail Trails in Victoria as a major tourist attraction (Willard, 2004; Beeton, 2006). This gives an indication that recreational cyclists are attracted to cycling facilities in regional areas that provide a safe and enjoyable environment for cycling with little or no interaction with motorised traffic. Thus the conceptual models proposed here (Figures 1.3 and 1.4) are tested in this research to explore if this information is important for destination choice.

Push Factors Pull Factors

Social needs Events Safety Organised tours Challenge Facilities Competitions Accessibility Advice from friends Transport Cycle club influence Accommodation

Information to Cycling Tourist Decision to travel

Events Cycle routes, surfaces and profiles Road safety Trails, MTB courses, BMX ramps Information Cycle friendly accommodation, bike about the

shops Destination Cycle transportation services, Accessibility by bike Climate/weather Experience the Destination

Feedback

Figure 1.3 - Destination Choice and Information Search Model for Cycling Tourist After Moscardo et al (1995) and Weaver and Lawton (2006)

It is suggested also that for road racers the availability and accessibility of suitable road circuits play an important role in their destination choice and the existence of dedicated criterium circuits, such as the Canberra facility at Stromlo Forest Park, are important attractors for visitors. It would appear fairly obvious that well-built dedicated track facilities (such as the Sydney Dunc Gray Velodrome) are key to attracting track racers to a locality, but how

important the quality and accessibility of these facilities are in a cyclist’s choice of destination is tested in this research.

For mountain bikers it is suggested that dedicated off road facilities, such as Stromlo Forest Park in the Australian Capital Territory and Eagle Park in Adelaide, play an important role in destination choice for downhill and cross country racers but the availability of trails suitable for cross country riding may be important also. The Canberra Region has a number of these such as Majura Pines and Sparrows on the King’s Highway near Bungendore. This research questions the users of some of these facilities about their information needs in choosing them and how far they travel to use them. For downhill “adventure” mountain bike enthusiasts, ski resorts in summer are becoming major attractions (RAW MTB Company, 2007). Whistler in Canada is a summer hotspot for mountain bikers with over 1,000 riders a day (IMBA, 2007). Thredbo in NSW is developing a similar reputation and significant patronage (RAW MTB Company, 2007), and Falls Creek in Victoria is similarly developing trails and activities to attract Mountain Bikers in summer.

The Canberra Capital Region has a range of facilities and activities related to cycling and a good mix of cyclists involved in the four distinct cycling sectors addressed in this research. Whilst not limiting the survey work exclusively to Canberra this research explores the travel habits and information needs for Canberra based cyclists travelling to other destinations, and explores visitors to the Capital Region and their reasons for travelling to this region together with the information needs and sources to make that decision. The survey work for this research has captured substantial data from cyclists around other regions in Australia.

1.4.6 Information Search and the Cycling Tourist

This research is targeted at how cycling tourists access information and use it in their destination choice. A model describing this process is presented in Figure 1.4. This model builds upon concepts developed by Moscardo et al (1995) and Weaver and Lawton (2006) and takes into account more recent Australian research by Faulks et al (2008). In accord with the need for information driven by both push and pull factors described above, the cycling tourist will thus seek the relevant information to enable a decision to travel to a particular destination. The information search in the Weaver and Lawton (2006) model could involve the more traditional information sources such as those in the box on the right in Figure 1.4 and include

maps, brochures, books, advertising materials and word of mouth from family and friends. However, in this age of the Internet and online technologies, it is contended that a large part of their search is through social networking such as blogs and wikis and most certainly will involve trawling multiple websites and online maps such as Google Earth and the use of applications (apps) developed for specific user groups. The major thrust of this research explores the content of such online sources and how different cycling groups use them in destination choice.

1.4.7 Internet Use in Destination Choice for Tourists

With the proliferation of mobile devices such as laptops and “smartphones” the Internet is now accessible virtually anywhere. Many travellers use the Internet routinely for airline and accommodation bookings and online maps are available on all these mobile devices and those linked to GPS are very powerful tools for the tourist. Because this is a very fast moving environment much of the published research in these areas is outdated. Previous research contributions by Brown and Chalmers (2003), Sigala (2004) and Frias, Rodriguez and Castaneda (2008), amongst others, examined issues such as the changing role of travel agencies in an online world, the behaviour of internet users in tourism and the use of mobile technology by tourists. Sigala (2004) expanded upon “cyberculture” and “cyberpsychology” concepts. Frias, Rodriguez and Castaneda (2008) offer some useful analysis on website design and cognitive processes in using websites. Brown and Chalmers (2003), in looking at mobile technologies, propose “good tourist technologies are not only those that make the tourist more efficient, but that also make tourism more enjoyable” (p.17).

There is a growing body of published work on online search behaviour by tourists. Luo, Feng and Cai (2004) found in their early study that “demographic characteristics of gender, and household income and situational factors of trip purpose and travel party type were significantly related to tourists’ choices of information sources” (p.15). Jang (2004) proposed that in Internet use, particularly for online purchases, tourists’ perceived risk is a significant factor and online security is a major issue for tourists. He suggested that more research was needed into travellers’ online search behaviour, online loyalty and the characteristics of repeat users.

1.4.8 Online Maps, Tourism and Cyclists

At the time of this research there was a modest body of published work on online maps for tourism. Zipf (2002) proposes that “tourist maps need to be dynamically generated to a wider range of variables from user preferences and interests, the given task, cultural aspects to communicative goals and actual context and location” (p.1). Dunlop et al (2004) confirm that, in respect to online maps for tourists, “successful tourist information systems require the availability of quality data content and a user interface allowing easy, accurate and quick access to the content” (p.2). Even now this area has not been examined in respect to cycling tourists.

1.4.9 Cycle Maps Online

One of the most exciting developments in the field of interactive online maps over the past few years has been the recognition of mainstream computer and communications companies of the power of Geographic Information Systems (GIS) technology for many applications including mobile navigation and online marketing of products and services. The most high profile and powerful of these is Google Earth which links digitised maps to digital elevation models of the earth’s surface and satellite imagery (Google, 2007). The system is free, online 24/7 and allows considerable interaction with the data and the addition of individual user’s data in a relatively simple manner.

Cyclists and cycling organisations are using Google Earth and Google Maps regularly to communicate information about cycle routes and facilities to club members and other users, many of whom are cycle tourists. The Canberra Cycling Club and the ACT Veterans’ Cycling Club, for example, both describe their race routes in this way. This research explores what mapping sites cyclists use and what information content they seek from them.

Cycling Tourist

Decision to go

Feedback

Online Friends Traditional Wikis

Maps Blogs

Facebook Guides

YouTube Brochures

Books SMS Travel to

Websites Advertising location

Word of Mouth Maps

Google Earth

Evaluate Information

Destination

Experience the location

Figure 1.4 - Information Flows for the Cycling Tourist

1.5 Research Aim

The aim of this research was to discover how cyclists in four distinct sectors of cycling tourism use the Internet, social networking tools and online maps to make their choice of destination for cycling.

The testing of destination choice models, as outlined in Figures 1.3 and 1.4 above, was a key element of the research. These models were derived from general tourism models and incorporate elements of tourist motivation, destination choice and information search modalities. This research examined if cycling tourists had any significant variations from other tourists in these domains, but the prime outcome will be an examination of new technologies in the information search and destination choice spaces.

Data collection for this research covered cyclists involved across the four sectors of recreational road cycling, road racing, recreational mountain biking and mountain biking competition. It encompassed riders who travelled purely for recreational purposes, event participants in major organized Challenge Events and competitive riding. For competitive riders, whilst the event managers chose the courses for events it was anticipated that riders would choose particular courses suited to their abilities and for this purpose they would use online data sources to decide to ride or not ride a particular course.

It was anticipated that the demographic characteristics of the various cycling groups would be quite different. An initial examination of various ACT cycling clubs (Pedal Power ACT, 2006; ACT BMX, 2007; ACT Veterans Cycling Club, 2007; Canberra Cycling Club, 2007; Canberra Off Road Cyclists, 2007) and their demographics indicated that BMX riders would most likely be in the 15-25 years age group and be predominately male. Road racers would probably be a little older (18-35 years) and with a mix of genders. Mountain bikers would probably be similar to road racers in age but probably more male involved, whereas recreational cyclists would tend to be an older group and with a mix of genders. The different demographics of the various sectors might give rise to different motivations for travel and to different use of technology in destination choice.

In exploring the use of online technology for destination choice, it was expected that website content would be a major influence in deciding where to travel. Key questions on website content were driven by cyclists’ motivations in choosing destinations. Are good cycling facilities at the location a key driver? Are major events a key driver? Is social interaction with other riders or local inhabitants important?

The prime outcome of this research was expected to be a better understanding of the use of technology in the information gathering processes of the four identified sectors of cycling tourism. The aspiration was to contribute to the knowledge domain in regards to cycling tourism, and more broadly in understanding technology and online mapping as information sources in general tourism decision making.

The academic contribution of this work relates to how new technologies may have impacted on the accepted models of information search and destination choice. Many of these models were constructed before the advent of social media and today’s extensive online conversation world. The timeline for search processes and decision making are now considerably shortened and the ability to share information with friends is enhanced through social media.

The outcome of this research has the potential to assist event managers, cycling associations and clubs, regional tourism bodies and researchers to understand better their markets and how to promote them using information and communications technology. The results of this of research may also prompt further academic research into the role of online technologies and mapping in destination choice for the wider tourism industry.

1.6 Research Questions

This research addressed three research questions.

• What is the role and influence of online technology (the internet, online maps and social networks) and associated information sources in destination choice for cycle tourists? (Research Question 1)

• What information do cyclists seek through the use of online technology to assist in making destination choices for cycling related travel and how do they want it to be presented and accessed? (Research Question 2)

• Do the different demographics of four major cycling sectors (recreational road, competitive road racing, recreational mountain bike and competitive mountain bike) give rise to different motivations for travel and thus different use of technology in destination choice? (Research Question 3)

Whilst these questions addressed specifically the role of online technology for cycling tourists answers to these questions were also expected to contribute to understanding the role of online technology and online mapping as information sources in the more general tourists’ decision- making processes.

1.7 Research Methodology and Methods

In order to address the three research questions posed it has been essential to ask cyclists about their information needs and how they want to access that information to make decisions about their proposed travel destinations. A determined effort has been made to ensure that an appropriate balance of cyclists by preferred cycling activity, age and gender has participated in the research.

This research uses a combination of data discovery, quantitative and qualitative research methods to address the research questions. McMurray, Pace and Scott (2004), Phillimore and Goodson (2004) and Dickinson and Robbins (2009) informed the choice of these methods. Data discovery has been employed to define cycling tourism sectors through websites and reports on cycling organizations and major events statistics. This established the characteristics of potential respondents to the proposed surveys. These data discovery techniques were employed for website and web mapping reviews to determine major information content of these sites so that survey questions in this regard were suitably framed.

Quantitative methods used for this research have involved a survey of the cycling tourism market. Online questionnaires were administered to participants in major cycling events

across all four major segments, especially those involved in Australian Capital Territory (ACT) based events. These surveys have been distributed to cycling club members in ACT based clubs such as ACT Veterans’ Cycling Club, Canberra Cycling Club, Canberra Off Road Cyclists (CORC), Pedal Power ACT (the recreational cycling group) and Vikings Cycling Club. The surveys were distributed through cycling groups in other States including Cycling Australia, Bicycle South Australia, Bicycle New South Wales, Bicycle Queensland and Bicycle Victoria. With over 650 respondents to the survey these groups have formed a broad sample across the four subject groups for this research.

The qualitative aspects of the research consisted of the outcomes of two focus groups with selected cyclists from different cycling backgrounds exploring some of the research questions in more depth. In addition the research has used online social networks to capture information of key relevance to the research aim.

1.7.1 Research Methodology

1.7.1.1 Data Mining

McMurray, Pace and Scott (2004) describe data mining as “the exploration of data for meaningful patterns” (p 73). In the context of this research, data mining was the first step in identifying key characteristics of the four major cycling tourism sectors to be explored for their information needs and information search patterns. Thus literature reviews and the records of cycling club memberships and cycle event statistics have been used to identify characteristics of the four sectors which in turn assisted in setting parameters for focus group composition and survey questions.

The author’s personal membership of three ACT cycling groups (Pedal Power, ACT Veterans’ Cycling Club and Canberra Cycling Club) and participation in many different cycling events over the past few years has provided in depth knowledge of the memberships and event participants and their needs, to provide more context to the research. Established contacts in some major cycling organisations in New South Wales, Queensland, Victoria and South Australia have facilitated access to information from these States. Data have been acquired for Mountain Bike events run by Canberra Off Road Cyclists and some private operators.

The other important data mining effort for this research has been extensive website searches to identify key information content and recurring themes of cycling related websites, especially those with information relative to tourism. This has helped identify key features of such sites to inform the survey questionnaire to determine their usefulness in decision choice by cycling tourists. The other aspect of this part of the research has been to identify key features and presentation techniques of online maps for cycling tourists. This data mining activity has assisted in identifying cycling facilities at certain locations so questions in surveys can be framed appropriately.

Another element of data mining in this respect has been active participation in the social networking world, especially in relation to cycling activities. The author has an active Facebook, LinkedIn and Twitter presence and monitors other sites regularly.

Part of this research has involved active participation and observation at a number of cycling events at locations away from home base. The author travels often, usually with his own bike and uses online technologies in choosing destinations for cycling.

1.7.1.2 Focus Groups

An early stage of the data collection for this research involved the facilitation of two focus groups of cyclists in the ACT region. This activity refined the survey questions to be answered in the major data collection effort - the qualitative part of this research. Group composition for these focus groups was 6-10 people of mixed gender, age and cycling interests selected from the cycling groups and recruited through non random selection using cycling blogs and bulletins used by these groups. The participants had various experiences as cycling tourists. In addition to the focus groups some informal interviews with cyclists supplemented the data collection.

1.7.1.3 The Survey

The quantitative data collection method for this research was an online questionnaire distributed across a broad cross section of the four identified cycling activities. The Survey Monkey tool (www.surveymonkey.com) was used for this purpose. Initially, the survey was

distributed to ACT cycling groups through web based communications used by these groups and then expanded to a cross section of cycling organisations across Australia. The author was a member of a number of these groups and a subscriber to the online newsletters and blogs that were used. This part of the research relied on users of the various online communication tools to volunteer to complete the survey. As the size of the total population (Australian cycling tourists) is not known some estimation of the accuracy of the results is thus inherent in this process. There is some evidence that online surveys generate higher levels of response than other survey methods (Fan and Yan, 2010; Shih and Fan, 2009) especially if they are targeted at groups with an interest in the subject matter. As the research was addressing specifically the use of Internet based information and online behaviour by cyclists, the use of an online questionnaire delivered through web-based communications to cycling groups was most appropriate. After running the survey from October 2009 to July 2010 a total of 658 responses were acquired. Analysis of the demographics and cycling interests of the respondents is included in the data analysis at Chapters 4, 5 and 6.

Figure 1.5 below is an illustration of the major parts of the data collection process for this research and shows the interaction between the different approaches to data collection. The data analysis and outcomes of the research followed the close off of the online surveys in August 2010.

Data Mining

Research Questions

Focus Groups

Online Survey Pilot Surveys

Data Analysis

Answers to Research Questions

Figure 1. 5 - Outline Research Methodology

1.8 Outline of the Thesis

This thesis has seven chapters. The title of the thesis is: “The Role of the Internet and Online Technologies in Destination Choice for Australian Cycling Tourists”.

Following is a schematic outline of these chapters:

Chapter 1: Introduction and Context for the Research Chapter 2: Literature Review Chapter 3: Research Methodology and the Approach to Data Collection Chapter 4: Data Analysis and Results Chapter 5: Cycling Websites and Maps Chapter 6: Social Networks, Blogs and Cycling Chapter 7: Outcomes, Discussion and Conclusions

1.9 Definitions

Chapter 2 addresses the development of a definition of cycle tourism in some depth but to put the research into context the definition used by the South Australian Cycle Tourism Strategy has guided this research project and is as follows:

“Cycle tourism visits are considered to be for the purpose of holidays, recreation, pleasure, or sport and to include either overnight stays or day trips to other tourism regions during which the visitor either engages in active cycling or is a spectator at a cycling event” (South Australian Tourist Commission, 2005, page 3).

This definition encompasses all major cycling sectors and includes day trips and overnight stays. Spectators are excluded in this study as active cyclists are the focus of this research. Thus the operational definition used in this study is stated in regard to cycling tourism, namely:

“Cycling tourist visits are considered to be for the purpose of holidays, recreation, pleasure, or sport and to include either overnight stays or day trips to other tourism regions during which the visitor engages in active cycling”.

This definition distinguishes cycling tourists from commuters as well as spectators.

1.10 Delimitations

This study has a number of delimitations that are identified here.

1.10.1 Geography and Activity

This research is limited to Australian cycling tourists, and whilst the topic has been addressed in an international context, the data collection has been limited specifically to Australian participants. Similarly, the research has concentrated on the participant element of cycle tourism. The spectator element has been discussed but the survey work has concentrated on active cycling travellers.

1.10.2 Survey

The online questionnaire used in this research has been distributed widely through cycling networks around Australia. As the research was based out of the Australian Capital Territory (ACT) the initial targets for the respondents were from the ACT and the Capital Region. However the questionnaire has been distributed widely through other States. Similarly, the networks used to distribute the questionnaire have been more focused on road cycling than mountain biking. Whilst the majority of the 658 respondents to the online survey were from the road and recreational sector, the survey work has captured a substantial number of

mountain bikers and racing cyclists making the data analysis and outcomes of the research relevant in these sectors.

1.10.3 Focus Groups

The focus groups convened in the early part of this research were ACT based, and participants were mostly from the road riding sector. Some mountain bikers did participate and their perspective was quite useful in finalising the survey instrument used for the major part of the data collection.

1.10.4 Timing

The online survey data collection for this research was conducted between October 2009 and July 2010. Thus the replies were relevant at the time respondents completed the survey questionnaire. In an area of fast moving technology and rapidly increasing uptake, what was the situation in mid 2010 may not necessarily be true a year later. However, given the dearth of research in this field, the results provide an important “snapshot” in time of the use and trends in the use and the growing importance of these tools.

1.11 Conclusion

This thesis explores a number of tourist motivation and destination choice models developed by tourism researchers. The internally driven push factors for individuals and externally driven pull factors of destinations have been explored in the cycling tourism context, and the role of cycling facilities and events at a destination are explored in some detail.

A mix of qualitative and quantitative methods has been used to answer three research questions. These questions were derived from the aim of the research. The research presents a conceptual model for cycle tourism behaviour. It is one of the first studies in this domain of research to provide empirical data about online behaviour in decisions about destination choice.

Chapter 2 Literature Review

2.1 Introduction

This literature review examines the published literature that defines the nature, scope and importance of cycle tourism in the overall tourism scene, with an emphasis on the literature available prior to the survey phase of the research in 2009-10. It compares different approaches to cycle tourism in the literature in order to establish a definition for cycling tourism in the context of this research. This is followed by an investigation of cycling as sport and recreation in Australia and provides an indication of the size and scope of cycle tourism. Next the review addresses destination choice models and examines how they can be applied in this specific field. Push and pull factors for cycling tourists are explored in depth, including the role of events and cycling facilities in these models. The review links these models to search processes and the information needs of cycling tourists. This leads to an examination of the role of online sources and technologies in these processes. The review concludes with a discussion of the two conceptual models presented in Chapter 1 (Figures 1.3 and 1. 4) for destination choice and information search applied to cycling tourism and information flows for cycling tourists. These models are tested through the data gathering and analysis phase of this research.

2.2 Cycle Tourism – its Scope and Size

Cycle tourism is a multifaceted phenomenon and crosses into a number of tourism domains. The connecting element of cycle tourists is that they ride their bicycles (generally two-wheeled and human powered) at their chosen tourist destination and have specific needs and interests as cyclists and tourists that should be considered by tourism managers and operators.

2.2.1 Defining Cycle Tourism

The tourism related literature has proposed many differing definitions of cycle tourism. These definitions come from a variety of cultural contexts. Lamont (2009b) has underscored the need

30 for clarity in the definition of cycle tourism to facilitate “more rigorous and consistent statistical measurements regarding this form of tourism” (p. 5).

Some time ago, Ritchie (1998) proposed that a cycle tourist is: “a person who is away from their home town or country for a period not less than one night, for the purpose of a vacation or holiday, and for whom using a bicycle as a mode of transport during this time away is an integral part of their holiday or vacation. This vacation may be independently organized or part of a commercial tour and may include the use of transport support services and any type of formal and/or informal accommodation” (p. 568).

Simonsen, Jorgensen and Robbins (1998) suggested that: “a cycling tourist is a person of any nationality who at some stage or other during his or her holiday use a bicycle as a mode of transport, and to whom cycling is an important part of this holiday” (p.21, original emphasis).

A year later, Sustrans (1999) defined bicycle tourism as: “recreational visits, either overnight or day visits away from home, which involve leisure cycling as a fundamental and significant part of the visit” (p. 1).

As with Sustrans, the Munda Biddi Trail Foundation (quoted in Faulks, Ritchie and Fluker, 2007) removes the necessity of an overnight stay in its definition of cycle tourism. The Foundation regards cycle tourism as: “a recreational visit, either overnight or a day away from home, which involves cycling as a significant part of the visit” (p.9).

Like Lamont (2009b), Faulks, Ritchie and Fluker (2007) have provided a very helpful discussion of cycle tourism definitions. Their definition in repect to cycling tourists outlines tourism segmentation according to either motivations or activity. They base their defined classifications on activity and include touring cyclists, community cycling events, competitions and mountain

31 biking.

A recurring theme in these definitions is that cycling for tourism purposes is described as a means of transport and often placed in a recreational context. The cycle ownership data outlined below and a small but significant body of published research (Fix and Loomis, 1997: Green, 2003; Bull, 2006; Cycle Tourism Australia, 2006) provide some evidence that many tourists using bicycles are competitive cyclists (road and track), off road (MTB), BMX and adventure cyclists. For example the challenge cycle event Around the Bay in a Day in Victoria has attracted some 16,000 riders a year for the past 4-5 years (Bicycle Victoria, 2007) a large percentage of whom were from outside Melbourne. In 2010, the Scott 24 MTB challenge in the ACT attracted over 2,500 riders of whom over 50% were from outside the ACT (Canberra Off Road Cyclists, 2007).

Bull (2006) researched racing cyclists in the United Kingdom and contests the “recreational” only classifications of cycle tourism. He proposes the specific inclusion of “cycle racing and activity tourism involving mountain biking” (p. 262) in the definition of cycle tourism. He argues strongly that they are “tourists using cycles” (p.263). His study is a landmark investigation. It challenges and extends the previous European approaches to cycle tourism.

In Victoria, a success story in this sector is the Murray to the Mountains Rail Trail and associated regional developments aimed at the cycle tourist market. The expanded definition used in their cycle tourism strategy (Rural City of Wangaratta, 2008) resonates with the Sustrans’ approach (1999) (see also, Weed and Bull, 2009). This expanded definition distinguishes Cycling Holidays and Holiday Cyclists as follows:

Cycling Holidays – Holidays by domestic and overseas visitors, where cycling is the main purpose of the holidays. Cycling holidays can be either self guided or organized by a cycling holiday operator.

Holiday Cyclists – People undertake cycling while on a holiday; consists of day rides taken while on holidays and will be one of a number of activities undertaken during the holiday.

This definition is important in understanding data collected on cycling tourists by Tourism Australia. Their data identifies visitors who listed cycling as an activity undertaken during their trip, thus they are “holiday cyclists”. This differentiation can help business operators understand to whom they are marketing and what cycling experience or product they are providing.

More recently Lamont (2009a) has proposed an expanded definition of cycle tourism: “Cycle tourism trips are those trips involving a minimum distance of 40 kilometres from a person’s home and an overnight stay (for overnight trips), or trips involving a minimum non-cycling round trip component of 50 kilometres and a minimum four hour period away from home (for day trips) of which cycling, involving active participation or passive observation, for holiday, recreation, leisure and/or competition, is the main purpose for that trip. Participation in cycling may include attendance at events organised for commercial gain and/or charity (competitive and non-competitive), as well as independently organised cycling.”

The State of South Australia has been a leader in Australia in the development of strategies and actions to encourage cycle tourism. The South Australian Government developed a Cycle Tourism Strategy for 2005-9 (South Australian Tourist Commission, 2005) and implemented it. The biggest annual “cycling festival” in Australia is undoubtedly the Tour Down Under that is built around a professional, international stage road race over a week each January but incorporates many other cycling activities through the week attracting many thousands of participants and spectators (South Australian Tourist Commission, 2010).

Bicycle SA runs a number of major events and tours that attract tourists to the State and there are significant Mountain Bike and BMX events and facilities in the State, with Flinders Ranges promoted strongly as an MTB destination(Southern Flinders Ranges Development Board 2008). They have the Riesling Rail Trail in the Clare Valley too. This has not happened by accident as the South Australian Government has funded a number of studies and has a well developed strategy for cycle tourism. Thus the South Australian Cycle Tourism Strategy definition (South Australian Tourist Commission, 2005) is worthy of note:

This definition has been acknowledged and adopted by Weed and Bull (2009) in their discussion of cycle tourism (p 275). This thesis will be guided by this definition as it encompasses all major cycling sectors and includes day trips and overnight travels.

There is one caveat in the use of this definition. Spectators are excluded, as active cyclists are the focus of this research. Throughout the research reported here the term ‘cycling tourist’ is used to distinguish active cyclists from spectators at cycling events. The operational definition that informs this thesis is: “Cycling tourist visits are considered to be for the purpose of holidays, recreation, pleasure, or sport and to include either overnight stays or day trips to other tourism regions during which the visitor engages in active cycling”.

This definition distinguishes cycling tourists from commuters as well as spectators.

2.2.2 Elements of Cycle Tourism

Whilst much of the research into cycle tourism has identified recreational cycling as the main activity within this field, Weed and Bull (2009) proposed that mountain biking, club cycling, organised cycle rides, sponsored charity rides, schools/youth group cycling and cycle racing are important elements of sports tourism. Their book on sports tourism devotes a whole chapter to a discussion about the role of cycle tourism within sports tourism. Hinch and Higham (2004) have identified cycling as an element of active sports tourism (pp. 38, 43, 111).

In attempting to scope the major elements of cycle tourism in Australia, it is useful to look at the membership of cycling clubs or organizations as the members of these clubs are active cyclists and in all likelihood travel to participate in their chosen cycling activity. From these numbers it

34 could be surmised that recreational cycling has the largest number of participants. Bicycle Victoria, which runs events largely for recreational cyclists, has over 40,000 members. Bicycle NSW and Bicycle Queensland each have over 7000 members (Bicycle Federation of Australia, 2008). However the numbers involved in mountain bike (MTB) and road racing are significant. Across Australia there are some 4,500 members of MTB clubs (Mountain Bike Australia (MTBA), 2006). For road racing the membership statistics of Cycling Australia and affiliated clubs details some 12,500 members across Australia with 184 affiliated clubs (Cycling Australia, 2005).

The major cycling sectors in Australia, based broadly on the number of participants are: • Recreational cycling; • Road and track racing; • Mountain Biking: and, • BMX freestyle and racing;

There are a number of smaller niche sectors covering novelty events, vintage cycles, recumbents, and small wheels. Whilst these are interesting activities, the number of participants is relatively small so they are not considered as a part of this study.

2.2.3 How Big is Cycling?

In 2009, Australians purchased over 1.17 million bicycles. This was the tenth consecutive year in which Australians have bought more bicycles than cars. In the seven years to 2010, Australians purchased a total of 16.15 million bicycles compared to 7.25 million cars (Cycling Promotion Fund, 2006; Cycling Promotion Fund, 2010). The Cycling Promotion Fund (2013) estimates that 4 million Australians ride a bike regularly. The Fund notes too that 1.4 million bicycles were imported into Australia in the 2012-2013 financial year.

Bicycle sales’ statistics in Australia are collected by the Retail Cycle Traders Association. Data collated by Bradshaw (2006) indicated that across Australia around 70% of bikes sold were mountain bikes with about 11% road bikes and 18% hybrid/comfort bikes. The report did not identify BMX sales. Since these data were reported there has been a trend towards more comfort

35 or commuting style bicycles with “retro” style bikes becoming very popular in the major cities. Because the average price of mountain bikes sold is around $530 compared to road bikes at $2,200 it is likely many people buy mountain bikes as a cheaper option but do not use them off road as mountain bikes.

Cycling is the fourth most popular physical activity for adults in Australia and remains more popular than golf and tennis (Australian Sports Commission, 2010). Table 2.1 below summarises the data collected by the Sports Commission by physical activity for 2009. This data is for people over 14 year of age and excludes triathlon participants.

Activity Number of Participants Participation Rate (%) Walking 6,215,000 36.1 Aerobics/fitness 3,913,400 22.9 Swimming 2,419,100 14.1 Cycling 1,901,300 11.1 Running 1,893,700 11.0

Table 2.1 - Participation rates in top five physical activities 2009 (Australian Sports Commission, 2010)

In 2009, 1.9 million adults participated regularly in cycling. This is an increase of 463,000 people (32%) since 2001. A significant contributor to this increase has been the number of women taking up cycling with 145,000 more women riding in 2008 compared to 2007. The largest growth is happening in the age group of 35 to 44 years which has seen an increase of 88,000 people cycling from 2007 to 2008 (Australian Sports Commission, 2010). It is interesting to note the male/female differences in cycling participation and also the differences by State across Australia. Table 2.2 below summarises the data for cycling by State and Gender for 2009.

State/ Males Females Total Territory Number of % of Number of % of Number of % of Participants Population Participants Population Participants Population ACT 30,500 22.4 15,900 11.4 46,400 16.8 NSW 240,000 14.1 101,000 3.6 500,000 9.0 Qld 240,000 14.1 124,000 7.2 364,000 10.8 SA 87,000 13.7 37,000 5.7 124,000 9.6 Tas 25,000 12.7 10,000 5.1 35,000 8.9 Vic 363,000 17.2 188,000 8.6 551,000 12.8 WA 161,000 18.6 89,600 10.4 250,600 14.5

Table 2.2 – Participation rates in cycling by gender and State/Territory for 2009 (Australian Sports Commission, 2010)

It is interesting to note that the ACT leads the nation in cycling participation rates, with nearly 50,000 active cyclists. In addition, the Region’s major tourism market in NSW has over 500,000 active cyclists, Victoria has 551,000 and Queensland another 364,000.

In understanding the potential of the cycle tourism market it is thus important to note that:

• A significant proportion of the Australian population own bicycles – 16 million bicycles have been purchased since 2000; • Over 1.9 million Australians used bicycles regularly in 2009; • Around 10% of the Australian population use their bicycles at least once a week; • The Australian Capital Territory leads the nation in bicycle use (16.8%). • There are over 1 million active cyclists in NSW and Victoria combined.

It is important to note that these data do refer to all cyclists and it is acknowledged that care must be taken in using these data to discuss cycle tourism and cycling tourism.

2.2.4 Cycling Events and Tourism

It is well recognised that special events are key tourism attractors and cycling events of many types are genuine tourism attractors (Brown and Hutton, 2013; Berridge, 2012). The Tour Down Under, now in its eleventh year in Adelaide, attracted a total of 770,500 spectators over the period 17-24 January 2010. There were 39,700 event specific visitors from interstate and overseas with an estimated $41.5 economic impact for Adelaide (South Australian Tourist Commission, 2010). Jamieson (2012) has extended the discussion of the benefits of the Tour Down Under in his exploration of the social capital arising from the Tour.

Some “challenge” events around Australia that also attract large numbers of riders and tourists include Around the Bay in a Day, Melbourne (16,000 participants), Sydney to Gong (Wollongong) (10,000), Tour Down Under Community Ride (8,000), and Brisbane to Gold Coast (8,000).

A study by Lamont, Axelsen and Faulks (2008), of the Alpine Classic held annually in Bright, Victoria, determined the direct economic impact on the region from just over 2,000 participants was $814,176 with total impact including non-participant visitors to the event estimated at $1.5 million.

At the World Mountain Bike Championships held in Canberra in September 2009, there were: • 11,789 paying spectators • An estimated 45,000 day visits to Stromlo Forest Park (the venue) • 685 competitors, 1000+ accredited officials, support teams and media • 38% were locals, 55% traveled from interstate, and 6% were international visitors

The measured direct visitor spend was $4.032m with an estimated economic impact on the ACT economy of $7.992m (ACT Government, 2010).

One round of the Mountain Bike World Cup held in Canberra in 2008 attracted over 4,000 visitors with an economic impact of $867,560 (Faulks and Mules 2008). Moruya on the NSW south coast hosted the National Masters Cycling Championships in 2009 and 2010 with an estimated 1,200 visitors and an economic impact of over $300,000 in the region over one weekend (Eurobodalla Cyclist Club, 2009). In announcing the agreement to hold the National Road Cycling Championships, the City of Ballarat (2009) estimated an economic impact of $4 million per year for six years.

The World Road Race Championships were held in Geelong, Victoria in late September 2010. Haynes (2010) notes that for this major international event: • There were 350,000 spectators over 5 days; • 200,000 people attended on the Sunday (for the men’s elite road race); • There was an estimated TV audience of 300 million worldwide; • 1,500 riders paid $165 each to “Ride the Worlds” before the professional cyclists took to the course.

At the conclusion of the event, Pat McQuaid, the President of the cycling world governing body, UCI was quoted: “The best series in at least 15 years…This really puts Geelong on the World map… We now know there is a huge appetite for cycling here” (Hayes, 2010).

In delivering cycling events and activities, the number of organisations involved in cycling provides an infrastructure of people, mostly volunteers, who are passionate about what they do. According to a 2009 survey by the Cycling Promotion Fund there were 1,115 cycling organisations around Australia with 185 local cycling organisations providing 8,154 cycling activities in 2009 which attracted more than 45,000 participants (Cycling Promotion Fund, 2009).

Whilst being a member of a cycling organization or participating in an organized event does not equate to being a tourist, many of these participants will travel and stay over for such activities and thus these data underscore that organised cycling events are an important factor in researching cycle tourism.

2.2.5 Other Cycle Tourism Research

In the past few years a number of reports and papers have been published in Australia on various aspects of cycle tourism. Much of this research has concentrated on recreational cycling using road or hybrid type bicycles. Faulks, Ritchie and Fluker (2007) investigated the scope and size of cycle tourism in Australia. They did examine some major “challenge” events and identified some financial, social and environmental benefits of cycle tourism, however they did not address in any detail the tourism aspects of major cycling events or independent travel by mountain bikers, competitive road cyclists or BMX riders.

Faulks and her colleagues (2008) looked at aspects of cycle tourism from the perspective of destination marketing for South Australia. Their report, based on surveys of cycle tourists, makes some very useful observations with respect to destination development for cycle tourism. In relation to events, 18% of the respondents travelled specifically to participate in cycling events. The average length of the cycling holidays was 13.4 days and 63% of their holiday was cycling related. The report made comparisons between on road and off road (mountain bike) activities, with 50% involved in independent on road cycling compared to 37% for off road. Of the respondents, 30% participated in an on road event, whilst off road events attracted only 9%. The report identifies five segments of cycle tourism with characteristics related to socio- demographics, cycling holiday behaviours, preferred destination attributes and perceptions of South Australia as a cycle tourism destination. These data provide insights for those planning to develop a cycle tourism market sector.

Lamont (2008; 2009a; 2009b) has extended our knowledge and perspective on cycle tourism in Australia. In his 2009 PhD thesis and other associated publications, Lamont has proposed a new definition of cycle tourism, which includes day trips and the full range of cycling sectors. His research looked at independent cycle tourists (basically recreational road riders) but some of his findings are relevant to this study. He surveyed over 380 cycle tourists and found that the major factors in destination choice for these cycle tourists were quiet (minimal traffic) roads, appealing scenery, wide road shoulders, trails that separate road traffic from cyclists and cycle friendly accommodation. These factors correlate closely with these cyclists’ needs for map content with

40 dangerous roads identified, location of segregated routes shown and accommodation locations rating highly as information needs from maps (Lamont, 2009a). These are classic “pull” factors in the tourism motivation models.

In her PhD thesis, Faulks (2010) examined motivations of cyclists participating in “Big Rides” around Australia. These are multi day events that move through a region and attract significant numbers of riders. The Big Victorian ride in 2007 had 3,500 participants, with the Big Queensland ride having over 1,000 in the same year. The NSW version of this event (with around 1,000 riders) has visited the Capital region in recent years with the rest day in Queanbeyan in 2006 generating significant income for that city, and the previous year an overnight in Bungendore had a significant input to the local economy. Of note for these events is the demographic profile of riders, with 64% of riders being males and 67% of riders being over 44 years of age. The Capital Region does not have any similar events at present but in formulating future plans the motivations of riders in these events should be noted. According to the Faulks’ (2010) study, the major motivators for these events are the personal and physical challenge, the desire for fitness and health outcomes, a desire to relax and escape and to have fun with other similar minded people. These factors relate closely to the “push” factors of tourism motivations models.

Rail Trails in parts of Australia are seen as important elements of cycle tourism. An early study of the Clare Riesling Rail Trail in South Australia in 2004, estimated that there were 12,000 cycling visitors on the trail in 2003 and that they spent on average $80 per day with a direct impact on the local economy of some $1.08m in that year (Southern Flinders Ranges Development Board, 2008). Other Rail Trail studies have been conducted on the Murray to the Mountains Rail Trail in Victoria. Beeton (2003; 2006; 2009) has completed three studies of users of this facility and provides demographic profiles of users, their accommodation preferences and spending patterns. These studies have concentrated on the economic impacts of the facilities as tourism attractors, although they do report usage rates for their short study periods. The 2009 expenditure figure for the Murray to the Mountains trail was $244 per day per visitor. This may be a little higher than other regions as the food and beverage element is quite high, possibly due to the proximity of a number of wineries to the trail in a recognised wine

41 tourism area. Willard (2004), in his study of the Murray to the Mountains Region, looked at businesses and the impact of cycle tourists. He surveyed 45 businesses in the Region and found that 65% of these businesses had experienced a positive impact on their business from cycle tourists. The businesses impacted most positively were accommodation (35%), food outlets (39%) and alcoholic beverages (20%) and convenience goods at 12%.

Lamont (2009a) has identified competitive cycling events as significant from a tourism perspective, whilst a number of authors have identified mountain biking as a significant sector of cycle tourism (IMBA, 2007; Faulks and Mules, 2008), however to date there have been no definitive studies in this sector.

From the existing studies, bicycle sales statistics, cycling club memberships and recent cycling event statistics it is apparent that the two major cycling activities in Australia are on road cycling and mountain biking (MTB). For the purpose of this thesis, these two major cycling activities are considered as key elements of the cycling tourism market. For each of these two groups, the study explores both recreational cycling (independent or groups) and competitive cycling, making four distinct market sub-segments to be investigated:

1. Competitive road cycling events, including “challenge” events, and training activity associated with these; 2. Competitive mountain bike events; 3. Recreational road cycling including the use of dedicated or shared cycle paths; 4. Recreational mountain biking – primarily off road.

It could also be argued that cycling tourism includes events that incorporate cycling as a major part of the activity such as triathlons and adventure challenges with cycling involved. These groups travel with their bikes with a prime motivation of participating in cycling activity at their chosen destination. Similarly BMX riders and accompanying persons, both racing and freestyle, could be considered as cycling tourists, but as these are smaller niches than road and MTB riding they are not explored in this research.

2.3 Tourist Motivation, Destination Choice and Cycling Tourists

In conducting research into tourism related topics, it is important to understand the various approaches into what motivates tourists to travel, why they choose certain destinations and, for the purpose of this particular study, how these motivators and destination choices are applied by cycling tourists. According to Mansfield (1992), an analysis of tourist motivation can “provide tour operators, tourism planners and other tourism related organisations with a better understanding of the real expectations, needs and goals of tourists” (p. 401).

An excellent synopsis as to why tourist motivation studies are important has been provided by Shaw and Williams (1988). They postulated that those responsible for driving tourism initiatives would want to: • Influence tourist’s decisions; • Target their promotion and marketing efforts by the identification of market segments; • Understand the impacts of tourism on destinations; • Apply the understandings to tourism planning.

In the context of this research, which investigates cycling tourism and the use of online technologies, a better understanding of tourists’ motivation and their choice of destinations will allow better informed design of websites and their information content and how to approach social media in this context. It could facilitate better design and tailoring of cycling events to meet participant’s expectations. In addition an understanding of tourists’ information needs and their preferred methods of acquiring this information will assist in further studies on tourists’ use of the internet, online maps and social media to make decisions about cycling destination choices and related activities.

2.3.1 Defining What is a Tourist

In all tourism studies it is essential that researchers are clear as to what defines the “tourist” that they are studying. Over the past twenty years there has been much discussion in the literature as what defines a tourist, as explored further here.

An ‘official’ definition by the World Tourism Organisation (Cohen, 1984) describes tourists as “temporary visitors staying at least 24 hours in the country visited and the purpose of whose journey can be classified under one of the following headings: • Leisure (recreation, holiday, health, study, religion and sport); or • Business (family mission, meeting).” (p. 374)

This definition is suitable for international tourists but is less useful in defining domestic tourists, and it ignores the significant importance of day trippers as tourists. Day visitors spend money in most tourism industries other than accommodation.

A very simple definition by the International Union of Tourism Organisations (IUOTO) states that a tourist is: “Any person visiting a country, region or place other than that in which he or she has their usual place of residence”(Williams 1998) (p.4). This definition bridges the international and domestic divide and does not distinguish between business and leisure travellers.

Przeclawski (1993) proposed a more complex definition of tourism: “Tourism, in its broad sense, is the sum of phenomena pertaining to spatial mobility, connected with a voluntary, temporary change of place, rhythm of life and environment and involving contact with the visited environment (natural, cultural or social)”.(p.9) Whilst this is broader than the IUOTO definition, Williams (1998) expanded on this by describing the key concepts of tourism as follows: • Tourism involves travel but relocation is temporary (less than 1 year); • Motivations come from several sources but generally encompass pleasure motives but can also embrace business, education, health or religion; • Tourism inevitably involves accessing “tourism” based industries and infrastructure related to transportation, accommodation, entertainment and attractions; and, • The main purpose of travel does NOT involve remuneration in the location visited.

A combination of Przeclawski’s and William’s definitions offers a fairly complete definition of “tourism”. Williams has encapsulated the most important elements of tourism, but Przeclawski’s change in “rhythm of life” and contact with the visited environments are important additions.

Thus, in the context of this research, cycling tourists fit with William’s concepts that their travel is a temporary relocation (often by bicycle), they do it for pleasure, and they access “tourism” based industries and infrastructure related to transportation (roads and paths) and accommodation. Przeclawski’s spatial mobility criterion is met by cyclists on their bikes with a continuous change of place as they ride. They enjoy close up and personal contact with the visited environment, more so than many other tourists.

2.3.2 Connection between Tourism, Recreation and Leisure

Williams (1998) proposed that “a significant portion of tourism activity takes place in the leisure time/space framework” (p.4) but also centres on recreational activity and experiences. Leisure being “free” time and recreation is activity undertaken in free time. There is common ground in the motivations for leisure and recreation and tourism. Motivations include the attraction of destinations, events, social contacts, exploration and the factors facilitating the tourist activity namely discretionary income, mobility, knowledge of the opportunities and the rewards (pleasure, experience, knowledge or memories). Graburn (1983) placed tourism very firmly in the recreation field, or as he puts it “re-creation - the renewal of life, the recharging of run down elements – so necessary for the maintenance of mental and bodily health.”(p.11)

Cycling tourists fit well with these concepts. A cyclist may be a commuter in their home environment, but a change of scene to new destinations, or the exploration of different environments, can transform their regular activity into a new set of experiences, in a different location as a tourist.

2.3.3 Definition of Tourism as an Industry

Williams (1998) also noted that tourism is not an industry in the conventional sense. An industry is normally defined as “a group of companies engaged in the manufacture or production of a product or service”. Tourism has many products and services, many intangible, and companies provide the same product or service to local inhabitants. Thus any approaches that treat tourism as “an industry” need to be sensitive to this important distinction. Beeton (2006b) explored in

45 detail the community dimensions of the tourism industry, noting the direct and indirect effects of the tourism spend in those communities.

In a cycling context, a trail used by local inhabitants for daily travel becomes a tourism experience for visitors. Bicycle repair shops, that service local needs, become an important support service for a travelling cyclist. A regional train service that connects localities for business or work becomes an important link to transport rider and bike over longer distances from region to region.

2.3.4 Scoping Tourism as an Area of Research

In studying specific areas within the “tourism” sphere, it is important to consider the scope of tourism research that encompasses a range of established academic disciplines (geography, economics, business and marketing, sociology, psychology, anthropology and history) each with contrasts in perspective and emphasis (Przeclawski, 1993). Such disciplines offer opportunities for multi-disciplinary and interdisciplinary approaches to research. Cohen (1984), amongst others, has suggested that “modern tourism is an ecological, economic and political system that is complex”(p.374). It is proposed here that this complexity does lend itself to interdisciplinary study. This seems particularly the case with niche sectors in the tourism industry (Robinson and Novelli, 2005).

In her discussion of community development through tourism, Beeton (2006b) explored the epistemological foundations of research into tourism. She notes the role Jafar Jafari played in articulating a knowledge-based approach to the study of tourism. This thesis is informed by this approach and affirms with Beeton that research into tourism combines theory and practical experience “in order to further improve the quality of life for people in various communities as well as enhance the visitor experience” (2006b, p. 16).

Beeton (2006b) included a discussion of chaos and complexity in her review of tourism theory. Her suggestion that “the essence of complex, life-like systems such as tourism lies not in viewing them in a top-down manner, but from the bottom up” (p. 43) resonates with the focus on social

46 media in this thesis. “Disruptive technologies” (Bower and Christensen, 1995) have energised bottom-up creativity and have facilitated new kinds of engagement with tourism. In the context of this research, the social aspects of tourism now incorporate the use of social media. There is a new context to consider. Opportunities to share travel experiences with this new technology is transforming our understanding of tourism (Leung et al, 2013; Munar and Jacobsen, 2013; Scaglione, Schegg and Trabichet, 2013; Urry and Larsen, 2011; Xiang and Gretzel, 2010). The “complex and global nature” of social media is now a firmly established part of tourism experiences (Chabot, 2007).

2.4 Tourist motivation

Tourist motivation and information search are key factors leading to the choice of travel destination. This research is focussed on destination choice by cyclists as tourists using online technology. One of the fundamental factors leading to destination choice is motivation for travel. Do cyclists have specific or different motivations for travel compared to other tourists? The following literature review investigates this aspect of tourism and leads to a discussion on information search and destination choice and has lead to the development of two models on destination choice and information flows for cycling tourists to be tested in this research.

A number of authors have explored tourist motivation from several perspectives over the past twenty years. According to Shaw and Williams (1994), measuring motivation is extremely problematical and little in the way of common understanding has emerged. In the view of Pearce (1995), motivation theory needs to be flexible enough to incorporate individual changes across an individual’s lifespan and to consider broad cultural forces on tourist motivation. Individuals will change their travel preferences as they move through a family career and life cycle. The interplay of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation is important to understand individual motivation. Intrinsic motivators drive behaviour conducted for its own sake whereas extrinsic behaviour is driven by the prospect of external rewards with some authors distinguishing between expressive and instrumental drives.

In looking at motivation models and theory it is important to recognize that motives (reasons) for travel are not the same as motivations. In seeking to explore motivations we need to explore the

47 needs, desires and personal goals for travel.

In Pearce’s (1995) view, it is important to recognize that tourism demand is not the equivalent of tourist motivation. He proposes that demand is the sum of motivation plus marketing, where destination features and contingency factors such as money, health and time relating to the traveller’s choice are involved, whereas motivation by itself does not encompass marketing efforts by destination promoters. This said, obviously marketing plays a critical role in providing information about destinations and attractions to inform tourists in making their choices for travel.

Shaw and Williams (1994) postulated that tourist motivation is driven by “a sociological need to move away from the work-home environment”(p.77). They identified two extremes in potential tourists’ personal circumstances:

• Those with a high degree of stimulation at work and seek to escape stimulation whilst on holidays; • Those with low levels of stimulation at work – seek greater novelty and stimulation on holiday.

According to Pearce (1995), tourist motivation is “ discretionary, episodic, future oriented, dynamic, socially influenced and evolving”(p.114). He has proposed a definition that describes tourist motivation as “the global integrating network of biological and cultural forces which gives value and direction to travel choices, behaviour and experience”(p.116). Pearce intimates that “travel motivation has been described as a travel bug, an itch, lust (wanderlust, sunlust) a herd instinct, the flocking of the masses, a spiritual re-birth, escape, enhancement, desire and finally, consummation”(p.118).

2.4.1 Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

One of the classic areas of motivation theory often quoted in tourism studies is Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs which comes from clinical psychology origins (Maslow, 1959; Page and Connell, 2006; Beeton, 2006b). It combines biological and social motives and involves a

48 dynamic element where people can change their motivation over time or in different situations. Maslow developed five categories of need for individuals moving from higher to lower in order of importance and graduated satisfaction:

• Physiological needs; hunger, thirst, rest, sex, activity; • Safety needs; freedom from threat, fear anxiety, feeling secure; • Belonging and love (social) needs; receiving and giving affection; friendships; • Esteem needs; self esteem, esteem for others, self confidence, reputation, prestige; • Self actualization needs; personal self fulfillment.

A number of analysts have used Maslow’s hierarchy of needs as a basis for the development of tourist typologies which are described in the section on tourist typologies in section 2.4.4 below.

Despite the difficulties in identifying common understandings of tourist motivation several prominent authors have developed motivation models based on their specialist disciplines or particular areas of research. Williams (1998) identifies three types of motivation theory in tourism based upon analysis of: • personal characteristics of the tourist themselves - the push/pull of motivations to leave their current environment and attract them to another. • tourist behavior patterns. • personal characteristics.

One of the analyses based on the personal characteristics of tourists was presented by Page (1999). This analysis identified the following elements:

• A desire to escape a mundane environment; • The pursuit of relaxation and recuperation function; • An opportunity for play; • The strengthening of family bonds; • Prestige or social enhancement; • Social interaction; • Educational opportunities;

• Wish fulfillment; • Shopping.

For cyclists, there are some specific aspects of Maslow’s hierarchy of needs that are worthy of comment. Cyclists are active people generally who seek out leisure or recreational pursuits that involve being out on their bikes. Often they ride in circumstances that place them at risk from other traffic on roads, and thus safety needs are of key concern. One aspect of their activity is often socialisation with like-minded people either by riding together or after rides. Personal self- fulfilment is part of cyclists’ psychological makeup with the challenge of completing a particular ride or distance often driving them. If they live in cities, the enjoyment of escaping a mundane environment by heading “out of town” and into environmentally attractive areas on their bikes is often a strong motivation. Wish fulfilment can be a motivator also, such as riding a stage of the Tour De France to emulate what the best cyclists can do, even if at a slower pace. In this context, Beeton (2006b) points out that whilst there is criticism of the application of Maslow’s hierarchy to tourism, “when considered in terms of travel and tourism, such a hierarchy does explain, to some extent, the continued success of guided tours” (p. 36).

2.4.2 The Push and Pull Factor Motivation Model

The desire to understand tourist motivation has stimulated considerable debate in the tourism literature. In the 1970s, Plog (1974), Dann (1977) and Crompton (1979) facilitated discussion of push and pull factors in tourism choices. Iso-Ahola (1980; 1982) extended this debate. Iso- Ahola’s (1980) model is often quoted as an example of the exploration of intrinsic motivation within a framework of optimal arousal and incongruity. Individuals seek different levels of stimulation but they share the need to avoid boredom but eschew over stimulation and mentally exhausting settings. The principles of Iso-Ahola’s model are illustrated in Figure 2.1 below.

Tip of the iceberg: Why do you participate in leisure activity style questions?

Social environment Leisure trends

Perceived

Situation influences freedom and competence Levels of causality of leisure Social environmentbehaviour Need for optimal arousal and incongruity

Biological dispositions, early socialisation and personality factors

Situational influences

Figure 2.1 - Iso-Ahola’s intrinsic motivation/optimal arousal approach to motivation (after Pearce 1995)

Iso Ahola proposed that leisure needs change during the lifespan and across places, situations and social company. He suggested that spontaneous and stable needs could be differentiated as well as needs identified a priori (before travel) as distinct from a posteriori (after travel). Most importantly he proposed that attention paid to self determination and competence feelings whilst at leisure will ensure a feeling of satisfaction for the tourist.

Later, a push and pull model was described in Uysal and Jurowski (1994). They propose that people travel because they are pushed into making this decision by internal forces and pulled by the external forces of the destination attributes. Push factors are intrinsic motivators such as the desire for escape, rest and relaxation, prestige, health and fitness, adventure and social interaction. Pull factors emerge from the attractiveness of a destination and include tangibles such as beaches, recreation facilities, and cultural attractions but also include intangibles such as travellers’ perceptions and expectations such as novelty, benefits expected and marketing images.

Uysal and Jurowski (1994) analysed 26 push factors against 29 pull factors with groups of four determinants emerging for each of the pull and push factors. Two examples of outcomes from their research were:

• Rural areas and small towns should focus on the escape motivation and can succeed with limited activities and inexpensive hospitality products.

• Sport motivations have a strong relationship with entertainment and resort destinations and the nature/outdoor groupings but have little connection with historic/cultural destinations or attractions.

They concluded that “simultaneous examination of destination attributes and tourist motivations would be useful in designing promotional programs and in destination development planning”(p.846).

One of the key issues in applying push and pull factors in any practical scenario is that little attention is paid to any cross cultural comparisons in this model, which is the focus of the work of Pearce(1996)

2.4.3 Social Situation Analysis

Pearce (1996) described another twist on the analysis of tourist behaviour by proposing the analysis of behaviour using seven key features of social situational analysis is useful in looking at the interaction between tourists and their hosts or tourists and the people servicing their needs (e.g. guides). He proposed that this analysis is particularly useful in looking at cross cultural issues, especially looking at Asian tourists in Australia or Australian tourists in Asia. The seven key features he proposed were:

• The travel goals of the participants; • The environmental setting for their experience; • The understanding of the situation people bring to the setting; • Roles and rules of behavior; • The language used; • The behavior possible in the setting; and, • The sequences of behavior which takes place in the interaction.

Whilst a number of these could be seen as push factors (individual goals, environmental leanings, intrinsic behaviours) they could also be seen as pull factors (attractive environmental features, familiar languages).

2.4.4 Tourist Behaviour Patterns (Typologies)

2.4.4.1 An Anthropology Approach

This approach emphasises the role of ritual, play and pilgrimage in tourism. Graburn (1983) advocated strongly that tourism is a ritual or “rite of passage” type of activity particularly when it involves prolonged absences in remote or different environments. He saw tourism of this type as “self testing, wherein the individuals prove to themselves that they can make life changes and maybe new status in life”. He regarded the recreational type of tourism (sun, surf, sand, sex and sport) as a ritual expression of deeply held views about health, freedom, nature, and self- improvement. Cycling tourists fall very clearly into the latter category.

2.4.4.2 A Sociological Approach to Tourism

This approach places considerable emphasis on the push factors influencing individuals and their travel choices. Cohen (1972) devised four types of tourist traveller:

• Organised mass tourist; highly organized and little contact with host community; • Individual mass tourist; Uses similar facilities as 1 but desires to visit additional sites; “alone together!”; • The explorers; travel independently and want to experience the social and cultural lifestyle of the destination; • The drifter; avoids other tourists and seeks to live in the host community.

Decrop (1999) used an interpretivist approach in his study. He identified age, family situation, socio-economic status and occupation as key factors in the decision making patterns of tourists and he defined “decision making units (DMU)” (people) in four types, namely :

• Singles - people who make decisions and travel alone; • Couples – in a man-woman relationship; • Families with children; • Groups of friends.

Another study aimed at classifying tourists in a sociological way was conducted for American Express in 1989 and is quoted in Shaw and Williams (1994). The researchers surveyed 6,500 respondents from the USA, UK, Germany and Japan and came up with a classification in five types: • Adventurers – who seek new experiences, different cultures and activities; • Worriers – who are mostly domestic tourists, older and do not travel very far; • Dreamers – who are relaxation oriented but attach great importance to the meaning of travel experiences; • Economists – who travel mostly for relaxation rather than experience; and, • Indulgers – who travel often and tend to use resorts and hotels.

In considering cyclists in relation to these sociological parameters, some cyclists who participate in group tours or compete in events may fall into the “individual mass tourist” category, however they are more likely to be explorers who travel independently on their bikes and do want to experience the social and cultural lifestyle of different destinations. They are more likely to be adventurers and dreamers than indulgers.

2.4.4.3 Plog’s Psychocentrics and Allocentrics

Plog (1974; 1987) quoted in Pearce (1995) has gained a high profile in the tourism literature. He proposed a normal distribution curve between psychocentrics (self inhibited, nervous, non adventurous) and allocentrics (variety seeking, adventurous and confident) with mid centrics in the middle (largest number) under the bell curve (see Figure 2.2 below taken from (Pearce, 1995)). Plog’s work showed that in 1974 psychocentrics preferred familiar destinations, had low activity levels, preferred to drive rather than fly, enjoyed familiar atmospheres and liked packaged tours. At the other end of the scale allocentrics preferred less developed tourist areas, they liked novel destinations and cultures, they preferred independent travel arrangements and were more likely to fly to their destination. Plog’s theory proposes that allocentrics are the “first wave” of tourists in a progressive development of destinations. They vary in their information acquisition - Psychocentrics are heavy TV watchers, allocentrics are more print media inclined. Income levels are not significant, except at extremes of scale. (Allocenrics high, psychocentrics low).

Near Near psychocentrics Mid Allocentrics Centrics

Psychocentrics Allocentrics

Figure 2.2 - US Population distribution by psychographic type Plog (1974; 1987) from Pearce (1995)

These typologies derived from sociological and psycho-sociological theory do have some validity in categorising tourists into general groups with some common characteristics, however they have limited application in defining market sectors. The idea that a tourist “belongs” to one sector in all circumstances is contestable as people do change through their life cycle. Financial and family circumstances, for example, lead to variations in travel preferences.

2.4.4.4 Other Typologies Based on Tourist Behaviour

Przeclawski (1993) added to the plethora of tourist behaviour models by proposing ten classes of distinct behaviour by tourists, namely: • Cognitive tourism – discovering nature, past cultures, contemporary cultures, other people or oneself; • Tourism for recreation and entertainment; • Tourism for health treatment; • Creative tourism for one’s own creative work or for the benefit of the population visited; • Educational tourism; • Professional tourism – business , congresses and conferences; • Pilgrimage; • Family reasons; • Sex; and, • Profit making tourism.

In relation to cycling tourists, the nature enjoyment, recreational activity and health benefits in this classification have some resonance.

2.4.5 Travel Career Model – the Leisure Ladder

The five motivational levels in Pearce’s travel career ladder are aligned closely to Maslow’s Heirarchy of Needs (described earlier in this chapter) but expand considerably upon them. The five motivational levels used by Pearce (1995) are: • Relaxation/bodily needs - a concern with biological needs; • Stimulation - safety and security needs; • Relationship – personal relationship development and “fun” with others; • Self esteem and self development; • Fulfillment or self actualisation.

People can start at different levels and change levels during their lifecycle and can be prevented from moving by money, health or other people. The model is outlined below in relation to theme park visitors in a domestic tourism setting at Figure 2.3.

This model relates well to the subjects of this research. Active cyclists have demonstrated they have a concern with biological needs.(Faulks, 2010). They certainly have safety and security needs (Lamont 2009a) and they generally value personal relationship development and “fun” with others (Faulks, 2010). They are often focussed on self development and fulfillment.

Higher level motives include lower level motives. One motive at a People tend to Fulfilment time tends to be dominant. ascend the ladder as People in this group are Lower level motives have they become older, concerned with feeling peaceful, profoundly to be satisfied or more experienced in happy, magical, experienced before higher theme park settings transported to another level steps on the ladder world, spiritual, totally involved in the setting come into play.

Self esteem and development People in this group are concerned to develop their skills, knowledge, abilities. They are concerned with how others see them and want to be competent, in control respected and productive

Relationship People in this category are seeking to build and extend their personal relationships. They may emphasise tenderness and affection, joint fun, joint activity, altuism- enjoying events through others as well as being directly involved. People here emphasise the creation of a shared history of good times.

Stimulation People in this group are concerned with the management of their arousal levels. They want to be safe but not bored, excited but not terrified. They emphasize the fun and thrill of rides, the experience of the unusual, out of the ordinary settings, different foods and people. The positive side of this level is to heighten or increase one’s stimulation and arousal. The negative side is to avoid dangerous or threatening situations

Relaxation/Bodily needs People in this group are involved in restoration, personal maintenance and repair. Thye emphasize basic services (ffod, space, toilets) and enjoy a sense of escape and the lack of demands on them

Figure 2.3 - The leisure ladder for theme park settings (domestic visitors) (Pearce 1995)

2.4.6 Tourist Roles and Destinations

Another approach to the travel behaviour model looks at the roles tourists play in their travel activity and links different types of tourist to certain types of destination. An example of this is in the work of Foo, McGuiggan and Yiannakis (2004) who defined fifteen types of leisure traveller which are described in Table 2.3 below:

Sun lover Interested in relaxing and sunbathing in warm places with lots of sun, sand and ocean Action seeker Mostly interested in partying, going to nightclubs and meeting the opposite sex for uncomplicated romantic experiences Anthropologist Mostly interested in meeting local people, trying the food and speaking the language Archaeologist Mostly interested in archaeological sites and ruins; enjoys studying the history of ancient civilisations Organised mass tourist Mostly interested in organised vacations , package tours, taking pictures and buying lots of souvenirs. Thrill Seeker Interested in risky, exhilarating activities which provide emotional highs, such as sky diving Explorer Prefers adventure travel , exploring out of the way places and enjoys challenges involved getting there Jetsetter Vacations in elite world class resorts, goes to exclusive nightclubs and socialises with celebrities Seeker Seeker of spiritual and/or personal knowledge to better understand self and meaning of life Independent mass Visits regular tourist attractions but makes own travel arrangements and often “plays it tourist by ear” High class tourist Travels first class, stays in the best hotels, goes to shows and dines at the best restaurants Drifter Drifts from place to place living a hippie style existence Escapist Enjoys taking it easy and getting away form it all in quiet and peaceful places Sport tourist Primary emphasis while on vacation is to remain active, engaging in favourite sports Educational tourist Particpates in planned study programmes or education-oriented vacations, primarily for study and/or acquiring new skills and knowledge

Table 2.3 - Types of Leisure Traveller - Foo, McGuiggan and Yiannakis (2004)

2.4.7 Lifecycle Stages and Tourism

A key factor in determining tourist behaviour is related to lifecycle stages. Most people move through some fairly common stages which have considerable bearing on their capacity to travel and their preferences for destinations. Table 2.4 below taken from Page and Connell (2006) has a list of eight common stages stretching from early childhood through to retirees. As society changes some new significant classes can emerge, so these models need to be frequently re- assessed. For example, the table lists single parents but not mixed families and does not recognise gay couples which are now probably a significant sector of the tourism market.

Stage Characteristics Tourism behaviour 1. Early Entirely dependent on parent or guardian Seeking seaside or inland resorts with childhood Classic sea and sand holidays. entertainment facilities for children.

2. Early teenager More influence on decision making process Resort based holidays with nightlife. Also youth but still dependent on parent. hostels and semi-independent activity holidays. Group based holidays. 3. Young person Young, single, not living at home. Holiday taking dependent on time and resources, therefore wide ranging – “sunlust’ to activities. High on adventure, backpacking and experiences. 4. Partnership Couples living together with busier Wide ranging, more short breaks to fit in with stage lifestyles. Time is a major barrier to travel. dual careers. 5. Family stage - Includes single parent or separated partners. Key interest in main holidays, or visiting friends early Financial and school constraints are key or relatives (VFR) at other times. factors. Seeking family centric holidays. 6. Family stage - Still major constraints regarding education. Mix of holidays and children seeking semi- late Holiday taking patterns breaking up. independence. 7. Empty nest Children leave home and parent or parents Wide ranging but higher prosperity to take more have increased freedom and spending expensive explorer holidays and second breaks. power. 8. Retired One person or partners retired; income fixed Continued search for quality. As age increases but time available. seeking more passive holidays. Old age no longer a barrier to travel.

Table 2.4 - The family lifecycle (European/North American model) (Page 2006)

2.4.8 Ritual Inversions

In studying tourist behaviour another useful approach is to look at what Graburn (1983) described as “ritual inversions”, where “normal” behaviour is held in abeyance or even reversed whilst on holiday. The Table 2.5 below from Page and Connell (2006) summarises some of the key features of this behaviour. Dimension Continua Behaviour pattern Environment Winter v summer Tourists escape cooler latitudes in favour of warmer places. Cold v warmth Urban people may seek the solitude of rural or remote places. Crowds v isolation Historic sites attract tourists who live in modern environments. Modern v ancient Familiarity of the home replaced by the difference of a Home v foreign “foreign” environment. Lifestyle Thrift v indulgence Expenditure increased on special events or purchases. Affluence v simplicity Experiences selected to contrast routine of work with rewards Work v leisure of leisure. Formality Rigid v flexible Routines of normal timekeeping, dress codes and social Formal v informal behaviours replaced by contrasting patterns and practice based Restriction v licence on flexibility and informality. Health Gluttony v diet Tourists indulge through increased consumption. Relaxation Stress v tranquillity sought as relief from routine stresses. Active holidays chosen as Sloth v exercise alternative to sedentary patterns in daily lives. Health spas and Age v rejuvenation exercise used to counteract processes of ageing.

Table 2.5 - Examples of Inversion in Tourism - Page and Connell (2006) This Table has omitted a few of Graburn’s original inversions which are worth adding for completeness of his concept. These additional dimensions are outlined in Table 2.6 below: Dimension Continua Behaviour pattern Civilisation Urbanisation v Nature Popular beaches or wilderness Security v Risk Safe location v adventure tourism Fast pace v slow pace Challenge or low demand activity Secular v sacred Resort style or pilgrimage Health Isolation v sociability Individual treks, seeking new friends or visiting friends and relatives

Table 2.6 - Graburn’s original inversions

2.4.9 Motivation Theory – is it Useful?

Many typological models assume tourists belong to one type or another and remain there for their lifespan. This is less than useful in making marketing or development decisions (Shaw and Williams, 1988), however they are useful in that they:

• Highlight the broad diversity of tourists, their demands and consumption; • They provide insights into motivations and behavior; • Allow exploration of the relationships between tourist consumption and the socio-cultural fabric of destinations.

An understanding of tourist motivations is particularly useful for designing marketing materials and campaigns and in the development and planning of destinations and events. In the case of destination choice by cycling tourists, motivations for travel play a key role. Are cyclists different than other active recreational, leisure or sports tourists? Are their needs and interest sufficiently unique to deserve special attention?

Part of this research into online behaviour of cycle tourists has involved the investigation of cycling blogs and social media conversations about cycling. In Chapter 6 a summary of a particular LinkedIn discussion thread on “Why do you cycle?” is reported, which helps to illustrate that cyclists may have some specific ideas and needs that impact on their travel behaviour and information needs.

2.5 Destination Choice Models

The motivation to travel leads the tourist to the exploration of destinations and the choice of a holiday experience and location. By matching the preferential, evaluative and factual images of tourists we can progress towards determining what type of holiday maker goes to what type of destination.

Weaver and Lawton (2006) give a valuable insight into why destination choice models are important in a practical sense. They contend that “destination marketers need to identify and understand the elements of the destination choice process” (p.173) so that they can influence potential tourists in their choice. Marketing people can have significant influence in the “pull” factors such as brochures, advertising and marketing campaigns but little influence over the “push” motivations already established in tourist perceptions of their ideal holiday.

Decrop (1999) identified character traits and personality types as a major factor in the holiday destination choice. He contrasts personality types and their likely destination choices. He defines travellers as: • Emotional or rational; the emotional are characterised by impulsiveness, are adventurous by nature, and are likely to improvise, whereas rationals are more deliberate and plan in detail. • Active or passive; the active “cannot stay still” and prefer touring. They will seek out challenging activities while the passive are the “resort” type of holiday maker often returning to the same location. • Adventurous or careful; the adventurous seldom book in advance and are always searching for new locations and experiences where as the careful avoid “dangerous” locations that may have political or sanitary/health issues.

Decrop (1999) proposes that personality types strongly influence aspects of decision making such as planning, information search, choice criteria, heuristics, decision timing and brand loyalty. Their normal “home” interests and activities will also have a strong influence on their holiday choices such as being in a choir (music, singing), sports involvement (as a participant or spectator) or hobbies like photography. Decrop contends that previous holiday experience is a key factor in future travel decisions including the number of trips previously undertaken and the experiences already enjoyed at varied destinations. Decrop distinguishes between “brand loyalists” and “variety seekers”. Brand loyalists tend to travel to the same location, at the same time of year and use the same type of accommodation whereas variety seekers already have had extensive travel experience and will be continually seeking new experiences. He contends that “experience strengthens involvement and causes an upward shift of the expectation level in both quantity and quality”.

Moscardo et al (1995) have identified the relationship between research areas relevant to the understanding of destination choice for tourists. This is shown diagrammatically in Figure 2.4 below. They identify travel motivation theory as a key area of understanding as well as market segmentation studies and research on the attractions located at destinations. In this rather simplistic model, motivation, together with images and information about destinations drive the tourists’ choices.

Destination Choice Models

Research derived from models The destination choice process Development Destination Images of The The traveller of images choice destinations destination

Travel motivation Destination theories and image/attraction research research

Market segmentation research

Figure 2.4 - A model of the relationships between research areas relevant to understanding the destination choice process. Moscardo et al (1995)

2.5.1 Activities and Destinations

Moscardo et al (1995) argue ‘that activities are the critical link between tourist motivation and destination choice”. In describing a concept of place taken from environmental science (Canter, 1977) they identify three major components that play an important role in the development of a concept or mental image of a potential tourist destination. These components are:

• The physical environment or setting; • The activities people engage in; • Their perceptions of the place what it means for them.

They claim “activities are critical attributes of destinations which are evaluated by travellers according to their ability to satisfy needs” and that “previous empirical research has been almost exclusively concerned with images of destinations” (p.109). Thus they have developed and tested a model in which travel motivations are related through activity preferences to holiday destination choice and have concluded that there are consistent relationships between travel motivation and activities and between activities and features of preferred destinations.

Hallman and Bruer (2010), in their study of the choice of destinations and sports events in Germany, concluded that “the sport event image proved to be stronger than the destination image” (p.234). The events they studied included a triathlon with cycling content as part of the event. They have suggested that “the event image can be used as a mediator in communications to strengthen the destination image” (p.234). and that, for tourism outcomes, “the event can be associated with landmarks and special attractions within the destination.” (p.234).

Moscardo et al (1995) contend that many of the studies on market segmentation prior to their paper have been “destination dominant” whilst much of the research on motivation has been traveller dominant. The diagram presented in Chapter 1 at Figure 1.1 ( reproduced below) endeavours to address all the relevant issues connected to destination choice in an integrated model.

Traveller/Socio-Psychological variable Experience Motives Lifecycle Income Available time etc

Images of Destinations -activities as attributes

Marketing variables/ external inputs - Destination Choice information about Based on a match between perceived activities offered

destinations and preferred activities

Destinations (offer and promote activities)

Figure 1.1 (reproduced from Chapter 1) – An Activities Based Model of Destination Choice Moscardo et al (1995)

Moscardo et al (1995) saw that motives and marketing images both feed the image of destinations where activities at the destination are a major attractor. Interestingly, they propose in

66 this model that the destination choice is largely driven by the perceived activities at a destination to match the tourists preferred activity list. Feeding into this process they see destination managers developing and promoting their activities to market segments suited to their product. They conclude that: “Motives can be seen as providing travellers with expectations for activities and destinations offer the activities”(p.112).

In relation to cycling tourism, it is postulated that cycling events, either competitive racing or “challenge” events, are a significant factor in destination choice for active sports tourists. Kaplanidou and Gibson, (2010) in a recent US based study of participants in the US Seniors Games, describe active event sports tourism as “ participatory sports-related travel associated with event participation”(p.164). Their study looked at the inter-relationship between satisfaction, attitudes, destination image and past behaviour/experience. Cycling is one event within the Seniors’ Games in the USA. Their study showed “the importance of positive attitude formation about the event participation based on the satisfaction with the event and the overall image perceptions of the destination hosting the event”(p.172). Destination image was a lesser influence on participation and intentions to return to this event. Not surprisingly this led them to state “event organisers can influence attitudes through the provision of services that meet and exceed the expectations of participants”(p.174).

2.5.2 Search Processes and Evaluation of Alternative Destinations

According to Shaw, Agarwal and Bull (2000), search processes are influenced strongly by media images of destinations. Tourists start with an image of their ideal holiday generated from their travel motives which then drive “their expectations setting and aspiration level or evaluative image against which actual holiday opportunities are compared”(p.272). The images of destinations are driven by formal media sources but are informed also through recommendations by friends. In one study quoted by Shaw and his colleagues up to 30% of information in the UK was derived from these informal peer group sources.

Mansfield (1992) looked in detail at tourist motivation and actual decisions made about destinations and identified risk aversion as a key factor in the decision making process. He

67 proposes that tourists wish to “minimise the risk of making a wrong decision”(p.408) and classifies the risks that tourist wish to minimise as related to:

• Time – travelers usually have a limited amount of free time per year in which they can travel and they do not want to “waste” this scarce resource; • Money – most travelers have limited financial resources and have often saved specifically for the “big trip”; • Expectations and desires are raised in relation to travel and disappointment results when these are not met; • Social stress can result from a wrong choice for those who travel primarily for social reasons and for “status” within their social reference group; • Health – those with health restrictions or fear of poor health support at destinations can be driven by these factors in choosing a destination.

Weaver and Lawton (2006) have examined a number of different decision making flows and have described the destination selection process quite succinctly. Figure 1.2 from Chapter 1 describes this process (reproduced below).

In this model Push factors largely drive the decision to travel whilst the Pull factors drive the destination choice process. Both the decision to travel and the destination choice process are driven by inherent existing tourist characteristics defined by their personality, base motivations, cultural factors, gender, health, age, education, family circumstances and previous life experiences. Interestingly, Weaver and Lawton (2006) contend that consumers will reach a final destination choice after serious consideration of only three to five destinations although their original “awareness set” may have consisted of up to hundreds of destinations. They note too that a “final” decision can change at the last minute due to changes in push or pull factors such as an unexpected change to employment conditions or a change of environment (e.g. a natural disaster) at the chosen location.

Box A

Personality Push factors Decision to Travel Motivations Culture Life

experience 2 Gender Health

Evaluations of Education alternatives form awareness set of destinations Pull Information Search 3

Final destination selection

4 Modification of

image Tourism experience

Recollection and evaluation

Figure 1.2 ( Reproduced from Chapter 1) – The destination selection process from Weaver and Lawton (2006)

On the other hand, Um and Crompton (1990) previously developed a quite complex model of attitude determinants in destination choice in their landmark paper. They have contended that “image and attitude dimensions of a place as a travel destination are likely to be critical elements in the destination choice process irrespective of whether or not they are true representations of

69 what that place has to offer”(p.433). They suggest that “destination choice should be conceptualised as being a function of the interaction between pragmatic constraints (such as time money and skills) and destination images”(p.433). Their model, illustrated in Figure 2.5 below, integrates five processes as flows of information and decision making processes, namely:

• The formation of subjective beliefs about a destination as a passive or incidental process (an awareness set); • A decision to make a trip including consideration of constraints; • The evolution of an “evoked set” of destinations; • The formation of subjective beliefs about destinations by active solicitation of information; • Selection of a specific destination for the trip.

External inputs in the model are seen as the sum of social interactions and exposure to marketing communications in the form of stimuli. Significance stimuli result from actual visitations, symbolic stimuli are derived from marketing images in the promotional efforts of destination promoters and social stimuli come from other people relating their views on destinations often from personal experience.

Internal inputs in the model are derived from the socio psychological set of the potential traveller including lifestyle, personality and situational factors giving rise to motives, values and attitudes.

The three cognitive constructs that evolve from these processes are the awareness set, the evoked set and the destination selection. The awareness set are the group of destinations under consideration before any decision processes have commenced (“all the preferred destinations of your dreams”). The evoked set is derived from the process of considering constraints and active information seeking to “shortlist” preferred destinations, leading eventually to a final choice.

COGNITIVE EXTERNAL CONSTRAINTS INTERNAL INPUTS INPUTS 1. Belief formation Awareness set (Passive Information Social Stimuli Caching) Display 2. Initiation of Psychological Set choice Significance (consideration Personal Symbols 3. Evolution of of Situational characteristics Social an Evoked Set Constraints) Motives stimuli Values Attitudes 4. Belief formation Evoked set (Active Information Searching)

5. Destination Selection

Travel destination

Figure 2.5 - A Model of the Pleasure Travel Destination Choice Process - Um and Crompton (1990)

Another aspect of destination choice for tourists and tourism marketers is the length of stay at a destination, which is an indicator of total expenditure on a trip. Generally, the longer the visitor stays in a locality, the greater the expenditure. In relation to cycle tourism a recent study by Downward, Lumsdon and Weston (2009) of recreational cyclists using the North East Cycle Network in the UK, found that income levels of participants, the size of the group they are travelling with and the duration of the trip are key determinants of expenditure. This in turn was

71 linked to a preference by the cyclists involved for longer journeys. In an Australian context, the South Australian Tourist Commission (Southern Flinders Ranges Development Board, 2008), has published research that shows interstate cycle tourists to South Australia on average spend 7.5 days at their cycling destination, which is generally longer than the average tourist.

2.5.3 Summary of Destination Choice Models

Many authors have looked at destination choice models in tourism over the past twenty years, including Decrop (1999) who investigated the role of personality types in destination choice and Moscardo et al (1995) who investigated extensively the role of activities at destinations as drivers of destination choice. In addition Weaver and Lawton (2006) examined the role of push and pull factors in destination choice, whereas Mansfield (1992) established the role of risk aversion in the choice process. Further Shaw and Williams (1998) investigated the role of image makers in search processes for information, and Um and Compton (1990) conducted extensive research based on the development of an awareness set for destinations and how this evolves to an evoked set and an eventual choice. The task at hand now is to relate these theories of motivation and models of destination choice to cycle tourism and in particular the use of the internet and online maps in this process.

2.5.4 Application to Cycling Tourism

According to Shaw, Agarwal and Bull (2000), images of destinations are driven by formal media sources but are informed by friends’ recommendations too. In the cycling world, formal media sources largely relate to cycling magazines and other print media, with the ever- increasing emphasis now on online sources such as cycling or travel websites, whilst social media conversations now complement the face-to-face discussions in a coffee shop after a group ride.

Weaver and Lawton (2006) showed that push factors drive substantially the decision to travel whilst the pull factors drive the destination choice process. For cyclists their inherent interest in certain cycling pursuits and a desire for safe cycling are potentially strong push factors, whilst

72 facilities for cycling, events and support services at a destination can be strong influences in choosing a destination.

The external inputs, in the Um and Crompton (1990) model, are seen as the sum of social interactions and exposure to marketing communications in the form of stimuli. Marketing images of cycling destinations in brochures and websites may be a significant factor in destination choice for cyclists. Social stimuli that come from other people relating their views on destinations, ever increasingly from social media interactions and cycling blogs, are also emerging as important factors in making destination choice decisions for cycling tourists.

This research has taken these models and theories in the literature and applied them to cycling tourism. Two models derived from the above, but with specific emphasis on cycling activity, facilities and information needs, have been developed and tested. The motivations for cyclists to ride at a particular destination have been investigated and the information gathering processes and tools used by cycling tourists are explored.

2.6 Online technologies and information gathering for cycle tourists

2.6.1 Internet Use in Destination Choice for Tourists

The use of the internet pervades our lives. With the proliferation of mobile devices such as netbook and laptop computers, “smart” mobile telephones, portable GPS navigation devices and more recently the Apple iPad and other tablets, coupled with the rapid expansion of mobile broadband communications, the internet is now accessible virtually anywhere. Many travellers use the internet routinely for airline and accommodation bookings and online maps are available on all these mobile devices. When the maps are linked to GPS they become very powerful tools for the tourist. Because this is a very fast moving environment much of the published research in these areas is already outdated. There has been some useful research studies (Brown and Chalmers, 2003; Sigala, 2004; Chabot, 2007; and Frias, Rodriguez and Castaneda, 2008) that have examined issues such as the changing role of travel agencies in an online world, the behaviour of internet users in tourism and the use of mobile technology by tourists. Sigala

(2004) expands upon concepts such as “cyberculture” and “cyberpsychology”. Frias, Rodriguez and Castaneda (2008) offer some useful analysis on website design and cognitive processes in using websites. Brown and Chalmers (2003), in looking at mobile technologies, propose that “good tourist technologies are not only those that make the tourist more efficient, but that also make tourism more enjoyable” (p.17). Chabot (2007) has explored the characteristics of advances in web technology related to to “Tourism 2.0”, a derivation from the internet and web version 2.0.

There is a growing body of published work on online search behaviour by tourists. Luo et al (2004) found in their study that “demographic characteristics of gender, and household income and situational factors of trip purpose and travel party type were significantly related to tourists’ choices of information sources” (p.15), but somewhat surprisingly there was “no difference in tourist information source preference among people with different demographics of age, education or occupation” (p.22). Jang (2004) proposed that in internet use, particularly for online purchases, tourists’ perceived risk is a significant factor and online security is a major issue for tourists. He proposed that more research was needed into travellers’ online attitude and search behaviour and online loyalty and the characteristics of repeat users are significant areas for more research.

In contrast to the above some more recent research into tourism planning still seems to ignore online technology in the information search process. Hyde (2008) developed a set of four types of tourists based on their approach to planning and travel and, whilst he alludes to alternative information sources, his research has concentrated on the use of travel agents and the use of guidebooks and discussions with friends, ignoring the online world.

An early study into internet use by cyclists was a Masters’ study from the USA (Stone, 2002). This was based on a web log analysis of the USA Cycling website in 2002 and aimed, in part, to examine how USA cycling users went about gathering information and what information was important to them. Unfortunately, apart from some information about search engine and software use, neither of these aims were achieved in the report. The results showed US users were

74 interested equally in mountain biking and road racing information from this website and the main information they sought was membership and racing licence forms. There is no analysis of events actually entered or how users accessed event or destination information.

As some aspects of cycling tourism such as challenge events and much mountain biking can be classed as adventure travel, some research by Sung (2004) in the USA into adventure travellers’ decision making is of note. Whilst this work was carried out in 2003 the reported use by this sub- group of tourists of the internet as a primary source of information was quite low at 21% across the 1,000 subjects of her survey, particularly as her subjects were mostly in the 19-34 age bracket and in managerial positions with higher education levels. By contrast, a Canadian study (Kah, Vogt and MacKay, 2008) surveyed 732 tourists across three technology adopter profiles of Innovators (14%), Early Adopters (60%) and Late Adopters (26%) with an average of 96% across this spectrum reporting the use of the internet for their travel plans. The first two classes reported 98% usage whilst the later adopters were at a high 90%. Accommodation information was the most sought after at 89% with event information at 63%.

Internet search patterns in tourism across international boundaries has been explored in work by Lee, Soutar and Daly (2007) who investigated the use of the internet across six countries and four decision making stages in travel planning. They found that across six countries (USA, UK, NZ, Germany, South Korea and China) the use of the internet as a source for travel information was consistently about 70% with a low of 69% in South Korea and a high of 75% in the UK. Airlines flight information and accommodation options were by far the most sought information. A study from Austria (Zins, 2007) used a travel panel approach in which data was captured from some 1,413 travel plans examined in the process. This European perspective outlines a much lower use of online technology from the respondents than other similar work, such as Cox et al (2008). Overall internet use as a prime source in travel information gathering was only 41% for all respondents with the visitation of destination websites was at 36% of all respondents. Another interesting aspect of this research was that of all internet users only 6% used the internet exclusively as a source, but only 8% of those surveyed made travel decisions without recourse to the internet.

In an Australian context, Ewing,Thomas and Schiessl (2008) investigated internet use by Australians. They surveyed 1,000 Australian householders for their project. They found that 73% of Australians had used the internet in the past three months and that four out of five home connections were broadband but four out of ten Australians do not have broadband access at home. One in five Australians (in 2007) had never used the internet. This research found that for internet users it is now their most important source of information. 70% rated its use for information gathering as important or very important compared to 33% for television and less than 50% for newspapers. Two interesting aspects of this research were that younger Australians were regular users with 95% of 18-24 year olds regular users compared to only 30% of those over 64, and that education level is another key factor with those with tertiary qualifications having 90% uptake whilst those with basic education are at the 48% level of usage. Another important element of this research was that over 70% of internet users were experienced users having been “online” for more than five years. Of the respondents to this survey 38 % indicated that their contact with people with similar interests (hobbies/recreation) had increased through internet use. Just over 30% sought sports information at least weekly and 66% made travel bookings online, with 50% buying event tickets online. This research presented in Chapters 4 of this research examines a number of these questions in relation to cycle tourism.

Two years later another study into internet use in Australia was carried out by Sensis (2009). Figure 2.6 below summaries the use of the internet in Australia in two tables from their report. They reported: “Some 90 per cent of Australian households reported having a computer of some description in 2009, a rise of one percentage point over the past year. Some 78 per cent had a desktop computer (up four percentage points), with notebook ownership currently at 50 per cent (up one percentage point)”(p.18). The report explores connectivity of households stating “In terms of internet connections, some 85 per cent of households were internet-enabled (up one percentage point in the past year),……..some 13 per cent of households had a dial-up internet connection (down from 16 per cent). While there was a marginal fall in the proportion of households with a standard broadband connection to 59 per cent (down one percentage point), this was countered by a three percentage point increase in the proportion of households with a wireless broadband connection, at 31 per cent” (p.18).

It was reported (Sensis, 2009) that there is still some evidence of a “digital divide”, with only 73 per cent of Australians with a household income of up to $35,000 connected to the internet, compared to 99 per cent of households with an income of more than $85,000, this has lessened in the past year, with an increase of 12 percentage points in the proportion of this lower income group who are now connected.

The groups most likely to report below average usage were those aged 65 and above and retirees. For those Australians 65 years and above only 60 per cent reported accessing the internet in the past 12 months. This has actually declined by one percentage point in the past year”(Sensis, 2009) (p.18).

Figure 2.6 – Internet Use in Australia 2009 (Sensis 2009)

Another important investigation into internet use in Australia, particularly in a tourism context, is a report by the Cooperative Research Centre (CRC) for Sustainable Tourism (Cox et al, 2008). This report looked specifically at Web 2.0 use in tourism marketing and in particular websites with user generated content (UGC). It included an investigation of thirty tourism related websites with UGC and a survey of over 12,000 users was carried out in December 2007. In the context

78 of this research, UGC websites included those with interactive content including blogs, wikis, podcasts and social networks. An important finding of this research was that 95% of internet users relied on information from the web as part of their travel information search. They found that for consumers who sought travel information online the ten key sub decisions about a proposed trip were:

• travel partners, • the destination, • expenditure required, • activities, • travel dates, • attractions to visit, • transportation providers, • length of trip, • rest stops, • food stops.

In looking at the profile of the respondents to their survey, there was an even spread across all age groups with around 10% in each of the five year age brackets between 20 and 69 years. 61% were female and over 87% had broadband access. Of the respondents 78% sought information from UGC sites on travel destinations and 77% sought information on accommodation options. The stages of information search when these users used the internet provide an excellent insight for tourism operators, in that 28% sought accommodation options after having already chosen a destination, 22% used the sites to narrow down destination options and 21% used the sites in the initial search for ideas on where to travel. In relation to the use of online maps, 81% of users considered online street directories as important and 63% thought online maps or imagery were important. Considering that Google Maps was a rather immature technology at the time of this research this is an interesting observation to the importance of access to maps in tourism decision making.

2.6.2 Online maps, tourism and cyclists

Mapping for tourism has been investigated by many researchers over the last few decades, although research into map content and accessibility related to specific tourism sectors is rather scarce. Black and Pearce (1994) investigated the key characteristics of tourist map functions and forms and found, that across a sample of some 4,389 Australian tourist maps, there were two major map functions for maps aimed at tourists. These two classes are:

• The conventional wayfinding function • Modified wayfinding maps, with considerable additional marketing and advertising content.

Brown and Perry (2002) in their paper on maps and guidebooks for tourism look closely at place and space in relation to mapping representations for tourists. They found that “the guidebook and map present the user with spatial information that needs to be put together with local placial information to guide (tourist) activity”.(p.8) They identify the needs of users for “formalised spatial abstractions” applied in a local setting. In simple cartographic terms this means a set of map specifications for production and standardised symbolisation for key map features. Interestingly (for a 2002 paper) these authors foresaw a scenario where electronic messaging by email or text messaging could introduce interactive assistance with the mapping of places – an insight to User Generated Content, as it is now described.

Other authors active in investigating mapping for tourism over the past decade include Hanna and Del Casino (2003). They define tourism maps as representing “spaces and identities as inter- related processes rather than final products”(p.23). They contend that these tourism maps permit us to “understand the spaces and identities of tourism in ways not fully circumscribed by a map’s production context and purpose”(p.23). Topographic maps have long been multi purpose maps with many varied and often unexpected applications, but in today’s online world the creators of Google Maps have followed the lead of topographic mappers of the past and produced a multi purpose map. In creating these online maps with height information in grid form they would probably have never envisaged that cyclists would use this information to study the vertical profiles of their routes before riding or racing over them.

A book on Mapping Tourism (Hanna and Del Casino 2003) includes five papers on different examples of mapping for tourism. They describe a tourism map as “ a particular way of socially and spatially organising places of consumption for tourists and non tourists alike”(p.xi). These maps allow tourist to” find their way to and through tourism spaces where they experience the culture, the nature or the leisure practices represented on the map”. They suggest that maps “reproduce people’s knowledge about their worlds”. In the case of cycle tourism these “leisure practices” could include cycling events and the knowledge of the cycling world could include cycling infrastructure or riding routes. They warn of the danger that mapmakers operate “in a tunnel created by their own technologies without reference to the social world”. As we have moved into online mapping and a user generated content world for maps over the past few years, this statement seems to be now somewhat dated.

Pontikakis and Twaroch (2006) is an unexpected source for insights into tourism mapping, but the authors have outlined very succinctly the map needs of tourists in three travel distinct phases of travel planning and execution. Firstly they contend that the two main questions a tourist would address to a tourism web portal are: • Where can I perform an activity? • What types of activity are supported by a certain area?

They elaborated that: • In the pre-trip planning phase, maps support the decision making process by giving information about the surroundings of the chosen destination. • During the on-trip phase very detailed spatially referenced data is required in real time where mobile devices of information booths are key to obtaining this data. • In the post-trip phase tourists will provide feedback to destination managers or operators and to peers by sharing their impressions of a place and their experiences and will often rate these with a scoring system, such as the 5 star rating scheme used by a number of travel portals such as Trip Advisor.

The context of this research was to provide useful data where topographic map coverage is restricted (in this case Greece), however with the now worldwide coverage of Google Maps

81 some of these issues fade somewhat. Nonetheless the observations of these authors provide some context for how cycle tourists may use maps in each phase of their travel.

There is a small body of published work on online maps for tourism. An early work by Zipf (2002) proposed that “tourist maps need to be dynamically generated to a wider range of variables from user preferences and interests, the given task, cultural aspects to communicative goals and actual context and location” (p.1). A little later Dunlop (2004) confirmed that, in respect to online maps for tourists, “successful tourist information systems require the availability of quality data content and a user interface allowing easy, accurate and quick access to the content” (p.2). To date this area has not been examined in respect to cycling tourists although Bartle, Avineri and Chatterjee (2013) have reported on their work using a map-based website with commuter cyclists.

Kah, Vogt and MacKay (2008) identified that amongst the website needs of tourists that online maps rated third in importance behind airline bookings and accommodation needs. Jansen et al ( 2008) identified that 6.5% of all internet searches are for travel related queries and that 50% of this travel searching is for geographical information. It is of note that they also found that “older baby boomer cohorts reported greater increases in the likelihood of travel, information searching than Gen X” (p.3). They found that the top three travel search categories for tourists were location related and suggest that there is “a need for increased research concerning the use of online mapping applications such as Google Maps” (p.16). Some earlier evidence on who uses Google Maps is from a UK travel Magazine where it is outlined that in the UK 25% of Google Earth visitors are “silver surfers” aged 55+. This research explores this question in an Australian context for cycle tourists.

There is little published material on cyclists’ use of maps. A 1996 paper from the US (Schuett and Holmes, 1996) reported that cyclists responding to their survey in New York State rated maps among the top three influences in their deciding to visit a new area. To date there is no published research on the use of online maps by cycle tourists.

2.6.3 Cycle Maps Online

One of the most exciting developments in the field of interactive online maps over the past few years has been the recognition of mainstream computer and communications companies of the power of Geographic Information Systems (GIS) technology for many applications including mobile navigation and online marketing of products and services. The conversion of paper maps to digitised versions online has allowed a range of new applications of these maps. One of the most high profile and powerful of these is Google Earth which links digitised maps to digital elevation models of the earth’s surface and satellite imagery (Google, 2007). The system is free, online 24/7 and allows considerable interaction with the data and the addition of individual user’s data in a relatively simple manner.

Cyclists and cycling organisations are using Google Earth and Google Maps regularly to communicate information about cycle routes and facilities to club members and other users, many of whom are cycle tourists. For example the Canberra Cycling Club and the ACT Veterans’ Cycling Club both describe their race routes in this way.

A desktop search identified many cycle maps online around the globe. A list of some of the more useful sites and examples of the use of online maps for cycling are at Appendix A. In Chapters 4 to 6 the results of a survey of active cycle tourists and a review of a number of cycling blogs has provided an indication of the most popular cycle mapping sites.

Lamont and his colleagues have conducted research on cycle tourism in Australia over recent years. His 2009 Ph D thesis (Lamont, 2009a) explored many issues for independent cycle tourists including wayfinding aids and signage for cycling. Lamont and Causley (2010) addressed the needs of cyclists for wayfinding aids and signage. Whilst this work has not differentiated between paper maps and online mapping it has explored the key content of maps for touring cyclists. They identified the following aspects of maps as being important to cyclists in descending order of importance.

1. Dangerous roads not suited to cycling 2. Location of segregated cycling routes (no motor traffic) 3. Distances between intermediate towns 4. Location of accommodation 5. Location of camping grounds 6. Indication of cycling route surface and condition 7. Indication of shoulder width and condition along roads 8. Location of drinking water 9. Hill gradient information 10. Location of sites of interest 11. Location of toilets 12. Location of bicycle repair /maintenance shops

Lamont and Causley (2010) concluded that there is an important link between the cycling tourism experience and wayfinding aids, which is attributable to the mobile nature of touring by bicycle. They also noted that this is an important and under researched area in tourism studies.

2.6.4 Social Networking and Tourism

The emergence of social networking as a major communication tool across the world is now having a considerable impact on tourism. Education materials such as the Tourism e kit by the Australian Tourism Data Warehouse (ATDW) (Australian Tourism Data Warehouse, 2009) are part of the recognition that tourism operators need to be aware of the power of these tools in their business and marketing efforts.

The academic literature has not been able to keep pace with these social and industry developments, but some papers are now emerging in this field of study, which are addressed in section 2.9 below. In line with the trends for electronic publishing and sharing of information much of the information in this field is published through social media networks. Whilst the academic rigor of peer review has not been applied to much of this publishing it is still relevant

84 in research at the leading edge of developments as in the past newspaper and magazine articles form part of the literature.

There are numerous educational materials available from many online sources, with a number of these on the SlideShare website (see http://www.slideshare.net/) and another similar site at Pamorama (see http://www.pamorama.net).

According to one of the major user generated content sites, Wikipedia (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_networking):

“A social network service is an online service, platform, or site that focuses on building and reflecting of social networks or social relations among people, e.g., who share interests and/or activities. A social network service essentially consists of a representation of each user (often a profile), his/her social links, and a variety of additional services. Most social network services are web based and provide means for users to interact over the internet, such as e-mail and instant messaging. Although online community services are sometimes considered as a social network service. In a broader sense, social network service usually means an individual-centered service whereas online community services are group-centered. Social networking sites allow users to share ideas, activities, events, and interests within their individual networks.”

Social media are media for social interaction, using highly accessible and scalable publishing techniques. Social media use web-based technologies to turn communication into interactive dialogues. Kaplan and Haenlein (2010) defined social media as "a group of Internet-based applications that build on the ideological and technological foundations of Web 2.0, which allows the creation and exchange of user-generated content” (p.58). Businesses refer to social media as consumer-generated media (CGM). A common thread running through all definitions of social media is a blending of technology and social interaction for the co-creation of value.

In summary: A social network service focuses on building online communities of people who share interests and/or activities, or who are interested in exploring the interests and activities of others.

Social network services are web based (web 2.0) and provide a variety of ways for users to interact, such as e-mail and instant messaging services. Facebook, MySpace, Twitter and LinkedIn are the most widely used social network sites in the western world.

The Sensis Report (2009) provides a snapshot of social networking in Australia. Figure 2.7 below summarises their findings.

Figure 2.7 - Social networking in Australia in 2009 (Sensis 2009)

The report summarises Australian’s use of these tools: “Overall, 41 per cent of Australians reported they had used social networking sites in the past year. The demographic which most influenced use of social networking sites was age, with younger Australians much more likely to use a social networking site. There was a one percentage point fall in usage for the 14 to 17 year old age group, and for those aged in their 40s. All other age groups saw increased usage. The heaviest users were the 14 to 19 year old age group, where 90 per cent reported using social

86 networking sites. Usage again decreased progressively with age, with only five per cent of those aged 65 and above reporting using these sites” (p.18).

The report elaborates: “The largest increase was for those aged 18 to 19, up by 18 percentage points in the past year. Social networking sites had a high usage frequency, with 23 per cent using the sites several times a day, up six percentage points, and 21 per cent using them daily – over four in 10 users accessed these sites at least daily. Only 18 per cent reported usage less than once a week, down from 23 per cent last year ” (p.18).

In reporting trends in internet use in Australia, there are three sources that publish data tracking internet use and trends. The websties of Hitwise (www.experian.com/hitwise/), Comscore (www.comscore.com) and Alexa (www.alexa.com) provide slightly different perspectives on internet use and social networking that provide a useful context for this research.

In May 2010, according to Comscore (www.comscore.com), there were 13.1 m Australians over 15 years old using the internet regularly, an increase of 7% from 2009. Figure 2.8 below compares these data with other Asia Pacific nations.

Figure 2.8 - Internet use in the Asia Pacific ( www.Comscore.com, accessed September 2011)

In use by age and gender, Australia is the most balanced of all nations in the Asia Pacific region, with users being 50% men and 50% women and across the five 10 year age brackets from 15 to 55+ years old there is close to 20% usage in each bracket in Australia. Figure 2.9 below outlines these data across countries in this region. In most Asian countries the use by women is well below 50%, and usage is very strong in younger age groups.

Figure 2.9 - Internet use by gender and age in the Asia Pacific in 2010 (www.Comscore.com, accessed September 2011)

The Comscore data on the use of social networking tools in the Asia Pacific show some marked differences. Figure 2.10 below shows that Australia is in the mid use bracket at 82.5% usage amongst internet users and an average of 18.1% of the total time online devoted to social networking.

The data presented above provide strong evidence of the growing importance of internet and social media use in Australia. This research examines this developing trend in a sector of the tourism market that has not previously been addressed.

Figure 2.10 - Social networking across the Asia Pacific in May 2010 ( www.Comscore.com, accessed September 2011)

2.6.5 Facebook in Australia In an Australian context, the Hitwise website (www.experian.com.au/hitwise/) publishes data about social networking uptake in Australia. Some insights around the Facebook phenomenon in Australia from this source include:

• Facebook is the second most popular website visited by Australians after Google.com.au, accounting for 7.83% of all visits in the month of September 2010 but is the most popular website for Australians aged 18-24, with 8.97% of visits for the four weeks ending 2 October 2010 just ahead of Google.com.au’s 8.96%.

• Facebook is clearly Australia’s most popular social network. Facebook accounts for 56.8% of all visits to social networks in September 2010, being almost 3.8 times that of You Tube (15.1% share of visits).

• Facebook Mobile is the sixth most visited social network receiving 0.82% of all visits to social networks for the month of September 2010, indicating the growing use of mobile devices across Wi-Fi networks.

• A definite female skew exists of those Australian’s visiting Facebook. 55.8% are from Women and 44.2% from Men.

2.6.6 Twitter in Australia The reach of Twitter is rapidly expanding in the Asia Pacific region. Figure 2.11 below, again from Comscore (www.comscore.com), shows that in May 2010 around 7% of Australian internet users had a twitter presence. This has remained steady over the past year whereas some other Asian nations have seen remarkable increases (e.g. Japan up from 6% to around 16%).

Figure 2.11 - Reach of Twitter in the Asia Pacific Region ( www.Comscore.com, Accessed September 2011)

In a cycling context, the power of social networks was evidenced through Lance Armstong’s hyperconnectivity to his fan base (2,718,388 followers). In January 2009, just before the Tour Down Under in Adelaide, the following exchange is taken from @lancearmstrong on Twitter after he posted a “ride with Lance” tweet for informal ride on 16th January:

“For those wondering about saturday wigley reserve ride, ride whatever kind of bike you want. Road, mtb, city, borrowed, old, new, whatever. Posted at 4:39 PM Jan 14th from UberTwitter”.

“Whoa!!! Adelaide came out!! Thx to every1 for being there. Estimates were anywhere between 5 and 10 thousand folks. On bikes!! Posted at 10:50 AM Jan 16th from UberTwitter”.

In Chapter 6 of this research the use of Facebook and Twitter by cycling tourists has been reported and discussed.

2.7 Profiling Social Networkers

In the relatively recent literature, two books have provided important insights in to profiling those internet users who use (or do not use) social networking tools. The first is Groundswell by Li and Bernoff (2008) who have coined the term Social Technographic Profile. They contend that for marketing in the cyberworld knowing the audience’s demographic profile is no longer enough. Social Technographic Profile is a term based on a concept of Technographic Segmentation introduced by Dr. Edward Forrest in 1985. A person’s social technographic profile defines his or her personality and characteristics when it comes to social media. A marketer wants to know which types of social media will be most effective in reaching their audience.

A person’s Social Technographic Profile addresses: What does the person do online? What are his/her web habits? What kinds of sites does s/he visit? How does s/he relate to those sites - actively or passively?

According to Li and Bernoff (2008) there are six groups of consumer online:

Creators are people who generate content. This can range from writing blog posts and wiki entries to creating and uploading videos on YouTube. Creators are the true value adders of the web. They make the stuff everyone else comments on.

Critics are users who rank and review products, web posts, pictures, videos or anything else. They play a key role in influencing what products people buy, what videos people watch, and what competitive events they will enter.

Collectors are those who collect and aggregate data online with tags and bookmarks. They participate in online voting and rating efforts, on sites such as TripAdvisor (www.tripadvisor.com.au).

Joiners are those who join and maintain profiles on social network sites like Facebook, MySpace and Twitter. They like to connect with others who share their interests.

Spectators are users who do not actively participate but watch and read from the wings. They silently read others’ posts, view others’ content without making their presence known. They are by far the most numerous participants on any social networking site.

Inactives are those who are still living in feudal times and have no web activity. They don’t really need to be considered in a social media campaign (though, possibly, they can still be reached by snail mail).

Variations of this model are being used quite widely in training materials like the Tourism e kit (Australian Tourism Data Warehouse, 2009). Figure 2.12 below, taken from their book, is a breakdown (in a USA context) of the age profiles of internet users in the USA. These numbers need to be tested in an Australian context.

Figure 2.12 - Age profiles vs technographic profiles of US internet users (Li and Bernoff 2008)

The second important reference on profiling social networkers in an Australia context is Connection Generation, an Australian book by Iggy Pintado (2009). This book has examined in some depth how connection determines our place in society and business. He has developed a set of Connection Profiles, based on a survey of 130 individuals who consisted of an equal mix of Pre Boomers ( born pre 1945), Baby Boomers ( 1945-1960), Generation X (1961-1981) and Generation Y (1981- 2002). From this he has developed five Connection Profiles based on degree of online connectedness. The five profiles are:

Basic Small number of connections Laggard in use of connection technologies Delegates connection needs

Passive Moderate number of connections Late majority of technology adopters “a passenger” as a connector

Selective Manageable number of connections Early majority of technology adopters “engaged” as a connector

Active Large number of connections Early adopter of technology Drives their connection activity

Super connector Hyper connected Innovator in use of technology Disciplined management of connectedness

The two sets of profiles presented above provide the context for testing the online presence and characteristics of the subjects of this research, namely cycling tourists. Also in this context, it is observed that social network members serve dual roles as both the suppliers and the consumers of web content. It is a two-way interaction. Contrast this to earlier web models (websites without interactive capability) where the suppliers and consumers are distinct agents. This kind of producing and using content has been characterised by Bruns (2008) as “produsage”.

2.8 Favourite Australian Websites

Some other observations about internet use in Australia of relevance to this research includes the Hitwise (www.experian.com.au/hitwise/) Award winners for 2009 for the most favoured websites as voted by users. In the Travel category the overall winners were:

1. maps.google.com.au 2. www.qantas.com.au

3. www.virginblue.com.au

In the category Travel – Maps the winners were:

1. maps.google.com.au 2. www.whereis.com 3. www.street-directory.com.au

Another key source in Australia for internet statistics is Alexa (www.alexa.com). For December 2010, the Top Search Queries for Google.com.au according to Alexa were:

Query Percent of Search Traffic 1 google 8.01% 2 google maps 6.66% 3 maps 2.54% 4 google australia 1.29% 5 youtube 0.94% 6 google map 0.81% 7 adwords 0.65%

These results confirm the rising importance of online maps in Australia and the dominance of Google Maps in this field. This research explores the use of these sites by cycle tourists in Australia.

2.9 Recent Additions to the Literature

The data collection period for this thesis was primarily from 2008 through to 2010 in order to shape the survey design and data collection. It was a conscious decision to delimit the literature review at the date of conclusion of the survey work in late 2010. The rationale behind this was that the survey was founded on research conducted before the survey was done. However, as publication of the thesis has been proceeding through 2012-13, it is useful to review some recent

96 additions to the literature which touch on the topics of this research particularly in the realm of cycle tourism research and the application of online technology in the tourism space.

It has been noted that there was distinct lack of research into mountain biking as a tourism pursuit. There have been a number of publications in the past three years that raise the profile of mountain biking as a tourism activity. For example, Newsome (2010) and Newsome, Lacroix and Pickering (2011) have published two papers concerned with the impact of mountain biking on national parks. Schmallegger, Taylor and Carson (2011) looked at the role of mountain biking in outback tourism in South Australia. Whilst these papers add to the rather thin literature on mountain biking, they are not particularly relevant to this research as they do not touch on destination choice by cyclists or on the use of online technology. A longitudinal study of downhill mountain biking at Whistler in Canada by Klaus and Maklan (2011), looked at the customer experiences of mountain bikers in a camp situation as tourists in summer at Whistler. This is one of the very few pieces of published research into the needs and experiences of downhill mountain bikers as tourists. Whilst this work has some relevance in destination choice models for this group of mountain bikers, it has little connection to this research. Taylor (2010) explored mountain bike tourism in New Zealand and the UK, examining push and pull factors for mountain bike tourists and their sources of information. Taylor’s findings that prime motivations for mountain bikers include the desire for physical exertion, thrill and escapism factors, skill development to meet trail challenges and socialisation factors of belonging to a like minded group, have emerged from this study. A Canadian study (Getz and McConnell, 2011) explored motivations for mountain bikers to participate in challenge events. When the research for this thesis began in 2008, there was virtually no published material on mountain biking as a sector of cycling tourism. This now is being addressed by a number of authors and confirms that this sector within cycling tourism is a growing field of activity and research.

Snelgrove and Wood ( 2010) investigated motivations and particpation of cyclists in a charity cycling event in Ontario, Canada. This work confirmed the role of events in destination choice for cyclists and expands our knowledge on motivations to particpate in such events. It does not touch upon the role of online technology in this pursuit. Gibson and Chang (2012) investigated older cyclists involved in cycle tours in Florida, USA. This work confirms that there is a strong

97 mature age involvement in cycling tourism and explored the motivations and benefits for such participation. Apart from the fact that this survey work was done largely by an online survey (aimed at older participants), the outcomes do not have any real significance to the research questions considered here.

A Portuguese study (Neves and Esperanca, 2011) examined the demographic profiles of cyclist in Portugal and their employment and income profiles. The authors determined that a typical biker in that country is male, in his mid 40s and has a high to middle income level. These findings accord quite well with the outcomes from this thesis.

Of most significance to this research is some recent work by Australian researchers on cycle tourism. In the realm of tourist motivation, Coglan and Filo (2013) explored the motivations of participants in sport and charity events from a tourism perspective. Their work involved charity cycling events. Their research adds to the knowlegde base on motivation for cycling tourists especially in a charity event scenario. Again the work has little direct impact on this research topic, but adds to our understanding on motivations of cycling tourists.

Fullagar and Pavlidis (2012) explored the particpation of women in a mass nine-day cycle tourism event (Cycle Queensland). Their work adds significantly to the understanding of womens’ motivation and participation in cycling tourism activity and events in particular. Their conclusion that “the cycle tour event offered a leisure-tourism space where they could step out of, or ride away from the pressures to be ‘doing it all’ ” (p 32). This research has not explored in any depth gender specific issues of cycling tourists but the desire of women to escape everyday pressures is an interesting outcome of Fulligar’s work.

Lamont and Buultjens (2011) added to the knowledge on cycle tourism in Australia by investigating impediments to cycle tourism. They report that road safety, inadequate infrastructure and the carriage of bicycles on transport services are significant impediments to the development of cycle tourism in Australia. The first two elements of these findings have also been confirmed by research for this thesis.

Ritchie, Tkaczynski and Faulks (2010) examined the application of user involvement profiles to explore the motivation and travel behaviour of cycle tourists in Australia. Their work has expanded on the knowledge of motivations for cycle tourists but interestingly, they note in their conclusions that “research could be conducted on what destination attributes tourists chose, their preferred choice, and what images they have of cycle tourism destinations” (p 422). This thesis, in part, addresses these questions on preferred attributes for cycle tourism destinations.

Sue Beeton has conducted extensive research on Rail Trails in Victoria and especially with regard to community involvement in their development. In two recent journal articles (Beeton, 2010; Willard and Beeton 2012) she and her colleagues have continued to contribute to the research on cycle tourism in this domain. This work is quite specific in looking at Rail Trails and their development and use in Victoria. It has provided excellent longitudinal data on their use and in particular the economic impact on regional tourism, but does not address destination choice or information sources for cycling tourists which are addressed in this thesis.

In the domain of online technolgy and tourism there have been very few additions to the literature since 2009. Gretzel and Fesenmaier (2009) have been amongst the few to explore the use of technolgy in a tourism environment. Whilst they have not connected their work to cycle toursim their work in the tourism domain is of relevance to this research. Amongst their conclusions they found that: • “The internet will be the primary source for travel information” • “Blogging , podcasts , pictures and social networking technologies are expected to play an ever more important role in supporting travel planning …” (p. 573).

This research adds to the detailed knowledge in these particular aspects of tourism and the adoption of new technology.

A study by Bartle, Avineri and Cahaaerjee (2013) on the use of online networking by commuter cyclists in the UK investigated online, map based sharing of information about routes and other cycling information in a goup of cyclists in the UK. Whilst this study was not specific to cycling tourists many of the issues of information sharing about cycle routes through social networks

99 online have overlap with this research. One of the key outcomes from their research was the development of trust amongst the group as they got to know each other online.

Another recent study by Dickinsen et al (2012) looked at the use of smartphones and smartphone applications by tourists within transport networks. This work again confirms the emerging need for more studies on the impact of these technologies on information gathering and sharing in the instantaneous and spatially enabled world of today’s tourist.

2.10 Conclusion

2.10.1 Cycling is Big

There is considerable evidence (Cycling Promotion Fund 2009; Australian Sports Commission 2010; Cycling Promotion Fund, 2010; Cycling Promotion Fund, 2013) that the number of people active in cycling in Australia is large and growing, with over 10% of the population owning at least one bicycle and using it regularly. Similarly, there has been significant research (Lamont 2009a; Faulks 2010; South Australian Tourist Commission 2010) to indicate that cycle tourism is a significant sector of the tourism market.

2.10.2 Cycle Tourism Scope and Definition

Whilst much of the previous research into cycle tourism in Australia (Ritchie 1998; Faulks, Ritchie and Fluker 2007) and overseas (Simonsen, Jorgensen and Robbins 1998; Lumsdon 2000) has examined recreational cyclists, it is contended here that cycling tourism goes way beyond recreational activity, to include road racing, challenge events and especially mountain biking.

It was noted earlier that operational definition that informs this thesis is:

This definition distinguishes cycling tourists from commuters as well as spectators.

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2.10.3 Tourist Motivation and Destination Choice Models

This Chapter has examined many models of tourism motivation and destination choice in order to place the motivations of cycling tourists and how they chose their destinations into a conceptual model that recognises and builds on this extensive body of work. Thus the conceptual models put forward in Figures 1.3 and 1.4 of Chapter 1 envisage that there are significant push and pull factors that are specific to cycling and that information search and decision making by cyclists involves significant use of online technologies. This Chapter has outlined sources that identify the significant use of online technologies by Australians and especially online maps and the use of social networking tools. This research now examines these factors and reports findings specific to the research questions identified in Chapter 1.

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Chapter 3 Research Methodology and the Approach to Data Collection

3.1 Introduction

This research aims to discover how cyclists in four distinct sectors of cycling tourism use the internet, social networking tools and online maps to make their choice of destination for riding. The testing of destination choice models presented in Chapter 1 is a key element of this research.

This thesis addresses three key research questions:

• What is the role and influence of online technology (the internet, online maps and social networking) and associated information sources in destination choice for cycling tourists?

• What information do cyclists seek through the use of online technology to assist in making destination choices for cycling related travel and how do they want it to be presented and accessed?

A mixed methods approach to data collection was adopted for this research and was informed by the Literature Review in Chapter 2. The primary data collection method used for this research was an online survey instrument developed and circulated to a sample of active cyclists over the period October 2009 to July 2010. Focus groups were used to help formulate the questions used in the questionnaire. In addition, data exploration through event data and membership information helped resolve some issues and data discovery efforts through web searches also formed a key element of the methods used.

The prime outcome of this research is to provide a better understanding of the use of information and communications technology in the information gathering processes of the four identified sectors of

102 cycling tourism. This in turn will contribute to the knowledge base in regards to cycling tourism, but more broadly in understanding technology and online mapping as information sources in tourism decision making.

3.2 Research Methodology and Methods Adopted

There are a number of potential theoretical approaches possible in addressing the research questions in this study. Tourism is often perceived as a social science (Jennings, 2001; Pearce, 2005) and thus social research theories have gained most attention in tourism research.

Crotty (1998) describes the research process as flowing from epistemology, through a theoretical perspective to a methodology leading to the research methods used in a particular piece of research. Figure 3.1 illustrates this process.

Figure 3.1 - Four elements in the research process (Crotty, 1998) In this view of the research process, epistemology is described as the theory of knowledge which gives rise to a theoretical perspective, which incorporates the philosophical stance informing the methodology and which provides “a context for the process and grounding its logic and criteria” (Crotty, 1998, p.3). The methodology is the strategy, plan of action and process of design underpinning specific methods linked to a research outcome. The methods are the techniques or procedures used for data collection and analysis related to a research question or hypothesis.

Figure 3.2 (from Crotty) expands on the four elements of the research process.

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Epistemology Theoretical Methodology Methods perspective Objectivism Positivism (and post- Experimental research Sampling Measurement and scaling Constructionism positivism) Survey research Questionnaire Subjectivism Interpretivism Ethnography Observation • Participant (and their variants) • Symbolic Phenomonological • Non-participant interactionism research Interview Focus group • Phenomenology Grounded theory Case study • Hermeneutics Heuristic inquiry Life history Action research Narrative Critical inquiry Visual enthnographic Discourse analysis methods Feminism Feminist standpoint Statistical analysis Post modernism Data reduction analysis Theme identification etc etc Comparative analysis Cognitive mapping Interpretative methods Document analysis Content analysis Conversation analysis, etc

Figure 3.2 – The four elements of the research process expanded (Crotty, 1998, p.5)

Sarantakos (1993) describes two “methodologies” in respect to social research. The first methodology he equates to a research model, which is unique to each research project and includes, “basic knowledge on the subject, and research methods in question and the framework employed in a particular context” (p.33). The second definition “relates the nature of methodology to a theoretical and more abstract context and perceives it in conjunction with distinctive, uni-dimensional and mutually exclusive theoretical principles”. This in turn gives rise to the predominant qualitative and quantitative methodologies. This approach is guided by the principles of research entailed in a particular paradigm. The paradigms he outlines as the most relevant are the positivist, interpretive and critical. Figure 3.3 compares these three paradigms (Saratantakos 1993, p.40).

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Criterion Positivism Interpretivism Critical Perspective Reality is… • objective “out there to • subjective in • both out there and in people’s be found” people’s minds minds • perceived through the • created not found • complex; appearance is not senses • interpreted reality • perceived uniformly by differently by • created by people not nature all people • in tension/full of • governed by universal contradictions laws • based on oppression and • based on integration exploitation

Human beings • rational individuals • creators of their • creators of their destiny are… • obeying external laws world • oppressed,alienated,exploited, • without free will • making sense of restricted their world • brainwashed, mislead, • Not restricted by conditioned external laws • hindered fromm realising • creating systems of their potential meanings

Science is… • based on strict rules • based on common • conditions shape life but can and procedures sense be changed • deductive • inductive • emancipating, empowering • relying on sense • relying on • relying on sense impressions impressions interpretations and values • value free • not value free • not value free

Purpose of • to explain social life • to interpret social • to explain, interpret and research…. • to predict course of life elucidate events • to understand social • to disclose myths and • to discover the laws of life illusions social life • to discover • to emancipate and empower people’s meanings

Figure 3.3 - Theoretical perspectives in the social sciences (Sarantakos, 1993)

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Neuman (2006) describes a paradigm as “a basic orientation to theory and research”, and proposes that the positivist and interpretive paradigms are the basis of most social science research. Lamont (2009a), in his thesis on Cycle Tourism, links a positivist paradigm to quantitative methodology and an interpretive paradigm to qualitative methodology. Figure 3.4 relates these two paradigms to ontology, epistemology, methodology, axiology and rhetoric.

Assumption Positivist (Quantitative) Interpretive (Qualitative) Ontology Reality is “out there”. It is waiting Reality, or knowledge, exists in the to be discovered, however can form of multiple mental never be completely captured. The constructions, influenced by the world is driven by natural, causal researcher’s values. laws. Epistemology The researcher remains distant or The researcher and the researched detached from the phenomenon interact on a subjective basis. The being studied. Bias is actively findings are an outcome of that discouraged from influencing the unique interaction. findings. Methodology Adopts a deductive logic in which Adopts an inductive logic, whereby theories and/or hypotheses are thematic categories emerge from posed prior to study beginning. the actual informants of the study. Numerical evidence is gathered and Information is tested for analysed to prove or disprove the trustworthiness using approaches posed theories and/or hypotheses. such as triangulation and member checking. Axiology The researchers values are kept out The researcher states his or her of the study, worldview and acknowledges them as biases in a study. Rhetoric Adopts a formal, impersonal Adopts a personal, informal dialect. dialect, with the intent to Research is reported as a narrative objectively report scientifically as opposed to a rigid, scientific derived facts. report.

Figure 3.4 - Underlying assumptions of the positivist and interpretive paradigms (Lamont, 2009a)

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Jennings (2001) describes the three key concepts in relation to tourism research as: • Ontology – the nature of reality; • Epistemology - the relationship between the researcher and the subject of the research; • Methodology – how the researcher goes about data collection and generating knowledge;

Lamont (2009a) expands this to include: • Axiology - the role of the researcher’s values in a study; and, • Rhetoric - the language used in the research.

The paradigm that is chosen by the researcher is critical to how research data are collected, the role of the researcher in data collection and the approach to data analysis. Positivist research attempts generally to extend the results collected from a sample of research subjects to a wider population through appropriate sampling and analysis techniques. By contrast, Phillimore and Goodson (2004) have the view that “qualitative enquiry should place emphasis on understanding the world from the perspective of its participants, and should view social life as being the result of interaction and interpretations”. They propose further that qualitative research is “located at the meeting place between art and science“, and that in tourism studies in particular the social and cultural implications need to be explored using qualitative methodology (Phillimore and Goodson, 2004, p.4).

Crotty (1998) explains survey based research in the context of paradigms and methodology. Figure 3.5 illustrates a positivist paradigm that leads to a quantitative approach though survey based research to statistical analysis.

objectivism positivism survey research statistical analysis

Figure 3.5 - Positivist research process (Crotty, 1998, p.6)

Creswell (2009), in a discussion of research methods, identifies an additional dimension by proposing that many research projects can benefit from a mixed methods approach to research where elements of

107 qualitative and quantitative methods can enhance the research outcomes. Figure 3.6 illustrates the main characteristics of the three methods. With some open-ended questions in a survey and the use of focus groups, this thesis does have a qualitative element. The extraction of cycling data from various sources and the interpretation of cycling blogs also place this research firmly in the mixed methods category.

Quantitative Methods Mixed Methods Qualitative Methods • Pre-determined • Both pre-determined and • Emerging methods • Instrument based emerging methods • Open ended questions • Performance data, attitude • Both open and closed ended • Interview data, observational data, observational data, and questions data and audio-visual data census data • Multiple forms of data • Text and image analysis • Statistical analysis drawing on all possibilities • Themes, patterns • Statistical interpretation • Statistical and text analysis interpretation • Across databases and interpretation

Figure 3.6 - Quantitative, mixed and qualitative methods (Cresswell, 2009, p.15)

McMurray, Pace and Scott (2004) have taken a very practical approach to research frameworks and methodology. They have provided some useful insights into the role of mixed methods research, with particular relevance to this thesis. They describe one mixed method approach as a “dominant/less dominant design” where one primary technique is used with alternative techniques taking a secondary role. They describe a scenario where “field observations can provide context for survey work” (p. 262). They go on to describe “triangulation” techniques where multiple methods of data collection are used to confirm and verify the data collected in different ways. This approach is well suited to this research where the primary data collection is from a major online survey of individuals, supplemented by focus group input and considerable data exploration and discovery from multiple sources. Figure 3.7 provides their concept of a research framework.

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Figure 3.7 - Research framework (McMurray, Pace and Scott, 2004, p.42)

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Much of the research into cycle tourism in Australia has taken a quantitative approach. Work by Ritchie and Hall (1999), Beeton (2006), Faulks, Ritchie and Fluker (2006), Lamont (2008), Lamont (2009a) and Faulks (2010) has largely used quantitative research methods, with some adopting a mixed methods approach. Their results were largely dependent on the analysis of survey work, and in the case of Faulks (2010) using online survey techniques.

In order to address the research questions posed in this thesis, a positivist paradigm and quantitative data collection methodology best fit this research. However to inform and expand upon the outcomes some qualitative methodology, using focus groups to help frame the survey questions has been applied, and extensive data discovery underpins both the survey question formulation and has provided added insight into the research questions.

3.3 The Approach to Data Collection

3.3.1 Ethical considerations

Moral issues set the context for any research project. The choice of methods and the recruitment of voluntary participants to a project must be considered in establishing research processes. Babbie (2005) provides an excellent synopsis of ethical issues in relation to social research. He outlines some of the key issues as: voluntary participation; no harm to participants; anonymity and confidentiality.

Research institutions have ethics committees or processes in place to oversee research projects. The University of Canberra Ethics Committee approved this research project. Approval was granted on the understanding that: survey respondents would be adults (over 18 years of age); participation was voluntary with no financial incentives offered to participants; participants would not be identified without their specific consent; and the privacy of all personal data and comments would be preserved

110 under University mandated parameters. A copy of the University’s Ethics Committee letter of approval for this research is provided in Appendix D.

3.3.2 Research Methods The mixed methods approach adopted for this research is outlined in Figure 3.8.

Data Focus Exploration Groups Research • $%$ Questions • ! %(!#$ • !$ • ' %$ % • &

#$"$ • "!#%$ Online Survey

Data Analysis

Answers to Research Questions

Figure 3.8 - Outline research methodology

3.4 Data Exploration and Discovery

McMurray Pace and Scott (2004) describe data mining as “the exploration of data for meaningful patterns” (p.73). In this research, data exploration and discovery have been employed to examine rich

111 sources of information to identify key characteristics of cycling communities. Literature reviews, statistics from the Australian Bureau of Statistics (Australian Bureau of Statistics, 2004; Australian Bureau of Statistics, 2007), the Australian Sports Commission (2010), the Cycling Promotion Fund (2009; 2010), Retail Cycle Traders Association (Bradshaw, 2006), the records of cycling club memberships and cycle event statistics have been used to identify some basic characteristics of the cycling community. These assisted in setting parameters for focus group composition and framing the online survey questions.

It was anticipated that the demographic characteristics of the various cycling groups would be quite different. An initial examination of various ACT cycling clubs (ACT BMX, 2007; ACT Veterans Cycling Club, 2007; Canberra Cycling Club, 2007; Canberra Off Road Cyclists, 2007; Pedal Power ACT, 2006) and their demographics has indicated that road racers are a little older (18-35 years) and of more mixed gender. Mountain bikers are similar to road racers in age but with more males participating than females, whereas recreational cyclists are an older group and of generally mixed gender. The different demographics of the various sectors may give rise to different motivations for travel and could give rise to different use of technology in destination choice. As part of the data exploration in relation to this research, work by the author on a cycle tourism strategy for the Capital Region (Puniard, 2011) is pertinent as it has explored a number of events and completed some survey work of cyclists in the Capital Region.

Chapter 4 describes the data collected from these sources and their relevance to the three research questions. Chapters 5 and 6 present the detailed data analysis from the online survey, specific to the questions about online technologies in this research.

The other important data exploration effort for this research has been on-going website searches to identify key information content and recurring themes of cycling related websites, especially those with information relative to tourism. A particular focus has been those sites with mapping content and capability. This data discovery process has helped to identify key features of such sites. It has informed the design of the online survey and has helped determine their usefulness in decision choice by cycling tourists. In addition, the process has identified key features and presentation techniques of online maps targeted at cycling tourists. This data discovery activity has assisted in identifying cycling facilities at specific locations to ensure that questions in the survey instrument were framed appropriately.

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In exploring the use of online technology for destination choice it was expected that website content would be a major influence in deciding where cyclists wish to travel. Key questions that have emerged from this process, and are addressed in the online survey, have included:

• Are good cycling facilities at a location a key driver in destination choice? • Are major events a key driver? • Is social interaction with other riders or locals important?

Another element of data exploration and discovery for this research has been active participation in the social networking world, especially in relation to cycling activities. The author has an active Facebook, LinkedIn and Twitter presence and monitors other similar sites regularly. The monitoring of conversations in these media and some input to cycling blogs has been a source of some key data for this research. This is aspect of the research is described and discussed in Chapter 6.

3.5 Focus Groups

An early part of the data collection for this research involved the facilitation of two focus groups of cyclists in the ACT region. Gibbs (1997) describes the purpose of focus groups as to “draw upon respondent’s attitudes, feelings, beliefs, experiences and reactions in a way not feasible by other methods”. She notes that focus groups “can be used at the exploratory stage of a study to evaluate a particular programme of activities”.

Saha (2008) conducts regular seminars on how to run focus groups and data analysis resulting from these. His notes (Saha 2008) outline the parameters for selection of participants and the conduct of such groups, as well as proposing that focus groups help generate and refine questions for a survey. These principles have been applied to this research and the major outcome was to help refine the survey questions to be answered in the major data collection effort. Group composition for these focus groups was 6-10 people of mixed gender, age and cycling interests selected from the cycling groups and recruited through non random selection using cycling blogs and bulletins used by these groups. The participants had various experiences as cycling tourists. In addition to the focus groups a number of informal interviews with cyclists supplemented the data collection.

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3.6 The Questionnaire and its Distribution

The main data collection method for this research has been an online survey. Considerable care was taken in the design of the survey instrument and its distribution to voluntary participants. Data discovery and focus groups underpinned the development of the survey instrument. Draft questions were framed and workshopped in the focus groups and then a pilot survey of the focus groups participants was completed. Minor adjustments were made to the instrument before making it available online to an audience of potential respondents.

The design of the survey instrument had appropriate input from experts in this field including the University of Canberra statistics advisor (David Petersen) and Professor Brent Ritchie who has run seminars on this topic. In addition, work by Foddy (1993) on constructing questions and McMurray, Pace and Scott (2004) on quantitative survey methods have informed this process.

The survey comprised forty-two questions across seven topics:

1 Introduction and Background 2 Cycling Participation and Cycling Pursuits - 7 questions 3 Motivations for Cycling and Cycling Related Travel – 7 questions 4 Destination Preferences – 5 questions 5 Use of Online Technology for Destination Choice – 15 questions 6 Personal Information – 8 questions 7 Conclusion and Thanks

The full content of the survey questionnaire is presented in Appendix B.

The Survey Monkey online system was chosen as best suited to this survey as it has been used successfully in similar research in Australia (Faulks, Ritchie and Fluker, 2006; Faulks and Mules,

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2008) and there is excellent support for its design and use. In this respect, the online manuals and guides to this system not only advise how to set up and use the system but they do provide important advice on questionnaire design, construction, and layout, together with many built in analysis tools.

In considering the survey methods available for this research, a number of approaches were possible. Lamont (2009a) has summarised the characteristics of four distribution options for such a questionnaire (see Figure 3.9). He has looked at mail-outs, telephone interviews using the survey instrument, face to face interviews to complete the questionnaire and web based surveys. The research focus in this thesis is the online behaviour of cycling tourists. Therefore, it was considered most appropriate to use a web-based instrument. This removes the potential interviewer bias of telephone or face-to-face interviews, is quicker and less expensive than mailed surveys and, if the distribution is well targeted, can generate good response rates.

Mail Survey Telephone Face to Face Web Survey Interview Interview Cost Cheap Moderate Expensive Cheapest Speed Slowest Fast Slow to moderate Fastest Length (number Moderate Short Longest Moderate of questions) Response rate Lowest Moderate Highest Moderate Probes possible No Yes Yes No Open-ended Limited Limited Yes Yes questions Interview bias No Some Worse No

Figure 3.9 - Characteristics of differing survey typologies (Lamont, 2009, p. 114)

The Survey Monkey tool was used for survey distribution. The target audience for the survey was recreational and competitive road riders and mountain bikers. This part of the research relied on users of the various online communication tools to volunteer to complete the survey. Initially, the survey was distributed to ACT cycling groups, ACT Veterans Cycling Club, Canberra Cycling Club, Canberra Off Road Cyclists (CORC), Pedal Power ACT (the recreational cycling group) and Vikings Cycling Club, through email communication used by these groups. The total membership of these

115 organisations is over 3000 individuals. Cycling groups in other States, including Bicycle NSW, Bicycle Queensland, Bicycle SA, Bicycle Victoria and Cycling Australia, distributed the survey through electronic communications. A number of private operators running events, particularly MTB events in the ACT region, assisted in distributing the survey through their electronic networks.

In establishing the methods for this research and in the design of the survey instrument, the analysis capabilities of the Survey Monkey system were considered and it was recognised that for full and effective quantitative data analysis, especially more sophisticated cross question analysis, additional tools would be needed. In this respect the SPSS software pack was investigated and has been selected as the analysis tool for more detailed analysis beyond the basic Survey Monkey tools. Design of the questions in the survey was completed with this in mind and by reference to a number of SPSS guides (Leech, Barrett and Morgan, 2008; Phillips 2010; Pallant 2011).

Analyses of the survey data are presented in Chapters 4, 5 and 6.

3.7 Conclusion

After extensive consideration of the literature on research methodology and methods in relation to the research questions, a mixed methods approach was adopted for this research. The approach is one of “dominant/less dominant design” where the primary technique used was the quantitative method using an online survey with the alternative techniques of focus groups and data discovery taking a secondary role. The mixed method approach to this research has provided a rich array of data to address the research questions.

There are some potential limitations to the methodology and methods adopted.

As the size of the target audience (Australian cycling tourists) is not fully understood the effectiveness of the sampling technique can only be estimated. Participant selection was by invitation through a wide online network of cycling organisations and contacts across the spectrum of cycling activities. With 658 respondents to the survey, a sample across the four subject groups for this research has been achieved.

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The survey was available online from October 2009 to July 2010. Of the 658 responses: 12% described themselves as mountain bikers; 58% as recreational riders; and 14% as competitive riders. In addition 26% of non-mountain bikers said they participated in mountain biking as a secondary pursuit and 56% said they owned a mountain bike. This provides a balanced response across the sectors of cycling tourism identified through the literature review as being the most significant.

Another potential shortcoming of the methods adopted was that the survey was carried out online and no hardcopy mail-outs were done. This had the potential to exclude those cycling tourists who do not have access to or do not use online technology. This has been taken into account in the data analysis in Chapter 5, however, as the focus of the research was how cyclists use online technology, then familiarity with the technology was somewhat of a pre-requisite.

Overall the adoption of a mixed methods approach and the excellent response to the online survey has provided sufficient data to explore the research questions in depth.

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Chapter 4 Data Analysis and Results

4.1 Introduction

Chapter 3 describes the mixed methods approach adopted in this research and its rationale. This Chapter, together with Chapters 5 and 6 explores the data collected in relation to the research questions posed.

As outlined in Chapter 1 the following are the key research questions to be addressed:

• What is the role and influence of online technology (the internet, online maps and social networking) and associated information sources in destination choice for cycling tourists?

• What information do cyclists seek through the use of online technology to assist in making destination choices for cycling related travel and how do they want it to be presented and accessed?

Key questions that have emerged from this process, and are addressed in the online survey, have included:

• Are good cycling facilities at a location a key driver in destination choice? • Are major events a key driver? 118

• Is social interaction with other riders or local inhabitants important?

Data collection for this research was in three parts: • The facilitation of two focus groups • An online survey questionnaire • Data exploration and discovery to analyse a number of other relevant data sources.

The major purpose and outcome of the focus groups was to help refine the survey questions to be answered in the major data collection effort, however, they did provide some more in depth answers to some of the key questions posed in the questionnaire.

The prime data source for this research has been an online survey of cyclists, which commenced in October 2009 and was concluded in July 2010. A total of 658 respondents completed all or part of the survey.

Data exploration and discovery have been employed to examine rich sources of information to identify key characteristics of cycling communities and their behaviour online.

4.2 Focus groups

In August 2009, two focus group meetings were organised in Canberra in private rooms at two clubs, one on the northside of the city and the other southside to allow ease of access by invited participants. Group composition was 5-10 people of mixed gender, age and cycling interests selected from Canberra based cycling groups and recruited by personal email invitation. This non-random selection was based on some personal knowledge of the cyclists and their interests. The participants had various experiences as cycling tourists and shared these with the focus groups. Most owned several bicycles and most participated in more than one cycling activity.

The focus groups provided a valuable insight into participants’ cycling backgrounds and their use of online maps and social networking in planning and recording cycling trips. Draft questions for the online survey were framed and “workshopped” in the focus groups. The focus 119

group participants were invited to complete the online survey as a “pilot” and most did this shortly after the focus group meetings. Tables 4.1 and 4.2 summarise some of the key input from the two focus groups.

Participant Cycling Interests Cycle Tourism Use of Technology Experience Male - mid Road Racing Recently did a trip to Utilised Google Maps 40s Developing France to follow the Tour extensively to plan for Tour de interest in de France using a France trip. Mountain Bike campervan and transport To give: an idea of destination, racing, Little bit of cycles. an idea of driving time between cycle touring. stages of the tour.

Great aspects of Google maps are being able to drill down into more detailed areas and the site supplies street views. Maps were printed off prior to departure to refer to whilst on the trip. No use of social networking sites. Male - 60 Mainly Road Has done about 3 or 4 Quite often uses Bikely.com to Racing. Alpine Classics events. view race courses and has Owns a mountain Has also done a few added some of his courses to bike but has never Fitz’s challenges. the site. used as a mountain Finds the website quite useful bike. as it not only gives the distance of the course but also the profile. No use of Twitter or Facebook 120

Participant Cycling Interests Cycle Tourism Use of Technology Experience Male mid Recreation Riding, 2-5 day tours in France. On a recent tour carried a net 50s racing and touring. Longer tours in Australia book computer. However he and recently rode up to rarely used it to determine Brisbane form Canberra. direction. Often used the computer after the event to map out the event, route, travel distance and elevation. The website he mainly uses is Bikely.com. Mainly uses NRMA road maps and local knowledge to determine routes. Uses Bikely.com to map routes especially around Canberra and has found it very useful. Tried MapMyRide once and did not find it very successful but he has heard some people say that it has improved and is now better than Bikely.com. Problem with maps are transporting them and carrying them with you whilst on the bike. Does have a Facebook profile opened it up once and never looked at it again. Does not have Twitter or Linkedin.

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Participant Cycling Interests Cycle Tourism Use of Technology Experience Male 50s Used to bushwalk First tour completed was Has a GPS that is used for his but decided rather from Adelaide back to off road driving through the than walking for Canberra. Simpson desert. Tends to use two days to get Has completed some of topographical maps for cycling. where they were the big rides, NSW Big You can use maps as much as going they could Ride. Last year did the you like but it won’t tell you ride. Became tour of the Murray. Has what the road is like in terms of involved with completed some challenge has it got corrugation, potholes, Mountain Biking courses. rough. The locals down the pub then became or the local shops can give you involved in road a better idea. If you are on a riding tour and get on corrugation it is the absolute pits.” Has a collection of hard copy maps that he utilises. Limited use of online maps; Has looked at Google maps but rarely uses it to date.

Male late Main interests are About 5 or 6 years ago his Uses Bikely.com, Google Maps 50s commuting and wife asked if he would and Google Earth Mainly use road racing. like to go on a cycling them for the planning stage to holiday. First tour went to see what sorts of distances are Vietnam and found that involved, also to find they were hooked on accommodation at the start and Touring. Since then have end points. Carries a laptop and done a couple of trips to occasionally uses it to find way Asia mainly Cambodia, to B&B’s using Google Maps. Laos and Vietnam. A Managed to find free wireless 122

couple of trips to Europe, networks in Europe particularly last year went from in Holland. Amsterdam to Vienna. Early this year went from Does not use any social Rome to Salzburg and networking tools. Austria. The very first ride was a supported ride and ever since then it has been independent. Also completed a couple of tours in Australia, Victoria starting in Rutherglen up into the mountains. South Australia around the vineyards.

Male – mid Road Racing and Mostly for races Uses Google Maps, looks and 40s some touring Google Earth occasionally as well as Bikely.com to get routes and profiles. Believes that there are changes happening as well as improvements to sites as people tend to not return to websites if they find them difficult the first time.

Has a Facebook profile but does not use it to talk cycling at all. Viewed Twitter to read Lance Armstrong’s comments 123

Participant Cycling Interests Cycle Tourism Use of Technology Experience Male – Mountain biking, Completed Alpine On his Mountain bike trip early 40s and road riding in Classic. Currently training through the desert his support challenge events to do the Simpson Desert vehicle team used GPS and Mountain bike race. Has online technology. completed the Simpson Desert three times already. Does not use Google Maps or any social networking sites. Female - Social road rider Has ridden in UK and Big user of Facebook and some early 30s India use on Google maps.

Table 4.1 - Input from focus group 1

Participant Cycling Interests Cycle Tourism Use of Technology Experience Female 30s MTB for fun, MTB events away from Facebook user but not much for events and team home region cycling. Not a Google Earth challenge events user. Uses websites for event information and accommodation. Male 50s Cycle touring with Lots of experience on 2-4 Uses websites for maps, events partner since 1998, week tours around the and accommodation searches. Audax events long world. Italy, France, UK, Uses Lonely Planet and other distance rides and Perth, Adelaide, cycling guides. Lived in UK for touring. Tasmania, North 3 years in 1990s and did lots of Queensland and lots of touring. NSW. Has a GPS tracker and uses after rides to record routes; Wants route profiles before rides. 124

No use of Facebook; looked at Twitter (to see Lance Armstrong tweets) Uses Cycling news, cycling weekly, CTC site (UK). Uses Bikely and MapMyRide Male late Touring and, 15 outback rides over last Has a GPS (Magellan) with 50s commuting. Many 20 years. (15-20 riders) barometer; Has recorded trips trips with partner Has recently ridden in on it including desert routes; and in small Canada and NZ. Uses Australia Unfolded groups Rides Hybrids and MTB maps(1;250k) and Natmap for touring. raster (100k) maps; Topographic maps are accurate for the outback ; Uses Google Earth for overseas. Uses height function for profiles. Lonely planet guide in NZ - made it sound too hard. Uses online meteorology sites - for weather forecasts. Not a social networker – waste of time. Used Bikely to see how others did it. (Really useful as a visitor to Adelaide.) Sustrans maps UK – big maps (large scale) not very good on a bike - too bulky.

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Participant Cycling Interests Cycle Tourism Use of Technology Experience Male 50s Road rider, race Vets series at Tour down Looked at routes on Bikely (badly!) A little under; (doesn’t cater for wind speed touring. and direction). Online use - researches a lot online in advance of trips. Uses Pedal Power online resources for advertised long rides advertised; Uses ACTVCC blogs to share stories; Joined a motor bike rally (Tarago to Canberra) on his bicycle! Uses WhereIs to look at maps. Also uses mapping function to record routes in Google Earth to share with others. Electronic maps are more useful with GPS on a bike, especially when travelling. Female 30s Casual rider, In UK and Europe and a Limited cycling use on travels hybrid or hire bike little in India but plans to do more. Extensive Facebook user for stories and photos.

Table 4.2 - Input from focus group 2

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Some General Comments from the Focus Groups

“Most of the popular online maps don’t show exclusive cycling routes, they don’t show whether these routes are solely for walkers or cyclists.”

“ I have been a member of the ‘Warmshowers” list for a number of years. This is a reciprocal group of touring cyclists who place their name on a list online which then means that you are inviting other touring cyclists to come and stay with you. I’ve always been surprised that it has not taken off more than it has. I’ve hosted people a couple of times.”

“The images in Google Earth are useful for non mapped routes – you can see the terrain in the images and the profiles.”

“I recently struggled to find car storage (secure) whilst riding. Most motels were not keen to store a car for a few days whilst we were our riding. In the end we found one in Wangaratta and have been back several times since.”

“I have posted my comments on cycle friendly accommodation on Trip Advisor to share with other cyclists and the accommodation management were very happy with that.”.

Many participants use the Google group blogs on cycling, especially the ACT Veterans blog and the Canberra Cyclists blog. Some focus group participants followed a Cyclist who recently rode from Freemantle WA to Sydney NSW and carried a GPS tracker. They viewed his progress on a website and read the occasional blog from the cyclist himself.

Outcomes of the Focus Groups

Across these two groups there was an extensive use of websites and online mapping tools to plan and record rides undertaken as tourists. Most focus group participants had used accommodation websites to plan and book accommodation before a trip. 127

Google maps was the most used mapping site. The most used feature in Google maps was to extract vertical profiles for routes to know how steep and long particular routes were. At the time of the focus groups (August 2009) very few of the participants were using social networking tools to discuss cycling issues, however a number of participants were active users of cycling blogs relating to their interests or club memberships related to road racing.

Consideration of feedback received during the focus group meetings and analysis of the pilot survey outcomes lead to some minor adjustments to the survey instrument before releasing it to the main group of potential respondents in October 2009.

4.3 Online Survey Results

The major data collection effort for this research was an online survey of cycling tourists. The Survey Monkey tool was used for survey distribution and, after completion, for the extraction of some key graphics and basic analysis of the responses. The target audience for the survey was road riders and mountain bikers, both recreational and competitive. The survey was self- completed and, apart from a few mandatory questions, respondents were able to skip parts of the survey if they were not relevant to their interests. The survey link was distributed through email communications used by various cycling groups and event managers across Australia but concentrated initially in the ACT and NSW.

The structure of the survey instrument was in total 42 questions across 7 parts as follows:

1. Introduction and Background 2. Cycling Participation and Cycling Pursuits - 7 questions 3. Motivations for Cycling and Cycling Related Travel – 7 questions 4. Destination Preferences – 5 questions 5. Use of Online Technology for Destination Choice – 15 questions 6. Personal Information – 8 questions 7. Conclusion and Thanks 128

It was important for the outcomes of this research that respondents understood that the questions in parts 3, 4 and 5 were related to travel outside their home region and not as commuters within their home town or city. Thus the questionnaire stated specifically:

“In the questions below ‘travel’ or travel outside your local region includes both day trips (longer than 50km) and overnight trips.“

The lead in to most travel related questions stated:

“When you travel outside you home region…” or “When you travel with cycling as one of your motivations…”

From the focus groups and pilot surveys, this seemed well understood and the data collected are related to cycling activities outside the home region of respondents as cycling tourists.

The full survey instrument is included as Appendix B.

4.3.1 Demographics of Survey Respondents

Overall the survey respondents were mostly male (67.4%) with 32.6% female. Gender differences across the cycling sectors are shown in Table 4.3 below. There are notable differences where 27.1% of mountain bikers were female with an even lower female representation in road or track racing (18.3%). Females comprised 37.1% of recreational riders.

What is your primary area of interest or activity in cycling?

Mountain Road or Track Gender Recreational Other Biking Racing Response Totals

62.9% 72.9% 81.7% 68.5% 67.4% Male (212) (51) (58) (61) (382) 37.1% 27.1% 18.3% 31.5% 32.6% Female (125) (19) (13) (28) (185

Table 4.3 - Gender and cycling sector 129

The survey was restricted to those over 18 years. The youngest group (18-25) was the least represented. Table 4.4 below shows the age profile of survey respondents, with an even spread across the ages form 25 to 65 years of age. The 7.2% of over 65 year olds is still a good sampling of this group.

Answer Options Response Percent

Under 18 0.0%

18-25 1.0% 26-35 14.1% 36-45 22.0%

46-55 30.1% 56-65 25.6% Over 65 7.2%

Table 4.4 - Age distribution of survey respondents

The majority of respondents (64.5%) were in full time employment with only 3.8% unemployed and 14.6% retired. The vast majority (82%) earned over $50,000 p.a. and a sizable proportion (56.2%) were earning over $75,000 p.a. Whilst these cycle tourists were generally well positioned for employment and income, not surprisingly they were well qualified too, with 69% with at least a Bachelor’s degree and 29.2% with higher degrees, as shown in Tables 4.5 and 4.6 below.

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What is your highest academic qualification?

Answer Response Percent Options High school 10.1% CIT certificate 5.9% Diploma 14.9% Bachelor degree 39.7% Masters or Ph D 29.5% Table 4.5 - Qualification levels

Are you presently in paid employment? If you are in paid employment, what is your current salary or income level (pre tax)?

Response Answer Answer Options Response Percent Percent Options Less than $25,000 3.8% Not currently 3.8% $25,000 - $50,000 14.3% Full time 64.8% $50,001 - $75 000 25.8% Part time 12.1% $75,001-$100,000 29.0% Casual 4.7% More than Retired 14.6% 27.2% $100,000

Table 4.6 - Employment status and income

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In relation to family situation, respondents were mostly in long term relationships with 77.8% either married or in long-term relationships with only 22% single. In contrast to this 62.9% did not currently have children living with them with the remainder having children still at home, as shown in Table 4.7 below.

Answer Options Response Percent

None 62.9% 1 13.1% 2 17.6% 3 5.4% 4+ 1.0%

Table 4.7 - Children at home

4.3.2 Comparison with other demographic data

The demographics of this group of cyclists can be compared to data collected by others about the general population of Australia and about cyclists. The Australian Sports Commission collects annual data on participation levels in sport and recreation in Australia which covers a large proportion of the Australian population (The ERASS annual reports). It reports demographic data across the whole survey sample and also for specific sports or recreational activity, including cycling activity. The 2009 data (Australian Sports Commission, 2010) was collected at about the same time as the survey data in this thesis. In addition, a survey of cyclists carried out by Faulks, Ritchie and Brown (2008) had a similar sample size to this research, collected in a similar timeframe. Some comparisons with these data are reported below.

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Gender

ERASS ERASS Faulks, Gender General Cycling Ritchie & Brown This survey n=8,201,000 n=1,901,300 n=564 n=658

Male 46.4% 66.7% 63% 67.4%

Female 53.6% 33.3% 37% 32.6%

Table 4.8 - Gender across the population As shown in Table 4.8, the ERASS survey in 2009 covered over 8 million Australians of which 1.9 million indicated they were regular cyclists. Of interest here is that across the whole survey 53.6% were female but across the 3 cycling specific data sets males were consistently in the majority (between 63% and 68%).

Age profile

Age ERASS general ERASS cycling Faulks, Ritchie & Brown This survey

15-24 18.4 12.5 3.5 1.0% 25-35 16.4 19.2 18.7 14.1% 36-45 18.1 29.2 27.3 22.0% 46-55 17.4 21.3 30.7 30.1% 56-65 14.9 11.6 16.7 25.6% Over 65 14.8 5.7 3 7.2%

Table 4.9 - Age distribution across survey data sets 133

There are some notable differences across the data from the different surveys. In relation to age profiles, as shown in Table 4.9, the ERASS samples have captured a larger proportion of younger people (around 32% under 35) compared with Faulks, Ritchie and Brown (2008) at 22.2% and this survey at 15.1%. Both the ERASS data sets have captured an even spread across the age groups, whilst Faulks, Ritchie and Brown and this thesis survey data have had a larger response from older cyclists. The ERASS cycling participant data shows only 17.3% over 55, which accords well with Faulks, Ritchie and Brown at 21.7% but this survey has 32.8% over 55. This survey thus has captured a larger group of older respondents, and less under 35, however the fairly even spread from 25 through to 65 gives some confidence in the value of the data presented.

Qualification levels

ERASS Faulks, Answer general Ritchie and This survey Options Brown High school 21.1 2.1 10.1% CIT certificate 13.4 2.1 5.9% Diploma 7.9 8.3 14.9% Bachelor degree 29.2 41.7 39.7% Masters or PhD 43.8 29.5%

Table 4.10 - Qualification levels across survey data sets

Table 4.10 summarises qualification data. In this category, the ERASS data do not cover cycling participants specifically but does give a good general picture of the Australian population with over 8 million people covered. What stands out here is that from Faulks, Ritchie and Brown, and this thesis, a large proportion of the cyclists surveyed have higher qualifications. Over 80% of Faulks, Ritchie and Brown respondents had university qualifications and from this survey 134

nearly 70% were university qualified, compared to the general population at only 29%. From this survey 10% had only high school completion compared to the general population at 21%.

Employment

Faulks, Ritchie and Brown did not collect employment data and the ERASS data have a slightly different categorisations and did not cover cycling participants for this category, however, a useful comparison can be made between these data and the general population captured through ERASS as shown in table 4.11 below. By comparison to the general population, as captured by ERASS, the cyclists in this survey were much more likely to be in full employment, and much less likely to be unemployed or retired.

ERASS Answer Options This survey general Full time 41.7 64.8% Part time or casual 25.3 16.8% Unemployed or Retired 32.4 18.4%

Table 4.11 - Comparison of employment categories Income levels The ERASS data do not capture income information however, as would be expected from the qualification levels of respondents in both the Faulks, Ritchie and Brown data and this survey, around 30% of both the survey respondents in this thesis and Faulks, Ritchie and Brown respondents earn over $100 000 per annum, and only about 4% earn under $25,000 per annum.

Children at home As can be seen from Table 4.12 below there is good consistency from the general population captured by ERASS to both Faulks, Ritchie and Brown and these data with around 60% of households not having children presently living in the home.

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ERASS Faulks, Ritchie Answer Options This survey general and Brown None at home 57.5 63.5 62.9 One or more at home 26 36.5 37.1 Table 4.12 – Comparison of children at home data

4.3.3 Cycling Interests of Survey Respondents

As illustrated in Table 4.13 below, in this survey the majority (58.7%) of the respondents identified recreational cycling as their prime area of interest or activity, with mountain biking at 11.7%, road or track racing at 13.6% and other interest (primarily commuting by bicycle) at 16%. The respondents were experienced cyclists with 72% having been involved in their cycling pursuits for over 6 years and only 10% for less than 2 years.

What is your primary area of interest or For how many years have you been involved activity in cycling? in your cycling area of primary interest?

Answer Options Response Percent Response Answer Options Percent Recreational 58.7% Less than 1 year 0.6% Mountain Biking 11.7% 1-2 years 9.6% Road or Track 13.6% 3-5 years 17.8% Racing 6-10 years 21.5% BMX racing 0.0% 11 years+ 50.5% BMX freestyle 0.0% Other 16.0%

Table 4.13 - Cycling interests and time involved

As shown in Table 4.14 below, over 70% of respondents participated in more than one type of cycling, with 26.1% identifying mountain biking as a secondary pursuit. Overall the majority of respondents owned road bikes (62.3%) but interestingly 56.3% own a mountain bike, as shown in Table 4.15 below. 136

Apart from your primary area of interest do you participate in other cycling sectors at times?

Answer Options Response Percent

No 27.8% Recreational 34.8% Mountain Biking 26.1% Road and Track racing 10.8% BMX racing 0.2% BMX freestyle 0.4% Other 22.5% Table 4.14 – Cycling interest other than prime interests

What type of bike/bikes do you own (you can choose more than one)?

Response Response Answer Options Percent Count Touring 30.7% 201 Hybrid 30.7% 201 Road 62.3% 408 Track 5.8% 38 MTB 56.3% 369 BMX 1.5% 10 Recumbent 2.4% 16 Other 15.4% 101

Table 4.15 – Bicycle ownership by type

One of the key issues raised in this research was whether the different age profiles of cyclists may impact on how they use technology. Table 4.16 below is an analysis of the age profiles of survey respondents linked to their primary cycling interests. This shows that 71.7% of 137

recreational riders were over 46 years of age, whereas 64.3% of mountain bikers were under 45 years old. 42 % of road and track racers were under 45 Years old. Thus, in general, mountain bikers are a much younger group of riders.

What is your primary area of interest or activity in cycling?

Mountain Road or Track Age group Recreational Other Biking Racing Response Totals

0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% Under 18 (0) (0) (0) (0) (0) 0.6% 1.4% 1.4% 2.2% 1.1% 18-25 (2) (1) (1) (2) (6) 10.1% 32.9% 12.7% 18.0% 14.5% 26-35 (34) (23) (9) (16) (82) 17.8% 30.0% 28.2% 27.0% 22.0% 36-45 (60) (21) (20) (24) (125) 28.8% 28.6% 29.6% 34.8% 29.8% 46-55 (97) (20) (21) (31) (169) 32.9% 4.3% 23.9% 14.6% 25.4% 56-65 (111) (3) (17) (13) (144) 9.8% 2.9% 4.2% 3.4% 7.2% Over 65 (33) (2) (3) (3) (41

Table 4.16 – Age and cycling interests

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What would be the replacement value of your bike/s?

Answer More than less than $500 $1001-$3000 Options $501-1000 $3000 6.8% 16.0% 56.2% 21.0% Touring 15 35 123 46 15.4% 52.8% 29.7% 2.1% Hybrid 30 103 58 4 2.8% 8.6% 40.3% 48.4% Road 11 34 159 191 2.5% 12.5% 62.5% 22.5% Track 1 5 25 9 10.0% 21.1% 43.0% 25.6% MTB 35 75 151 90 35.7% 50.0% 7.1% 7.1% BMX 5 7 1 1 26.7% 73.3% 0 0 Recumbent 4 11 17.1% 14.6% 26.6% 31.7% Other 21 18 45 39

Table 4.17 - Value of bicycles

The most interesting aspect of Table 4.17 is that road riders spend considerably more than others on their bicycles with nearly half (48.4%) spending more than $3000 on their bicycles. By comparison, 25.6% of mountains bikers spent more than $3000 on their bicycles. The cheapest bikes in this group are the hybrids, generally used by commuters or casual riders, with 68.2 % being valued at less than $1000. The more serious touring cyclists spend more with 77.2% spending over $1000. As shown in Table 4.18 below, 34.3% of these riders also spend over $500 per year on cycling clothing and equipment.

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How much would you spend on average each year on cycling clothing and equipment?

Answer Options Response Percent

Less than $100 8.1% $101-$300 29.9% $301-$500 27.7% $501-$1000 17.6% Over $1000 16.7%

Table 4.18 - Spend on cycling equipment

As shown in table 4.19, the majority of the respondents to the survey (77.3%) were members of cycling clubs at the time of the survey. Of these (a total of 500 answered the question by identifying their club) the highest representation (25%) were members of Bicycle NSW, followed by Pedal Power ACT with 13.8% then Bicycle Victoria with 13%. ACT Veterans club had 5% and AUDAX Australia 2.8%.

Are you a member of any cycling clubs or associations?

Response Answer Options Percent No 22.7% Yes 77.3%

Table 4.19 - Cycle club membership

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4.3.4 Motivations of Cycling Tourists

In exploring the motivations of cycling tourists, the online survey sought general information about cyclists such as their means of travel, regional preferences, length of stay and group composition. This information provides the setting for the more in depth questions about motivations including attractors in the way of events and facilities and their accommodation and safety needs.

The third research question posed in this study asked if the different demographics of four major cycling sectors give rise to different motivations for travel and thus different use of technology in destination choice?

In addition the supplementary questions were posed: • Are good cycling facilities at a location a key driver in destination choice? • Are major events a key driver? • Is social interaction with other riders or locals important?

The conceptual model for cyclists’ travel motivations presented at Figure 1.3 in Chapter 1 is reproduced below as context for these questions. The model draws together Moscardo’s concept of activities (events) in relation to cycling based activities and the push and pull factors identified by Weaver and Lawton (2006), but placing these more specifically in a cycling perspective. The data below summarise responses to the survey exploring this model.

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Push Factors Pull Factors

Events Social needs Organised tours Safety Facilities Challenge Accessibility Competitions Transport Advice from friends Accommodation Cycle club influence

Information to Cycling Tourist Decision to travel

Events Cycle routes, surfaces and profiles Road safety Trails, MTB courses, BMX ramps Information Cycle friendly accommodation, bike about the shops Destination Cycle transportation services, Accessibility by bike Climate/weather Experience the Destination

Feedback

Figure 1.3 Destination choice and information search model for cycling tourist

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A considerable number of cyclists travel often to pursue their cycling interests. From this group 18.8% of survey respondents travelled more than 6 times a year, as shown in Table 4.20 below. The vast majority of cycling tourists take their own bike when travelling, as also shown in Table 4:15 below, with 42.2% always taking their own bike. This correlates well with the means of transport for cyclists (see Table 4.16) to get to their destination with the most popular method is to use their own car to get to destination. Thus most cyclists travel in their own car to a destination and take their own bicycles. Table 4.21 shows that a significant proportion of cyclists travel by bike to their destination with 75% sometimes using their bike to get to a destination. Airline travel with bikes is also significant with 77% sometimes taking their bikes by plane. The visibility of bike boxes at airport check in counters is a noticeable trend in recent times.

When you travel outside you home How often each year would you travel region do you take your own bike with with cycling as a major part of your you? reason for travel?

Answer Options Response Percent Answer Options Response Percent Never 4.4% Always 42.2% 1-5 times per year 76.8% Sometimes 54.5% 6-10 times per year 13.0% Never 3.3% More than ten times per 5.8% year

Table 4.20 - Use of own bike and frequency of travel

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When travelling with cycling as one of your motivations for your travel how would you generally get to your destination?

Answer Rating Never Occasionally Quite often Always Options Average By bike 131 243 128 12 2.04 Own Car 41 109 340 108 2.86 Hire car 297 91 18 1 1.32 Airline 121 270 134 10 2.06 Rail 176 231 76 3 1.81 Bus 321 107 8 0 1.28

When travelling with cycling as one of your motivations for your travel how would you generally get to your destination?

Bus

Rail

Airline

Hire car

Own Car

By bike By bike B 0.00 0.50 1.00 1.50 2.00 2.50 3.00 3.50

Factor values – highest is most popular Table 4.21 - Travel means to destination

Most cycling tourists travel with a partner, and a considerable number travel in small groups, as shown in Table 4.22 below. A significant proportion travel alone, with 72% reporting that they sometimes travel alone. A quite sizeable proportion (60%) occasionally travel in large groups with a group of friends or on organised tours. 144

When you go on a trip with cycling as one of your motivations would you generally travel with other people?

Rating Answer Options Never Occasionally Quite Often Always Average Alone 147 209 143 32 2.11 With a partner 81 146 216 126 2.68 In a small group 62 244 235 39 2.43 (3-10 people) With a large group (more than 206 237 65 5 1.74 10 people)

Table 4.22 - Travel party composition

Most travelling cyclists enjoy being away for 1-7 days, as shown in Table 4.23 below. It is of note, however, that over 50% of survey respondents occasionally stay away on their cycling trips for more than 14 days. Whilst there is an even spread of travel destinations across local, with State and Interstate travel destinations, as shown in Table 4.24, it is again of note that over 57% of respondents, travel overseas occasionally.

When you travel with cycling as one of your motivations how long would you generally stay away for?

Rating Answer Options Never Occasionally Quite often Always Average 1 day 83 213 211 12 2.29 2 days 63 267 202 4 2.27 3-7 days 64 299 190 13 2.27 8-14 days 159 268 87 6 1.88 More than 14 days 243 200 54 8 1.66

Table 4.23 - Time spent on a cycling trip

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When you travel with cycling as one of your motivations where would you most likely spend your time away?

Answer Rating Never Occasionally Quite often Always Options Average Local region 51 220 258 20 2.45 Within my own 34 218 307 22 2.55 state Interstate 66 323 198 9 2.25 Overseas 182 318 49 10 1.80

Table 4.24 - Travel destination for cycling

4.3.5 Accommodation Preferences for Cycling Tourists

As shown in Table 4.25 below, the most popular accommodation option for the respondents to this survey was in a hotel/motel, but almost equally popular was to stay with friends and relatives or in self contained cabin, flat or apartment. Again, of some note, is that over 20% of these cyclists regularly carry camping gear on their bikes, and over 50% sometimes carry camping gear on their bike.

In relation to cyclists’ needs in the way of facilities associated with accommodation, Table 4.26 summarises these needs, with secure bike storage significantly the most important and the provision of bike racks the least important. There is little interest in having onsite meal service at accommodation venues, and interestingly good coffee is important to 39% of these cyclists.

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When you travel with cycling as part of your reason for the trip, what are your preferred accommodation options?

Rating Answer Options Never Occasionally Quite often Always Average Stay with friends or 119 302 115 10 2.03 relatives Camping by car 230 191 101 2 1.76 Camping by bike 253 177 97 10 1.75 Caravan or camper 395 79 33 4 1.31 trailer Cabin 133 307 89 2 1.92 Backpackers/hostel 268 196 55 1 1.59 Self contained 117 257 164 8 2.12 cabin/flat/apartment Hotel/motel 87 303 161 14 2.18 My own property 408 55 20 1 1.20 Table 4.25 - Accommodation preferences on a cycling trip

When choosing accommodation how important are the following features in relation to your cycling needs?

Most Not very Not at all Rating Answer Options Important Relevant Important important important Average Bike storage 97 221 166 82 32 2.55 Bike racks 22 72 140 209 117 3.58 Security of 178 222 125 48 26 2.20 storage Onsite meals 26 121 186 195 61 3.24 Clothes washing and drying 41 193 198 117 44 2.88 facilities Good coffee 91 138 118 104 142 3.11 Table 4.26 - Desired accommodation features in relation to cycling 147

4.3.6 The Attractors for Cycling Tourists

The premise that cycling events are major attractors for cycling tourists is not well supported in this survey, with more than 55% indicating racing or competition is not at all important in their decision making. Figure 4.1 below is a graphic depiction of the responses on motivational factors. Challenge events had more attraction with around 30% indicating this is an important factor for them, however the most important factor by a considerable margin factor is cycling for fun or recreation. Social interaction with other cyclists is important to more than 60% of these cyclists.

What is your motivation for cycling when you travel outside your local area?

700 600 500 Most important Important 400 Relevant 300 Not very important 200 Not at all important 100

Number of respondents of respondents Number 0 Racing or Challenge Recreation or Fitness Social competition events just for fun interaction with others

Figure 4.1 - Motivation for travel by cycling tourists

A significant factor in choosing a cycling destination is a safe cycling environment. 83 % of survey respondents identified this as an important factor for them, as shown in Table 4.27 below. All of the six factors listed were important to riders, but somewhat surprisingly the scenic beauty of a region was the second most important factor.

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In choosing a destination for your cycling related travel how do you rate the following features?

Other attractions in the area

Availability of suitable accomodation

Scenic beauty of the area

The weather in the region Safe cycling environment at the location Accessibility to the area by bike

0.00 0.50 1.00 1.50 2.00 2.50 3.00

Factor values – lowest is most important Most Not very Not at all Rating Answer Options Important Relevant important important important Average Accessibility to the 151 257 103 63 16 2.21 area by bike Safe cycling environment at the 211 288 85 17 4 1.87 location The weather in the 61 291 197 47 5 2.41 region Scenic beauty of the 150 328 108 15 4 2.00 area Availability of suitable 89 321 155 26 9 2.24 accommodation Other attractions in 36 216 248 79 16 2.70 the area Table 4.27 - Desired destination features in relation to cycling 149

When choosing a cycling destination for your travels how important are the following?

Most Not very Not at all Rating Answer Options Important Relevant important important important Average An organised 54 143 172 135 93 3.12 cycling event A closed race 2 25 51 102 402 4.51 circuit A velodrome for 4 9 16 73 476 4.74 track racing Safe on road riding 192 244 136 18 14 2.04 Rail or recreational trails without motor 109 202 159 82 42 2.57 traffic Marked off road 51 104 111 110 205 3.54 MTB trails BMX track 1 2 7 64 502 4.85 BMX 1 1 8 53 509 4.87 ramps/skatepark Challenging (hilly) 29 104 206 99 144 3.39 terrain

Challenging (hilly) terrain BMX ramps/skatepark BMX track Marked off road MTB trails Rail or recreational trails without motor Safe on road riding A velodrome for track racing A closed race circuit An organised cycling event 0.00 1.00 2.00 3.00 4.00 5.00 6.00

Table 4.28 - Desired cycling facilities at destination for cycling 150

The importance of cycling infrastructure in a region is the subject explored in Table 4.28 above. Again safe on road riding is by far the most important aspect of the cycling infrastructure here, with 72% of riders indicating this is important to them with 32% saying it was the most important factor. In line with this aspect is the second most important factor, being traffic free recreational trails, with 52.3% identifying this as important. Challenging (hilly) terrain is important for 22% of riders, but relevant to another 35%. The views of mountain bikers are evident in this table with 26% of all respondents indicating marked mountain bike trails as being important, and another 19% saying this is relevant to them. Organized cycling events are important to 33% of these riders and relevant to another 29%. Hard facilities such as a velodrome, or BMX track were considered as a factor by only a very few riders.

4.3.7 Information Sources for Cycling Tourists

Before examining cyclists’ interests in online data sources, respondents were asked to rate the importance of their information sources, including some website options. Table 4.29 below is a summary of the results from this question.

Some interesting outcomes from these responses include:

• General travel agents were by far the least important source with only 5% thinking they were important.

• All other listed sources were considered relevant information sources by a majority of respondents.

• A little surprisingly, given their businesses are built on cycle tourism, cycle tour operators were the second least popular source of information, with only 22.1% saying they were important.

• The most important sources for choosing a cycling destination were cycling websites, with 65.8% saying this was important or most important.

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• As the most popular sources, slightly behind cycling websites, came cycling publications such as maps and brochures, and advice from fellow cyclists by word of mouth or through cycling clubs. Cycling publications were considered important by 58.6% and advice from fellow cyclists was rated important by 59.2%.

• Knowledge from previous visits is certainly an important factor with 57.2% rating this important.

• Advice from friends and relatives rated highly with 44.2% thinking this was important. Cycling magazines were rated important by 47.6%.

• General tourism sources were still rated important sources with 42.3% rating tourism websites as important, Tourism Information Centres were rated important by 33.3% and general tourism guides were thought important by 26.9%.

In respect to this research, the rating of the importance of online sources from this general list of sources is quite revealing. Cycling websites were rated as being relevant (or higher in importance) by 92.7 % of respondents and general tourism websites were similarly rated as relevant or higher by 78.7%.

The questions later in the survey explored these online sources in more detail, and are reported in Chapters 5 and 6. 152

In choosing a cycling destination for your travels what information sources do you use?

Most Not very Not at all Rating Answer Options Important Relevant Important important important Average Knowledge from 52 287 208 35 11 2.44 previous visits Friends or 31 228 213 79 34 2.76 relatives Fellow cyclists (word of mouth or 71 284 191 36 17 2.41 club members) Cycling magazines 39 241 209 70 29 2.68 Other cycling publications 81 262 188 38 16 2.39 (maps, brochures) Cycle tour 23 105 154 181 115 3.45 operators Cycling websites 114 277 160 33 10 2.24 General tourism 48 201 214 91 34 2.77 websites Tourist information 32 162 224 118 46 2.97 centres General travel 0 30 88 195 267 4.21 agents Tourism guides (e.g. Lonely 26 131 185 130 111 3.29 planet)

Table 4.29 - Information sources for cycling destinations

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4.3.8 Use of Online Technologies

The primary focus for this research is how cyclists use online technologies to help choose their cycling destinations, thus this section of the survey is the most important in searching for answers to the key research questions posed.

This Chapter provides an overview of the responses to the questions posed, however in depth analysis will be presented in Chapters 5 and 6 of this thesis. Chapter 5 will examine the use of websites and online maps by cycle tourists, whilst Chapter 6 will look at the role of social networking and blogs in destination choice.

As shown at Table 4.30 below, an overwhelming 96.3% of the cyclists surveyed use these technologies to help choose their destination.

Do you use online technologies such as the internet, websites or social networking to help with your choice of destination for cycling related travel? Answer Response Percent Options Yes 96.3% No 3.7%

Table 4.30 - Cyclists use of online technologies

As shown in Figure 4.2 below most respondents (68%) used a home desktop computer to access the internet, however at the time of the survey (2010), 38% accessed the internet through an office desktop computer whilst 48% used a laptop or netbook computer, indicating that many are mobile and using the technology whilst mobile. In this survey only 8.8% (in 2010) used a smart phone to access the internet.

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What is your normal means of accessing the internet or online sources vey

r when looking at cycling travel options? Su 80.0% to

70.0%

st 60.0% n 50.0% de

n 40.0% 30.0%

espo 20.0% 10.0% f R

o 0.0%

% Laptop Internet libraries cafes or home smart office/ Netbook Mobile phone) workplace Desktop at Desktop at Means of Access device (e.g

Figure 4.2 - Means of accessing the internet

A lead in question about use of online technology was employed to explore cyclists’ use of specific online technologies. Table 4.31 below details the answers provided. The high rating of general internet searches was significant with 48.9% using these often and 23.2 % always using this means. The standout feature of this table was the extensive use of online maps with some 58.2% using these either always or often. Noting the survey was mostly carried out during 2010, social networking rated quite low in this question with 79.3% never using this technology to seek travel information. Emailed communications from subscribed organizations were occasionally used by 44.7% and often used by 30.4%. In contrast to the use of social networking tools, cycling related blogs and chat rooms were very popular with some 33.9% using them occasionally and 24.1% often using them.

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Do you use any of the following in seeking information about your travel destinations?

Rating Answer Options Never Occasionally Often Always Average General internet searches (i.e relevant tourism or cycling 11 154 289 137 2.93 websites) Social networks (Facebook, 457 98 16 5 1.25 Twitter, myspace, etc) Online maps (e.g Google earth) 58 186 226 115 2.68 Emailed newsletters from 144 259 161 15 2.08 subscribed sources Cycling related blogs,wikis or chat 242 197 115 26 1.87 rooms

Cycling related blogs,wikis or chat rooms

Emailed newsletters from subscribed sources

Online maps (e.g Google earth)

Social networks (Facebook, twitter, myspace, etc)

General internet searches (i.e relevant tourism or cycling websites)

0.00 1.00 2.00 3.00 4.00 Factor values - highest most important

Table 4.31 - Cyclists use of online technologies

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4.3.9 Online Maps and Cycling Tourists

Nine questions in the survey addressed issues related to the use of online mapping tools by cycling tourists. Figure 4.3 below illustrates that nearly 75% of respondents to this survey used online maps in their destination choice decision making.

" #!! ' & ( #! #!# %

No Yes 0)&03

Figure 4.3 - Cyclists and online map use

The other questions posed were:

1. If you have used online mapping tools, which would you recommend to others? 2. If you use online maps for investigating your potential cycling destination what are the main features that you are seeking or value the most? 3. Do you have some favorite cycling related websites that you would recommend to other cyclists in your cycling discipline? 4. In seeking information from online sources what information do you look for? 5. Do you have some favorite websites that you find useful for general tourism information? Would you recommend these to others? 6. Do you own or use GPS enabled devices (smart phone or GPS navigation device)? 157

7. If you own a GPS enabled device, do you use it at all whilst cycling?

The responses to these questions and further analysis are presented in Chapter 5 of this thesis.

4.4 Data Discovery

In addition to the focus groups and the online survey a number of other data sources have provided some important insights to the research questions posed. Analysis of some cycling websites and online mapping sites is reported in Chapter 5 and a review of cycling blogs is reported in Chapter 6. Reported below are some outcomes from research undertaken by the author into Cycle Tourism in the Capital Region around Canberra (Puniard, 2011), which are relevant to the research questions posed in this research.

4.4.1 Research in the Capital Region

The survey went “live” in March 2010 and ran through until July 2010, with some additional data from Goulburn and the ACT captured in November and December 2010.

The survey included 21 questions in 3 sections. • Section 1 covered reasons for travel, composition of groups and cycling interests. • Section 2 covered means of travel, activities at destination and spending profiles. • Section 3 collected basic demographics of age, gender, employment and home location.

The survey for the Capital Region project was dominated by responses from mountain bike riders (MTB) with over 80% stating this is their preferred activity. This is in contrast to the online survey conducted for this study where the majority of riders were recreational or road riders. This outcome is partly related to the survey collection approach where mountain bike events were targeted and groups travelling to Canberra specifically for mountain biking were responding to the online survey. The links to the survey on the Stromlo Forest Park website was most likely used by mountain bike riders who were seeking information about Stromlo Forest Park. However it is apparent from both the responses to the survey and the event data collected, 158

that the Capital Region, and the ACT in particular, are very popular with MTB enthusiasts. It is of note too that very little research has been conducted in the realm of mountain biking so these data are a very useful addition to the cycle tourism research spectrum.

4.4.2 Selected Outcomes from the Survey

Taking into account the size of parties travelling with survey respondents, in total 600 people were covered by the survey.

In looking at the profiles of respondents to this particular survey they are: • Largely male (78%) in the age range of 26-45 (67%); • Mostly from NSW (76%) (Sydney?); • In full employment (85%) with 50% earning more than $75,000 per annum; • 37% travelled with partner and 40% in a group of 3 or more.

These outcomes largely conform with the results of the major survey carried out specifically for this thesis. In this survey males were 67% (c.f. 78%) of the sample. 65% (c.f. 85%) were in full employment and 53% (c.f.50%) were earning over $75,000 per annum. However, the age cohort is significantly different with only 36% (c.f.67%) in the 26-45 year age range, and travel groups were also quite different with over 60% (c.f.37%) travelling with a partner and 55% (c.f.40%) in groups of 3 or more. It would seem that the ACT group was largely mountain bikers and they were younger and more inclined to travel alone. The relatively high income level for these cyclists was confirmed.

Bearing in mind that cyclists were targeted specifically in this survey it is not surprising that 64% identified that cycling was the major reason for their visit. It is of note that: • 20 % of visitors hired a bike and 73% were happy with that bike; • Over 80% came with Mountain Bikes with 20% doing road or recreational cycling; • 17% were visiting friends and relatives; • 18% came for leisure or holidays; • Only 10% identified specifically a cycling event as the major reason for their visit.

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When they came to the Region: • they mostly came by car (88%) ; • over 63% stayed 2 nights or more; • 40% stayed in hotel/motel/apartment accommodation; • 30% stayed with friends or relatives; • those attending 24 hr events camped on site.

In comparing these data to the major survey results, it is confirmed that most cyclists travel by car to a destination with their own bicycles (88% here and 80% in the main survey) and that they mostly stay in hotel/motel/apartment accommodation (40% here and over 50% in the main survey).

In addition to their cycling activity the ACT visitors: • used cafes and restaurants (84%), and • visited nature reserves or national parks (50%).

Noting the dominance of MTB respondents and the fact that most travelled specifically to the ACT (88%) it is not surprising that: • 66% visited Stromlo Forest park; • 49% visited Sparrows Mountain Bike Park (the Mont 24 hr race here was a factor in this response level); and, • 10% visited Thredbo and 8% used the trails around Bundanoon in the Southern Highlands during their trip.

The popularity of the path around Lake Burley Griffin in Canberra is evidenced by the 38% who rode this route.

The other notable outcome of this study was its examination of the Economic Impacts of Cycle Tourism in the Capital Region. Data taken from the National Visitors Survey (Tourism Australia, 2009) showed that the total spend in 2009 by holiday cyclists to the ACT was some $26 million. Whilst for these visitors cycling may not have been the prime reason for their visit it has been a significant factor in their choice to travel to the ACT. Excluding the one off 2008 World Cup and 2009 World Championship MTB events, the annual calendar of cycling events across the Capital 160

Region presently attracts some 16,000 visitors participating in cycling events with an economic impact in the Region of some $4.5 million. From the survey data (Puniard, 2011) these visitors are definitely on Cycling Holidays where cycling is the main purpose of their visit to the region.

In respect to the spending patterns of respondents, the average spend per person, per day was $199, somewhat below the figure from the National Visitors’ Survey for cyclists in the ACT ($236). This can be attributed to the fact that a significant number of respondents were visiting friends and relatives and a number camped out for the Mont 24 hour event. Thus the accommodation element ($65 per day average) was lower than expected, however the Food and Beverage element is significant at $55 per day and fuel and transport at $34 per day. Of note is the $20 per day spent on bike related expenses.

In summary this Survey has shown that the Region (and the ACT especially) is an important location for Mountain Biking with all MTB locations well regarded. This snapshot provides useful data in considering any marketing efforts.

4.5 Cycling Events as Tourism Attractors

The tourism literature recognises that special events are key tourism attractors. Shone and Parry (2004) identify events for leisure, sport or recreation, as one of four significant sectors in tourism events. Van Der Wagen (2007) identifies sports events as a major contributor in the tourism spectrum. Getz (2007) has published widely on event development and management. He notes that sports events are major tourism attractors but notes also that recreational events or activities are more focussed locally and do not become major tourism attractors. Allen et al (2008) have noted that the ability of sports events “to attract tourist visitors and to generate media coverage and economic impacts has placed them at the fore of most government event strategies and destination marketing programs”.

Cycling events of many types are becoming genuine tourism attractors. In Table 4.23 above the respondents to the online survey identified organized cycling events as an important factor in their decision making about a destination. Cycling events are important to 33% of these riders and relevant to another 29%, so they are a factor in decision making for some 62% of riders 161

canvassed in the survey. In an Australian context, there are a number of events that attract large number of spectators and others that attract considerable numbers of participants.

The Tour Down Under, now in its eleventh year in Adelaide, attracted a total of 770,500 spectators over the period 17-24 January 2010. There were 39,700 event specific visitors from interstate and overseas to the event with an estimated $41.5 economic impact for Adelaide (South Australian Tourist Commission, 2010). Some “challenge” events around Australia that attract large numbers of riders and tourists include Around the Bay in a Day, Melbourne (16,000 participants), Sydney to Gong (10,000), Tour Down Under Community Ride (8,000) and Brisbane to Gold Coast (8,000).

A study by Lamont, Axelsen and Faulks (2008) of the Alpine Classic held in Bright, Victoria each January determined the direct economic impact on the region from just over 2,000 participants was $814,176, with total impact including non- participant visitors to the event estimated at $1.5 million. In announcing the deal to hold the National Road Cycling Championships the City of Ballarat has estimated an economic impact of $4 million per year for 6 years (City of Ballarat 2009).

In the Capital Region, the World Mountain Bike Championships held in Canberra in September 2009, had 2,500 international competitors with around 40,000 spectators over 5 days of the event, with an estimated $4 million economic impact on the local economy (ACT Government, 2010). One round of the Mountain Bike World Cup held in Canberra in 2008 attracted over 4,000 visitors with an economic impact of $867,560 (Faulks and Mules 2008). Moruya on the NSW south coast hosted the National Masters Cycling Championships in 2009 and 2010 with an estimated 1,200 visitors and an economic impact of over $300,000 in the region over one weekend (Eurobodalla Cyclist Club, 2009).

These “one off” events are complimented by several other annual events in the Capital Region. The combined impact of the Scott 24hr, Mont 24 hr and Individual 24 hr events is estimated at $360,000 each year. The new first time Capital Punishment event in 2010, despite terrible weather for its first running, attracted around 2,000 riders, many as visitors, with an economic impact estimated at $168,000. It has considerable potential to grow into a major tourism 162

attractor, whereas the 24 hour events (Scott and Mont) are limited presently to around 2,500 riders, but are fully subscribed shortly after the event entries open each year.

In the Southern Highlands Wild Horizons runs two very successful MTB challenge events based around its headquarters at Bundanoon. The 3 Ring Circus and the Highland fling are estimated to bring in around $730,000 to the Region. Entries for the Highland Fling (limited to 2,000 riders) were booked out the day after they were opened in 2010. The other outstanding performer in the Region is the MTB series of events held over summer at Thredbo with about 1600 visitors attracted to Thredbo for three events in 2010 and an estimated impact on Thredbo of $870 000.

For the Capital Region the major activities in the Road Racing category are the annual Canberra Tour, the Junior and Women’s Tour, and the Australian Junior Championships. Road racing events in the Region attract about 3,000 visitors each year with a combined economic impact of around $750,000 each year they are held. One off national events such as the National Masters held in 2009 (300+ participants and an equal number of accompanying persons) can have a significant impact in addition to the annual events.

Whilst BMX is a specialised sector of the cycle tourism market it has a significant impact on visitation when major events are hosted in the Region. BMX is now an Olympic competition event and has large numbers of participants across Australia. Two BMX events held in 2010 attracted over 1,800 visitors and had a combined economic impact of some $860,000. There are a number of BMX freestyle events held in the region which also attract a considerable number of visitors to use the excellent facilities available, but within the scope of this project it was not possible to measure the impact of these activities.

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4.6 Summary and Conclusion

Whilst this Chapter has examined a number of sources in relation to the research questions, the key issues relating the use of online technologies are addressed in Chapters 5 and 6 which address specifically the use of websites and online maps (Chapter 5) and Social Networking tools (Chapter 6). Chapter 7 brings the outcomes from these three data analysis chapters together in a summary leading to overall conclusions from the research. This Chapter has reported that the focus groups were a very useful mechanism for testing the validity of the survey questionnaire used as the major data collection tool for this research. The completion of a pilot survey by the focus group participants provided additional fine-tuning of the questionnaire. The focus groups also provided some useful in-depth insights into the use of online technologies by the participants. The focus groups reported an extensive use of websites and online mapping tools to plan and record rides undertaken as tourists. They used accommodation websites to plan and book accommodation before a trip and they indicated that Google Maps was their most used mapping site.

The results of the online survey show that the respondents were mostly recreational riders (58.7%) however mountain bikers (11.7%)and road or track racers (13.6%) were well represented. In addition 26% of non-mountain bikers said they participated in mountain biking as a secondary pursuit and 56% of all respondents said they owned a mountain bike. The survey has thus captured a cross section of cyclists in the two major sectors of road riding and mountain biking and confirmed that mountain biking as a significant sector in cycling generally.

The credibility of this group of respondents is confirmed by their experience as cyclists with 72% having been involved in their cycling pursuits for over 6 years and only 10% for less than 2 years. They travel with their bikes frequently. 18.8% of survey respondents reported travelling with their bikes more than 6 times a year. Thus the responses to the survey questions are based on considerable experience in riding and travelling with bicycles.

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This part of the survey also explored facilities and infrastructure needs of the respondents. Secure bike storage at their destination was a significant issue. Safe on road riding is by far the most important aspect of the cycling infrastructure identified, with 72% of riders indicating this is important to them. Traffic free recreational trails were important to 52.3% of respondents. The views of mountain bikers are evident here with 26% of all respondents indicating marked mountain bike trails were important to them. Organized cycling events were important to 33% of these riders and relevant to another 29%.

One of the questions raised in this research was the possible impact of age differences of the various groups of cyclists and what this may mean for their use of technology. It was somewhat expected that mountain bikers would be a younger group of riders and the analysis of the responses to the online survey has shown that 64.3% of mountain bikers were under 45 years old. By contrast 42 % of road and track racers were under 45 years old and only 28.3% of recreational riders were under 45 years of age.

The online survey has provided a vast amount of data across the full spectrum of cycling tourism issues. Not all questions and responses were directed at the research questions for this study, however they do provide the essential background information that places the key questions into full context. In comparing the demographics of the respondents to this survey to the general population and other cyclists, males are more represented across cycling generally with about 66% being males across three data sets. Across two data sets with similar sizes it would appear that cycling tourists are generally much higher qualified than the general population and have higher incomes. They are nearly twice as likely as the general population to be in full time employment. This provides an indication that these cyclists have a financial capacity to spend on cycling equipment and holiday pursuits in general. It may be an indicator also that these cyclists are more likely to be technology aware and have the income levels to ensure they have more reliable and regular access to this technology.

This Chapter reported on sources used by respondents to obtain information about prospective cycling destinations. They reported that general travel agents were the least important source with only 5% thinking they were important. A little surprisingly, given their businesses are built 165

on cycle tourism, cycle tour operators were the second least popular source of information, with only 22.1% saying they were important. The most important source for choosing a cycling destination was cycling websites, with 65.8% saying this was important or most important. Cycling publications such as maps and brochures, and advice from fellow cyclists by word of mouth or through cycling clubs were considered important sources of information, with cycling publications considered important by 58.6% and advice from fellow cyclists rated important by 59.2%. Knowledge from previous visits was also an important consideration with 57.2% rating this important. An overwhelming 96.3% of the cyclists surveyed used online technologies to help choose their destination. Cycling websites were rated as being relevant (or higher in importance) by 92.7 % of respondents and general tourism websites were similarly rated as relevant or higher by 78.7%.

The survey explored the use of specific online technologies. From these questions the use of general internet searches was significant with 48.9% using these often and 23.2 % always using this means. The use of online maps with 58.2% using these either always or often. Emailed communications from subscribed organizations were important being occasionally used by 44.7%. The use of social networking tools, cycling related blogs and chat rooms were quiet popular with some 33.9% using them occasionally.

Cycling events of many types were identified as being genuine tourism attractors. The respondents identified organized cycling events as being important to 33% of these riders and relevant to another 29%, so they are a factor in decision making for some 62% of riders.

The conceptual destination choice and information search model presented at Figure 1.3 shows a number of push and pull factors for cyclists. The above outcomes from this survey confirm that safety, challenge, competition and interaction with friends are important push factors for this group of cyclists. Likewise events, facilities and infrastructure and accommodation are confirmed as important pull factors. Chapter 7 makes some overall conclusions in relation this conceptual model taking the data analysis from the whole survey including outcomes reported in both Chapter 5 and 6.

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Whilst the focus groups and the online survey have provided the bulk of the data for this research some important additional information has been accessed in the data discovery process. The ACT survey data presented in the Chapter have provided some useful cross-referencing to the major data collection effort. The event data also presented in this chapter help to place this research into context, as it is shown that attendance at major cycling events can have a major economic impact on a region.

Chapters 5 and 6 to follow provide most of the data analysis specifically related to cyclist’s use of online technology. 167

Chapter 5 Cycling Websites and Maps

5.1 Introduction

In Chapter 4 of this thesis an overall picture of cycling tourists and their information needs has been presented. This Chapter explores the responses to the survey and other data relating specifically to websites, their content and online mapping for cyclists.

The key research questions addressed by this study are:

• What is the role and influence of online technology (the internet, online maps and social networking) and associated information sources in destination choice for cycle tourists?

• What information do cyclists seek through the use of online technology to assist in making destination choices for cycling related travel and how do they want it to be presented and accessed?

Thus the key questions that are explored in this Chapter go to the heart of these research questions and the conceptual model on information search that was proposed in Chapter 1.

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The internet, social networking and online technologies now encompass many aspects of the lives of most Australians. As identified in Chapter 1, 72.6% of Australians are current internet users, with 69% of users stating that for general information the internet is important or very important. The most recent survey of cycle tourists (Faulks et al 2008) showed that 53% of those surveyed used the internet in planning their holiday, the single most important source identified. The Tourism Motivation models identified in Chapter 2 do not address the role of modern online technology in choosing travel destinations. This is especially so for cycle tourists.

The result of the online survey conducted for this research has thrown some light on the use of online technologies by cyclists. As reported in Chapter 4 an overwhelming 96.3% of those cyclists who completed the survey use online technologies to help choose their destination. The survey has identified that cycling websites are the most important information source for potential cycle tourists.

In addition to the survey work for this research, extensive website searches have been carried out to identify key information content and recurring themes of cycling related websites, especially those with information relative to tourism. In particular, sites with mapping content and capability have been sought out in this process. Appendix A has a short listing of some of the better mapping websites that been explored with some comments on their content and presentation. This data discovery process underpinned the design of the online survey and has helped determine the usefulness of these tools in decision making by cycle tourists. This process has identified key features and presentation techniques of online maps targeted at cycle tourists. These aspects are discussed later in this Chapter.

Figure 1.4 (reproduced from Chapter 1) below presents the conceptual model which was put forward to illustrate the Information Flows for the Cycle Tourist about potential cycling destinations. Key sources of information, both traditional and online, are identified. Websites, and online maps are identified as key information sources in this model, and the information flows before and after travelling are incorporated. This Chapter investigates cyclists’ feedback through the survey and other sources on their use of online technology and their information needs through these specific sources.

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Cycling Tourist

Decision to go

Feedback

Online Friends Traditional Wikis

Maps Blogs

Facebook Guides

Youtube Brochures

Books SMS Travel to

Websites Advertising location

Maps Word of Mouth

Google Earth

Evaluate Information

Destination

Experience the location

Figure 1.4 Information Flows for the Cycling Tourist (reproduced from Chapter 1)

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5.2 Cycling Websites

With the proliferation of mobile devices such as notebooks, tablets and smart phones the internet is now accessible virtually anywhere, at any time. Websites are accessible and maps are available on these mobile devices and those linked to GPS are very powerful navigation and positioning tools for the tourist. Sigala (2004) introduced concepts like “cyberculture” and “cyberpsychology” to the lexicon, where individuals structure their lives around online technologies and cultures are now built around these. Brown and Chalmers (2003), when examining mobile technologies, proposed that “good tourist technologies are not only those that make the tourist more efficient, but that also make tourism more enjoyable.”

A number of researchers have examined how cycle tourists use online sources to gather information to assist in choice of destination for their cycling pursuits. More and more cyclists are going online for information about potential ride locations. In their report on Destination Marketing for South Australia, Faulks et al (2008) have identified that 53% of cycle tourists used the internet as a prime source of information and 37% obtained their information from cycling clubs or organisations. Brochures and travel guides/books were used by 23% of their respondents. Lamont and Causley (2010) have examined map content and directional signage needs of independent cycle tourists.

5.3 Results from Online Survey

In relation to information content, the online survey respondents rated cycling websites as being relevant (or higher in importance) by 92.7 % of respondents and general tourism websites were similarly rated as relevant or higher by 78.7%.

The following questions in the survey explored these online sources in more detail:

1. Do you have some favourite cycling related websites that you would recommend to other cyclists in your cycling discipline? 2. In seeking information from online sources what information do you look for?

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3. Do you have some favourite websites that you find useful for general tourism information? Would you recommend these to others? 4. Do you own or use GPS enabled devices (smart phone or GPS navigation device)? 5. If you own a GPS enabled device, do you use it at all whilst cycling?

5.3.1 Favourite Cycling Websites

In responding to the question “Do you have some favourite cycling related websites that you would recommend to other cyclists in your cycling discipline?” 180 respondents (27.6%) replied that they would recommend sites to other cyclists. Table 5.1 below summarises the websites identified. Amongst the top ten sites identified, four are related to cycling organisations. The organisations with the most popular websites are:

• Bicycle Victoria is the largest cycling organisation in Australia with over 40 000 members, so it is not surprising that their website is well patronized by members and the general cycling population. Their website provides comprehensive information about cycling in Victoria and many ride opportunities in organised events, group rides or individual touring. • Pedal Power is the recreational cycling club in the ACT with over 3000 members, and their website provides a great deal of information about cycling in the ACT and region and group and individual ride opportunities in the region. • The Canberra Off Road Cyclists (CORC) site is aimed at Mountain Bikers in the ACT and region, and their website provides extensive information about Mountain Biking (MTB) routes in the ACT region as well as general MTB information. • Audax is the Australian cycling organisation that caters for long distance cyclists. Their website has information about groups spread across Australia and ride opportunities in organized events or individual rides.

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Title No of Web address respondents who use Bicycle Victoria 23 http://www.bv.com.au/ Bikely 19 http://www.bikely.com/ Audax Australia 11 http://audax.org.au/public/ Sydney Cyclist 8 http://www.sydneycyclist.com/ Garmin Connect 5 http://connect.garmin.com/ Open street map 5 http://www.opencyclemap.org/ Pedal Power ACT 4 http://www.pedalpower.org.au/ Canberra Off Road 4 http://new.corc.asn.au/index.asp?IntCatId=14 Cycle Club (CORC) WhereIs 4 http://www.whereis.com/ Climb by Bike 2 http://www.climbbybike.com/ Via Michelin 3 http://www.viamichelin.com/ Cycle2 Max 3 http://www.cycle2max.com/ Bikemap 2 http://www.bikemap.net/ Googlemap pedometer 2 http://www.gmap-pedometer.com/ Guttermonkey 1 http://www.guttermonkey.org/ Climb by bike 1 http://www.climbbybike.com/ Cycling profiles 1 http://www.cyclingprofiles.com.au/ CDB digital maps on 1 CD Bicycling Germany 1 http://bicyclegermany.com/index.html Cycling Kanzia/Japan 1 http://www.kancycling.com/KANcycling/We lcome_to_KANcycling%21.html Paradise press 1 http://www.paradise- press.co.nz/ppguides.html Flanders cycling 1 http://www.fietsnet.be/routeplanner/default.as px

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Title No of Web address respondents who use Cloudmade 1 http://cloudmade.com/about Nearmap 1 https://www.nearmap.com/welcome-new gpsies 1 http://www.gpsies.com/home.do#10_- 35.3080556_149.1244444_p Trimble bicycling 1 http://www.trimbleoutdoors.com/TrimbleOut doors.aspx Paris cycling 1 http://www.mayq.com/ Lonely planet guides 1 http://www.lonelyplanet.com/ RTA NSW online 1 http://www.bicycleinfo.nsw.gov.au/maps/ind maps ex.html NRMA travel planner 1 http://www.nrmaonlineshop.com.au/default.a spx openmtb 1 http://openmtbmap.org/ Railtrails Australia 1 http://www.railtrails.org.au/ Trailflix 1 http://www.trailflix.com.au/tfx_new/index.ph p

Table 5.1 - Favourite cycling websites table from survey questionnaire

The other websites identified in the top ten in Table 5.1 included:

• Bikely, which has been a very popular American based general cycling site that covers the globe with cycle routes mapped by cycling enthusiasts around the globe and a general cycling blog.

• Sydney Cyclist is a Sydney based site with a plethora of general cycling information but is especially Sydney focussed.

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• Garmin Connect is the site used by those who have Garmin GPS navigation devices. Cyclists download the routes recorded on their Garmin navigators and use the site as a repository for their rides and training. They share the route information with other cyclists.

• Open Street Map and WhereIs are general mapping websites. Open Street Map is world wide, Whereis is an Australia only site.

5.3.2 Information Sought from Websites

In the online survey, the question posed to respondents was “In seeking information from online sources what information do you look for?”

Table 5.2 below provides the detail of these responses.

In examining the responses to this question the major types of information sought from websites by cycle tourists are clearly identifiable.

• 87.3 % thought that websites were relevant (or higher) to research travel options to travel to get to a destination. Again this is confirmation that cyclists are very likely to seek information about transport to a destination online, and probably book this online as well.

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• The least popular choice was information about local cycling clubs or groups, with 40.5 % thinking they were relevant. However this is still a large proportion of these cyclists seeking this information.

• It is of some significance that cycle friendly transport options at a location were considered important or most important by 54.5% of this group. Thus planes, buses or trains which accommodate bikes are regarded as important to travelling cyclists.

• Information about cycling related facilities was seen as relevant by 42.2% of respondents, which is still a significant proportion of these cyclists.

• Information about organised cycling tours was relevant to 50.2% of respondents.

• 66.4% of respondents thought information about cycle events were relevant to their online information needs. This confirms that event managers should be paying attention to their online presence.

• General tourist information was well sought after by these cyclists with 83.7% saying it was relevant.

In this question a “write in” response allowed respondents to nominate information they were seeking from websites beyond the 8 major choices provided. Table 5.3 below is a summary of the responses to this option.

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Answer Most Not very Not at all Important Relevant Options Important important important

General tourist 8.3% 39.0% 36.4% 13.6% 2.7% information (46) (217) (203) (76) (15)

Accommodation 16.3% 50.1% 25.0% 6.8% 1.8% options (91) (280) (140) (38) (10) Travel options to get to the area 17.7% 41.6% 28.0% 10.3% 2.4% (airlines, buses, (98) (230) (155) (57) (13) rail, etc) Cycle friendly transport 14.1% 40.4% 26.9% 15.0% 3.6% options at the (78) (224) (149) (83) (20) location Cycling related facilities (e.g. 5.5% 19.2% 17.5% 23.0% 34.8% BMX, MTB, on (30) (104) (95) (125) (189) road circuits)

Local cycling 2.6% 10.5% 27.7% 29.0% 30.3% clubs or groups (14) (57) (151) (158) (165)

Organised 5.3% 18.1% 26.8% 26.3% 23.5% cycling tours (29) (99) (147) (144) (129) Information 7.0% 29.3% 30.1% 15.4% 18.2% about cycling (39) (164) (168) (86) (102) events

Other 11.8% 11.2% 8.9% 14.2% 53.8% (20) (19) (15) (24) (91)

Table 5.2 - Detailed responses on information sought from websites

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No of Comment/Information Sought respondents identifying issue 7 Safe cycling routes 6 Reviews of people who have ridden there before 5 Suggested interesting routes 4 Drinking water 4 Bicycle Hire Outlets (especially when overseas) 4 Weather conditions/best time of year to travel at location 4 Drinking water 4 Scenic and cultural points of interest 4 Touring maps 3 Information on cycling events 3 Cycle path details 3 Camp sites 1 MTB maps

Table 5.3 - Additional information sought from websites taken from survey questionnaire 62 individuals responded

Some of the individual comments on information needs are worth reporting. They provide an understanding of the thinking behind the stated information needs of these cyclists. A selection of these follows.

Selected comments of note:

1. Other cycle tourists opinions and experiences in the area... e.g. reviews of roads, accommodation etc. 2. Supermarket hours of business. 3. Connecting mode THAT WILL RESPECT BIKES eg. flights/bus/train to and from xyz.

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4. Correct information about OFF ROAD routes - too often one finds that a route described as "off road" is actually ON ROAD for sections - a frightening prospect for beginners (and for anyone sane!). The same applies to information on GRADE of ride - what is easy for a Tour de France rider is not easy for a beginner! 5. Distance between sleeping sites. 6. Qualitative advice on which particular tracks or routes in an area are worth a look. 7. Ways to get from A to B on back roads away from the maniac drivers that plague our beautiful land. 8. Location and hours of bicycle shops, in situations where I need to acquire a bike box (for plane or train travel with the bike). 9. I would like to find some adventurous people who would like to bike tour. 10. Information specifically targeted to women. 11. Recommendations for times of year to visit, finding drinkable coffee, and unique location information. 12. Route details like gradient, scenic quality, places to stop for food/water. 13. Information packages in my language. 14. Touring maps with campsites. 15. Local camping grounds or caravan park. 16. Vegetarian food outlets / Internet cafes / bicycle shops / Gites. 17. Essential services (ie water, food, mobile phone coverage). 18. Details about the countryside, the culture, the features etc.

There is some considerable overlap in the information needs reported in this question with the information needs related to maps reported subsequently in this Chapter, with a considerable proportion of this information being available through suitable maps. What does emerge from the responses to this question is the need of cyclists for information about “safe” cycling routes, with traffic free routes and cycle path information being prominent in their needs. Information about bicycle hire options has been identified by a number of people, but the other standout factor in these responses is the desire to get information from cyclists who have travelled the route or destination previously and that their views and advice is keenly sought.

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5.3.3 Favourite Websites for General Tourism Information

In response to the question “Do you have some favourite websites that you find useful for general tourism information? Would you recommend these to others?” respondents rated four identified sources and were given an option to identify other sites they would recommend. Figure 5.1 below shows that in Australia the Wotif website is most popular with 68.2% (197) respondents to this survey willing to recommend this site for general tourism information. A summary of the responses to the write in option recommending or commenting on general tourism websites is at Table 5.4 below.

68.2%

15.2%

29.8%

20.4%

Number of Respondents

Figure 5.1 – Recommended general tourism websites

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Title No of Web address respondents who use Google 15 http://www.google.com Trip advisor 12 http://www.tripadvisor.com.au Lonely Planet 10 http://www.lonelyplanet.com Last Minute 8 http://www.lastminute.com.au Expedia 7 http://www.expedia.com.au Local 7 Many different sites Government Tourism Sites Thorntree 4 http://www.lonelyplanet.com/thorntree/index.jspa State 4 Many different sites Government Tourism Sites Stayz 3 http://www.stayz.com.au RACV 3 http://www.racv.com.au Couch Surfing 2 http://www.couchsurfing.org Warm showers 2 http://www.warmshowers.org Virtual Tourist 2 http://www.virtualtourist.com I Want That 2 http://iwantthatflight.com.au Flight Take a Break 2 http://www.takeabreak.com.au About 35 other individual sites including accommodation, airlines and specific locations

Table 5.4 - Tourism websites table from survey questionnaire 104 individuals responded

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Individual comments on recommended websites: • I always check the local area tourism information then drill down for specifics. • I search to find bike touring companies that tour in an area, then look at their routes and suggestions, to get a feel for where the 'pros ' go. • Individual airline companies, Google searches for camp grounds in the area. • Local tourist office sites for specific destination. • Mostly I use the local tourism authority sites and others like wikipedia. • Rent other peoples homes (Rentbyowner) as they often have bikes included. • The lonely planet forum (Thorntree) is quite good if you're willing to browse a bit. • The Visit (State) sites are good starters. Again, the aim is to find some local keywords that will get you into relevant local searches. • Tourism NSW or other states that have links to local TIC's(Tourism Information Centres), etc. • Usually any government tourism office site for the area I want to visit (particularly for Europe). • We look at rail and accommodation websites as well as bike sites. Other cyclists' blogs are also an excellent source

5.4 Maps, Tourism and Cyclists

As identified in Chapter 2, there is a modest body of recently published work on online maps for tourism. Zipf (2002) proposed that “tourist maps need to be dynamically generated to a wider range of variables from user preferences and interests, the given task, cultural aspects to communicative goals and actual context and location” (p.1). Dunlop (2004) confirms that, in respect to online maps for tourists, “successful tourist information systems require the availability of quality data content and a user interface allowing easy, accurate and quick access to the content” (p.2). One of the most exciting developments in the field of interactive online maps over the past few years has been the recognition of mainstream computer and communications companies of the power of Geographic Information Systems (GIS) technology for many applications including mobile navigation and online marketing of products and

182 services. Google Earth, and it predecessor, Google Maps, is the leader in the field of interactive online maps. The Google mapping system links digitised maps to digital elevation models of the earth’s surface and satellite imagery (Google 2007). The system is free, online 24/7 and allows considerable interaction with the data and the addition of individual user’s data in a relatively simple manner. Many other inactive mapping systems now link to Google earth to display their own information.

Cyclists use Google Earth and Google Maps regularly to communicate information about cycle routes and facilities to club members and other users, many of whom are cycle tourists. A number of cycling clubs describe their race routes in this way. This research explores what mapping sites cyclists use and what information content they seek from them.

As reported in Chapter 2, Lamont has conducted significant research on independent cycle tourism in Australia over the past 3-4 years. His 2009 PhD thesis (Lamont, 2009) has explored many issues for independent cycle tourists including wayfinding aids and signage for cycling. His 2010 paper (Lamont and Causley 2010) addresses directly the needs of cyclists for wayfinding aids and signage. Whilst his work has not differentiated between paper maps and online mapping he has explored the key content of maps for touring cyclists. He identified twelve aspects of maps as being important to cyclists in descending order of importance.

1. Dangerous roads not suited to cycling 2. Location of Segregated cycling routes (no motor traffic) 3. Distances between intermediate towns 4. Location of accommodation 5. Location of camping grounds 6. Indication of cycling route surface and condition 7. Indication of shoulder width and condition along roads 8. Location of drinking water 9. Hill gradient information 10. Location of sites of interest 11. Location of toilets

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12. Location of bicycle repair /maintenance shops

Lamont concluded that there is an important link between the cycle tourism experience and wayfinding aids, which is attributable to the mobile nature of touring by bicycle. He notes that this is an important and under researched area in tourism studies. This research will report similar findings from the online survey conducted in 2009-10 and associated research into mapping for cyclists.

Many cyclists, especially road riders, use general mapping tools such as Google Earth to research potential rides, and often record their favourite routes for others to share. There are a number of cycling specific websites that have the capability to map routes, including vertical profiles, record ride details and associated facilities, and to share these with others. They are used mostly by road and recreation riders.

MapMyRide (www.mapmyride.com) is one of the more popular sites that has many rides detailed across the globe. One of the issues with such sites is that the routes chosen and rated are very subjective, and an easy, quiet route to one rider may turn out to be hard and dangerous to another. A number of these online mapping sites now provide easy access through smart phones such as the iPhone with applications specifically developed for users who are “on the move”.

Many of the maps published online are copies of hardcopy maps often just scanned and placed on a website with very basic navigation features. The Canberra and Queanbeyan Walking and Cycling Map is an example of this where some basic zoom and roam capabilities allow online users to just peruse the paper map online. True interactive mapping is now becoming more prominent where maps can be created interactively online from a range of base information. These are much more useful to users who can select from menus the type of information they need and create their own map.

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5.4.1 What Guides and Maps are Out There?

There are number of published maps and guides produced for cyclists in Australia. Some cities and regions produce guides targeted specifically at cycle tourists. There are also a number of commercial publications aimed at this market. Some of the better examples of these include:

Commercial Guides

Lonely Planet Guide Cycling Australia – Discover the World on Two Wheels (Lonely Planet, 2001) This book has sections on the ACT and Kosciusko High Country

Where to Ride series published by Bicycling Australia Where to Ride Canberra (Hards, 2009) Details 41 Adult rides and 20 Kids’ Rides in and around Canberra with maps and ride descriptions and classifies rides by Path, On Road, Off Road and MTB

NRMA NSW Great Cycling Rides in NSW – 75 of NSW’s best family bike rides (NRMA, 2006) Details 5 rides in the Southern Highlands and 5 in the ACT– none in the Snowy Mountains

Cycling Guides

Ride Guide 2010 – Cyclists’ Guide to North East Victoria – based on Murray to the Mountains Rail Trail but extends to other cycling interests

Cycle in Greater Shepparton - Victoria

The Riesling Trail, Clare Valley South Australia – Rail Trail

The NSW Central Coast Cycling Guide

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Cycling Maps

There are a large range and number of cycling maps published by commercial companies, bicycle organisations and government agencies across the country. Most of these are focussed primarily on the needs of commuting and recreational cyclists resident in the areas covered. These are obviously relevant to tourists as well as locals. Adelaide and Perth have particularly good cycling maps that cover all of those cities in great detail across a number of map sheets. The list below includes some of the better published maps that are aimed more particularly at the cycling tourist.

Discover Tasmania – Your guide to Cycling Touring

Noosa Shire Cycling and Walking Map

Hobson Bay Coastal Trail (Melbourne Western Suburbs) People Piers and Pelicans

Perth Bike Map Series – Perth/Fremantle – Stirling

Cycling in the Swan Valley and Guildford, Swan Valley WA

Westlink Cycleway and Walking Path - An uninterrupted 40 km trip across Sydney

The Riesling Trail – Clare Valley South Australia

A number of the maps and guides listed above have online versions available, but these are generally pdf versions of paper maps. One of the most exciting developments in the field of interactive online maps over the past few years has been the recognition of mainstream computer and communications companies of the power of Geographic Information Systems (GIS) technology for many applications including mobile navigation and online marketing of products and services. One of the most high profile and powerful of these is Google Earth which links digitised maps to digital elevation models of the earth’s surface and satellite imagery . The

186 system is free, online 24/7 and allows considerable interaction with the data and the addition of individual user’s data in a relatively simple manner.

Many of the maps published online are basically copies of hardcopy maps often just scanned and placed on a website with very basic navigation features. True interactive mapping is now becoming more prominent where maps can be created interactively online from a range of base information. These are much more useful to users who can select from menus the type of information they need and create their own map.

Many cyclists, especially road riders, use general mapping tools such as Google Earth to research potential rides, and often record their favourite routes there for others to share. There are a number of cycling specific websites that have the capability to map routes, including vertical profiles, record ride details and associated facilities, and to share these with others. They are mostly used by road and recreation riders.

5.5 Results the Online Survey of Cycle Tourists on Mapping

In this research a total nine questions in the survey addressed issues related to the use of online mapping tools by cycle tourists. Nearly 75% of respondents to this survey said that they used online maps in their destination choice decision making. The responses to the key questions in the survey relevant to the use of online maps are summarised below. Table 5.5 below shows the response to the question “If you have used online mapping tools, which would you recommend to others?” This shows the dominance of Google Earth and Google Maps as the preferred source of mapping data for this group of cyclists. Over 75% of respondents have used and recommend Google Maps. However Bikely (50%) and MapMyRide (20%), which are specialist sites for cycling, have particularly high usage.

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Response Response Answer Options Percent Count Google Earth 53.6% 252 Google Maps 75.1% 353 Virtual Earth 0.4% 2 Bikely 50.6% 238 MapMyRide 20.2% 95 Others 6.4% 30

Table 5.5 - Use on online maps by cycle tourists A total of 53 respondents listed online mapping tools they had used and would recommend to others. Table 5.6 below lists the 27 mapping sites identified and recommended by these cyclists.

No Title No of Web address respondents who use 1 Bikely 9 http://www.bikely.com/ 2 Garmin Connect 5 http://connect.garmin.com/ 3 Open street map 5 http://www.opencyclemap.org/ 4 WhereIs 4 http://www.whereis.com/ 5 Via Michelin 3 http://www.viamichelin.com/ 6 Cycle2 Max 3 http://www.cycle2max.com/ 7 Bikemap 2 http://www.bikemap.net/ 8 Googlemap pedometer 2 http://www.gmap-pedometer.com/ 9 Guttermonkey 1 http://www.guttermonkey.org/ 10 Climb by bike 1 http://www.climbbybike.com/ 11 Cycling profiles 1 http://www.cyclingprofiles.com.au/ 12 CDB digital maps on 1 CD

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No Title No of Web address respondents who use 13 Bicycling Germany 1 http://bicyclegermany.com/index.html 14 Cycling Kanzia/Japan 1 http://www.kancycling.com/KANcyclin g/Welcome_to_KANcycling%21.html 15 Paradise press 1 http://www.paradise- press.co.nz/ppguides.html 16 Flanders cycling 1 http://www.fietsnet.be/routeplanner/defa ult.aspx 17 Cloudmade 1 http://cloudmade.com/about 18 Nearmap 1 https://www.nearmap.com/welcome- new 19 gpsies 1 http://www.gpsies.com/home.do#10_- 35.3080556_149.1244444_p 20 Trimble bicycling 1 http://www.trimbleoutdoors.com/Trimbl eOutdoors.aspx 21 Paris cycling 1 http://www.mayq.com/ 22 Lonely planet guides 1 http://www.lonelyplanet.com/ 23 RTA NSW online 1 http://www.bicycleinfo.nsw.gov.au/map maps s/index.html 24 NRMA travel planner 1 http://www.nrmaonlineshop.com.au/defa ult.aspx 25 openmtb 1 http://openmtbmap.org/ 26 Railtrails Australia 1 http://www.railtrails.org.au/ 27 Trailflix 1 http://www.trailflix.com.au/tfx_new/ind ex.php

Table 5.6 - Cycle Maps Table from Survey Questionnaire (53 individuals responded)

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The key question in this part of the survey was in relation to the features desired by cyclists in an online map. Figure 5.2 below is a summary of the responses to this question. Most notable from this question are features related to road safety for cyclists, with over 75% rating on road details as important or higher and over 63% rating cycle paths with no motorised traffic as important or higher. Noting that the majority of respondents are road riders, the importance of route profiles is not surprising with over 67% rating this information as important or higher. Facility locations were the least important feature however all other identified features were rated relevant to most riders. The “write in” options for other features were notable in that elevations, water supplies and distances between places were the most common features requested.

Number of Respondents

Figure 5.2 - Desired features of online maps for cyclists

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As previously noted, Lamont and Causley (2010) identified twelve aspects of maps as being important to cyclists. The similarities between Lamont’s findings and the results from this survey is deserving of some further analysis but it is clear that road safety (items 1, 2, 6 and 7 in Lamont’s list) emerge as the most important map feature desired by both groups.

5.6 Use of GPS and portable navigation technology

In response to the two questions on the use of GPS enabled devices 52.9% of respondents (313 individuals) reported that they own or use a GPS enabled device (smart phone or GPS navigation device). Of those who own such devices 63.2% (256 individuals) reported that they use it whilst cycling. Considering the explosion in the use of this technology over the past year or so this is a very high level of usage considering the state of this technology when the survey was undertaken in late 2009/early2010.

5.7 Signage for Cyclists

Signage and maps are complementary wayfinding aids. Whilst the online survey for this research did not address specifically signage for cyclists there has been some other published materials that extend into this sphere.

It is one step to be able to plan a route using either hardcopy or online maps but whilst riding, as a commuter, or for recreation, especially away from a home location, it is essential to be able determine location on the ground. GPS enabled devices such as smart phones or cycle computers assist considerably in position finding, but directional signage is still an important element of wayfinding. Lamont (2009) has shown that signage on cycleways, especially for visitors, is quite important.

According to “Cycling Aspects of Austroads Guides” (Veith and Eady 2011), signing of bicycle facilities provides the information to assist all road users to move safely and conveniently on the road and bicycle network. In this guide the three main categories of signs and their functions described as:

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• regulatory signs – which regulate and advise the type of facility within the context of the overall road system, e.g. whether a facility is shared with pedestrians or for the exclusive use of cyclists; • warning signs – which warn users of identifiable potential hazards within the riding environment; • guide signs – which guide users around the network.

The Austroads guide recommends “that bicycle routes should be signposted to indicate destinations and, if required, the distance to them. Uniformity of design and application of signs is desirable to avoid confusion and potential hazardous situations, applicable particularly for bicyclists travelling away from their local area.” The guide recommends also that practitioners should refer to Australian Standard AS 1742.2: 2009 which provides information on general signage and AS 1742.9: 2000 as it provides details of facilities including signage specifically for bicycles.

Another useful source of information on signage for cycling in Australia is the NSW Bicycle Guidelines published by the RTA in NSW (Road Traffic Authority NSW, 2003). According to this guide, “The most important function of directional signposting is to help the users find their way around the system. Directional signposting also reinforces system connectivity and coherence and gives high visibility and recognition to the collection of through routes which make up a network. …... general road and highway directional signage is usually attuned to motorized traffic and does not adequately serve the bicycle rider. In order to avoid ambiguity and conflict for both road users and bicycle riders alike, a completely independent system of signing should always be used.”

5.7.1 Roads ACT Main Community Route Signage Project

A major cycle route signage project has been completed recently by Roads ACT on Main Community Routes (MCRs) in Canberra, which shows some of the best practice for signage specifically designed for cyclists on a shared path network in the National Capital. The signage was designed specifically with a recreational/tourist focus around four of Canberra’s Lakes

192 including Lake Burley Griffin, Lakes Ginninderra and Tuggeranong and Yerrabi Pond. The signage has been developed with due reference to the Australian Standard AS 1742.2: 2009, and AS 1742.9: 2000. Some examples of the directional signage are shown in Figure 5.3 below.

Figure 5.3 - Path directional signage Lake Burley Griffin shared path

Illustrations of the major route informational boards are at Figure 5.4 below. These show the three types of signs installed and the functions of each type of sign. There is a key locator sign showing the present position in relation to the path network and major geographical and tourism features, a destination board showing distances to other key locations, and a reassurance board with directional arrows to the next major identifiable feature on the route. All three signage types have been installed around Lake Burley Griffin with Destination and Reassurance signs only installed around the other Lakes. In all there are 57 signs around the 28km circuit of Lake Burley Griffin with 46 signs around the other three lakes. The signage was completed in October 2011 and has received positive feedback from path users.

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Figure 5.4 - Three lake recreational directional signage types

5.8 Conclusion

This Chapter has explored the online technologies and mapping tools that cycle tourists use, and the content they are seeking. The research has shown that online maps are a major source of information for cycle tourists, and has identified the content of importance to cycle tourists.

92.7% of survey respondents rated cycling websites as being relevant (or higher in importance) to their information needs. General tourism websites were rated as relevant or higher by 78.7%. 180 respondents (27.6%) replied that they would recommend sites to other cyclists. Amongst the top ten sites recommended, four were related to cycling organisations and three were mapping related sites.

In examining the type of information sought by these cyclists form online sources, 91.4% of respondents regarded websites as being a relevant for information about accommodation. This confirms that cyclists are likely to seek and book their accommodation online. 87.3 % thought that websites were relevant in exploring travel options to get to a destination. Again this is confirmation that cyclists are very likely to seek information about transport to a destination online, and probably book this online as well. Planes, buses or trains that accommodate bikes are regarded as important to these travelling cyclists. Information about

194 cycling related facilities at a destination was relevant to 42.2% of respondents. Information about organised cycling tours was relevant to 50.2% of respondents and 66.4% of respondents thought information about cycle events was relevant to their needs. General tourist information was well sought after by these cyclists with 83.7% saying it was relevant.

The key question in this part of the survey was in relation to the features desired by cyclists in an online map. Most notable from this question were features related to road safety for cyclists, with over 75% rating on road details as important or higher and over 63% rating cycle paths with no motorised traffic as important or higher. Noting that the majority of respondents are road riders, the importance of route profiles is not surprising with over 67% rating this information as important or higher. Facility locations were the least important feature however all other identified features were rated relevant to most riders. The “write in” options for other features were notable in that elevations, water supplies and distances between places were the most common features requested. The other standout factor in these responses is the desire to get information from cyclists who have travelled the route or destination previously and that their views and advice is keenly sought

In relation to the use of online maps over 75% of respondents use and recommend Google Maps. However Bikely (50%) and MapMyRide (20%), which are specialist sites for cycling, have particularly high usage.

52.9% of respondents to the survey reported that they own or use a GPS enabled device (smart phone or GPS navigation device). Of those who own such devices 63.2% reported that they used it whilst cycling. Considering the explosion in the use of this technology over the past year or so this is a very high level of usage considering the state of this technology when the survey was undertaken in late 2009/2010.

Whilst not specifically covered by the survey used in this research the importance of route signage for cyclists has been identified from a number of other sources.

The outcomes reported in this chapter have provided considerable insight into the way information is sought by cycling tourists and the type of information sought. The outcomes are further discussed in Chapter 7 in relation to the research questions posed for this research and the

195 conceptual models put forward on destination choice and information flows.

Whilst this research has covered the interests of number of cycling sectors, more research into these various cycling sectors would provide more in depth knowledge of differences between each of these groups, especially the needs of the growing number of mountain bikers. The importance of signage as an adjunct to maps is deserving of more in depth research to identify cyclists’ needs in regard to signage linked to maps, especially online maps and mobile applications. The use of Quick Response (QR) codes on signage is another new development which can link via mobile devices to web content. This is another area deserving of some further research. Whilst this research has focussed on cycle tourists, many of the findings may have implications for those producing such maps and applications for a more general cycling community.

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Chapter 6 Social Networks, Blogs and Cycling

6.1 Introduction

Chapters 4 and 5 of this thesis examined the online data sources used by cyclists in making decisions about their prospective destinations for travel and cycling. These Chapters examined websites and online maps as key data sources for making decisions about travel. This Chapter explores the final element of the online mix and looks at the rapidly developing world of social networking and cycle tourism.

A number of questions in the online survey explored cyclists’ use of social networking sites and related tools. These results are reported in this Chapter.

An aspect of the data exploration and discovery for this research has been active participation in the social networking world, especially in relation to cycling activities. The author has an active Facebook, LinkedIn and Twitter presence and monitors other similar sites regularly. The monitoring of conversations in these media and some input to cycling blogs has been a source of some key data for this research and is reported in this Chapter.

6.2 Social Networks and Cycling

The rapid uptake of social media, linked with mobile communications and online access virtually anywhere through mobile devices such as smart phones and tablet computers, is making quite an impact on how tourists access and share information. As outlined in Chapter 2, at May 2010, according to Comscore ( www.Comscore.com) there were 13.1 m Australians over 15 years old using the internet regularly. The Comscore data on the use of social networking tools in the Asia Pacific shows that in Australia 82.5% of internet users use social networking regularly and spend an average of 18.1% of their total time online devoted to social networking.

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The literature review in Chapter 2 has covered the definitions of social media but as a lead in to this analysis it is useful to recap on these definitions.

According to Wikipedia: (http://en.wikipedia.org/)

Social media includes web-based and mobile technologies used to turn communication into interactive dialogue. Kaplan and Haenlein (2010) define social media as "a group of Internet- based applications that build on the ideological and technological foundations of Web 2.0, and that allow the creation and exchange of user-generated content." Social media is media for social interaction as a super-set beyond social communication. Enabled by ubiquitously accessible and scalable communication techniques, social media has substantially changed the way organizations, communities, and individuals communicate.

A social networking service is an online service, platform, or site that focuses on building and reflecting of social networks or social relations among people, who, for example, share interests and/or activities. A social network service consists of a representation of each user (often a profile), his/her social links, and a variety of additional services. Most social network services are web-based and provide means for users to interact over the Internet, such as e-mail and instant messaging. Online community services are sometimes considered as a social network service, though in a broader sense, social network service usually means an individual-centered service whereas online community services are group-centered. Social networking sites allow users to share ideas, activities, events, and interests within their individual networks. The main types of social networking services are those that contain category places (such as former school year or classmates), means to connect with friends (usually with self-description pages), and a recommendation system linked to trust. Popular methods now combine many of these, with Facebook, Google+ and Twitter widely used worldwide.

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When this research commenced (in 2009) the social networking world was just beginning to have a significant influence on people’s communication habits, however it was clear that this trend was significant. Thus, in exploring cycle tourists’ needs for information in the online world, some effort was made to capture this emerging trend in the data collection phase of the research. The online survey questionnaire, which has been the major source of data for this research, had a number of questions addressing specifically the respondents’ use of social networking.

The questions posed were:

• Do you use any of the following in seeking information about your travel destinations? o General internet searches (i.e. relevant tourism or cycling websites) o Social networks (Facebook, twitter, myspace, etc) o Online maps (e.g. Google earth) o Emailed newsletters from subscribed sources o Cycling related blogs, wikis or chat rooms

• Do you subscribe to or use online social networking tools?

• If you use online social networking do you talk about cycling there?

• Do you subscribe to any cycling related blogs or wikis? If yes please list them.

The responses to the above questions are detailed below.

The responses to the question “Do you use any of the following in seeking information about your travel destinations?” are summarized in Table 6.1 below.

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Never Occasionally Often Always

General internet searches 1.9% 26.1% 48.9% 23.2% (i.e. relevant tourism or (11) (154) (289) (137) cycling websites)

Social networks 79.3% 17.0% 2.8% 0.9% (Facebook, Twitter, (457) (98) (16) (5) MySpace, etc)

Online maps (e.g. 9.9% 31.8% 38.6% 19.7% Google Earth) (58) (186) (226) (115)

Emailed newsletters 24.9% 44.7% 27.8% 2.6% from subscribed sources (144) (259) (161) (15)

Cycling related 41.7% 34.0% 19.8% 4.5% blogs,wikis or chat (242) (197) (115) (26) rooms

Table 6.1 - Use of online tools by cycle tourists

Whilst the use of social networks was quite low at the time of this survey, some 20% of respondents did report some use of social networks in seeking information about travel destinations. Some 58% reported use of cycling related blogs, wikis or chat rooms in seeking their travel information.

One of the three research questions posed for this research was: “Do the different demographics of the major cycling sectors give rise to different motivations for travel and thus different use of technology in destination choice? “

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Thus, in respect to the question about use of online tools by cycle tourists, an analysis of responses to the questionnaire by cycling activity is appropriate to help answer this question. Table 6.2 below is a summary of responses about the use of social networks, blogs and wikis by cycling activity.

Road or Technology Mountain Recreational Track Other usage Biking Racing Social Networks Never 272 (81.2%) 49 (71%) 54 (79.4%) 72 (80%) Occasionally 53 (15.8%) 18 (26.1%) 10 (14.7%) 13 (14.4%) Often 7 (2.1%) 1(1.4%) 4 (5.9%) 4 (4.4%) Always 3 (0.9%) 1 (1.4%) 0 (0%) 1 (1.1%) Cycling Related Blogs, wikis or chat rooms Never 156 (46.3%) 26 (37.1%) 24 (33.8%) 27 (30.3%) Occasionally 108 (32%) 26 (26%) 33 (46.5%) 28 (31.5%) Often 56 (16.6%) 14 (20%) 14 (19.7%) 29 (32.6%) Always 17 (5%) 4 (5.7%) 0 (0%) 5 (5.6%)

Table 6.2 - Analysis of use of online tools by cycling activity

In relation to the use of social networking tools, generally, mountain bikers had a higher usage with 29% of respondents reporting occasional or higher use compared to 19-20% for the other groups. The use of blogs, wikis or chat rooms again was generally higher by mountain bikers with 63% reporting occasional or higher use, compared to 54% for recreational riders, however in this area road or track racers were the highest users with 66% reporting occasional or higher use.

In Chapter 4 the demographics of the different cycling groups were reported and it is interesting to compare the age profile of the various sectors to their technology use. Thus mountain bikers have the youngest profile amongst the respondents (34% under 35), and are also the more

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predominant users of the technology. This accords with the general impression in the community that younger people are more technology oriented. Recreational riders have the oldest profile in this survey with 43% over 55, but interestingly 54% of these are users of blogs and wikis about cycling. Thus it appears that generally age is no barrier to use of the technology.

In exploring further cyclists’ use of social networking tools the response to the question “Do you subscribe to or use online social networking tools?” is summarized in Table 6.3 below. This shows which social network sites are the most popular with cyclists in this survey. It is of note that nearly half the respondents (49.1%) did not use social networking. Of those that used these networks Facebook was by far the most used at 43.7% with both Twitter and LinkedIn used by around 10%. MySpace has quite low usage in Australia.

In this survey, of those who use social networking, 32% of discussed cycling on their sites.

Do you subscribe to or use online social networking tools? Response Answer Options Percent I do not use social networking tools 49.1% Facebook 43.7% MySpace 2.4% Twitter 9.8% LinkedIn 12.7% Other 4.7%

Table 6.3 - Cyclist tourists’ social networking usage

6.2.1 Social Network use by Cycling Activity

In examining the responses to the survey in more depth, some cross question analysis was carried out to see if the usage of social networking tools varied significantly across the various cycling sectors.

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Taking into account respondents' prime area of cycling interest Tables 6.4, 6.5, 6.6 and 6.7 below explore the use of social networking by cycling activity.

In response to the question “Do you use social networking tools?” Table 6.4 shows that Recreational riders had a significantly higher usage of social networking than the other groups at 48.8% with Mountain Bike riders at 37.3% and Road or Track riders at 31%. Given the generally younger age of mountain bikers this is an interesting result.

Do you subscribe to or use online social networking tools?

What is your primary area of interest or activity in cycling? Yes No

Recreational 183 48.8% 192 51.2%

MTB 28 37.3% 47 62.7%

Road or Track Racing 27 31% 60 69%

Other 39 38.6% 62 61.4%

Total Respondents 277 43.4% 361 56.6%

Table 6.4 - Social networking and cycling activity

Table 6.5 below summarises the use of Facebook, by cycling activity

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Do you use Facebook?

What is your primary area of interest or activity in cycling? Yes No

Recreational 135 36% 240 64%

MTB 37 49.3% 38 50.7%

Road or Track Racing 33 37.9% 54 62.1%

Other 40 39.6% 61 60.4%

Total Respondents 245 38.4% 393 61.6%

Table 6.5: Facebook and cycling activity According to these responses, Facebook was the most popular social networking site with cyclists. It is no surprise that Mountain Bikers were the biggest users of Facebook as it is generally seen as being popular with younger people and Mountain Bikers tend to be a younger group than the other cycling groups identified here. Table 6.6 below summarises the use of Twitter, by cycling activity. Do you use Twitter?

What is your primary area of interest or activity in Yes No cycling?

Recreational 21 5.6% 354 94.4%

MTB 5 6.7% 70 93.3%

Road or Track Racing 14 16.1% 73 83.9%

Other 13 12.9% 88 87.1%

Total Respondents 53 8.3% 585 91.7%

Table 6.6 - Twitter and cycling activity

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Table 6.7 below summarises the use of LinkedIn, by cycling activity. Do you use LinkedIn?

What is your primary area of interest or activity in Yes No cycling?

Recreational 38 10.1% 337 89.9%

MTB 2 2.7% 73 97.3%

Road or Track Racing 12 13.8% 75 86.2%

Other 18 17.8% 83 82.2%

Total Respondents 70 11% 568 89%

Table 6.7 - LinkedIn and cycling activity

Whilst the overall number of respondents who have identified themselves as social network users in this survey is relatively small, amongst this group Facebook was most popular with Mountain Bikers, whilst Twitter was most used by road and track racers and LinkedIn was again popular with road and track racers. LinkedIn is a social site more oriented to use by professional people, where discussions related to jobs and work are pursued. As identified in the data analysis in Chapter 4 the “others” group in this survey consists mostly of commuting cyclists. Thus it is interesting to note that this group was the biggest user of LinkedIn, which indicates these commuting cyclists may be more professionally oriented networkers, rather than social users of the medium.

The outcomes of this survey have shown that recreational riders have a significantly higher usage of social networking than mountain bike riders and road or track riders. Whilst, in line with general community usage, Facebook was the prime social networking site for cyclists, both Twitter and LinkedIn have significant followings in the cycling world, and it is illustrated that the usage of these platforms does vary across cycling sectors with some unexpected results, especially with lower than expected use by mountain bikers.

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6.3 Cycling Blogs and Wikis

The final question in the online survey that was concerned with social media was “Do you subscribe to any cycling related blogs or wikis? If yes please list them.”

Before reporting the results of the survey, a review of the definitions of blogs and wikis will place the answers and analysis in context. For online surveys and analysis it seems appropriate to use the online “crowd sourced” definitions from Wikipedia ( http://en.wikipedia.org/).

Wikipedia describes a blog (an abbreviation of the term web log) as a personal journal published on the World Wide Web consisting of discrete entries ("posts") displayed typically in reverse chronological order so the most recent post appears first. Blogs are usually the work of a single individual, occasionally of a small group, and often are themed on a single subject. Blog can be used as a verb, meaning to maintain or add content to a blog.

Wikipedia describes a wiki as a website whose users can add, modify, or delete its content via a web browser using a simplified markup language or a rich-text editor. Wikis are powered typically by wiki software and often are created collaboratively by multiple users. Examples include community websites, corporate intranets, knowledge management systems, and note taking.

In reviewing these terms it is useful to go back to the definition of a website which generally is the connector from users to wikis and blogs.

Wikipedia defines a website, as a set of related web pages containing content (media), including text, video, music, audio, images, etc. A website is hosted on at least one web server, accessible via a network such as the Internet or a private local area network through an Internet address known as a Uniform Resource Locator. All publicly accessible websites collectively constitute the World Wide Web.

Whilst no definition of a blog or wiki was provided to survey participants, it would appear that the question was well understood by those who supplied answers, as the sites identified generally met the concept of a blog or wiki. 20 % (108) of the respondents identified that they do subscribe

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to such sites, with 102 of these actually identifying the sites they use. Table 6.8 below lists those sites with 3 or more respondents who have identified them. The full list of all sites identified is at Appendix C.

Title No of Web address respondents who use Sydney Cyclist 12 http://www.sydneycyclist.com/ Bicycle NSW 6 http://www.bicyclensw.org.au/home Crazyguyonabike 5 http://www.crazyguyonabike.com/ Cycling News 5 http://www.cyclingnews.com/ ACT Veterans 4 http://www.actvets.cc/html/main.html Group: discussion group http://groups.google.com/group/actvcc_discussi on/topics Title No of Web address respondents who use Bicycle Snob 4 http://bikesnobnyc.blogspot.com/ NYC Cycling Tips 4 http://www.cyclingtipsblog.com/ Audax Australia 3 http://www.audax.org.au/public/ Bike Sydney 3 http://bikesydney.org/new10/ Critical mass 3 http://www.criticalmass.org.au/ RoadBikeRider 3 http://www.roadbikerider.com/ Copenhagenize 3 http://www.copenhagenize.com/ Bicycle Net 3 http://www.bicycles.net.au/

Table 6.8 - Cycling blogs and wikis identified from survey questionnaire (102 individuals responded)

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Reflecting that some 52% of the respondents to the survey were based in New South Wales(NSW) it is not surprising to see the Sydney Cyclist and Bicycle NSW sites the most popular, as they generally cover cycling issues and activities in NSW. However it is of interest that 4 of the top ten sites are “international” sites. Only 22 sites had more than one identifier, with the remainder having only one respondent identify them. Thus there was a wide and diverse range of individual sites being used by cycle tourists at the time of the survey.

6.3.1 Content Analysis of Top 8 Blogs and Wikis

Table 6.8 above and the full list at Appendix C identified many blogs and wikis used by cyclists. In attempting to understand how cycle tourists use these sites and the information accessible through them an analysis of the content of the tops 8 sites has been undertaken. The top 8 sites in order of popularity and their content are summarised below.

Rated No 1: Sydney Cyclist (http://www.sydneycyclist.com/) The site (as at March 2012) reported that it has 3,956 members. It provides information across a number of areas of interest to cyclists and allows registered users to utilise the forums and blogs hosted on the site. In addition it allows users to upload photos and videos and has information about cycling events. The Discussion Forum on the site has 9 categories of information available to users namely:

• Site Announcements

• General

• Advocacy and Policy

• Group Rides

• Gear Questions and Product Reviews

• Buy / Swap / Sell

• Site Feedback and Suggestions

• Help Topics

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• Not Actually about bikes

In the blog section of the site it has 9 different “tags” for blogs, namely:

• bike

• cycling

• bicycle

• ride

• radish

• commuting

• fixie

• kids

• Sydney

The most popular recent blog posts have covered topics as diverse as:

• DUTCH-STYLE BIKES - will they catch on in Australia? • Second hand bikes

• Mt Baw Baw: Hardest Hill in Australia? • MY BROOKS SADDLE - will my rear end learn to love it? • Waving through the barbed wire... • Bike Nazis: the truth is out there ...

Rated No 2: Bike NSW (http://www.bicyclensw.org.au/home)

Bicycle NSW is a member-based cycling association with around 7000 members. Its mission is: “To promote, advocate, and support cycling in all its forms as an environmentally sustainable and healthy form of transport, recreation and tourism through the engagement of government, industry and the community at all levels.” Bicycle NSW goals include “Speaking out for better cycling conditions and infrastructure across NSW.”

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Their website has lead tabs covering Advocacy, Rides and Events, and Community and suggests that members “Be part of the cycling community. Find your local Club or BUG or check out our new online community.”

Recent topics in the online “community” have included:

Bourke Rd Alexandria Cycleway, feedback from Bicycle NSW...

Bicycle NSW Media Release in response to Shane Warne's comments... New CEO of Bicycle NSW... The Board of Bicycle NSW is pleased to announce the appointment of Alex Unwin as the new Chief Executive Officer of Bicycle NSW... Bicycle NSW Strategy 2011-15... Click here to read the 2011-15 Strategy document

Safe Cycling Workshops.... Bicycle NSW, with support from the Roads and Maritime Services, will be providing free, community-based, safe cycling workshops this year aiming to improve bicycle riding skills, knowledge of road rules and safety of 10-12 year old bike riders and their families.

The site at present does not have any interactive blog or wiki.

Rated No 3: Crazyguyonabike (http://www.crazyguyonabike.com)

The site (at March 2012) has 13,045 users. The creator is Neil Gunton, who is the founder/programmer/webmaster and editor of crazyguyonabike.com.

Neil describes the site as follows:

“This is a free, independent website for hosting bicycle touring journals, forums and resources. The content is contributed by people from all over the world. You can browse the journals and articles or register and then create your own. Also check out the forums (message boards), reviews (users' reports on bicycle touring gear), resources (links, routes, hospitality, businesses and other useful info related to bicycle touring) and classifieds (companions, for sale, wanted

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etc). You can find interesting content via serendipity, or see what other users think is cool (or controversial) via the ratings.

Crazyguyonabike's main strength is its simple focus on bicycle touring, combined with a scalable design which allows for a huge amount of content to be easily edited, browsed and searched. Unlike many other Web 2.0 sites, crazyguyonabike actually hosts real content, rather than simply acting as a link aggregator to point to other websites. Also, the design is deceptively simple and non-flashy, which makes it fast and easy to use on slow connections and portable computers. Finally, of course, the community itself makes crazyguyonabike special. The site would be nothing without all the people who contribute their content to make this one of the biggest repositories of bicycle touring literature in the world.”

It is interest to note that the site was started in 2000, well before most concepts of social media were in vogue. Neil describes its origins as:

“I started crazyguyonabike in January 2000 as a simple online journal of my own 1998 bicycle tour across America. This was the original (and only) journal on the website, and it was appropriately titled "Crazy Guy on a Bike". So the name of the website actually originated with the title of my original journal. In the process of developing that first version of the site, I also wrote a number of software tools which allowed me to edit the journal online, through a web browser. This first version of the site went live in February 2000. I added a guestbook for people to leave comments in April of the same year. Almost immediately I realized that the code I had written could be expanded relatively easily to allow other people to share their own experiences from the road. So, I expanded the scope of the site to allow other people to contribute their own journals; this took longer than I thought (as always) and it eventually went live in March of 2001. The site grew organically, with me adding features here and there, and over the next few years crazyguyonabike became a fairly busy website, with hundreds of bicycle touring journals and articles.”

Thus in terms of cycle tourism it is not surprising to see this as the most popular site identified by the cycle tourists asked to identify their most popular sites for cycle tourism. The site has an amazing array of information on cycle tourism across the globe and is a prime example of the

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use on online technology and “crowd sourcing” to provide information to prospective cycle tourists. Table 6.9 below is an extract for the forum section of the site in March 2012. It lists the top ten topics covered, a description of the content of that topic and the number of messages posted. The full forum list is included at Appendix C.

This content was extracted in March 2012, and is thus somewhat after the date of the conclusion of the survey for this research (late 2009). Of note, however, related to this research, is that amongst the top ten topics of interest to participants in this blog, website content was rated at number 2, hazards and safety at number 6 and digital gear at number 10, with all topics having over 2000 postings. The top topic was information about bikes of all types and the third was related to information about cycle touring in North America, which is not surprising as this is predominately a US based forum. This table provides some confirmation of the importance identified by respondents to the survey of websites for information gathering by cycle tourists, their concern for safety, and the need for the right digital equipment to source their information needs.

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No of Rating Forum Topic Scope messages 1 Bikes Types, recumbents, trikes, tandems, frames, gear ratios etc 9333 2 Website Related news, feedback, problems, suggestions, lawsuits, 8090 death threats etc 3 Regional: Canada, Mexico, USA - routes, maps, advice etc 6829 North America 4 Miscellaneous Discussions related to bicycle touring which don't fit into 3870 any of the other forums 5 Bags & Panniers vs Trailers, racks, packing issues 3760 Packing

6 Hazards & Dog deterrents, rumble strips, trucks, traffic, bad drivers, 3588 Safety insurance, security, locks, theft, safety & injury prevention 7 Wheels & Rims, hubs, spokes, problems, punctures, repairs 3020 Tires 8 Components Derailleurs, hubs, gears, brakes etc 2785 9 Health & Injuries, health, medical issues, numbness, saddle sores, 2140 Fitness training regimes, advice, experiences 10 Digital Gear Cameras, computers, storage, communications, issues 2122

Table 6.9 - Forum content - Top ten topics – crazyguyonabike website by Neil Gunton extracted Thu 15 Mar 2012

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Another section of this site has a collection of Bicycle Touring Resources. Table 6.10 below is the list of the top 5 resources available in this section, a description of the resource and the number of entries in the category. The full listing is also included at Appendix C.

This listing provides further confirmation, that for internet aware cycle tourists, website based information is their most important source of intelligence. The second most important source identified from this data is information about specific potential destinations (the travelogue) with the third and fourth sources being related to mapping and route selection.

1. Website - Links to websites related to bicycles and touring, not specifically covered by other categories (522) 2. Travelogue - Accounts of bicycle tours - websites, books etc (423) 3. Route - Description of a route, road or trail, with description of terrain and features (244) 4. Maps - Regional maps (online and paper) and sources for route information (194) 5. Manufacturer - Makers of bikes, equipment, components, accessories, clothing etc (181)

Table 6.10 - The top 5 bicycle touring resources and categories from crazyguyonabike website by Neil Gunton extracted Thu 15 Mar 2012

Whilst other cycling related blogs and wikis have followed and have added to the mix of blogs targeted at cycle tourists, this site remains the benchmark for its scope of information, up-to-date currency (or at least a user can note the date of an entry), ease of access and usability.

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Rated No 4: Cycling News (http://www.cyclingnews.com/)

Cycling News is a website focused mostly on cycle racing with information tabs covering News, Technical, Races and Results, Riders and Teams, Features and Forums.

There are sections for each of these tabs for Road, Mountain Bike, Track and Cyclocross, which is a big participation sport in Europe. The interactive forum on this site is quite comprehensive and very well supported.

Table 6.11 below is a snapshot of the forum as accessed in May 2013.

The obvious inclination of participants in this forum is towards professional road racing with over 6951 topic threads and over 700 000 posts on this topic. There is some information on mapping in these forums, but mostly related to professional bike races. There is little of direct relevance to cycle tourism on this site.

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Welcome to the CyclingNews Forum.

If this is your first visit, be sure to check out the FAQ by clicking the link above. You may have to register before you can post: click the register link above to proceed. To start viewing messages, select the forum that you want to visit from the selection below.

Forum Threads Posts

General (5 Viewing) Grab a short black and come join in the non-cycling discussion. 796 85,587 Favourite books, movies, holiday destinations, other sports - chat about it all in the cafe.

Professional road racing (26 Viewing) A place to discuss all things related to current professional road 6,951 704,721 races. Here, you can also touch on the latest news relating to professional road racing. A doping discussion free forum.

General (3 Viewing) Discuss your experiences road riding, share knowledge or other 1,226 22,942 general road cycling topics. A doping discussion free forum.

Games and Fantasy Cycling (2 Viewing) Come in and talk about betting, computer games and cycling 134 19,204 simulations, and your office's or online fantasy cycling leagues.

The Clinic (22 Viewing) The Clinic is the only place on Cyclingnews where you can discuss 4,096 311,599 doping-related issues. Ask questions, discuss positives or improvements to procedures.

General (1 Viewing) Whether it's cross country, marathon or gravity, post all your MTB 259 2,131 chat here.

General From the kilo to the hour record, if it's on the velodrome it goes in 154 2,079 here

General 226 2,076 Skinny tyres, drop handlebars and mud. Lots of mud.

General (1 Viewing) Which tyres for Paris-Roubaix? Whose time trial bike is fastest? 1,578 23,459 Suspension mountain bikes or singlespeeders? Talk equipment here.

General (3 Viewing) 507 12,659

About the forum 270 12,711 Drop in, give us some feedback and talk to the team

About the website Home for all your redesign feedback. We'll make all our important 416 4,633 announcements here too!

Table 6.11 - Cycling News forums (http://www.cyclingnews.com/); Extracted 13 June 2013

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Rated No 5: ACT Veterans Cycling Discussion Group ([email protected])

This is a small discussion group related specifically to road racing for Veteran cyclists in the Australian Capital Territory. It has 288 members (at March 2012). Anybody can view group content. Only managers can view group members list. People can request an invitation to join. Only members can post. As a number of members of this group responded to the survey it was noted as a source of information relevant to their interests, but apart for a few anecdotes about travel with bikes and some events members have ridden it does not have a lot of relevance to cycle tourism.

Rated No 6: Bike Snob NYC (http://bikesnobnyc.blogspot.com)

The stated objective of this site is:

“Systematically and mercilessly disassembling, flushing, greasing and re-packing the cycling culture”

The creator of the site does not identify himself except though his brief self-description as:

“While I love cycling and embrace it in all its forms, I'm also extremely critical. So I present to you my venting for your amusement and betterment. No offense meant to the critiqued. Always keep riding!”

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An example of recent post on this site by the creator says:

“Cine-meh: Have Fixie, Will Travel: Thursday, March 15, 2012

Well, it was another beautiful day yesterday, and this meant that the streets of New York City were teeming with tentative riders on fixiebikes. There's no surer sign of spring than the re- emergence of the fixiebike pilots, their bicycles unsullied by the grit and grime of winter, their pristine designer backpacks still smelling faintly of the mothballs in which they were stored, and their feeble riding skills blunted even further by months of inactivity. But what they may be lacking in ability they more than make up for with their renewed vigor and vitality, and they'll race you off that stoplight with the enthusiasm of a dog humping a shoe.” The site, as its title suggests is USA and New York focussed, but obviously has a global appeal to cyclists. A sampling of the recent blog archive gives a feel for the topics posted and discussed.

Blog Archive, 2012, March:

• Cine-meh: Have Fixie, Will Travel • Smugness by the Bakfietsful: Through a Park Smugly... • Getting Your Goat: Everyone Hates a Bike Thief • Right of Way: Take My Lane, Please

• BSNYC Friday Fun Quiz and Book Tour Announcement I... • Cycling American Style: Vehicular Cycling in the L... • Sacrifice: The High Cost of Fred-dom • BSNYC Friday Fun Quiz! (And Absentee Announcement...

• Cyclists: Eternal Victims, Perpetual Menaces.

Again not a great deal of relevance here for cycle tourism, but interesting that Australian Cyclists are relating to the content.

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Rated No 7: Cycling Tips (www.cyclingtips.com.au/)

This is another site mainly focussed on cycle racing but does have broader content and appeal. The creator of the site is Wade Wallace who describes himself:

“I’m just an average cyclist who can’t get enough of it. The fact that I’m average is probably why it’s an addiction. If I were good I probably would have had enough of it by now. I have a lovely wife who puts up with and even encourages my cycling habit, as well as a career that I enjoy. Life is good.”

He describes how the blog got started:

“My wife and I moved to Melbourne, Australia from Canada in 2005 and nearly packed up the bike racing for good. I had no idea that the cycling scene was so alive here in Melbourne. It took me about 6 months of settling into all the other things going on with moving across the world before I fully got back into cycling again. When I started cycling in Australia I noticed a lot of new and different things that the cyclists did here. Wherever in the world I’ve cycled I’ve noticed these little things, but I’ve never stayed anywhere long enough to give them much thought. After a while, I started keeping this blog on all of these cycling tips that I’ve learned over the years. It’s evolved into something more now, but I still enjoy writing about new things I learn about the sport. I ride 5 or 6 mornings every week, and nearly every ride gives me something to write about. If I stopped cycling, all this would probably come to a grinding halt as well. For now, there’s no end in sight. This is my small way of giving back to cycling since I’ve taken so much from it over the years (and still do). It’s no longer all about me.”

The site has tabs for Race Results, Bunch Rides, Reviews, Photos, Interviews and Videos

The creator describes the sites’ two primary goals as :

• “to inspire cyclists to become better and more knowledgeable, and, • to provide a few minutes of escapism for our readers.”

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The creator’s notes on how to reach him say:

“Send me an email. There’s a chance I won’t respond, because, well, I have a wife, a full-time job, a blog, an addiction to bikes and sometimes the attention span of a chihuahua. I’ll never intentionally ignore anyone, but sometimes the overwhelming amount of email gets ahead of me.”

This provides an insight into how such sites are generally managed by very motivated individuals with passion but how they generally rely on one person to keep them active and relevant.

Rated No 8: Audax Australia (http://www.audax.org.au/public/)

The website for Audax Australia describes itself as:

“Audax Australia Cycling Club is a non profit national cycling organisation specialising in non- competitive long distance bicycle rides from 50 to 1200 km, called "randonnees". The challenge of Audax is not in racing, but in pushing your own boundaries and experiencing great personal achievements. Audax enables riders of any ability to set and achieve riding goals with a group of like-minded cyclists. This spirit of achievement is what attracts so many riders to Audax. As the time limits required to complete events are generous, Audax appeals to a wide variety of cyclists, whether they are from a touring, racing, recreational or commuting background. All riders on Audax events are issued with and must carry a 'brevet' card. This card acts as a type of passport that riders must have stamped at checkpoints or controls as a demonstration that the ride has been completed within the time limits.”

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The forum on the sites has 5 sections as listed below:

• Events Alpine Classic, Paris-Brest-Paris etc

o 68 Topics o 264 Posts • General Miscellaneous banter

o 40 Topics o 481 Posts • Constitution o 6 Topics

o 8 Posts • Bike Tours (Commercial) o 4 Topics o 73 Posts

• Classifieds For Sale, Wanted to Buy or auctions you come across on eBay, Gum Tree etc.

Again this site has a specific focus for its members (long distance riders) but does has some information of relevance to cycle tourism, such as events and organised tours for those who want to do longer distances.

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6.3.2 Comparing Websites, Blogs and Wikis

In this research respondents to the online survey were asked about their favourite websites and also about blogs and wikis that they use to source information about cycling. Chapter 4 summarised the responses concerning websites and this Chapter has reported on the use of blogs and wikis. The questions asked were:

• “Do you subscribe to any cycling related blogs or wikis?

• “Do you have some favourite cycling related websites that you would recommend to other cyclists in your cycling discipline?”

Two of the questions in the survey asked respondents to identify online sources used to gather information about cycling and travel. One asked respondents to identify cycling websites they would recommend to others and the other asked them to identify blogs or wikis. In comparing the responses about websites in Chapter 5 and this section on blogs and wikis, it is of note that there is very little overlap in the responses to the two key questions on these information sources for cyclists. As noted previously respondents were not given any definitions of these sources to help differentiate between them, however their understanding, as possibly regular users of online sources, seems to have quite clearly differentiated between the two sources. Of the ten websites identified only two of these have been identified as having associated blogs or wikis. Thus the Sydney Cyclist site was identified as both a popular website and as a source of information though their interactive forums. Similarly the Audax site for long distance cyclists was in the top ten for both categories. Apart from these there was very little overlap indicating that respondents to the survey used these sources quite differently.

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6.4 Data Discovery through some Online Forums, Blogs and Wikis

As part of this research into the use of online technology by cycling tourists, an investigation of some cycling related social media has provided some insight into the online behaviour of cyclists, especially related to their travel plans. As previously noted LinkedIn is a social media site mostly used by professionals and topics related to work, jobs, careers and business are posted and discussed on the site. On 14 March 2012 Linked in posted a notice to members:

“Today we achieved a tremendous milestone when we exceeded 3 million members from Australia on the LinkedIn network. LinkedIn connects over 150 million members worldwide to find jobs, gain and share insights, grow a business and much more.” Post from Linked In ( http://www.linkedin.com) Wednesday 14/03/2012 11:38am

Thus with over 3 million subscribers in Australia LinkedIn is becoming a significant site for social media across many professional groups.

6.4.1 Social Media Discussions from 2010 and 2011

Whilst there are literally hundreds of posts each day on cycling related social media sites and discussions can go on for months, as a “snapshot” of topics relative to this research, two posts from key periods during the timeframe of this research are summarised below to illustrate the way subscribers are using the media.

LinkedIn Post from September 2010

The first topic, initially posted in September 2010, (about the time the online survey was being completed) was:

“Are you successfully using Facebook to promote your cycling related business? Care to share any failures or successes?”

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A sampling of responses to the post follows:

From: A Business Development Coordinator , Adidas , Greater New York City Area

“At the moment, we post events like races we support regionally in upstate NY. We also let fans post pictures, and we take lots of photo and video when possible for use on the fan page. In 2011, we'll probably think about doing some targeted marketing and sales exercises. One of the biggest changes we've seen is in investing in promoting the page leading to more followers.”

From: An Internet Consultant and Project Manager , Amsterdam Area, Netherlands

“We always ask ourselves the question: "Why would fans stop by on our Facebook fan-page?" In other words, make your fan-page attractive to your fans.”.

From The Owner, YBS Bikes,Dallas/Fort Worth Area, USA

“It can be a nice place to share news that has a short life span. And depending on how your presence is set up, more of a social, informal place for sharing info that really isn't appropriate for your official site.“

From: Project Solutions Manager for Web, Email, and Mobile Projects, San Francisco Bay Area, USA

“ My answer is that we have been both successful and not, depending on the demographic. Running a cycling camp in Italy aimed primarily at Masters racers/Gran Fondo riders, our traditional demo (males 40-60) is one of the least likely to use Facebook, but the demo we're seeing our best growth in (men/women 30-40) does use it often.

I agree with xxx that letting fans post up their own pictures/videos is a great and effective use of the page, and creates the posts with the highest interaction levels. The current struggle is that our fans with the best content to post, i.e. past customers, are the least likely to have a Facebook account! (our past client list is more than 5x our Fan count)

In addition to targeted marketing to boost our fan numbers, we're also going to try running

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contests that encourage existing fans to get their friends to also "Like" us. We'll be monitoring those new fans to see if we are successful in attracting potential clients or just building our numbers and adjust our strategy as we go.”

ProBikeKit - Equip Yourself - The Online Onroad Experts, Lancaster, United Kingdom

“We try to keep a mix of up to date/informative cycling news, humour and plenty of pictures and short videos. We do link to product on our site, but too much of this and people will get bored and think that all we are trying to do is push product. If you limit product/sales links to a minimum, people will take note of it rather than be turned off. Remember facebook is a fun social medium and try to post light hearted content that people will want to look at and look forward to your posts. Engage your fans by replying to comments and let them know you welcome their interaction.”

Comments on this post

It is notable that the use of Facebook is discussed on another social media suite (LinkedIn);

Two interesting points to note from this discussion in relation to this research are: • The opinion that the demographic of people using Facebook may not be a good match for the marketing of cycle tourism products. • The posting of information about cycling events on Facebook is quite a successful marketing tool.

LinkedIn Post from March 2011

The second post on the LinkedIn Social network was initially posted in March 2011, about 6 months after the closure of the online survey for this research. The question posed was:

“HUGE but simple question: Why do you ride? It could be an emotive reason or you might just need to get to work faster. Any insight would be appreciated. Sometimes I think those of us in the industry might forget to ask ourselves this question from time to time.”

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A sampling of responses to the post follows:

From: Senior member of IT Delivery Optimization Team To sweat To think To imagine To avoid the pain of being unprepared for an upcoming event To be alone To be with friends To experience the seasons To be a part of the solution instead of part of the problem To be a better husband/father/person when I get back To test myself To get the most out of my investments To be able to keep up with clients To not embarrass my suppliers To pop wheelies To see how fast I can go To see things from a different perspective To feel like a kid again To see how far I can get up that steep climb before I have to get off To spend some quality time with my family To share some of my joy with others To sneak up on deer, fox and pheasants in the forest To get away from mosquitos in the forest To keep my pants from getting too tight To see how low I can get my resting heart rate (in season, anyway) To see the looks on my coworker's faces when I show up in full TT gear To ride 20 minutes to the nearest Unesco World Heritage site, buy ice cream and watch the swans on the lake.

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From: President at Anerca International Inc. Riding for me is about contribution, fitness and mechanical geekiness. Yes, and about joining a community and making some really good friends and have some fun.

From: Solution Implementation Specialist at Pointe & Qlik, USA Because I want to. Because I need to. Because there is no better way for humans to move about the surface of the earth. Walking and running are slow and hard on the body, cars are fast, but they are hard on the planet and isolate us from our environment so we don't feel so badly about wrecking it, horses and other draft animals are great, but eat a lot, and don't smell all that good (granted, neither do many cyclists though).

From: Owner, Sojourn Bicycling & Active Vacations There's simply no other feeling quite like it. Self-propelled freedom, exploration and exhilaration would rank near the top of my reasons for riding. Following closely are fitness related reasons, carbon-free transportation, and camaraderie. It is unquestionably my preferred means of enhancing appreciation for my surroundings. Some of my favorite life experiences involve cycling.

From: CEO at IntraWerks, Inc. Weight control and I hate to run. I really hate to run.

From National Sales Manager, USA I sure do love xxx's answer!! (Exactly why I ride/run). But for me, because I ride/run and train solo, riding is MY time. I am nobody's wife, daughter, sister, employee, or even friend. It's what I do so that I can do everything else I need to do with a smile on my face.

From: Sales & Marketing Manager (Unemployed) For me it can be summed up in one word 'Freedom'. Freedom of mind, body and spirit, the ultimate stress relief and the most fun you can have on wheels.

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From: Executive at Parker Sandford Limited and ATTAIN To be outside whatever the weather Its a unique feeling Its unique every time I go out and ride It is socially inclusive (if you want it to be) It provides an all round feeling of well being for an hour until I've showered and eaten and then slumberland.

From: Senior Level Mechanical Engineer seeking Engineering position. I ride because I love everything about it! I love the visual effect of seeing the world flow past me smoothly as I pedal. I love the smooth motion of it. I love feeling the air flow around me. I love riding fast, tucked down like a racer. I love riding really slowly, balancing like a tightrope artist. I love coasting down a long, long hill. I love climbing a really steep hill, then looking back down at it with the same "look" Lance gave Jan Ullrich. I love pulling up to a bike rack and locking up, then just walking in to wherever I'm going without having to find a parking space! I love the fact that in a major city it's faster than driving or taking public transportation. I love looking at my flat stomach in the mirror. I love it when someone who hasn't seen me in 20 years says "You look just the same!". What more can I say? It's the most efficient mode of transportation ever invented, and the most fun I have all day! Thanks for the question. Made me realize how much cycling means to me...

From: President at Brushy Mountain Publishing The wind, the smells, the silence, the mountains, to be with my dog, to think, to not think, to go uphill until I cry and want to puke and then downhill until I am laughing as I fly. Ohhhh, I can't wait until spring!

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From: Project Engineer at Bunting Graphics, Inc. I ride because I can I ride because I can hear my bike beckoning me to take it out I ride because I can lead and I ride because I can follow I ride because I can teach and I ride because I can learn I ride because I can exercise and I ride because I can have fun I ride because I can feel pain and I ride because I can feel pleasure I ride because I can be by myself and I ride because I can be with my family I ride because I can get better and I ride because I can maintain I ride because I can ride for the sake of the ride I ride because I can...

From: Editor-In-Chief Conferences Aviation Week Because it is what motivates me to push myself. I love love love to ride. I love to ride fast and slow and by myself and with groups and friends. I love cycling vacations in Europe and to climb Alpe d'Huez. I love my commute to work in downtown Washington, DC each day past the monuments. I love the sweat, the cool clothes, and knowing I can do all this and the only carbon involved is my frame. Because I want to and I need to.

From:Owner/Producer at RockStep Creative Youth,it keeps me young, now more then ever since I get to ride with my two sons...and when I ride my trials bike, to boldly go where no bike has gone before.....

From: Head of Sales & Marketing at Oakley Riding for pleasure you get to appreciate your surroundings and you can do it all day. If you race you feel like an athlete and cycling is the only sport where as a medium level racer you can ride with and keep pace with the best in the country, even if only for a short while. You can't do that in any other sport, or even get the chance. Just think, you can ride up Mont Ventoux along the same road that Tom Simpson died on and experience something of what he must have been feeling. You sure can't drive an F1 car around Imola or play football at Old Trafford. No other sport compares in terms of variety, colour and human endurance....and in Britain it's the sport we win the most gold medals in :-)

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Oh and as someone said earlier, I like being almost the same weight (and shape, nearly) that I was 30 years ago..... “

From: Headhigh Creative – Principal I ride because... It is a positive loop, the more you put in, the more you get out of it... on all levels.... health, state of mind, camaraderie. It allows me to interact with nature. It fuels inspiration for other parts of my life. I ride because it is my happy! “

From: Co-Owner, Soft Goods buyer at Missing Link Bicycle Cooperative Therapy Fitness Stress relief Wanderlust Coaching Racing Life Road, Mountain, Cyclocross, it's all good!

Final post from the originator of the discussion Thanks everyone. All of these answers are great! I definitely relate to all the thoughts here. To answer the question "Why am I asking?" I'm in the marketing side of the sport and I'm looking for insights that will connect deeper with riders and potential riders and hopefully put more bums in bike seats. Thanks again for your time!

Comments on this post

In relation to the research questions posed for this topic the above discussion provides an important insight into the motivations for cyclists to ride. This directly imposes upon why

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cyclists will ride outside their home location as cycle tourists. A synopsis of the above discussion thread indicates the major motivation factors from this group are: • fitness and mental well being,

• invigorating outdoor activity, • competition, • sustainable transport, • peace of mind,

• interaction with nature, • physical challenge; • independence, and, • It’s fun, really enjoyable.

These, together with the information needs and means of access to this information form the basis of understanding what cycle tourists want.

6.4.2 Time Stamp on Social Conversations Online.

One of the issues related to social media online is the time specific context of the media and its generally short lifespan. Those who start something often get tired and move on. One such blog was Yellow Brick Road, which was very popular for several years, but the comments of the “owner” as he closed down the blog illustrate the nature of the media very well.

“If u happen to have stumbled here, you've probably noticed this blog has become rather stale. For whatever reasons, I've stopped blogging even though I'm still obsessed with cycling and more generally thinking about the role of cycling in urban life. Today, however, I don't feel any need to add to the many voices that are already blogging on these topics. In the last year, I've had a lot of big changes in my life. I decided to quit my Phd studies, I've started working full-time in the area of sustainable transport, and I've become a father to baby Eddy. It seems quite funny to look back and think that this blog started four years ago with a Canadian flatmate and broken bicycle. Since then, bicycling has become such a big part of my life that I sometimes get introduced as 'that bike guy'. Bike culture (for want of a better term) in Sydney has only got bigger and better in the last few years. Its been an absolute thrill to be involved with the many

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communities of people who are passionate about cycling.

Happy cycling.”

6.5 Conclusion

Considering the surveys for this research were conducted in 2009-10 the use of social media was still significant, with some 20% of respondents reporting some use of social networks in seeking information about travel destinations. A majority (58%) reported use of cycling related blogs, wikis or chat rooms in seeking their travel information.

The results show that mountain bikers have a higher usage of social networking tools with 29% of respondents reporting occasional or higher use compared to 19-20% for the other groups. Road or track racers were the highest users of blogs, wikis or chat rooms with 66% reporting occasional or higher use. Given the generally younger age of mountain bikers this is an interesting result.

From this research recreational riders have a significantly higher usage of social networking than mountain bike riders and road riders. In line with general community usage, Facebook is the prime social networking site for cyclists, however both Twitter and LinkedIn have significant followings in the cycling world. The usage of these platforms does vary across cycling sectors with some unexpected results, especially with lower than expected use by generally younger mountain bikers.

The analysis of the content of blogs and wikis has confirmed that website based information is the most important source of intelligence for technology aware cyclists. Information about specific potential destinations (the travelogue) and mapping and route selection tools online are also shown to be of significance . The analysis illustrates the importance of “crowd sourcing” in the online world in the gathering of information for cycle tourists.

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The use of online media for research is illustrated from the analysis of the LinkedIn discussion about “why you ride?”. From this discussion thread it was possible to determine that, for those involved, their major motivations for cycling included fitness and mental well being, competition, sustainable transport, interaction with nature, independence, and fun. These factors add to our understanding of the push factors in decision making for this group.

This Chapter has explored cyclists’ use of social media in their quest for information. The outcomes of the survey questionnaire illustrate that cyclists are using the media and have preferences for specific sites and content. The examination of cycling blogs recommended by the respondents to the survey has provided an insight as to why these sites are popular with cyclists who want information about potential destinations when riding away for their home location. In addition the sampling of two discussions on LinkedIn about cycling provide additional insights into motivations and issues related to cyclists use of these media. It also raises questions about this “new” media and its relevance to research such as this examining online behavior and interaction.

Chapter 7 summarises the outcomes of the research in respect to the research questions posed and the conceptual models that were presented as guidance for the research. This research is a first step in exploring the use of online technology by cyclists as tourists or in other guises. This is a rapidly evolving world with the uptake of these technologies being fanned by lower costs of entry, more effective tools and a rapid expansion of mobile communications. The results reported here are from data captured in 2009-10 and if the surveys were repeated now (May 2012) some significant changes could be expected. This field of research is deserving of more attention to better understand the use of these technologies, and the related access and information requirements of users.

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Chapter 7 Summary of Outcomes, Discussion and Conclusions

7.1 Introduction

This research has examined how cycling tourists use online technology to help choose their desired destination for cycling away from their home base. The elements of online technology explored included the use of websites, online maps and social media. The research employed a mixed methods approach using focus groups, an online survey and data discovery through a number of online sources. The approach was one of “dominant/less dominant design” (McMurray, Pace and Scott, 2004) where the primary technique used was the quantitative method using an online survey with the focus groups and data discovery taking a secondary role. Overall the adoption of a mixed methods approach and the strong response to the online survey provided sufficient data to explore the research questions in depth.

The context for the research was presented in Chapter 1. Chapter 2 reviewed the literature about the scope and scale of cycling tourism, tourist motivation and destination choice models as applicable to cycling tourists and an overview of research into online technologies and information gathering as applicable to cycling tourists. Chapters 4, 5 and 6 presented the data analysis and the prime outcomes of the research. This final Chapter draws together the outcomes from the preceding Chapters, discusses these outcomes and their limitations and makes some recommendation for further research in this field.

Chapter 1 introduced the topic and provided a discussion on the definition of cycle tourism and proposed the adaptation of a definition of cycling tourism as used by the South Australian Cycle Tourism Strategy (2005). This definition is:

“cycling tourist visits are considered to be for the purpose of holidays, recreation, pleasure, or sport and to include either overnight stays or day trips to other tourism regions during which the visitor engages in active cycling.”

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This definition encompasses all major cycling sectors and includes day trippers and overnight travellers, however spectators were excluded, as active cyclists are the prime subject of this research.

7.2 Limitations and Boundaries to the Research

Chapter 1 identified some of the delimitations of the scope of this research. Here I note the limitations and boundaries of the research as completed.

• The title of the thesis makes it clear that the major part of the research was limited to Australian cycling tourists, however the literature review and data discovery has extended beyond Australia. Whilst this is not a limitation to the research as such, the key results from the survey work relate only to Australian cycling tourists and should not be extended beyond that. There is scope for extending this work to a more international group in future research on the topic.

• There is a bias towards ACT, NSW and Victorian residents in the data collected in the surveys for this research. The spread of responses across the States and Territories was: o ACT 24.7% o NSW 53.2% o Vic 15.3% o SA 4.6% o Qld 2.0% o Tas 0.1% o WA 0.1%

• The research has concentrated on the participant element of cycle tourism, and did not embrace the spectator element of this sector. Again this is not a limitation to the research, but comparisons to data from more recent work, which has examined the spectator element of cycle tourism, such as Lamont (2010), and Lamont and Buultjens (2011), should be mindful of this difference.

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• The quantitative data collection for this research was primarily between October 2009 and July 2010. Thus the replies were relevant at the time respondents completed the survey questionnaire. In an area of fast moving technology and rapidly increasing uptake of social media tools, what was the situation in mid 2010 may not necessarily be true today. However, given the lack of research in this field, the results provide an important “snapshot” in time of the use of these tools.

In addition to the above limitations, Chapter 3 identified some potential limitations from the methodology and methods used in the research.

• As the size and composition of the target audience (Australian cycling tourists) is not understood fully, the effectiveness of the sampling technique can only be estimated. Participant selection was by self selection. Online invitations were sent to subscribers to online communications used by a variety of cycling clubs and organisations. Thus this is not a random sample, but convenience sample of volunteers from this group.

• Of the 658 responses to the survey, 12% described themselves primarily as mountain bikers, 58% as recreational riders and 14% as competitive riders. In addition 26% of non mountain bikers said they participated in mountain biking as a secondary pursuit and 56% of all respondents said they owned a mountain bike. Thus whilst the majority of the survey participants had their prime interests in recreational cycling, the samples across the other sectors has captured key aspects of mountain biking as well as racing and recreational cycling.

• Another potential shortcoming of the methods adopted for this research was that the survey work was carried out online and no hardcopy mail-outs or interviews were done. This had the potential to exclude those cycling tourists who do not have access to, or do not use online technology. However, as the prime focus of this research was how cyclists use online technology, then familiarity with and regular use of online communications was a key attribute of potential respondents.

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7.3 Research Outcomes from the Literature Review

A number of key points arose from the literature review in Chapter 2. The major findings are summarised here.

7.3.1 How Big is Cycle Tourism?

There are no comprehensive data on the size or scope of cycle tourism in Australia. The size of the sector can be understood broadly from an examination of cycling participation statistics that have been reported in the literature. Whilst cycling participation or event statistics do not identify specifically cycle tourists these data do give an indication of the potential of cycle tourism.

There is considerable evidence (Cycling Promotion Fund 2009, 2010; Australian Sports Commission 2010) that the number of people active in cycling in Australia is large and growing, with over 10% of the population owning at least one bicycle and using it regularly.

In understanding the cycle tourism market it is noted that: • A significant proportion of the Australian population own bicycles – 16 million bicycles have been purchased since 2000; • Over 1.9 million Australians used bicycles regularly in 2009; • Around 10% of the Australian population use their bicycles at least once a week; • The Australian Capital Territory leads the nation in bicycle use (16.8%); and, • There are over 1 million active cyclists in NSW and Victoria combined.

Cycling participation events around Australia attract large numbers of riders and tourists. These include Around the Bay in a Day, Melbourne (16,000 participants), Sydney to Gong (10,000), Tour Down Under Community Ride (8,000), and Brisbane to Gold Coast (8,000).

Research into cycle tourism in Australia (Lamont 2009; Faulks 2010; South Australian Tourist Commission 2010) has indicated that cycle tourism is a significant sector of the tourism market. No comprehensive data across the sector have been reported to date.

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7.3.2 Cycle Tourism has been Defined Narrowly

Most of the literature addressing cycle tourism in Australia and overseas has been focussed exclusively on recreational cycling. A few authors such as Lamont (2009) and Bull (2006) have recognised competitive cycling events as significant from a tourism perspective but there are no comprehensive studies on this. A number of authors have identified mountain biking as a significant sector of cycle tourism (IMBA 2007; Faulks and Mules 2008), however to date there have been no definitive studies in this sector. From the existing studies, bicycle sales statistics, cycling club memberships and recent cycling event statistics it is apparent that the two major cycling activities in Australia are on road cycling and mountain biking. This research has explored cycling tourism beyond recreational activity, to include road racing, and competitive mountain biking.

7.3.3 Tourist Motivation and Destination Choice Models applied to Cycle Tourism

Chapter 2 included a critical examination of models of tourism motivation and destination choice. The conceptual models put forward for cycling tourism destination choice and information search sought to place the motivations of cycling tourists and how they chose their destinations into models that recognise and build on this extensive body of work. These models envisaged that there are significant push and pull factors that are specific to cycling and that information search and decision making by cyclists involves significant use of online technologies. These models and the research questions posed in Chapter 1 are reviewed below.

In addition, Chapter 2 identified the significant use of online technologies by Australians and especially online maps and the use of social networking tools. This research has examined these factors in relation to cycling tourism and the outcomes are reviewed below.

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7.4 Summary of Outcomes of Research

The major outcomes of this research are reported in Chapters 4, 5 and 6. Whilst the focus groups and the online survey have provided the bulk of the data for this research, some important additional information has been accessed in the data discovery process, which has provided greater insight into the research questions.

Chapter 4 reported on the outcomes of the focus groups and the more general questions in the online survey. The key issues relating to the use of online technologies are addressed in the following two Chapters that address specifically the use of websites and online maps (Chapter 5) and Social Networking tools (Chapter 6).

Chapter 4 reported that the focus groups were a very useful mechanism for testing the validity of the survey questionnaire used as the major data collection tool for this research. The completion of a pilot survey by the focus group participants provided additional fine tuning of the questionnaire.

The focus groups provided some useful in-depth insights into the use of online technologies by the participants, namely: • Across the two focus groups there was an extensive use of websites and online mapping tools to plan and record rides undertaken as tourists. • Most focus group participants had used accommodation websites to plan and book accommodation before a trip. • Google Maps was the most used mapping site. The most used feature in Google Maps was to extract vertical profiles for routes to know how steep and long particular routes were.

At the time of the focus groups (August 2009) very few of the participants were using social networking tools, such as Facebook and Twitter to discuss cycling issues, however a number of participants were active users of cycling blogs relating to their interests or club memberships

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related to road racing. This aspect of the research was explored further in Chapter 6 where some relevant cycling blogs were analysed.

The online survey, with its 40 questions and 658 respondents, has provided a vast amount of data not only across the full spectrum of cycling tourism issues but also demographic data, information about cycling preferences, and general Internet use which provide essential background information and context for the questions about the use of online technologies.

7.4.1 Demographics, Education, Income, Experience and Cycling Preferences

The demographic profiles of survey respondents show that they were mostly male (67.4%) with a relatively even spread of ages. The survey was restricted to those over 18 years. The youngest group (18-25) was the least represented with only 1% of the total, but the other age groups were well represented, including 6.7% over 65 years old. The outcomes of this survey correlate well with the overall participation rates in cycling in Australia where the 2009 participation data (Australian Sports Commission, 2010) show that across Australia 66% of active cyclists are male.

The majority of survey respondents (64.5%) were in full time employment with only 3.8% unemployed and 14.6% retired. The vast majority (82.0%) earned over $50,000 p.a. and a sizable proportion (56.2%) were earning over $75,000 p.a. Whilst these cycle tourists were well positioned for employment and income, not surprisingly they were also well qualified, with 69.0% with at least a Bachelor’s degree and 29.2% with higher degrees.

The cyclists who responded to the survey, somewhat aligned to their income profiles, have quite expensive bicycles with 48.3% road riders spending more than $3000 on a bike and 25.6% of mountain bikers spending more than $3000 on a bicycle. Of those who identified road racing as their prime pursuit, 83 % spent more than $3000 on their bikes and for those whose prime pursuit was mountain biking 61.3% spent more than $3000 on their bikes. Of all riders in the survey 34.3 % spend more than $500 per year on cycling related equipment. Thus these cyclists are generally in the higher income brackets, are well educated and are willing to spend on their equipment.

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The majority (58.7%) of the respondents identified recreational cycling as their prime area of interest or activity, with mountain biking at 11.7%, road or track racing at 13.6% and other interest (primarily commuting by bicycle) at 16%. In addition 26% of non-mountain bikers said they participated in mountain biking as a secondary pursuit and 56% of all respondents said they owned a mountain bike. The survey has thus captured a cross section of cyclists in the two major sectors of road riding and mountain biking and confirmed that mountain biking as a significant sector in cycling generally.

The survey respondents were experienced cyclists with 72% having been involved in their cycling pursuits for over 6 years and only 10% for less than 2 years. Thus the responses to the survey questions are based on considerable experience in riding and travelling with bicycles.

One of the questions raised in this research is related to the possible age differences of the different groups of cyclists and the possible impact this may have on their use of technology. It was somewhat expected that mountain bikers would be a younger group of riders and the analysis of the responses to the online survey has shown that 64.3% of mountain bikers were under 45 years old. By contrast 42 % of road and track racers were under 45 years old and 28.3%.of recreational riders were under 45 years of age. It is confirmed thus that for this sample mountain bikers are generally a younger demographic.

7.4.2 Motivations for Cycling

In exploring the motivations of cycling tourists, the online survey sought information about cyclists’ means of travel, regional preferences, length of stay and party composition. This information provided the setting for the more in depth questions about motivations including attractors in the way of events and facilities and their accommodation and safety needs.

The responses to the survey showed that a considerable number of cyclists travel often to pursue their cycling interests with 18.8% of survey respondents travelling more than 6 times a year. The vast majority of cycling tourists take their own bike when travelling, with 42.2% always taking their own bike. This correlates well with the means of transport cyclists used to get to their

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destination with the most popular method being in their own car. A high proportion of cyclists travel by bike to their destination, with 75% sometimes using their bike to get to a destination. Airline travel with bikes is also significant with 77% sometimes taking their bikes by plane.

The survey has shown that most cycling tourists travel with a partner, and a considerable number travel in small groups. A quite significant proportion (60%) occasionally travels in large groups with a group of friends or on organised tours. This is a good indicator that social interaction with other cyclists is an important element of their travel.

It is notable that over 50% of survey respondents stayed away occasionally on their cycling trips for more than 14 days. Whilst there was an even spread of travel destinations across local, within State and interstate travel destinations it is again of note that over 57% of respondents, occasionally travel overseas for cycling pursuits. This confirms other research (Lamont, 2009; Faulks et al, 2008) that shows cycle tourists stay longer and spend more that many other tourists.

The most popular accommodation option for the respondents to this survey was in a hotel/motel but almost equally popular was to stay with friends and relatives or in self contained cabin, flat or apartment. Again, of some note, is that over 20% of these cyclists regularly carry camping gear on their bikes, and over 50% sometimes carry camping gear on their bike. This group’s information needs thus extend beyond the standard accommodation options.

In relation to cyclists’ needs in the way of facilities associated with accommodation, the survey has shown secure bike storage to be the most important and the provision of bike racks the least important. In light of the value of the bikes used by these cyclists this is not a surprising outcome. There was little interest in having onsite meal service at accommodation venues, and good coffee is important to 39% of these cyclists. Normally, the coffee would include some social interaction with other riders after a good day’s riding.

7.4.3 Cycling Events as Attractors for Cycling Tourists

Cycling events are becoming genuine tourism attractors. Some “challenge” events around Australia that attract large numbers of riders and tourists include Around the Bay in a Day, Melbourne (16,000 participants), Sydney to Gong (10,000), Tour Down Under Community Ride

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(8,000) and Brisbane to Gold Coast (8,000). Lamont, Axelsen and Faulks (2008) reported that the Alpine Classic held in Bright, Victoria each January had over 2,000 participants with a direct economic impact of some $814,176, with total impact, including non- participant visitors connected to the event estimated at $1.5 million. It was thus anticipated that, from this survey, cycling events would prove to be an important pull factor and that information about events would be one of the key elements of information sought by cyclists.

Respondents to the online survey identified organized cycling events as an important factor in their decision making about a destination. Cycling events are important to 33% of these riders and relevant to another 29%, so they are a factor in decision making for some 62% of riders canvassed in the survey. Interestingly, more than 55% of respondents indicated that racing or competition is not at all important in their decision making. The most important motivational factor by a considerable margin was cycling for fun or recreation. It is also of note that social interaction with other cyclists is important to more than 60% of these cyclists.

7.4.4 Road Safety as a Factor for Cyclists

A significant factor in choosing a cycling destination is a safe cycling environment with 83% of survey respondents identifying this as an important factor for them. In questioning these cyclists about the importance of cycling infrastructure in their travel plans, safe on road riding is by far the most important aspect of the cycling infrastructure, with 72% of riders indicating this is important to them with 32% saying it was the most important factor. In line with this is the second most important factor, being traffic free recreational trails, with 52.3% identifying this as important.

It was interesting to discover that the scenic beauty of a region was the second most important factor to these cyclists. Challenging (hilly) terrain is important for 22% of riders, but also relevant to another 35%. Actually 55% of these riders seek out hills to ride! The views of mountain bikers show through in this section, with 26% of all respondents indicating marked mountain bike trails as being important, and another 19% saying this is relevant to them.

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7.4.5 Information Sources for Cycling Tourists

Respondents to the online survey were asked to rate the importance of their information sources in relation to their travel plans. The major outcomes from these responses included:

• The most important source for choosing a cycling destination was cycling websites, with 65.8% saying this was important or most important. • A little surprisingly, given their businesses are built on cycle tourism, cycle tour operators were the second least popular source of information, with only 22.1% of respondents saying they were important. • As the most popular sources, slightly behind cycling websites, came cycling publications such as maps and brochures, and advice from fellow cyclists by word of mouth or through cycling clubs. Cycling publications were considered important by 58.6% and advice from fellow cyclists was rated important by 59.2%. • Knowledge from previous visits is certainly an important factor with 57.2% rating this important. • Advice from friends and relatives rated highly with 44.2% thinking this was important and cycling magazines were rated important by 47.6%. • General tourism sources were still rated important sources with 42.3% rating tourism websites as important, Tourism Information Centres were rated important by 33.3% and general tourism guides were thought important by 26.9%. • General travel agents are by far the least important source with only 5% thinking they were important.

7.4.6 Accessing the Technology

Most respondents to this survey (68%) used a home desktop computer to access the Internet however at the time of the survey (2010) 38% accessed the internet through an office desktop

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computer whilst 48% used a laptop or netbook computer, indicating that many are mobile and using the technology whilst mobile. At the time of this survey only 8.8% (in 2010) used a smart phone to access the Internet.

Cyclists’ use of specific online sources was explored in the survey. The high rating of general Internet searches was significant with 48.9% using these often and 23.2 % always using this means. The standout response to this question was the extensive use of online maps with some 58.2% using these either always or often. Noting the survey was mostly carried out during 2010, social networking rated quite low in this question with 79.3% never using this technology to seek travel information. Emailed communications from subscribed organizations were occasionally used by 44.7% and often used by 30.4%. In contrast to the use of social networking tools, cycling related blogs and chat rooms were very popular with some 33.9% using them occasionally and 24.1% often using them. Thus these cyclists are significant users of online maps and cycling related blogs in seeking travel information.

7.4.7 Websites and Online Maps as Information Sources

Chapter 5 explored the online technologies and mapping tools that cycling tourists use, and the content they are seeking. Nearly 75% of respondents to this survey used online maps in their destination choice decision making.

Respondents were asked if they would recommend websites to other cyclists and to identify them. 180 respondents (27.6%) replied that they would recommend sites to other cyclists. Amongst the top ten sites identified, four are related to cycling organisations. The organisations with the most popular websites identified were:

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• The Canberra Off Road Cyclists (CORC) site is aimed at Mountain Bikers in the ACT and region, and their website provides extensive information about Mountain Biking (MTB) routes in the ACT region as well as general MTB information. • Audax is the Australian cycling organisation that caters for long distance cyclists. Their website has information about groups spread across Australia and ride opportunities in organised events or individual rides.

The other websites identified in the top ten were:

• Bikely, which has been a very popular American based general cycling site that covers the globe with cycle routes mapped by cycling enthusiasts and a general cycling blog. • Sydney Cyclist is a Sydney based site with a plethora of general cycling information but is especially Sydney focussed. • Garmin Connect is the site used by those who have Garmin GPS navigation devices. Cyclists download the routes recorded on their Garmin navigators and use the site as a repository for their rides and training. They share the route information with other cyclists. • Open Street Map and WhereIs are general mapping websites. Open Street Map is world wide, Whereis is an Australia only site.

7.4.8 What Information are Cycling Tourists Looking for Online?

The major types of information sought from websites by the cycling tourists in this survey are identifiable clearly from the responses.

• 91.4% of respondents regarded websites as being a relevant (or higher) option for information about accommodation. This confirms that cyclists are likely to seek and book their accommodation online. • 87.3 % thought that websites were relevant (or higher) to research travel options to travel to get to a destination. Again this is confirmation that cyclists are very likely to seek information about transport to a destination online, and probably book this online as well.

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• The least popular choice was information about local cycling clubs or groups, with 40.5 % thinking they were relevant. However this is still a sizeable proportion of these cyclists who are seeking this information. • It is of some interest that cycle friendly transport options at a location were considered important or most important by 54.5% of this group. Thus planes, buses or trains which accommodate bikes are regarded as important to travelling cyclists. • Information about cycling related facilities was seen as relevant by 42.2% of respondents. Information about organised cycling tours was relevant to 50.2% of respondents. • 66.4% of respondents thought information about cycle events were relevant to their online information needs. This confirms that event managers should be paying attention to their online presence. • General tourist information was well sought after by these cyclists with 83.7% saying it was relevant.

The other information sought by these cyclists (but not rated) were:

• Safe cycling routes • Reviews of people who have ridden there before • Suggested interesting routes • Drinking water • Bicycle Hire Outlets (especially when overseas) • Weather conditions/best time of year to travel at location • Scenic and cultural points of interest • Touring maps • Information on cycling events • Cycle path details • Camp sites

In seeking information about the most useful mapping tools for cyclists, respondents were asked for their recommendations on these tools. The dominance of Google Earth and Google Maps as the preferred source of mapping data for this group of cyclists stands out. Over 75% of

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respondents use and recommend Google Maps. However Bikely (50%) and MapMyRide (20%), which are specialist sites for cycling, do have high rates of usage.

Respondents were asked to identify the features most desired by cyclists in an online map. Most notable from this question was the importance of features related to road safety for cyclists, with over 75% rating on road details as important or higher and over 63% rating cycle paths with no motorised traffic as important or higher. Noting that the majority of respondents are road riders, the importance of route profiles showing elevations along a route, is not surprising with over 67% rating this information as important or higher. The other features identified as important (but not rated) were elevations, water supplies and distances between places.

7.4.9 Use of GPS and Portable Navigation Technology

In response to the two questions on the use of GPS enabled devices 52.9% of respondents (313 individuals) reported that they owned or used a GPS enabled device (smart phone or GPS navigation device). Of those who owned such devices 63.2% (256 individuals) reported that they used it whilst cycling. Considering the explosion in the use of this technology over the past year or so this is a very high level of usage considering the state of this technology when the survey was undertaken in late 2009/early2010.

7.4.10 The Use of Social Networks by Cycling Tourists

Chapter 6 explored the final element of the online environment and looked at the rapidly developing world of social networking and cycling tourism and has examined cyclists’ use of social media in their quest for information. The outcomes of the survey questionnaire show that cyclists are using these media and have preferences for specific sites and content. Whilst the use of social networks was quite low at the time of this survey, some 20% of respondents did report some use of social networks in seeking information about travel destinations. Some 58% reported use of cycling related blogs, wikis or chat rooms in seeking their travel information.

In relation to the use of social networking tools, generally, mountain bikers have a higher usage with 29% of respondents reporting occasional or higher use compared to 19-20% for the other

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groups. The use of blogs, wikis or chat rooms is generally higher by mountain bikers too with 63% reporting occasional or higher use, compared to 54% for recreational riders, however in this area road or track racers were the highest users with 66% reporting occasional or higher use.

Respondents to the survey were asked to identify which social network sites they used. Whilst nearly half the respondents (49.1%) did not use social networking at the time of the survey, of those that used these networks Facebook was by far the most used at 43.7% with both Twitter and LinkedIn used by around 10%. MySpace had quite low usage in Australia. Of those who use social networking, 32% discussed cycling on their sites. Recreational riders have a higher usage of social networking than the other groups at 48.8% with Mountain Bike riders at 37.3% and Road or Track riders at 31%. Given the generally younger age of mountain bikers this is a somewhat surprising result, as, in general, younger people are more avid users of these networks. As with the general online population Facebook was the most popular social networking site with these cyclists. Facebook was most popular with Mountain Bikers, whilst Twitter was used mostly by road and track racers. LinkedIn was again popular with road and track racers.

As identified in Chapter 4 the “others” group in this survey consists mostly of commuting cyclists. Thus it is interesting to note that this group was the biggest user of LinkedIn, which indicates these commuting cyclists may be more professionally oriented networkers, rather than social users of the medium.

The outcomes of this survey have shown that recreational riders used social networking tools more than mountain bike riders and road or track riders. Whilst, in line with general community usage, Facebook was the prime social networking site for cyclists, both Twitter and LinkedIn had strong followings in the cycling world, and it has been identified that the usage of these platforms does vary across cycling sectors with some unexpected results, especially with lower than expected use by Mountain Bikers.

7.4.11 Cycling Tourists and the Use of Online Blogs and Forums

In the online survey some 20% (108) of the respondents identified that they do subscribe to cycling specific blogs and discussion forums, with 102 of these identifying the sites they use.

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There was a wide and diverse range of individual sites being used at the time of the survey. The top eight sites in order of popularity and their content were:

• Sydney Cyclist • Bicycle NSW • Crazyguyonabike • Cycling News • ACT Veterans’ Discussion Group • Bicycle Snob NYC • Cycling Tips • Audax Australia

As some 52% of the respondents to the survey were based in New South Wales (NSW) it is not surprising to see the Sydney Cyclist and Bicycle NSW sites the most popular, as they generally cover cycling issues and activities in NSW. However it is of interest that 4 of the top ten sites are “international” sites. Most of these sites have very active sections where discussion forums cover a wide variety of cycling related issues. Of these blogs the Crazyguyonabike site is the most relevant to cycling tourism. Whilst others have followed and have added to the mix of blogs targeted at cycle tourists this site remains the benchmark for its scope of information, up- to-date currency (or at least a user can note the date of an entry) and ease of access and usability.

7.4.12 Comparing Websites, Blogs and Wikis

In this research respondents to the online survey were asked about their favourite websites and also about blogs and wikis that they used to source information about cycling. Two of the questions in the survey asked respondents to identify online sources used to gather information about cycling and travel. One asked respondents to identify cycling websites they would

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recommend to others and the other asked them to identify blogs or wikis. In comparing the responses about websites compared to those on blogs and wikis, it is of note that there is very little overlap in the responses to the two key questions on these information sources for cyclists. As noted previously respondents were not given any definitions of these sources to help differentiate between them. However their understanding, as possibly regular users of online sources, seems to have quite clearly differentiated between the two sources. Of the ten websites identified only two of these have been identified as having associated blogs or wikis. Thus the Sydney Cyclist site was identified as both a popular website and as a source of information though their interactive forums. Similarly the Audax site for long distance cyclists was in the top ten for both categories. Apart from these there was very little overlap indicating that respondents to the survey used these sources quite differently.

7.4.13 Data Discovery through some Online Forums, Blogs and Wikis

As part of this research into the use of online technology by cycling tourists, an investigation of some cycling related social media provided some insight into the online behaviour of cyclists, especially related to their travel plans. One synopsis, reported in Chapter 6, indicates the major motivational factors for cyclists to ride are:

• fitness and mental well being, • invigorating outdoor activity, • competition, • sustainable transport,

• peace of mind, • interaction with nature, • physical challenge, • independence, and

• It’s fun, really enjoyable.

These factors, together with the information needs derived from the quantitative input to this research, as well as understanding the primary means of access to this information, provide an

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important insight into the information needs of cycling tourists and how they want to access this information.

7.5 Review of Research Questions and Conceptual Models

This research has examined how cyclist tourists use the Internet, social networking tools and online maps to make their choice of destination for cycling. It has explored how website and map content has influenced their destination choice. In addition the use of social networking tools in communicating with fellow cyclists and how this influences destination choice for cycling has been examined. The three research questions are presented again below together with the primary outcomes from this research in relation to these questions.

Research Question 1:

• What is the role and influence of online technology (the Internet, online maps and social networking) and associated information sources in destination choice for cycling tourists?

The survey work for this research was carried out primarily through online communications. The subjects who responded were expected to be active users of online communications and technology. There is however clear evidence from this research that the cycle tourists who were surveyed are very active in their use of online technology to explore their options for cycling away from their home base.

From the sample canvassed in this research, an overwhelming 96.3% use online technologies to help choose their cycling destinations. Cycling websites were rated as being relevant to their information needs by 92.7 % of respondents and general tourism websites were similarly rated as relevant by 78.7% of respondents.

Nearly 75% of respondents to the survey use online maps in their decision making for choosing cycling destinations. 52.9% reported that they own or use a GPS enabled device (smart phone or GPS navigation device) and of those 63.2% reported that they use it whilst cycling.

Whilst the use of social networks was quite low at the time of this survey, some 20% of respondents did report some use of social networks in seeking information about travel

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destinations. Some 58% reported use of cycling related blogs, wikis or chat rooms in seeking their travel information.

Research Question 2:

• What information do cyclists seek through the use of online technology to assist in making destination choices for cycling related travel and how do they want it to be presented and accessed?

A considerable amount of detail about information needs of cycling tourists has been gathered in this research. It is clear that these tourists are seeking general information about accommodation and natural attractions at a location, albeit with some cycling specific aspects in view, such as cycle friendly accommodation and cycle friendly routes to attractions. Transportation options to reach a destination were identified as important, but again with options that allow them to take their own bicycles with them.

In regards to cycling specific information, details about cycling related facilities is important to this group, as is information about cycling events, specifically from a participant’s viewpoint. Information about organised cycling tours was also seen as important to many in this group. Bicycle hire (especially overseas) and access to drinking water was identified as important information and the weather forecasts are more important to cyclists than to many other tourists who have options to avoid bad weather.

The standout feature of this research in regards to cycling tourism is that road safety for cyclists came through as the most significant aspect of cycling away from the home region. Information related to safe routes for cycling was paramount in the needs of this group, and this has significant implications for cycling specific maps both hardcopy and online.

In regards to accessing information, this group has identified cycling specific websites as their most important source, but the use of interactive online forums used by fellow cyclists are also very important.

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Research Question 3:

Linking age and gender to many of the issues addressed in this research has been somewhat problematic. It is cycling sector or activity that tends to drive motivations and information needs in this regard, rather than age or gender. However it is clear that mountain bikers, who are generally a younger group and more male dominant, have a different set of information needs, and are more likely to use some social networking tools in this regard. Competitive cyclists again tend to be a younger group and are seeking specific information about competitive events and the terrain that they cover.

In regards to age profiles and the use of online technology the outcomes of this research indicate that age is not a barrier to the use of technology, and in many respects those that are not time poor (older/retired) are just as active online as their younger counterparts. Older recreational cyclists, who have been well represented in the surveys used in this research, are shown to be heavy users of websites and online maps in their information seeking and are just as likely to be using smart phones and GPS enabled devices in their cycling pursuits. The use of social networking tools or online cycling forums has no standout demographics by age or gender from this research.

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7.5.1 Conceptual Models and the Research Outcomes

Push Factors Pull Factors

Social needs Events Safety Organised tours Challenge Facilities Competitions Accessibility Advice from friends Transport Cycle club Accommodation influence

Information to Cycling Tourist Decision to travel

Events Cycle routes, surfaces and profiles Road safety Trails, MTB courses, BMX ramps Information Cycle friendly accommodation, bike about the

shops Destination Cycle transportation services, Accessibility by bike Climate/weather Experience the Destination

Feedback

Figure 1.3 - Destination choice and information search model for cycling tourist (Reproduced from Chapter 1)

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The conceptual model presented at Figure 1.3 from Chapter 1 presented a concept derived from a number of destination choice models in the tourism literature. It suggested that there are both push and pull factors associated with a destination and that a prospective tourist (in this case a cycling tourist) will take into account when making a choice about a prospective destination.

This model presented a number of push factors mostly based on personal attributes such as social needs and personal social networks, personal safety, the need for a challenge, a competitive urge, advice from cycling friends and influences through cycling organisations to which they belong. The pull factors identified in this model were attributes of the prospective destination itself and included activities, events and facilities at a destination. They included transportation options to get to a destination and accommodation available there, as well as the accessibility to get to and around a destination, in this case using a bicycle. Another aspect of pull factors for cyclists is whether there are organised tours of a region catering to needs of their particular cycling interests. The model presents the concept of a feedback loop suggesting that after the travel experience these tourists will share their experience with friends and cycling colleagues.

Thus, from a potential cycling tourist’s perspective, the information they are seeking about a destination will be guided by both the push and pull factors. They will seek out information about a destination that will meet their needs in this respect. For cycling, the information that can cover all or part of these needs will include upcoming cycling events such as “fun” events, challenges or competition, depending on the cyclist’s inclination to participate in these. The safety and facilities aspects of a destination include safe cycling routes, route surfaces and route profiles that show how flat or hilly a route may be.

For mountain bikers, they want to know where the marked and legally accessible mountain bike tracks are, and how to get to them. All cyclists look for cycle friendly travel options to get to destination, so buses, trains or airplanes that will take bikes for them are important, if they do not drive themselves. These tourists will seek cycle friendly accommodation that will have safe and

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secure bike storage and facilities for cleaning cycle clothing and equipment, especially in inclement weather. They will want to know in advance of travel the likely weather conditions during their trip but also to track the weather whilst undertaking their trip. They will want to know how to move around by bicycle using the road or shared path networks. Much of this information can be provided by suitable designed maps with cycling as their prime purpose of use.

This research has confirmed that all the major elements of this model are relevant to cycling tourists. The questions asked in the online survey on motivations and information needs of the cyclists surveyed have covered off on all of the elements described above. The outcomes from the research have provided considerable insight into which are the more important push and pull factors for cycling tourists and the most important information being sought out by these cyclists. From the research some additional motivational factors have emerged, namely that the prime motivation of the cycling tourist is “fun and recreation” and that social interaction whilst having fun is important to most of them. Some additional information needs have also been identified, in that these cyclists are seeking information about water availability, bike hire options and some want to know about cycle accessible camp sites. They are interested also in general tourist information on scenic and cultural aspects of an area and their accessibility by bicycle. They are keen to find good coffee shops.

Whilst this model is derived from the general tourism literature, it is submitted that this research has added to the knowledge base about push and pull factors in destination choice for cycling tourists and has identified a number of specific needs for this group not recognised previously. The approaches on which this model was based did not identify where or how online sources may fit in the process of gathering data about prospective destinations. This research has added considerably to the knowledge base on how important these new technologies are and where they fit in this process.

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Cycling Tourist

Decision to go

Feedback

Online Friends Traditional Wikis

Maps Blogs

Facebook Guides

Youtube Brochures

Books SMS Travel to

Websites Advertising location

Maps Word of Mouth

Google Earth

Evaluate Information

Destination

Experience the location

Figure 1.4 - Information flows for the cycling tourist

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The other conceptual model presented in Chapter 1 was Figure 1.4 that presented a model of information flows for cycling tourists. This is reproduced above. The model derives from the tourism literature outlined in Chapter 2, and presents the concept that cycling tourists will seek information from a number of sources, but that online sources are becoming much more prominent in their search activity. The model presents a feedback loop where these cyclists will provide feedback by word of mouth and through online communications. This model shows that before they decide to travel these cyclists will seek information from traditional sources such as printed maps and guides, brochures and books. They may take some notice of marketing and advertising, especially through the cycling media, and will listen intently to the recommendations of their cycling friends. From online sources, the model presents a list including blogs, wikis and online forums, social media such as YouTube and Facebook, and cycling and general tourism websites. It also shows online maps, especially Google Maps as key online information sources. The model suggests that the feedback loop will, with the aid of mobile communications and social media, be activated during the travel experience, and after evaluation of the overall experience, at the end of the trip. The model emphasises the idea that the experience will be shared with cycling friends and online communities both during and after the experience.

Whilst this research has not addressed in any depth the use of traditional sources of information for cycling tourists, it has addressed in detail the online world and social media use in this regard. Previous research in this field has not addressed the online world as an information source for tourists. Whilst this research has concentrated on a niche sector of tourism it has added considerably to the knowledge base about online sources and their role in information search and destination choice for tourists. The emerging importance of website content, blogs, wikis and online mapping tools is confirmed through this research. The role of social media and online conversations in influencing decisions about tourism destinations is also confirmed through this research.

Blogs, wikis and online forums were used extensively by the community that responded to the online survey used in this research. They have used web searches extensively and a vast majority of them have used online maps in their information search activities. Whilst the use of social media is a rapidly evolving phenomenon, and an emerging field for research, this research has

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presented a “snapshot” of its use at the time of the survey. It has confirmed that it is a very important means of communication for much of the population and has provided an insight into which are the most popular tools used by different cycling groups. The research has presented an outline of some of the topics discussed in the online cycling world and the information content of websites and blogs that cyclists value.

Table 7.1 below is a summary of the outcomes discussed in paragraph 7.5 above.

Issue Outcome Details Research What is the role and Online technologies are important in the See: Q 1 influence of online search for information about potential Para 7.5 technology in destination cycling destinations. pp. 250-1 choice for cycling tourists? From the survey data presented in the thesis: 96.3% use the technology to search for destinations; 92.75 found website information relevant to their needs; 75% use online maps; and 58% used cycling blogs.

Research What information is sought From the survey data presented in the See: Q 2 by cycling tourists? thesis: Para 5.3.3 Accommodation options; pp. 173-7 and Cycle friendly transport options; Para 7.5 Cycling related facilities; p. 251 Cycling tours; Cycle events; General tourist information; Safe cycling routes, and, Reviews from fellow cyclists who have been there.

How do they want to access From the survey data presented in the See: it? thesis: Paras 5.2, 5.3 Through cycling websites; and, pp. 169-173 Interactive online forums for cyclists. Para 7.5 pp. 250-1

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Issue Outcome Details Research Q Do the different sectors of From the survey data presented in the See Para 6.2.1 3 cycling have different thesis: pp.200-203 motivations and different Cycling interests drive motivations more Para 7.4.1 use of technology? than age or gender; younger mountain pp.238-9 bikers do have some different information Para 7.5 needs; competitive cyclists have specific pp.250-1 needs about events and terrain on race courses; age is generally no barrier to use of online technology; and, social media use extends evenly across all sectors and age groups. Testing Destination Choice and All elements of the model are confirmed See Para 7.5.1 Conceptual Information Search Model in respect to push and pull factors for pp.253-5 Model 1.3 cycling tourists; Addition motivation factors were identified including fun and recreation and the need for social interaction with other cyclists. Additional information needs were identified including water availability, bike hire options, scenic and cultural features of a region and good coffee. Testing Information Flows for Emerging importance of websites, blogs Para 7.5.1 Conceptual Cycling Tourist and online maps as information sources pp.256-258 Model 1.4 are confirmed; the role of social media is confirmed also; important websites, blogs and map sources have been identified; knowledge base on these issues is expanded. Other Identified through data Road safety is a major factor for road Para 7.4.4 factors in discovery and survey work cyclists; the location of marked trails is p.241 destination important for mountain bikers. choice

Table 7.1 - Summary of Outcomes

7.6 Discussion of Outcomes

In reviewing the outcomes of this research it can be stated unequivocally that, for the group of cyclists involved in this research, online technologies play a very large role in their search for information about potential cycling destinations. The World Wide Web, the Internet, websites, online maps and social media sites all play an important part in information search for this group.

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The research has provided an insight into what information cyclists seek through their use of online technology, and how they want to access it. They use mobile communications extensively, and a large proportion of them use mobile devices with navigation capabilities in a wayfinding mode. They use these mobile devices whilst on the move to access information and communicate with others about their experiences. The demographics of the different cycling groups investigated in this research have some impact on their use of technology but the differences in cycling activity, age or gender are not major differentiators in their use of technology. The information sought online varies across the groups with the major difference being between mountain bikers and the other groups, where information about off road tracks and cross country routes play an important part. However, the major motivations of fun and fitness stretches across all these groups and their need for information about safe routes is omnipresent.

The conceptual models that were established in the initial stages of this research were based on a comprehensive review of the literature prior to administering the survey, a review of the technologies available and an initial browsing of known online resources, as well as a knowledge of preferences from a personal and group membership perspective. These conceptual models have been shown to be accurate with some additions to knowledge of detailed information needs and the use of technology arising from the research. Whilst these models derived from established models in the tourism literature, their adaptation to cycling tourism and the identification of specific information needs and methods of discovery are key additions to the knowledge base about cycling tourism. It confirms cycling tourists conform to the general models but have specific information needs.

The interactive online world is a fast moving. Significant technology advances are happening in short timeframes. Applications are evolving and expanding rapidly. When this research began, iPhones were very new and the iPad was still in the Apple research laboratory. These and similar devices are now well established in the marketplace and their use is expanding. New and expanded applications specific to cyclists’ needs are becoming available across the globe. Online mapping is now commonplace in most tourism websites, accommodation search engines and across wayfinding and navigation devices with ever expanding content and accessibility. This

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research has provided an early insight into the uptake of these technologies, but a full understanding of their use and the most valued aspects of them is yet to come.

Social media is similarly a rapidly evolving world of instant communications and feedback, with a significant component of visual content through digital photographs and video. Again this research has provided an insight into how people were using social media at the time of the surveys, but a significant field of study remains open to understand more fully how people use the technology now and how it evolves into the future.

In the online mapping world a “dumb” pdf of a map online no longer meets the expectations of the technically aware users. Whilst these maps may provide a substitute for the paper map, users now understand that mapping technology offers much more than this. Interactive online maps allow layers of information to be tailored to individual’s preferences and underlying height models allow route profiles to be mapped and understood in advance of tackling the hills of a region.

Interactive online forums are the new social gathering place for many people, where they share stories, opinions and factual information. In the tourism world the advent of sites such as Trip Advisor, where tourism products are described and rated, are the first port of call for many tourists when seeking information about a potential destination. Similarly cycling blogs, such as Crayguyonabike, are where cyclists go to find out about what is on offer in new destination. This research has provided only a brief insight into this world, and much more needs to be done to gain more understanding of how people are using these forums.

One of the interesting aspects of this new online world from a research perspective is that these forums are a rich source of qualitative information. In the world of qualitative research, which to date has been largely based on interview methods and group sessions through focus groups, there is a potential now to pose questions online through interactive forums and get a whole range of responses from either specialised groups or wider general audience, and examining online behavior and interaction. The validity of these techniques is yet to be tested fully.

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One of the issues identified in this research related to social media use is the time specific context of the media and its generally short lifespan. Those who start something often get tired and move on. Sites come and go. Content becomes outdated. There is generally little moderation of content and its validity is often questionable. All of these issues are fertile ground for future research.

Another aspect of this research is that technology has the potential to shorten considerably the timeframe in which information searches (and thus decision making) can be achieved. The virtually instant access to information from any location using online technology can make the time taken to discover information much shorter than seeking out hardcopy based information or face to face contact with tourism agents. Whilst this has not been fully explored in this research it is an important emerging aspect of tourism behavior in choosing destinations, and has the potential to significantly modify the information search models presently used across tourism. It is worthy of further research.

The prime outcome of this research is that there is now a better understanding of the use of technology in the information gathering processes in cycle tourism. This contributes to the knowledge base in regards to cycle tourism, but more broadly contributes to understanding online technology use in general tourism decision making.

7.7 Recommendations and Future Research

In exploring the use of online technology in destination choice for cycling tourists a number of issues have been identified that lead to some observations about the future development of cycling tourism in Australia and some opportunities for future research in this field.

7.7.1 Cycling Tourism Development and Marketing Destinations for Cycling Tourism

Some pointers have emerged from this research that could be useful to tourism destination managers if they wish to develop and promote cycling tourism. Firstly, it is apparent that a strong online presence is essential in today’s world for any tourism activity or destination. In relation to

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cycling tourism this research has shown that a comprehensive website covering cycling facilities, events and transportation is essential in any marketing efforts to promote cycling tourism. The website should be complemented by a social media presence on platforms such as Facebook and Twitter. Online cycling specific maps are an essential part of the information mix for cycling tourists, showing safe cycling routes and cycling related facilities as well as the major tourist attractions of a region. These should be linked clearly to the website and any social media presence. Understanding the demographic profile for cycling tourist segments assists with the design and information content of the online presence. Young male mountain bikers have different interests to older recreational cyclists who are camping out.

The online information sought by cycling tourists, which should be easily accessible through the website, includes cycle friendly accommodation, and bicycle service and transportation options in the region. By delivering a complete product for cycling tourists, linking the online information to maps and signage on cycle routes, the whole cycling tourism journey can become a big drawcard for a region. In the development of a plan for cycling tourism and marketing for a region, the development and promotion of a cycling event program has the potential to attract quite large numbers of tourists. These events can be developed in conjunction with local cycling organisations or commercial partners.

7.7.2 Urban Planning and Facilities Development for Cycling Tourism

This research has provided an important insight into the facilities most valued by cycling tourists which urban planners and facility managers should recognise. The most important of these are safe routes for cycling. This is a need of all cyclists, not just tourists, however visitors with little local knowledge are more in need of well designed, well mapped and signposted cycle routes. Thus in urban planning and in the construction or renewal of roads and other paths, the recognition of the needs of cyclist is critical if a region is to be recognised as “cycle friendly”.

In conjunction with facility development, accurate and informative mapping of these routes and facilities is required to complete the package and visible, informative signage on the routes is needed.

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7.7.3 Implications for Cycling Organisations

Cycling organisations are focussed generally on delivering activities and events for their own members. They can play an important role in developing a portfolio of products for cycling tourism. They are usually custodians of a considerable amount of local knowledge about cycling in their region and run events that could attract visitors. By engaging these organisations and possibly providing supplementary funding, local authorities can develop a portfolio of information and events relevant to cycling tourists.

7.7.4 Future Research Opportunities

Whilst this research has provided a useful insight into the online world of cycling tourists, there are a number of opportunities that emerge from this work for future research.

Firstly because of the time specific nature of this field of research, where the online world is rapidly evolving, some longitudinal studies, addressing the same questions addressed here, would add to the knowledge of the use and trends of use of these technologies.

This research has looked specifically at Australian cycling tourists. As well as longitudinal studies in Australia, there is an opportunity to explore these issues in a broader international context. Thus expansion of this work into Europe, North America or Asia would be a very useful addition to the knowledge base.

This research has provided an insight into online mapping for cyclists. Some more in depth studies on content and presentation of map based information for cyclists and tourists in general would expand our knowledge base to understand users’ needs and work towards providing more targeted wayfinding tools for cyclists and tourists generally. The linkage between maps, signage and online information is an area not well researched at present. Mobile technology now provides users with mobile navigation devices with maps and GPS navigation and instant access to the internet at virtually any time or place. Linking maps and signage to the online world, possibly through Quick Response codes or similar mechanisms, is an area that has not been investigated in any depth to date.

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The whole world of social media use in tourism is a field of research that is at present addressed poorly. This research has provided a small snapshot in time of the use of a small number of social media tools by a select group of cyclists. A more in depth understanding of how people are using these tools to share information, is a field ripe for further investigation.

The use of online forums for data acquisition in research is an interesting recent addition to the tools available for academic research. There is considerable scope to expand the knowledge base by using some of the interactive online discussion forums for data collection in research. There is a need for some validation and further development of this as a legitimate methodology for data collection.

Whilst the research has covered the interests of a number of cycling sectors more research into the various cycling sectors would provide more in depth knowledge of differences between each of these groups, especially the needs of the growing number of mountain bikers. Whilst this research has focussed on cycling tourists, many of the findings may have implications for those interested in the more general cycling community. This is worthy of some further research.

7.8 Concluding Statement

This thesis has provided an insight into cycling tourism in Australia, and, in particular, the online world of cycling tourists. Whilst we know from statistical data collected over a number of years that cycling is a significant activity for a large number of Australians, we do not have a good knowledge of how many of these cyclists are cycling tourists, either in Australia or overseas. This work, together with that of a small number of other research efforts, is expanding this knowledge base. There is a body of work now that provides some evidence that this is a significant niche sector in tourism.

Much of the previous research in this field has been focussed on a rather narrow definition of cycle tourism, concentrating on the exploits of recreational cyclists. This research, together with a small body of other research, is now demonstrating that cycle tourism is much more than just

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recreational, with mountain biking a significant sector. Cycling competitive events and challenge events attract substantial numbers of tourists and the spectator element in major events, such as the Tour Down Under, are significant contributors to tourism incomes for regions.

Through this research the information needs of cycling tourists and how they want to access this information are now better understood. Maps are an important information source for cycling tourists. Cycling tourists are very active in online forums dedicated to cycling. Social media is identified as an important emerging source of information gathering and sharing for this group. But it is acknowledged that this is a fast moving world where what was true yesterday may not be so today.

Whilst this research has addressed a number of questions related to the use of online technology specifically by cycling tourists, it does give an indication of the role and importance of online technology and online mapping as information sources in the decision making processes of the broader tourism market. In addition, the outcomes of this research have the potential to assist urban planners, event managers, cycling associations and clubs, regional tourism bodies and researchers to understand better their constituents and markets and how to service them better using modern technology.

This research is a first step in exploring the use of online technology by cyclists as tourists. This is a rapidly evolving world with the uptake of these technologies being fanned by lower costs of entry, more effective tools and a rapid expansion of mobile communications. The results reported here are from data captured in 2009-10 and if the surveys were repeated now at the time of writing (September 2013) some significant changes could be expected. This field of research is deserving of more attention to understand better the use of these technologies, and the related access and information requirements of users.

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Appendix A Some Cycling Websites with Maps

This list is a sampling of cycle maps around the world available online. It is not a comprehensive list but a list of some of the better sites for interactive cycling maps in the USA, Europe and Australia.

MapMy Ride http://www.mapmyride.com/ Probably the most used and effective online tool currently available. It allows users to plot their bike rides over mountains (view elevation), through the woods (topographic maps), and speeding through the city (street level views) with just a few mouse clicks. Once your cycling map is complete you can quickly view it in 3D, satellite form, or share it with friends. It allows the user to plot their rides on a mobile device whilst riding and then download to their personal space on the host website.

Bikely http://www.bikely.com Put very simply, Bikely helps cyclists share knowledge of good bicycle routes. It can be quite tricky traversing a car dominated city by bicycle, particularly when you need to travel an unknown route to a new destination. But the chances are, someone has cycled that way before you. Bikely makes it easy for him or her to show you the best way.

Bikemap.de! Germany http://www.bikemap.de/#lt=-27&ln=133&z=9&t=0 Map your favorite tracks - or find new route ideas. For training, holidays or excursion planning. Currently there are 8.245 Bike routes with a total length of 591.971 km.

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Sustrans UK http://www.sustrans.org.uk/default.asp?sID=1089651611859 Sustrans is the co-ordinator of the hugely popular National Cycle Network. Offering over 12,000 miles of walking and cycle routes on traffic-free paths, quiet lanes and traffic-calmed roads, there is now 75% of the UK population living within two miles of a route! The Network is well signed. It connects towns and villages, countryside and coast throughout the UK. So if you're looking to walk or cycle to work, the shops, school, railway station or just spend some much needed leisure time walking or cycling then why not discover your nearest National Cycle Network route? Download a copy of our 2008 National Cycle Network map illustrating routes throughout the UK - published Feb 08 (PDF). Our interactive mapping within this section can help you find your nearest route - just enter your postcode. There are many ideas and free maps available to help you along. The Sustrans shop stocks useful maps, guides and accessories to ensure you make the most of your time on the Network.

Guttermonkey http://www.guttermonkey.org/ CONNECTING THE DOTS (AND THE RIDERS), ONE RIDE AT A TIME. rideFinder lets you find riders you might like to ride with, and routes you can follow safely, using the valuable knowledge contributed by lots of other people.

Map 24 UK http://www.uk.map24.com/ MyMap24 is your personal area on Map24 and is expanded constantly with new practical features. Register today and take advantages of the free MyMap24 services: Save and manage up to ten of your most frequently used addresses. Use your individual settings and save your preferred travel settings. Benefit from the free products which will enhance the interactivity of your website. Update your contact data. Download Map24 Mobile - Map24 for your Smartphone and mobile-internet enabled Pocket-PC. 289

Cycling In Prague http://doprava.praha- mesto.cz/(ppbd1ymxt3x1atigvvrk14i1)/default.aspx?clc=&Ido=7695&sh=1561237435 Dear cyclists and cycle tourists, visitors to Prague, in addition to many sightseeing opportunities and possibilities to participate in interesting cultural events, a visit to the capital city of Prague offers the chance to discover “Cycling in Prague” as well. We hope that the following web pages in English provide you with all the necessary practical information and assist you in arranging of your bicycle trips and cycle tours around our capital city and the surrounding area.

Journey Planner for Cycling - Helsinki http://kevytliikenne.ytv.fi/?lang=en Journey Planner for Cycling seeks the best route in the Metropolitan area. Interactive maps cover: Points of Interest: City Bikes Bike Parking Sports facilities Other Points of Interest Routes: Helsinki Scenic Routes Espoo Shore route

MTB Scotland http://www.mountain-bike- scotland.com/modules.php?name=Content&pa=showpage&pid=11 To look for mountain bike centres, clubs, shops, and other resources in a particular region, simply click on the corresponding area of the map shown below.

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The Canberra and Queanbeyan cycling and walking map http://www.tams.act.gov.au/move/cycling/cycling_and_walking_map

Canberra has an excellent network of shared paths, footpaths and on-road cycling lanes, offering cyclists and pedestrians enjoyable, safe and efficient routes for travelling in and between suburbs and around our parks and lakes. Whether commuting to work or school, exercising, going down to the shops or using paths for leisure, you will find the online map of Canberra and Queanbeyan's paths an invaluable planning and exploration tool. The map is an initiative of the ACT Planning & Land Authority as part of the ACT's Sustainable Transport Plan, released in 2004. This Plan is part of the ACT Government's vision for a more sustainable Canberra. The Plan aims to increase the use of more sustainable modes of transport (walking, cycling and public transport).

Bicycle Victoria - Maps for Rides http://www.bv.com.au/great-rides/40394/ The Route Map for Big Victorian Bike Ride 2007 The purpose of this map is to give riders an indication of their ride route. The final route is subject to change on the day.

Ride the City for many Cities around the Globe e.g. Portland , USA http://ridethecity.com/portland

About Ride the City

Welcome to Ride the City, a website that helps you find safer bike routes in cities. Like other mapping applications, Ride the City finds the shortest distance between two points, with a difference. First, Ride the City avoids roads that aren't meant for biking, like highways and busy arterial streets. Second, Ride the City tries to steer cyclists toward routes that maximize the use of bike lanes, bike paths, greenways, and other bike-friendly streets. For an illustrated walkthrough of the site, to explore its capabilities and to answer frequent questions, visit ridethecity.com/faq. Remember that Ride the City is in its beta testing phase. To help make it 291

better, click the feedback link in the menu bar (on the main page) to send us your route suggestions and comments and it will make the site even better. Contact us at [email protected].

Who made Ride the City? Ride the City was launched by Vaidila Kungys (@vaidila) and Jordan Anderson (@jordandrsn), friends who met while enrolled in the urban planning program at NYU's Robert F. Wagner Graduate School of Public Service. Ride the City would not have been possible without: Josh Steinbauer, who designed our logo and the site's initial layout; Jack Moore, whose Drupal expertise made possible Ride the City's user profiles and improved our ability to manage content on the site; Ramune Rastonis, who assisted with the site design and researched and compiled bike shop and rental location data; Michael Brady and Steven Falcon, who gave us a ton of GIS support to make good routing in various cities; Kelly Shea and James Spahr, avid bicyclists and graphic designers, who designed icons that are sharp, colorful, and easier to grasp quickly; Peter Neufeld, Jackson Deane, Joss Schafer (JT), and the other good people at Door3 who developed the Ride the City iPhone app; AnnMarie Anderson, our favorite writer, editor, and marketer; and all of the good people of New York, Chicago, Austin, Louisville and other cities who have provided data and feedback to help us expand the service and improve the quality of the routes.

Cycle Instead Journey Planner, Adelaide South Australia http://maps.sa.gov.au/cycleinstead/

The Cycle Instead Journey Planner generates cycling routes using Adelaide's Bikedirect network of main roads, bike lanes, local streets, off-road paths and some unsealed paths.

This interactive tool allows you to choose a variety of options that take into consideration fitness and confidence levels, road conditions and speed of travel.

The Cycle Instead Journey Planner will be continually updated as more cycling facilities are added to the Bikedirect network.

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Google Maps with Bicycle Routes layer http://googlemapsbikethere.org/ Cycle infrastructure layer in Google Maps for many cities around the world; Example for San Francisco USA at : http://maps.google.com/maps?hq=http://maps.google.com/help/maps/directions/biking/map left.kml&ie=UTF8&ll=37.687624,- 122.319717&spn=0.346132,0.727158&z=11&lci=bike&dirflg=b&f=d&utm_campaign=en& utm_medium=van&utm_source=en-van-na-us-gns-bd

Capital Country (around Canberra) http://www.southern-highlands.com.au/cycling

The Southern Highlands is a cycling paradise. The district has long been a popular cycling destination. Cycling today is a growing activity and there's no better way to explore the beautiful Highlands, stay fit and work up an appetite.

You can Ride 50km of waymarked mountain bike trails in Wingello State Forest or try the singletrack loop at Welby; pedal dirt tracks to spectacular viewpoints or waterfalls in Morton National Park; take a leisurely ride along a riverside bike path from Moss Vale to Burradoo or link up the many cafés and wineries that the region has to offer. Planning a route from the vast network of dirt and sealed roads is easy using the many suggestions here in this section.

You can hire a bike, helmet and other equipment from a number of operators in Southern Highlands towns or villages as well as book cycling tours, register to participant in the yearly events such as the well known Highland Fling or simply bring your own bike and get out there and experience the picturesque Highlands.

The Southern Highlands... your ideal road and mountain bike friendly destination.

Ballarat Victoria Scenic Rides http://cometolife.realviewtechnologies.com/?xml=Ballarat_Scenic_Bike_Rides

Ballarat is Home to the Australian National Road Championships and promotes itself as a cycling location of note. The link is to an online version of their booklet describing scenic rides around Ballarat. 293

NSW Cycleways Maps

http://www.bicycleinfo.nsw.gov.au/maps/list.html

By popular request maps of cycleways produced by New South Wales Government agencies and local councils are provided here. The list will be added to regularly as new maps become available.

Many of the maps have been designed to display entire local government areas or regions (usually A0 size), to provide you with the full context for locating your desired cycleway.

Murray to Mountains Region Victoria http://www.murraytomountains.com.au/maps-routes/ An extensive set of maps covering the area from Bright in Victoria through to the Murray River at Corowa NSW, along the route of the Murray to Mountains Rail Trail but including High Country maps and other sub regions around the region.

Cycling in Greater Shepparton http://www.greatershepparton.com.au/residents/recreation/cycling/

Greater Shepparton offers cycling enthusiasts a variety of paths and routes to ride. Whether you are seeking a leisurely ride for the family, a scenic bush ride or the ultimate off-road experience, Greater Shepparton has it all.

Greater Shepparton City Council has produced the Cycle in Greater Shepparton booklet, the ultimate guide to cycling in the region. Pedal into a world of cycling with tips and information on safety, extensive details on the shared pathway network, parks and gardens, mountain bike trails, annual events, cycling club details and more!

Table of Contents • Training Route Loops • Scott Peoples Memorial Race and Foundation • Shepparton Fruit Loop ride • Greater Shepparton Bicycle User Group (BUG)

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Appendix B

Survey Questionnaire for Cycle Tourism

“Cycle tourism – how cyclists use online technologies in choosing their cycling destinations”

296

1.Background to this Survey

You can skip this page and go straight to the survey by clicking NEXT at the bottom of the page;

This survey is being carried out as part of the data collection for a Ph D research project being conducted by Dennis Puniard at Centre for Tourism Research at the University of Canberra, Australia. The data collected will be used to identify how online technologies are used by people for their cycling pursuits and to also explore what they expect and value most from websites, social networking tools and what they expect and value in online maps.

The full topic of the project is "The role of the internet and Online Maps in Destination Choice for Australian Cycle Tourists - Surfing the net to find cycling Nirvana."

Dennis is a keen cyclist himself. He was Executive Director of Pedal Power in the ACT for 3 years and is presently a member of the ACT Veterans Cycling Club, Vikings Cycling Club(ACT) and Bicycle Queensland. In the past few years he has participated in many veterans races and challenge rides around Australia and in particular has observed the success of events linked to the Tour Down Under in SA. He uses online technology a lot and travels with his bike quite a bit. He has particularly enjoyed riding on many of the great Rail Trails in Australia and NZ.

Dennis's professional background has been in Surveying, Mapping and Geographic Information Systems (GIS).

Project Aim

This research has as its prime objective to understand how cyclists use the internet, social networking tools and online maps to assist with their choice of location for riding. Data collection for this research will aim to cover cyclists involved in four major sectors covering recreational cycling, road racing, mountain biking and BMX freestyle. It will encompass riders who travel purely for recreational purposes but will also cover event participants in major organized challenge events and competitive riding.

Benefits of the Project

This research aims to explore what cyclists expect/want from the internet and cycling related websites. In particular the research will explore how cyclists use online technologies and maps in their destination choice processes and their preferred attributes in content, presentation and format. In a practical sense if the information needs of cyclists are better understood and how different groups use technology in their information search processes then destination managers and marketers will be better placed to meet their needs.

General Outline of the Project

This research will use a combination of research methods. Data mining will be employed to better define cycle tourism sectors through websites and reports on cycling organizations and major events statistics. These techniques will also be employed in website and web mapping reviews to determine major information content aspects of these sites. Online and (if needed) paper based surveys will be done through surveys of key sectors of the cycle tourism market. An early part of the data collection for this research will involve the facilitation of some focus groups of cyclists in the ACT region to help scope and refine the survey questions to be answered in the major data collection effort.

It is also anticipated that on completion of the online survey some interviews will be done with selected cyclists of different disciplines to explore some of the research questions in more depth.

It is also intended to distribute the questionnaire to some major event participants who travel to the ACT region for cycling events.

Participation is a voluntary activity and participants may, without any penalty, decline to take part or withdraw at any time without providing an explanation, or refuse to answer a question.

This research has been approved by the Committee for Ethics in Human Research of the University.

Page 1 297 To begin the survey click NEXT below

Page 2 298

2.Cycling particpation and cycling pursuits

These questions explore your cycling interests, bike ownership and motivations for cycling. In the questions below "recreational cycling" includes touring by bicycle either in a guided tour or independently.

1. What is your primary area of interest or activity in cycling?

Recreational

Mountain Biking

Road or Track Racing

BMX racing

BMX freestyle

Other

Other (please specify)

2. For how many years have you been involved in your cycling area of primary interest?

Less than 1 year

1-2 years

3-5 years

6-10 years

11 years+

3. Apart from your primary area of interest do you particpate in other cycling disciplines at times?

Recreational

Mountain Biking

Road and Track racing

BMX racing

BMX freestyle

Other (please specify)

Page 3 299 4. What type of bike/bikes do you own (you can choose more than one)?

Touring

Hybrid

Road

Track

MTB

BMX

Recumbent

Other

Other (please specify)

5. What would be the replacement value of your bike/s? less than $500 $501-1000 $1001-$3000 More than $3000

Touring

Hybrid

Road

Track

MTB

BMX

Recumbent

Other

6. How much would you spend on average each year on cycling clothing and equipment?

less than $100

$101-$300

$301-$500

$501-$1000

Over $1000

7. Are you a member of any cycling clubs or associations?

Yes

Please name the club/s

Page 4 300

3.Motivations for Cycling and Cycling Related Travel

These questions explore your reasons for being on a bike and travelling with your bike. In the questions below "travel" or travel outside your local region includes both day trips (longer than 50km) and overnight trips.

1. What is your motivation for cycling when you travel ouitside your local area? Please rate all 5 areas below. Most important Important Relevant Not very important Not at all important Racing or competition

Challenge events

Recreation or just for fun

Fitness

Social interaction with others

2. When you travel outside you home region do you take your own bike with you?

Always

Sometimes

Never

3. How often each year would you travel with cycling as a major part of your reason for travel?

Never

1-5 times per year

6-10 times per year

More than ten times per year

4. When travelling with cycling as one of your motivations for your travel how would you generally get to your destination? Never Occasionally Quite often Always

By bike

Own Car

Hire car

Airline

Rail

Bus

Page 5 301 5. When you go on a trip with cycling as one of your motivations would you generally travel with other people? Never Occasionally Quite Often Always Alone

With a partner

In a small group (3-10 people)

With a large group (more than 10 people)

6. When you travel with cycling as one of your motivations how long would you generally stay away for? Never Occasionally Quite often Always 1 day

2 days

3-7 days

8-14 days

More than 14 days

7. When you travel with cycling as one of your motivations where would you most likely spend your time away? Never Occasionally Quite often Always

Local region

Within my own state

Interstate

Overseas

Page 6 302

4.Destination preferences

These questions explore your preferences for facilities at a destination

1. When you travel with cycling as part of your reason for the trip, what are your preferred accommodation options? Never Occasionally Quite often Always Stay with friends or relatives

Camping by car

Camping by bike

Caravan or camper trailer

Cabin

Backpackers/hostel

Self contained cabin/flat/apartment

Hotel/motel

My own property

2. When choosing accommodation how important are the following features in relation to your cycling needs? Most Important Important Relevant Not very important Not at all important

Bike storage

Bike racks

Security of storage

Onsite meals available

Clothes washing and drying facilities

Good coffee

3. In choosing a destination for your cycling related travel how do you rate the following features? Most important Important Relevant Not very important Not at all important Accessibility to the area by bike

Safe cycling environment at the location

The weather in the region

Scenic beauty of the area

Availability of suitable accomodation

Other attractions in the area

Page 7 303 4. When choosing a cycling destination for your travels how important are the following features? Most important Important Relevant Not very important Not at all important An organised cycling event

A closed race circuit

A velodrome for track racing

Safe on road riding

Rail or recreational trails without motor traffic

Marked off road MTB trails

BMX track

BMX ramps/skatepark

Challenging (hilly) terrain

5. In choosing a cycling destination for your travels what information sources do you use? Most Important Important Relevant Not very important Not at all important Knowledge from previous visits

Friends or relatives

Fellow cyclists (word of mouth or club members)

Cycling magazines

Other cycling publications (maps, brochures)

Cycle tour operators

Cycling websites

General tourism websites

Tourist information centres

General travel agents

Tourism guides (e.g. Lonely planet)

Page 8 304

5.Use of online technology for destination choice

These questions explore your preferences for and use of online technologies in your destination choice for cycling

1. Do you use online technologies such as the internet, websites or social networking to help with your choice of destination for cycling related travel?

Yes

2. What is your normal means of accessing the internet or online sources when looking at cycling travel options?

Desktop at home

Desktop at office/workplace

Laptop

Netbook

Mobile device (e.g smart phone)

Internet cafes or libraries

Other (please specify)

3. Do you use any of the following in seeking information about your travel destinations? Never Occasionally Often Always General internet searches (i.e relevant tourism or cycling websites)

Social networks (Facebook, twitter, myspace, etc)

Online maps (e.g Google earth)

Emailed newsletters from subscribed sources

Cycling related blogs,wikis or chat rooms

4. If you use a mobile phone do you value SMS messages about cycling related issues such as upcoming events or social rides?

Yes

Page 9 305 5. Do you subscribe to or use any of the following online social networking tools?

I do not use social networking tools

Facebook

My Space

Twitter

Linked In

Other

Other (please specify)

6. If you use online social networking (Facebook or other) do you talk about cycling there?

Yes

7. Do you subscribe to any cycling related blogs or wikis? If yes please list them.

Yes

Please list you favorite cycling blogs or wikis

8. Have you used online mapping tools (e.g Google earth) to help you decide on your cycling destinations?

Yes

9. If you have used online mapping tools, which would you recommend to others?

Google Earth

Google Maps

Virtual Earth

Bikely

Map my Ride

Others

Please list any mapping sites you would recommend to others

Page 10 306 10. If you use online maps for investigating your potential cycling destination what are the main features that you are seeking or value the most? Most Important Important Relevant Not very important Not at all important On road details (paved/unpaved?)

Cycle paths (no motorised traffic )

Off road details (firetrail/single track)

Event routes

Facility locations (e.g velodrome/BMX park)

Route profiles (elevations along route)

Proximity to services

Toilet stops

Coffee shops

Bike shops

Accessibility of accommodation

Weather forecasts

What else do you value from an online map?

11. Do you have some favourite cycling related websites that you would recommend to other cyclists in your cycling discipline?

Yes I do have some favourites I would like to share

Please list your favourite cycling websites

Page 11 307 12. In seeking information from online sources what information do you look for? Most Important Important Relevant Not very important Not at all important General tourist information

Accommodation options

Travel options to get to the area (airlines, buses, rail, etc)

Cycle friendly transport options at the location

Cycling related facilities (e.g. BMX, MTB, on road circuits)

Local cycling clubs or groups

Organised cycling tours

Information about cycling events

Other

What else are you looking for online

13. Do you have some favourite websites that you find useful for general tourism information? Would you recommend these to others?

Wotif.com

Travel advisor

Webjet

Flightcentre

Please list any other sites you would like to share or recommend

My favourite tourism websites

14. Do you own or use GPS enabled devices(smart phone or GPS navigation device)?

Yes

15. If you own a GPS enabled device, do you use it at all whilst cycling?

Yes

Page 12 308

6.Personal information

This section asks you about your personal situation in order to help identify where cyclists fit in society in general

1. Gender

Male

Female

2. Age group

Under 18

18-25

26-35

36-45

46-55

56-65

Over 65

3. Are you presently in paid employment?

Not currently

Full time

Part time

Casual

Retired

4. If you are in paid employment, what is your current salary or income level (pre tax)?

less than $25,000

$25,000 - $50,000

$50,001 - $75 000

$75,001- $100,000

More than $100,000

5. What is your highest academic qualification?

High school

CIT certifcate

Diploma

Bachelor degree

Masters or Ph D

Page 13 309 6. What is you family situation?

Single

Married

Long term relationship

7. How many children live with you?

None

8. Please provide contact details so I can follow up any issues that may arise from your answers to this survey. If you do not wish to be personally identified that is OK, but I do need to know the city or locality where you live.

Name:

City/Town:

State/Territory:

ZIP/Postal Code:

Country:

Email Address:

Phone Number:

Page 14 310

7.Wrapping Up

Thank you for participating in this survey;

Your answers will help in determining how best to serve cyclists with online information and tools to help choose their cycling nirvana.

For those with an interest in data analysis. The data collected in this survey will be analysed initially using the inbuilt features of the online survey tool (Survey Monkey) with additional analysis undertaken with advice from University colleagues experienced in this type of survey.

The results will be presented in the final Ph D thesis and in published papers in relevant professional journals. Summaries of the outcomes of the research will be made available through the ACT cycling clubs that assist with the project.

Confidentiality

Information gathered in this research will be used to complete a Ph D thesis and will potentially provide input to other published papers related to the topic. No individually identifiable data will be made available to other than the principal researcher. Data collected as part of this research will be stored at the University of Canberra for a period of five years, when it will be destroyed. Data used for the purpose of the thesis or other publications will not identify any individuals or their views.

This research has been approved by the Committee for Ethics in Human Research of the University.

Queries and Concerns

Contacts for any questions related to this research are: The project supervisor: Dr Trevor Mules Ph:62102589 Email: [email protected]

Or the Principal Investigator,

Dennis Puniard

Ph 6201 2714 or 0407 220885 Email: [email protected]

Page 15 311

Appendix C

Detailed Tables of Responses

Full list of cycling blogs and wikis table from survey questionnaire (102 individuals responded) Title No of Web address respondents who use Sydney Cyclist 12 http://www.sydneycyclist.com/ Bicycle NSW 6 http://www.bicyclensw.org.au/home Crazyguyonabike 5 http://www.crazyguyonabike.com/ Cycling News 5 http://www.cyclingnews.com/ ACT Veterans 4 http://www.actvets.cc/html/main.html Group: discussion group http://groups.google.com/group/actvcc_discussi on/topics Bicycle Snob 4 http://bikesnobnyc.blogspot.com/ NYC Cycling Tips 4 http://www.cyclingtipsblog.com/ Audax Australia 3 http://www.audax.org.au/public/ Bike Sydney 3 http://bikesydney.org/new10/ Critical mass 3 http://www.criticalmass.org.au/ RoadBikeRider 3 http://www.roadbikerider.com/ Copenhagenize 3 http://www.copenhagenize.com/ Bicycle Net 3 http://www.bicycles.net.au/ Cycle2 Max 2 http://www.cycle2max.com/ Fat Cyclist 2 http://www.cycle2max.com/ Fyximatosis 2 http://www.fyxomatosis.com/ Lonely 2 http://www.lonelyplanet.com/thorntree/index.js Planet/Thorntree pa Bicycle Touring 2 http://bicycletouringpro.com/blog/ Pro

312

Title No of Web address respondents who use Rotorburn 2 http://www.rotorburn.com/ Bent Rider Online 2 http://www.bentrideronline.com/ Aus.bicycle 2 https://groups.google.com/forum/#!forum/aus.b icycle 3 Speed touring 1 http://3speedtouringinjapan.blogspot.com/ Japan An Adventure 1 http://anadventurecalledbicycling.blogspot.com called cycling / Bike Hugger 1 http://bikehugger.com/ Glimpses ofJapan 1 http://ojisanjake.blogspot.com/ Hopper 1 http://www.hoppercycling.de/ VelOrange 1 http://www.velo-orange.com/ E-Wadachi 1 http://www.e-wadachi.com/links_e.html Adelaide MTB 1 http://www.amtbc.com/forum/viewforum.php?f forum =1 Adventure 1 http://www.adventurecycling.org/ Cycling USA1 San Francisco 1 http://www.sfbike.org/ Bike Coalition Pedal Power ACT 1 http://www.pedalpower.org.au/ Bicycling 1 http://www.bicycling.com/ Magazine Bike Friday 1 http://www.bikefriday.com/ Newcastle 1 http://www.transitionnewcastle.org.au/organisa cycleways tion/newcastle-cycleways-movement Gerry Attric 1 http://sites.google.com/site/geriatricplaygroup/ Playgroup Bike North Chat 1 http://www.bikenorth.org.au/ Bikeforums 1 http://www.bikeforums.net/ Bikely 1 http://www.bikely.com/ 313

Title No of Web address respondents who use Bike Qld 1 http://www.bikeqld.org.au/wiki/Bikeqld Blink 1 http://www.bv.com.au/general/change-the- world/91830/ Competitive 1 http://www.competitivecyclist.com/ Cyclist MTBA Australia 1 http://www.mtba.asn.au/ Couch surfing 1 http://wiki.couchsurfing.org/en/Main_Page cycling group Wide Open Road 1 http://www.wideopenroad.net.au/ Yellow Brick 1 http://cyclingybr.blogspot.com/ Road HillClimber 1 http://www.hillclimbr.com/ Up in Alaska 1 http://weekendcycling.com/2007/02/up-in- alaska/ Hobobiker 1 http://www.hobobiker.com/ Holiday keogh 1 Daves Bike Blog 1 http://davesbikeblog.squarespace.com/ Cycledog 1 http://cycledog.blogspot.com/ Alaska Bike blog 1 http://alaskabikeblog.blogspot.com/ Armidale Cycling 1 http://www.armidalecyclingclub.org/ Club Blogs.phred 1 http://blogs.phred.org/ peteonabike 1 http://peteonabike.blogspot.com/ dmsantam 1 http://dmsantam.blogspot.com/ Practical cyclist 1 http://blog.thepracticalcyclist.org/ bikenoob 1 http://bikenoob.com/ Long distance 1 http://www.ultracycling.com/training/training.h rider tml Recumbent bike 1 http://www.recumbentblog.com/ blog 314

Title No of Web address respondents who use Macquarie Uni 1 http://www.mq.edu.au/transport/cycling.html Cycling Blog Masters ACT blog 1 http://blog.mactcycling.com/

Manmos BUG 1 groups.google.com/group/manmosbug - Mtb Dirt 1 http://www.mtbdirt.com.au/ Eat drink Bike 1 http://eat-drink-bike.wikispaces.com/ Sustrans 1 http://www.sustrans.org.uk/ Pez cycling 1 http://www.pezcyclingnews.com/ Podium cafe 1 http://www.podiumcafe.com/ Surly owners 1 http://www.flickr.com/groups/1110545@N20/ Bicyclelifestyle 1 http://www.peterwhitecycles.com/bl.html Rec.bicycle tech 1 http://www.sheldonbrown.com/recbikes.html Double forte 1 http://www.thetandemlink.com/DF/dffaqs.html treehugger 1 http://www.treehugger.com/ride-your-bike/ Streetsblog 1 http://www.streetsblog.org/ Streetfilms 1 http://www.streetfilms.org/ Usm events 1 http://www.usmevents.com.au/ Tritravel 1 http://www.tritravel.com.au/ In2adventure 1 http://www.in2adventure.com.au/ Viking Cycling 1 http://www.v-mobile.org.au/forum/ Club vmobile Canberra Cycling 1 http://www.canberracyclingclub.org.au/index.a Club sp?IntCatId=17 Fixed gear fever 1 http://www.fixedgearfever.com/ Dreaming on 1 http://dreamingontwowheels.blogspot.com/ 2wheels Yak digest 1 http://mx.bikefriday.com/pipermail/yak/2007- March/007901.html 315 Forum content – crazyguyonabike website by Neil Gunton extracted Thu 15 Mar 2012

Last Forum Description Msgs post Accommodations Where to stay - hostels, lodging, campgrounds, 447 Feb 16 couch surfing, warm showers etc Advocacy Issues related to bicycles, usually related 374 Fri 9 specifically to or affecting tourists in some way Alerts Missing persons, urgent news etc 407 Mar 8 Announcements Bicycle touring-related announcements which 538 Feb 6 warrant discussion. Bags & Packing Panniers vs Trailers, racks, packing issues 3760 20:58 Bikes Types, recumbents, trikes, tandems, frames, gear 9333 19:38 ratios etc Books Discussion (please note: For book reviews, use 186 Feb 26 the Reviews section instead) Camping Campgrounds, stealth camping, insects etc 1365 Feb 28 Classifieds Discussion and suggestions related to the 62 Jul Classifieds (no ads on the forum please) 2009 Clothing Shorts, eyewear, helmets, gloves, cold/hot/wet 1844 Mar 3 weather gear Communications Phone cards, internet connectivity on tour, radio, 520 Mon staying in touch... 12

Components Derailleurs, hubs, gears, brakes etc 2785 Tue 13 Diet & Cooking Recipes, cooking, hydration, nutrition 1233 Sun 11 Digital Gear Cameras, computers, storage, communications, 2122 Mon issues 12

316

Last Forum Description Msgs post Equipment Lists Questions and answers regarding what to take on 1384 Feb 29 tour Finances Expenses, costs, advice, sponsorship, etc 784 16:08 Hazards & Safety Dog deterrents, rumble strips, trucks, traffic, bad 3588 Wed drivers, insurance, security, locks, theft, safety & 14 injury prevention Health & Fitness Injuries, health, medical issues, numbness, 2140 19:53 saddle sores, training regimes, advice, experiences Humor Jokes, stories, anecdotes, rants 1326 Mar 5 Hygiene Staying clean and healthy on the road - washing, 380 Feb 18 toilets etc In Memoriam Remembering people associated with the bicycle 92 May touring world who have died 30 Journals & Articles Questions, issues relating to editing journals, 1909 01:37 what's appropriate etc Legal Dealings with the law, police, harassment, etc 806 Wed 14 Lighting Dynamos vs battery, chargers, experiences 599 Mar 1 Maintenance & Useful tools, repair and maintenance advice 1363 Sat 10 Repair Mental health Pre-tour jitters, staying sane on the road, post 642 Tue 13 tour blues, etc Merchants Questions and discussion about the people you 329 Feb 6 buy stuff from Mirrors Different types, issues, customizing 116 Jun 23 Miscellaneous Discussions related to bicycle touring which 3870 Mar 6 don't fit into any of the other forums 317

Last Forum Description Msgs post Missed connections Trying to get back in touch with someone you 10 Nov lost touch with 10 Navigation tools GPS, compass, maps, tools for navigating 1535 06:29 Photography Cameras, digital and film, techniques, 1305 Mar 2 processing, accessories etc Poetry Bicycle touring poems, haiku and similar literary 68 Mar 3 forms Polls Mainly for discussion threads associated with the 1602 Feb 24 website polls. Recalls Products that have been recalled by the 20 Jun 8 manufacture - alert people here! Regional: Africa Routes, maps, advice etc 60 Feb 15 Regional: Asia Routes, maps, advice etc 710 Mar 5 Regional: Europe Routes, maps, advice etc 1057 Sun 11 Regional: Great Routes, maps, advice etc for England, Scotland, 248 Feb 3 Britain Wales and associated islands Regional: Ireland Routes, maps, advice etc for the Emerald Isle, 10 Mar including the counties of Northern Ireland 2010 Regional: Middle Routes, maps, advice etc 67 Feb 22 East Regional: North Canada, Mexico, USA - routes, maps, advice etc 6829 20:41 America Regional: Oceania Australia, New Zealand, routes, maps, advice etc 464 Sat 10 Regional: Oceans Islands such as the Azores which aren't really 4 Feb 2011 part of any larger continent Regional: South South America, Central America and Caribbean 460 Mon 12 America routes, maps, advice etc Resources Discussion and suggestions relating to the 143 Mar 2009 Resources 318

Forum Description Msgs Last post

Sales & Promotions News of sales at companies relevant to bicycle 102 Feb 9 tourists Shoes and Pedals Shoes, sandals, clips, clipless, foot problems, 394 Sep 7 tips etc Sleeping Bags & Down, synthetic, self-inflating pads, cots, 812 Feb 13 Pads blankets, quilts, pillows, bedrolls etc Small parts & Useful bits and pieces for the touring bike 324 Feb 20 accessories Stoves & Cookware Stoves, fuel, pans, utensils, related hardware 1402 Sun 11 issues on tour Supported touring Organized group tours, sagged, groups vs solo, 111 Feb 27 credit card touring, advice, etc Tents & Shelters Tents, bivvies, hammocks, tarps, footprints etc 2097 Sat 10 Tips and Tricks If you have interesting tidbits on just about 377 Nov 8 anything related to touring, post 'em here... Touring encounters Accounts and pics of touring cyclist encounters 267 Dec 3 Touring Mindset What gets you going, keeps you going on the 116 Feb 25 road, motivation etc Touring with Issues, experiences, gear, advice 165 Jan 2011 Disabilities Touring with Kids Issues, experiences, advice, gear 126 Aug 1 Touring with Pets Issues and advice for touring with your animal 385 Feb 13 companions Water & Hydration Carrying on tour, how much, sterilization, 306 Feb 15 hydration issues etc Weather Riding in the heat, cold, wet, dry, you name it... 1064 Mar 2 issues, tips, tricks etc Website Related news, feedback, problems, suggestions, 8090 08:48 lawsuits, death threats etc 319

Forum Description Msgs Last post

Wheels & Tires Rims, hubs, spokes, problems, punctures, repairs 3020 Mar 6

Wildlife Dealing with bears and other critters 487 Mon 12 encountered while camping and touring

Women specific Topics of concern mostly to women, related to 159 Sep 17 bicycle touring

320 Bicycle touring resources and categories from crazyguyonabike website by Neil Gunton extracted Thu 15 Mar 2012

Advocacy - Non-profit organizations and associations, rails to trails, charitable companies etc (131) Area overview - Overview of a country, region, town or city, with impressions, features etc (52) Bed & Breakfast - Small lodgings, usually family-run from a house (49) Books - Bicycle Touring, Maintenance, Camping, Training, Routes... (60) Camping - Campgrounds, hiker-biker, city parks (67) Communications - Cybercafes, ISPs, phone cards, email services good for touring cyclists on the road (16) Community - Websites, mailing lists, message boards, bike clubs... (166) Food & Drink - Eateries, groceries, ice cream parlors, bakeries etc (42) Hospitality - Private house offering no-fee hospitality to touring cyclists ("warm shower") (34) Hostel - Cheap lodgings, usually with shared dormitories and kitchen (40) Manufacturer - Makers of bikes, equipment, components, accessories, clothing etc (181) Maps - Regional maps (online and paper) and sources for route information (194) Motel - Bike-friendly commercial lodging, with private rooms (32) Recreation - Guided tours, offroad biking, rafting, annual events, museums, etc (59) Route - Description of a route, road or trail, with description of terrain and features (244) Shopping (general) - General bicycle and outdoor retailers that sell just about everything (130) Shopping (specialist) - Websites and shops that specialize in particular items or areas (154) 321

Tour Operator - Group tours, maps, routes, resources (104) Travel resources - Information on travel, transportation and specific regions for prospective travelers (116) Travelogue - Accounts of bicycle tours - websites, books etc (423) Website - Links to websites related to bicycles and touring, not specifically covered by other categories (522)

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324 Full Response to LinkedIn Post from March 2011

The question posed was:

A sampling of responses to the post follows:

To get away from mosquitos in the forest To keep my pants from getting too tight To see how low I can get my resting heart rate (in season, anyway) To see the looks on my coworker's faces when I show up in full TT gear To ride 20 minutes to the nearest Unesco World Heritage site, buy ice cream and watch the swans on the lake.

From: President at Anerca International Inc. Got into riding 3 years ago to do the first 200km Ride to Conquer Cancer and loved it so much that I'm still riding. For me it's an opportunity to raise funds for cancer treatment (I'm a survivor, although I don't think of myself that way) but more than that it's an opportunity to get the most out of my 66 year old body. This year the goal is to do the double century for the Ride instead of the double metric. I used to race cars years ago and the mechanical side has allowed me to build up my own bike (no, not the frame - a 6.5 Madone - just the bits) and to use some of the old racing knowledge re braking points and lines through corners on the bike (I'm a demon down hills). So, in summary, riding for me is about contribution, fitness and mechanical geekiness. Yes, and about joining a community and making some really good friends and have some fun.

From: Owner, Sojourn Bicycling & Active Vacations 326

There's simply no other feeling quite like it. Self-propelled freedom, exploration and exhilaration would rank near the top of my reasons for riding. Following closely are fitness related reasons, carbon-free transportation, and camaraderie. It is unquestionably my preferred means of enhancing appreciation for my surroundings. Some of my favorite life experiences involve cycling.

From: CEO at IntraWerks, Inc. Weight control and I hate to run. I really hate to run.

From: Executive at Global Print Monitor Cheap, healthy, practical, non-dependent. I ride to go to places daily:Is much nice than other options. Also is safer... you only have to deal with traffic-transit issues. In crowded mass transport you are exposed to big T threats (yes, you are more than if you go in individual transport). In your car you are forced to go or get stuck in a street-road, with the bike you have options. And you are gas independent.

From: General Manager at VSI Products I love the utilitarian potential and the feeling of self sufficiency, but most of all it's just freakin fun!

From: Sales & Marketing Manager (Unemployed) For me it can be summed up in one word 'Freedom'. Freedom of mind, body and spirit, the ultimate stress relief and the most fun you can have on wheels.

From: Executive at Parker Sandford Limited and ATTAIN 327

To be outside whatever the weather Its a unique feeling Its unique every time I go out and ride It is socially inclusive (if you want it to be) It provides an all round feeling of well being for an hour until I've showered and eaten and then slumberland.

I ride because I can exercise and I ride because I can have fun I ride because I can feel pain and I ride because I can feel pleasure I ride because I can be by myself and I ride because I can be with my family I ride because I can get better and I ride because I can maintain I ride because I can ride for the sake of the ride I ride because I can...

From: General Manager at Benjamin Consulting Because I enjoy it. Because my daughter stole my Lexus, and that has turned out to be OK.

329

Oh and as someone said earlier, I like being almost the same weight (and shape, nearly) that I was 30 years ago..... “

From: Co-Owner, Soft Goods buyer at Missing Link Bicycle Cooperative Therapy Fitness Stress relief Wanderlust Coaching Racing Life Road, Mountain, Cyclocross, it's all good!

Comments on this post

In relation to the research questions posed for this topic the above discussion goes to the heart of the issue of motivation for cyclists to ride. This directly imposes upon why cyclists will ride outside their home location as cycle tourists. A synopsis of the above discussion thread indicates the major motivation factors from this group are: • fitness and mental well being,

• invigorating outdoor activity, 330

• competition, • sustainable transport, • peace of mind,

• interaction with nature, • physical challenge; • independence, and, • It’s fun, really enjoyable.

These, together with the information needs and means of access to this information form the basis of understanding what cycle tourists want.

Appendix D

University of Canberra Ethics Approval