le M odernization Science

News letter

Vol.11, No. 1 March 2021

 Special Papers To Better the Man: Education and Human Development in Modern To Better the Man: Education and Human Development in Modern Romania………………………Catalin Turliuc 2

Books……………………………………………………… 19 It is an undisputable fact that the modernization process is intertwined with the new position acquired Papers……………………………………………………… 2 1 by individuals in the framework of societies and, indeed, whole humanity, during the Enlightenment Sponsor period and the following three centuries. Change and China Center for Modernization Research of an accentuated cinematic state of the world was at Chinese Academy of Sciences the very root of this new Modern Era in which International Modernization Forum knowledge and freedom were transformation’s Editor-in-Chief twinned preconditions and outcomes. Enlightenment Chuanqi He (E-mail: [email protected]) with its central core, that is to say education and a Editor new paideia model together with liberation raised Wenyu Zhu (E-mail: [email protected]) individuals into a condition which offered the Lei Liu (E-mail: [email protected]) opportunity to better themselves and their world.

Contact Advancement in politics and government, in science Email: [email protected] and technology, in entrepreneurship and culture, in http://en.modernization.ac.cn/channel.action?chnlid=551 arts and philosophy, in every field of human Tel: 86-10-62539187, Fax: 86-10-62539103 endeavor originated at a new scale and dimension in No.33, Beisihuan West Road, Zhongguancun, the minds of better educated Beijing 100190, PR China individuals..……………… Continued on p.2.

Modernization has been a worldwide phenomenon, a civilization progress and a development goal in many countries, and modernization science is an interdisciplinary one dealing with this phenomena. MSN has been an open-access journal and community online focusing on modernization study since 2011 quarterly released by the China Center for Modernization Research of Chinese Academy of Sciences. It's free both to the authors and readers. Welcome to share your works on modernization study with our readers worldwide. Welcome to join us by an e-mail, then you will receive MSN continually.

M.S. Newsletter 1 March 2021

Special Papers

To Better the Man: Education and Human Development

in Modern Romania Catalin TURLIUC Professor, Iasi Branch, Romanian Academy, Romania *MSN-Working Papers-2021-01-01

Abstract It is an undisputable fact that the modernization process is intertwined with the new position acquired by individuals in the framework of societies and, indeed, whole humanity, during the Enlightenment period and the following three centuries. Change and an accentuated cinematic state of the world was at the very root of this new Modern Era in which knowledge and freedom were transformation’s twinned preconditions and outcomes. Enlightenment with its central core, that is to say education and a new paideia model together with liberation raised individuals into a condition which offered the opportunity to better themselves and their world. Advancement in politics and government, in science and technology, in entrepreneurship and culture, in arts and philosophy, in every field of human endeavor originated at a new scale and dimension in the minds of better educated individuals. Human beings became the measure of all things. Reason was the motto of Enlightenment. Empiricism and the doctrine of natural rights (to life, liberty and property) were the main vectors for change as the Industrial Revolution provoked the greatest change of circumstances for what historian Joel Mokyr called “enlightened economy”. The idea of perfectibility of man (which can be found nowadays in transhumanist approaches) persists to our days and that is the reason why “Enlightenment will be a living, vital work in progress, a continuing condition of possibility” as James MacGregor Burns put it. This giant wind of change originated in Western Europe swept in Central Eastern Europe beginning with the last decades of the 18-th Century. Among other nations which were caught in the whirlwind of transformations the Romanian one confronted the challenges of the modernization process through different means and policies, a better educated individual being an important one.

M.S. Newsletter 2 March 2021

Acquiring a better education was for the elites of that specific time an important goal not only for the future careers in a more bureaucratic state but also a mot d’ordre for an empowered person in all the venues of life. The greatest majority of Romanian intellectuals in the first part of the 19-th Century were educated in Western Europe and they became important agents of change in the Romanian society. Our paper trace and analyses how education, and from the middle of the 19-th Century, mass education contributed to the modernization process of the Romanian state. Also, I want to emphasize how the idea of a better human being was disseminated in the Romanian society and how persistent it became during the modern era. My paper will trace all the significant changes in Romanian education during the last 160 years in connection with the modernization process starting with the first step marked in 1864 when the Romanian Parliament introduced a law which stated that primary school is free of charge and compulsory. Beside this I shall underline how the idea of bettering the man evolved and was adopted in different social milieus across Romanian society. I shall answer such question as: Can one establish a straight connection between education and modernization process? Is there a feed-back relation? How and why the idea of the man perfectibility was generated and with what consequences in our society? How different political regimes understand and pursued modernization process in the last two centuries Romania in relation with education and the idea of a better man/citizen? My intention is to underline in my paper the possibility of achieving a heuristic model for this type of analysis. In conclusion I want to point out the most important features which connect the education modernization with Human development in Modern Romania as well as the importance of education in achieving the strategic goal of a “knowledge based society”.

Keywords: human development, education, modernization, perfectibility of man, knowledge based society

1．Introduction Big historical concepts like Enlightenment, Reformation, Capitalism, Imperialism or Modernization – that is to give just few examples - are a must in the historian’s portfolio. It is obvious that without them and, of course a great number of others encompassing large chronotropic sequences, he or she cannot hope to profit from a carefully gathered hoard of facts. Usually those concepts only rarely belong to the

M.S. Newsletter 3 March 2021

past itself and a lot of social scientists are keen to improve the general knowledge about society by using them. The science of modernization vocabulary is improved and enlarged almost on a yearly base and this helps everybody to better understand their object of study. The idea of bettering the man (through different means and methods) can be considered as old as society hence any attempt to develop an exhaustive history of such an idea will be a very difficult and complex task. In my paper I shall focus on the topic of human development through education during the modern period in Romania. It is widely accepted that this period started with the dawn of Enlightenment in this specific case, which is to say at the end of the 18-th century and the beginning of the next one. Enlightenment with its special features in South Eastern Europe, Romania included of course was deeply connected with a twofold process: national and social emancipation in the framework provided by the newly acquired centrality of the individual on the historical scene. A new paideia model slowly emerged together with new ideological “munition” imported from the Western European countries. One can trace in this period a rapid cinematic change in the Westernization process which preceded the modernization one. In order to better understand how education was perceived as a useful tool in the process of bettering the man in Modern Romania I’ll answer few questions: Was education/mass education an important marker of the modernization process? Can one establish a straight connection between education and modernization process? Is there a feed-back relation? How and why the idea of the man perfectibility was generated and with what consequences in our society? How different political regimes understand and pursued modernization process in the last two centuries Romania in relation with education and the idea of a better man/citizen? Dealing with these questions I am aware of the fact that “ … the comparative approach (to education) demands first an appreciation of the intangible, impalpable spiritual and cultural forces which underlie an educational system; the factors and forces outside the school matter even more that what goes on inside it”1 My paper is structured in several parts: Enlightenment and the Dawn of Modern Era in Romanian Society, Education and Human Development during the First Half of the 19-th Century, Challenges and Achievements in the Second Half of the 19-th Century, Interwar Period and its Characteristics, Education and Human Development During the Communist Era, The New Realities after 1989 and, of course, Conclusions. I am aware that my analysis could and should be further developed not only in its

1 I. L. Kendall, Studies in Comparative Education, Boston 1933 Apud Roy Alasdhair Niall MacGregor-Hastie, A History of Education in Romania, Summary of the PhD Thesis, University of Hull, p. 10 M.S. Newsletter 4 March 2021

factual dimension but also on the methodological level by further research and investigation. The perspective I have tried to offer it’s a vol d’oiseau over a large period of time concerning few important aspects of the human development process through education and certain limits were unavoidable, mainly due to the imposed constraints of such presentation.

2. Enlightenment and the Dawn of Modern Era in Romanian

Society

It is clear for everyone that Enlightenment gave birth to a radically new attitude towards knowledge and that created a revolution in human mind and in society at its large. A new body of truths about man, society and nature based on reason and in consequence on a new rationality emerged profoundly changing attitudes and habits in almost every field of human activity. It was a strong belief that these new found riches would improve the general quality of life and will change the place of humans in nature’s order. The idea of progress accompanied by certain optimism erupted quickly. A key issue in the development of a society in modern times, and not only, is its capacity to provide prosperity and economic security for the greatest majority of its members who enjoy a whole set of civil and politic liberties. Education became pivotal in order to achieve new improved standard of living mainly through what was called “useful knowledge” and its diffusion. The twin endeavors of the epoch were the advance of knowledge and the multiplication of the knowledgeable. A consequence of these developments was, among other things, a solid step forward in the direction of emancipation. Emancipation - in its modern sense - evolved as a stringent demand for many societies at the beginning of the modernization process. Civil and political emancipation were among the most important demands of every progressive and revolutionary movement recorded from the eighteenth century and up to second part of the nineteenth century in South Eastern Europe and not only. Emancipation is definitely a wide concept and in modern times it is a prerequisite for certain individuals, social and ethnic groups in order to “melt” in the social fabric and finally to get citizenship status at least in some parts of Europe. Political emancipation illustrates the different effort to access political rights or equality generally for a disenfranchised category of individuals or, sometimes, social and/or ethnic groups. Emancipation is connected in modern time with Enlightenment which has molded the M.S. Newsletter 5 March 2021

moral universe in the West and partially in the Central Eastern Europe before laying down the foundations of a massive social and political movement. Whereas the essence of the French Enlightenment was “reason” the British Enlightenment is defined by the idea of “social virtues”. Secularist, revolutionary or republican ideas were behind emancipatory movements as well as an ethos which can be called “sociology of virtue”2. On the territory of the present day Romania the Enlightenment (Iluminismul) and its principles were certainly not enough assimilated in terms of institutional and civic aspects. Emancipation was more about nation than about individual. I have to point out that during the last quarter of the 18-th century new laws were enforced in the spirit of Enlightenment regarding education3. For the first time terms like educator and pedagogy were used in their modern sense. New textbooks were published in Transylvania as well as in Moldavia and Walachia. In 1777 Ratio Educationis was published during the reign of Empress Maria Theresia which provided schools for Romanian children in Transylvania4. Important personalities like Iosif Mesiodax5, Leon Gheuca, Mihail Rosu, Gheorghe Sincai, Ioan Piuariu Molnar, Ion Budai Deleanu and many others were scholars deeply involved in the advancement of modern education. Important fragments of the philosophic works of John Locke, Fenelon, Maupertius and other relevant western scholars were translated and made available in the Romanian lands. Gradually, in the following decades, a new hedonistic ethic was developed and the pursuit of happiness became a standard for the right actions and the utility principle became central in individual and even governmental actions. A steady faith in the power of education became a strong presumption that with the growth of knowledge and a better understanding and control over nature progress is assured. In this complex context began the long road to modernity. As I already point out in another paper: “For many, modernization represents all the transformations of the society and culture beginning with the European Renaissance and still continuing on a world scale. The modernization concept and theory are in strong opposition with the cyclic theory in history; it is positivistic and regards human history as a history of forms of progresses. The time for instance is perceived as a coherent matrix of changing. Nature is seen as having an inherent internal order that can be interpreted by the human mind. Scientific research

2 Gertrude Himmelfarb, The Roads to Modernity. The British, French and American Enlightenments, Vintage Books, London, 2004, p. 23-146 3 See the Decree of Alexandru Ipsilante published in January 1776. 4 Stefan Barsanascu, Florinela Barsanescu, Dictionar cronologic. Educatia, invatamantul, gandirea pedagogica din Romania, Editura Stiintifica si Enciclopedica, Bucuresti, 1978, pp. 44-45 5 See for further details Paschalis M. Kitromilides, The Enlightenment as Social Criticism. Iosipos Moisiodax and Greek Culture in the Eighteen Century, Princeton, New Jersey, Princeton University Press, 1992 M.S. Newsletter 6 March 2021

is ultimately concerned with the penetration of this inherent order and technology has to be developed in order to transform nature accordingly to human needs. The role of science and technology is to change the place of the human being through social engineering and division of labor”6. Capitalism in the way in which evolved was connected with modernization process and social engineering leading at a type of society in which a flexible balance between individual and collectivity and between human rights and raison d’etat was established. Modern fraternalism was also an important channel of promoting the ideas of reason, liberty, equality, fraternity among the members of different societies including the Romanian one. A plethora of associations and secret societies were deeply involved in the difficult process of changing mentalities by promoting the western principles and values in the aftermath of the French Revolution. Their declared goal was to better the individual and to achieve harmony and understanding in the modern societies according to their system of moral values. Abolitionism was also one of the important movements which can be identified as a way to improve human condition in early modern times. The abolitionists in modern times were agitators who hoped to convince their fellows that slavery was morally wrong. They often disagreed among themselves, over both means and ends, but they were all dedicated to emancipation and concerned about the tragic human consequences of slavery. Grounded mainly on moral values abolitionism had a plethora of sources as religious benevolence, humanitarian values, paternalistic concerns and fears, middle class economic values and principles, modern political values spread in the aftermath of the French Revolution etc. Abolitionism in the West was more complex and proteic in its form while in the East (Eastern Europe) abolitionism has played out in movements to end the enslavement of the Gypsies (Roma) in Romanian Principalities or to emancipate serfs in . The heyday of abolition movement was at the end of the 18-th century and up to the last quarter of the 19-th century, roughly from 1783 to 1888. The moral, social and economic problems posed by slavery in the Romanian society were first acknowledged in the Age of Enlightenment. As a partial conclusion I would like to point out that beginning with the Enlightenment period both in Romanian society and elsewhere in the world the idea of bettering the man through education and a new moral code evolved rapidly and contributed to the modernization process.

6 Catalin Turliuc, Modernization and Regional Development in the 20-th Century: The Case of Romania in Alberto Martinelli, Chuanqi He, Global Modernization Review. New Discoveries and Theories Revisited, World Scientific, New Jersey, London, Singapore, Beijing, Shanghai, Hong Kong, Taipei, Chennai, 2015, p. 102 M.S. Newsletter 7 March 2021

3. Education and Human Development during the First Half of the 19-th Century

The first half of the 19-th century was for the Romanian society a period marked by revolutions (in 1821 and 1848) and a strong movement towards national and social emancipation. Risorgimento nationalism, the idea of achieving national unity and independence, westernization and filling the gap between Romanian lands and western countries in terms of civilization were the main ideas promoted by the majority of the elites (mainly intellectual and cultural ones). The greatest majority of Romanian intellectuals, during this period were educated in western countries and, of course, they became the more active and relevant actors in the process of change in our society. New institutions of education were established, including Princely Academies (in and Iasi), technical colleges, high schools and gymnasiums in all relevant cities of Romanian Principalities. The Romanian language was introduced in these institutions replacing Greek, German, French or other languages. The Bell-Lancaster educational system was introduced as early as 1820’s7. Of course, education was not available to every child or youngster and the rate of illiteracy was very high comparing with other societies from western or central Europe. After the 1821 Revolution a new national approach was developed concerning education in the Romanian Principalities under the reign of native rulers. New laws concerning education were enforced (in 1822, 1826, 1831, 1847 in , 1828, 1832, 1840, 1847, 1850 in Moldavia) regarding the structure and diversification of public schools8. All the normative acts enforced during this period had in common the idea that developing education is a must in order to ensure the progress and wellbeing of the inhabitants of the Principalities. In term of relevance the most important were those imposing the Romanian language in the educational system and those creating an almost similar educational system in Wallachia and Moldova (1831 and 1832). In the cities of every district of the Principalities new schools were built (more than 300 during these years). New specialized institution for education was established regarding agricultural, technical and military domains. The main model used for high schools was the model of the French lycee. Among the personalities who heavily influenced the progress and the modernization of the educational system in the Romanian lands in this period I want to mention scholars like: Gheorghe Lazar, Gheorghe Asachi, Eufrosin Poteca, Petrache Poenaru, Gheorghe Saulescu. In terms of

7 Stefan Barsanescu, Florinela Barsanescu, op. cit., p. 58 8 Idem, pp. 59-83 M.S. Newsletter 8 March 2021

results of policies regarding education I just want to mention that by 1835 the Bucharest Polytechnic became “one of the most important, if not the most important, institution of higher learning in Eastern Europe, modelled on the new schools of ”9. First public libraries were established offering access to a wider category of population. It is fair to mention in this context that education and especially the higher education was available only for a small part of the Romanian society that is to say to well to do individuals who can afford the costly price of a good education. As I mention before the greatest part of the Romanian elite was educated in Paris, Berlin, , Brussels and other important centers of learning in Western and Central Europe. Western civilization was generously described by Romanian travelers and a search for models of development was quickly pursued. Dinicu Golescu was one of the most influential figures in this direction10. Thus, the modernization process was further stimulated and a new generation called “Bonjurists”11 became visible in the society as promoters of western culture and values. This was the generation which provoked and led the Revolution of 1848 as a part of the European “spring of the peoples”. During this period of both national and civil demands regarding national emancipation, habeas corpus, civil liberties etc. a strong drive towards granting individual rights as well as emancipation of slaves was registered. By the mid of the 19-th Century slavery was completely abolished due to the intense activity of abolitionists. It is interesting to mention that Romania was the first country in Europe in which Harriet Beecher Stowe famous abolitionist book “Uncle Tom’s Cabin” was translated and widely circulated. The cultural scene begins to be dominated by Romanticism and oriental habits and mentalities were gradually abandoned in favor of the Western Europeans ones. As everywhere in Europe modern fraternalism gained power among the member of the elites and the idea of bettering the man through education and strong moral principles was largely promoted in Romanian society. As a partial conclusion I can stress on the fact that the process of Westernization really took off during this period and a new approach regarding man and his perfectibility was developed in the Romanian lands.

4. Challenges and Achievements in the Second Half of the 19-th

9 Gheorghe Mihaila, Dictionar al limbii romane vechi (sfarsitul sec. X -inceputul sec.XVI), Bucuresti 1974 10 Dinicu Golescu published in 1826 an account of his travels through Europe (Insemnarea calatoriei mele) “Account on My Travel”, which is the first travelogue of a Romanian in Western Europe. The text contains a well documented plea for general reforms of institutions in a “European” direction. His travel journal heavily influenced Romanian intelligentsia of the epoch. 11 The nick name originated in the habit of the French salutation which was used by the greatest majority of this generation. M.S. Newsletter 9 March 2021

Century

In the aftermath of 1848 Revolution in Romanian Principalities the drive towards national and social emancipation became unstoppable. Clear signs in this direction can be spotted in almost every venue of life. In a short time and in a favorable international context, the Romanian national modern state was established by the Union of the two Romanian Principalities in 1859 immediately followed by a comprehensive politics of reforms up to 1866 when a new liberal Constitution (inspired by the Belgian one from 1831) was adopted. Thus the Romanian state achieved a new solid foundation of European extraction. During this period and up to the World War I Romania became a fully-fledged European society often named “The Belgium of the Orient” or “European Japan” due to its rapid modernization and economic development in the footsteps of western countries. Its capital city, Bucharest, was nick named “Little Paris” and the gap between Romania and western countries was considerably narrowed. In 1877 Romania became and independent country and in 1881 the Romanian Kingdom was established. In 1860 was founded the first modern University in Iasi (former capital of Moldova) and in 1864 (25-th November) under the rule of Prince Alexandru Ioan Cuza a new law regarding education was adopted. This law granted free and compulsory primary education (boys and girls from 8 to 12 years old had equal access) well before similar laws were adopted in France or Great Britain. Also this law unified the educational system in the country both private and public and had a strong secular approach. Unfortunately, due to economic constraints the law could not be enforced in all its legal provisions. Pedagogy gains the status of a well-established science by 1870 when Simion Barnutiu published the first university textbook concerning this field of study12. A huge plethora of learned societies including Romanian Academy were founded giving access to all (a lot of them still living under foreign rule – Austro-Hungarian OD Russian) at science and knowledge. The Herbertian educational system marked by realism and didactical formalism was gradually enforced in Transylvania and in the Old Kingdom of Romania beginning with 1870’s. It is worth mentioning that beginning with 1875 Emile Picot introduced in France, Paris, at Ecole nationale des langues orientales vivants a course of Romanian language and as a consequence by 1911 a Romanian section was established at Sorbonne. New laws concerning education were adopted in April 1896 (introduction of kindergartens in rural areas, adult education among other modern provisions) and March 1898 (one of the most comprehensive and modern education

12 Stefan Barsanescu, Florinela Barsanescu, op. cit., p. 97 M.S. Newsletter 10 March 2021

law in Europe) by Petru Poni and Spiru Haret. Spiru Haret was the dominant figure on the educational scene for more than two decades and virtually the whole educational system up to the communist takeover after the Second World War owes its structure to him. Other laws were adopted in 1906 (military education), 1911(vocational education for girls), 1912 (university education), 1918 (pedagogical education in rural areas) thus completing the normative framework of education in Romania13. The diversification of the educational system according to the needs of Romanian society was a central preoccupation for the ruling elites of that epoch. Special schools for disabled persons were also established in the main cities of the country. Numerous congresses, conferences, associations and special institutions were organized concerning the fate and evolution of the Romanian educational system and its worth mentioning that at the first International Pedagogical Congress held in Brussels in 1911a Romanian delegation was present delivering well appreciated papers. Among the great personalities who distinguished themselves in the field of education one has to mention names such: Spiru Haret, Vasile Conta, Dimitrie Leonida, Simion Mehedinti etc. It is quite easy to note that during this period when westernization was replaced by a strong and rapid modernization process the degree of synchronicity with the Western European countries gradually improved and one can say that the first integration of Romania in Europe was achieved. In an era of constant progress and of optimist approach regarding the future the idea of man’s perfectibility became largely acknowledged and, of course, education was the perfect tool to achieve it. The biggest challenges for the general process of education in Romania during this period was a lack of funding as well as the need for constant legislative changing according to the pace of the progress of Romanian society. Illiteracy remained at high levels and the gap between the well-educated individuals and the rest of the society was still a great one. At the end of this section a preliminary conclusion occurred: A greater compatibility between Romanian educational system and the systems developed in western European countries was palpable. Still a great number of Romanians pursued higher education in famous European centers of learning and in the capital cities of western European countries. It was not only a question of the quality of education but also a question of prestige and opportunities in professional life.

5. Interwar Period and its Characteristics

13 More details in Anghel Manolache, Gheorghe Parnuta, Istoria invatamantului din Romania, vol. II, 1821-1918, Editura Didactica si Pedagogica, Bucuresti, 1993 M.S. Newsletter 11 March 2021

In the period between the two world wars (1918-1939) Romania entered in a new phase of its development and modernization. After achieving its complete national unity in 1918, Greater Romania became a middle sized country in Europe in terms of surface and population (11-th place on the continent) and a sub-regional power of certain relevance in Central Eastern Europe. Romanian economy was a thriving one with the notable exception of the Great Depression years (1929-1933) and the country became by 1918 an agrarian industrial one. The standards of living gradually improved for the greatest majority of the population, new reforms including agrarian and electoral ones were enforced in the aftermath of World War I and a constant growth of the GDP was observed. In 1923 a new democratic Constitution was adopted. Generally speaking, Romanian society became in this period an intricate part of the European society and civilization and in certain scientific and cultural domains a pioneer and a forerunner. Names like George Enescu (composer and musician), Constantin Brancusi (sculptor), Tristan Tzara (poet), Emil Racovita (founder of a new science, speleology), Horia Hulubei (atomist scientist), Nicolae Iorga and Vasile Parvan (historians), Simion Mehedinti (geographer) Nicolae Teclu (chemist) Dimitrie Gusti and Petre Andrei (sociologists) and many other illustrating almost every scientific and cultural fields are well known in today’s Europe. A solid boost was given to education in all Romanian provinces, especially in those territories where Romanians were underprivileged in terms of education. The first task was to homogenize education throughout the country. New Universities were established as well as new high schools, gymnasiums and primary schools. Education and culture were favored by the rulers of the country during Carol II reign when 17% of the national budget was allocated to education and culture. Of course, new comprehensive as well as specialized laws were adopted in order to improve the situation of the education in the country. In 1918 a Decree was adopted in order to unify the educational system in Greater Romania. New laws were enforced such as: in 1923 (forestry education), 1924 (pedagogical education), 1925 (a law concerning private education), 1926, 1928 and 1929 (all concerning secondary education for boys and girls), 1931 (university education), 1936 (commercial education) 1937 (a law concerning primary education and another one regarding industrial education) 1939 (primary and pedagogical education). As it is easy to observe the ruling elite and the Ministry of Education and Culture were deeply interested in developing the educational system and improving it at new standards compatible with the level of the general development of the country.

M.S. Newsletter 12 March 2021

The period of compulsory education was extended to seven years of study. The need for a literate work force became evident well before this period and now huge efforts were made in this direction. Three types of gymnasia existed: for boys only, for girls only and mixed. Gymnasia were to offer a three years cycle of education, after that boys and girls could pass to the four-year lyceum cycle, or to technical and vocational schools with a higher education stream. By the end of the interwar period the enrolment in primary school had reached 2,5 million pupils and the enrolment in the secondary sector (public or private) was only a little over 200.000. 14 Still out of 18 million inhabitants approximately 4 million were illiterate due mainly to economic constraints. Like in the previous periods numerous learned societies and associations were established, congresses and conferences were organized and Romanian teachers and professors were active at the European level in professional gatherings organized on the continent. Constant revisions of curricula and syllabuses and also the printing activity for new up to date textbooks were in the attention of almost every government through Ministry of Culture and Education. As a general feature of Romanian education in this period one can underline the fact that access to education was, in most cases, a matter of economic potential of pupil’s family in the condition of a “cohabitation” of private and public education. Even with the new legislative measures and a more effective involvement of the authorities the number of illiterate individuals was pretty high comparing with western and some central European countries. Nevertheless, both commoners and authorities considered that a good education is a prerequisite for a better individual and citizen. Up to the Second World War a certain quantifiable progress was registered in terms of education in spite of different hardships encountered due mainly to economic reasons and the backwardness of some rural areas in the country.

6. Education and Human Development during the Communist

Era

In the aftermath of the Second World War the process of “communist takeover” was already in place with the strong support of the Red Army. Soviet Union occupied Romania and a period of massive changes took place in an already pauperized country.

14 More details and further statistics are offered by Florin Diac, O istorie a invatamantului romanesc modern, Editura Oscar Print, Bucuresti, 2004 M.S. Newsletter 13 March 2021

In little less than three years’ pressure from the Communist Party within and the Soviet Union without led to the abdication of King Mihai on 30-th December 1947 and the proclamation of the Peoples Republic of Romania, a Soviet satellite, part of the communist world during the Cold War years. As a consequence, massive ideological and political shifts took place and new foundations were put at the base of Romanian state and society. All former elites were repressed and put in jails with very few exceptions and a new start of a peasants and worker’s regime was put in place. In the education sector there was a general review of successes and failures. A campaign to eradicate illiteracy was organized in 1945-1948 with the result of circa 1 million people gain access to written culture. “Street schools” were organized (run by literate volunteers in the evenings) and all illiterates between ages of 14 and 55 were required to register for these classes and frequent them until they were literate. By the end of 1958 the official authorities announced the illiteracy was eradicated. The authorities laid down guidelines for a gradual change away from the Franco-German ideal in education towards a Soviet system. A decisive step in this direction was the Education Reform Act of 194815. The new Constitution of 1952 stated in Article 80 that: “Every citizen has the right to education. This right is guaranteed through general, free and compulsory primary education; through the system of State scholarships for deserving students and pupils in higher, secondary and primary educational establishments; and through the organization in industrial firms, State enterprises, machine and tractor stations and collective farms of free vocational education for workers. Education at all levels is a responsibility of the State”. As a consequence, all foreign schools and all schools of all religious denomination were closed. Church schools were to be concerned only with Church matters and not with general education. From this point onwards education became an important tool for social engineering according to ideological commandments. A quiet hostility toward the Education Reform Act was observed and even the education bureaucracy was dissatisfied. From 1948 and up to 1953 several Ministries were concerned with education and a single one was established in 1953 through a reorganization measure. In spite of the propaganda fees for post primary education were retained until 1961 and used as a weapon in order to fight those who opposed the regime or had an ‘unhealthy social background”. After the Sovietization of the Romanian education gradually a new national system was introduced in early 1960’s. In those years were registered influences of the Chinese Cultural Revolution in the educational system. Only from 1965 onwards under the communist leadership of Nicolae Ceausescu a truly national system of education was introduced mainly

15 See Decretele Prezidiului Marii Adunari Nationale in Monitorul Oficial, Bucuresti, August 1948, Partea I/177 pp. 8322-8324 M.S. Newsletter 14 March 2021

through the Education Act of 1968. It is fair to say that the Education Act from 1968 marked a turning point in the history of education in Romania towards a national approach in all fields of education16. In 1969 the Ministry of Education was completely reorganized and a massive revision of textbooks was enforced. Of course, during the whole communist period the infrastructure of the educational system was greatly improved. Numerous schools for all the sectors of education were built, new centers of higher education were established beside the traditional ones; new standards of educations were introduced according to the policies promoted by the regime. The rapid process of industrialization of the country demanded a huge numbers of skilled workers, technicians, engineers which can only be provided by the Romanian educational system. In the same time, the authorities tried to limit the development of social sciences (other than the heavily ideologised ones) and for example Psychology and Sociology Faculties were disbanded in 1978. During the communist regime (1948 – 1989) education became a major priority for the party and the state due to its potential in order to implement the ideological goals followed by the communist authorities. Illiteracy was eradicated, the level of compulsory education was established at 10-th grade (ten years), access to education was provided to every member of the society, and socialist culture was developed according to what was called “socialist realism”. Beginning with 1970’s the idea of bettering human being by creating new kind of individual, a “new man” deeply entrenched in communist morale, principles and values became the declared goal of the regime. Of course it was a dystopic project which had little chances to be realized but nevertheless the authorities and party cadres tried to implement policies in order to achieve this objective. This ambitious project was a complete failure as everybody now knows. As a partial conclusion I want to point out that the whole educational system during this period was heavily marked by the ideological background and the main goal of the authorities was to capture the mind of the peoples in order to implement their policies. Everything culminated with the idea of creating a “new man” capable of constructing communism without any reserves.

7. The New Realities after 1989

Immediately after 1989 changes in Romania a new paradigm was put in place in order

16 See Roy Alasdhair Niall MacGregor-Hastie, A History of Education in Romania, Summary of the PhD Thesis, University of Hull, pp. 92-146 M.S. Newsletter 15 March 2021

to promote the values and principles of the new democratic regime. The transitional period was full of initiatives in order to change the educational system. Among the legislative measure we have to mention the Education Law from 1995 as well as the Education Law adopted in January 2011. A certain instability regarding normative aspects enforced in the Romanian educational system can be observed since more than 65 changes of the educational laws were adopted in the last 30 years. It is fair to say that this instability created huge problems for the teachers, professors, students and pupils and of course for their families. It is not our intention to analyze the educational system put in place after 1989 but to connect the realities of this system with the idea of bettering the man. The main features which can be evoked dealing with our subject are those referring to the democratization process which took place in the educational system of Romania. Private education was reinstated at every level of the educational system including higher education. New methods of learning were introduced including e-learning. A massive liberalization in what concern specialization fields, textbooks and so on was enacted. Since Romania became a member state of the European Union (2007) international exchanges in the field of education grew steadily. Large number of Romanians pursued their studies (mainly university ones) abroad in other states members of the EU or in the United States. In the same time more than 10.000 foreign students are present in Romanian high schools and universities. It is clear that the objective of establishing a “knowledge based economy” became the strategic goal of every country member of the European Union, including Romania. It is fair to say that new problems confront our educational system: illiteracy became again a problem as well as the habit of drop out of school. PISA tests applied annually offer a grim reality and point out that new efforts are necessary to improve the quality of learning. Part of teachers is dissatisfied with their salaries and annual income. Economic constraints put a lot of pressure on the education system and investments in infrastructure are limited. The economic evolution of Romania demands nowadays new categories of skilled individuals in computer sciences, digital economy and other new technologies. In the same time the private sector demands more vocational schools and it is obvious that the system of dual education is in its infancy. The most important problem which faces Romania now is the brain drain and a huge emigration in the more developed countries of the European Union of both highly skilled individuals and unskilled workers. In what concerned the idea of bettering the man it is clear that the actual political power is no longer interested in investing huge amounts of financial resources in this field hoping and pointing out that is rather an individual task of every person. Due to M.S. Newsletter 16 March 2021

the democratic regime established after 1989 numerous NGO’s were established and some of them are really concerned with the idea of finding new solutions in order to better the individual. Hints of transhumanism philosophy and approaches are present in the society creating either optimism or skepticism in what concern the future of human beings and mankind.

8. Conclusions

Answering to the questions formulated at the beginning of our paper one can find out that education has a lot to do with the modernization process and can be considered a valuable marker for the advancement of this process. It is somehow clear that between modernization and the ideal of bettering the man there is an important connection and a feedback one can be easily observed when we talk about education and modernization. In the same time, it is difficult to establish a feedback relationship between modernization and democratization of societies in the last centuries. The idea of man perfectibility was widely spread in the Enlightenment period and since then gains a lot of ground in different societies including the Romanian one. Its consequences can be traced in the developing of mass education and in the establishment of a plethora of modern fraternal organizations and associations with important roles in the civil society. Pointing out that my intention was not to systematically present the evolution of the educational system in Romania since the late 18-th Century to present days but to use few examples offered by it in order to find out what was the role of education in human development I stress on the idea that bettering the man was and still is an important factor for organized societies as well as for certain political regimes. Begining with the Enlightenment period both in Romanian society and elsewhere in the world the idea of bettering the man through education and a new moral code evolved rapidly and contributed to the modernization process. In the first part of the 19-th Century the process of Westernization in Romania really took off and a new approach regarding man and his perfectibility was developed. In the second half of the 19-th Century a greater compatibility between Romanian educational system and the systems developed in western European countries was palpable. Still a great number of Romanians pursued higher education in famous European centers of learning and in the capital cities of western European countries. It was not only a question of the quality of education but also a question of prestige and opportunities in professional life and careers.

M.S. Newsletter 17 March 2021

In the interwar period access to education was, in most cases, a matter of economic potential of pupil’s family in the condition of a “cohabitation” of private and public education. Even with the new legislative measures and a more effective involvement of the authorities the number of illiterate individuals was still high. Nevertheless, both commoners and authorities considered that a good education is a prerequisite for a better individual and citizen. Up to the Second World War a certain quantifiable progress was registered in terms of education in spite of different hardships encountered due mainly to economic reasons (e.g. 1929-1933) and the backwardness of some rural areas in the country. During the communist regime the whole educational system was heavily marked by the ideological background and the main goal of the authorities was to capture the mind of the peoples in order to implement their policies. Everything culminated with the idea of creating a “new man” capable of constructing communism without any reserves. Nowadays the ideal of bettering the man through education and morale is mainly pursued by individuals and a small organized group together with few NGO’s which are historically concerned with this idea. Transhumanism approaches suggest that the human being can be literally enhanced and the development of artificial intelligence, new technologies in biology and advancements in other fields of science suggest that it is conceivable in the near future to acknowledge the presence of a new, hopefully, better human being. Yet, I personally believe that the myth of Frankenstein will not be put in practice for the sake of humanity as we know it.

M.S. Newsletter 18 March 2021

Books

[1]. Man-yee Kan, Sampson Blair.(2021) Chinese families : tradition, modernization, and change. United Kingdom : Emerald Publishing. [2]. Andrew Delatolla. (2021) Civilization and the making of the state in Lebanon and Syria. Basingstoke : Palgrave Macmillan. [3]. Yuki Miyamoto. (2021) A world otherwise : environmental praxis in Minamata. Lanham : Lexington Books. [4]. J. Davis. (2021) Land and Family in Pisticci. Routledge. [5]. Govind Singh Patel, Amrita Rai, Nripendra Narayan Das, R.P. Singh. (2021)Smart agriculture : emerging pedagogies of deep learning, machine learning and Internet of Things.Boca Raton : CRC Press. [6]. R. Feinberg, K. A. Watson-Gregeo. (2021) Leadership and Change in the Western Pacific. Routledge. [7]. Logan Cochrane, Nathan Andrews. (2021) The transnational land rush in Africa : a decade after the spike. Basingstoke : Palgrave Macmillan. [8]. Prashant K. Trivedi. (2021) Land and Labour in Indian Agriculture : Discourses on Growth and Equity. New Delhi : Sage Publications Pvt. Ltd. [9]. Antonella Carbonaro, Jennifer Moss Breen. (2021) Effective leadership for overcoming ICT challenges in higher education : what faculty, staff and administrators can do to thrive amidst the chaos. United Kingdom : Emerald Publishing. [10]. Morris Rossabi. (2021)A History of China. Wiley-Blackwell. [11]. George E. Hudson. (2021) Soviet national security policy under perestroika. London : Routledge. [12]. B. Guy Peters, Carlos Alba Tercedor, Conrado Ramos. (2021) The Emerald handbook of public administration in Latin America. United Kingdom : Emerald Publishing. [13]. Roman Kolkowicz, Andrzej Korbonski. (2021) Soldiers, peasants, and bureaucrats : civil-military relations in communist and modernizing societies. London : Routledge. [14]. Lu Pan.(2021) Image, imagination and imaginarium : remapping World War II monuments in Greater China. Basingstoke : Palgrave Macmillan.

M.S. Newsletter 19 March 2021

[15]. František Šístek. (2021) Imagining Bosnian Muslims in Central Europe : representations, transfers and exchanges. New York : Berghahn Books.

M.S. Newsletter 20 March 2021

Papers

[1]. Brook, O. (2020). "PRIORITY SETTING AS A DOUBLE-EDGED SWORD: HOW MODERNIZATION STRENGTHENED THE ROLE OF PUBLIC POLICY." Journal of Competition Law & Economics 16(4): 435-487. [2]. Da Silva, A. G. and R. d. C. Martins de Souza (2020). "Modernization in the Planalto Central do Brasil: mining and logistics in Roteiro da Missao Cruls." Atelie Geografico 14(3): 156-174. [3]. Doll, R. (2021). "Cultivating Decline: Agricultural Modernization Policy and Adaptive Resilience in the Yangzi Delta." Human Ecology 49(1): 43-57. [4]. Grochowska, J. and R. Tandyrak (2021). "The Influence of the Modernization of the City Sewage System on the External Load and Trophic State of the Kartuzy Lake Complex." Applied Sciences-Basel 11(3). [5]. Halamek, P., et al. (2021). "Modernisation of Regional Roads Evaluated Using Ex-Post CBA." Sustainability 13(4). [6]. Huizar Sanchez, M. d. l. A., et al. (2020). "The modernization of Puerto Vallarta. Urban renewal or assisted touristification?" Pasos-Revista De Turismo Y Patrimonio Cultural 18(5): 831-842. [7]. Ilcev, M. (2020). "New Aspects for Modernization Global Maritime Distress and Safety System (GMDSS)." Transnav-International Journal on Marine Navigation and Safety of Sea Transportation 14(4): 991-998. [8]. Jannat, A., et al. (2021). "Impact assessment of agricultural modernization on sustainable livelihood among tribal and non-tribal farmers in Bangladesh." Geojournal 86(1): 399-415. [9]. Jones, D. E., et al. (2021). "Pursuing Data Modernization in Cancer Surveillance by Developing a Cloud-Based Computing Platform: Real-Time Cancer Case Collection." JCO clinical cancer informatics 5: 24-29. [10]. Kaletnik, G. and S. Lutkovska (2021). "Implementation of Public-Private Partnership Models in the Field of Ecological Modernization of the Environmental Safety System." European Journal of Sustainable Development 10(1): 81-89.

M.S. Newsletter 21 March 2021

[11]. Klarin, A. and P. K. Ray (2021). "Industrial modernisation through institutional upheaval in a transition economy." International Journal of Emerging Markets 16(2): 283-302. [12]. Leipold, S. (2021). "Transforming ecological modernization 'from within' or perpetuating it? The circular economy as EU environmental policy narrative." Environmental Politics. [13]. Leon-Aguinaga, P. and L. Delgado Gomez-Escalonilla (2021). "The deployment of US military assistance to Spain in the 1950s: limited modernisation and strategic dependence." Cold War History 21(1): 55-70. [14]. Meneses, B. A. (2021). "An Imported Modernization. Consumption of Foreign Goods in Valle del Cauca (1850-1900)." Anuario De Historia Regional Y De Las Fronteras 26(1): 187-219. [15]. Mizuno, H. (2020). "Mutant rice and agricultural modernization in Asia." History and Technology 36(3-4): 360-381. [16]. Munizaga, C. A. and C. M. Rojas (2020). "THE PROCESS OF MODERNIZATION OF INDUSTRIAL FISHING IN THE PORT OF IQUIQUE (1960-1980)." Interciencia 45(12): 556-561. [17]. Niemtzow, R. C. (2021). "Acupuncture Cartographies and Databases for Body and Ear Points: A Modernization of Ancient Clinical Practices." Medical Acupuncture 33(1): 1-2. [18]. Pop, I.-A. and I. Bolovan (2020). "Professor Liviu Maior at 80 Years Old A Historian of Modernity and of Historical Writing Modernization in Romania." Transylvanian Review 29(4): 129-138. [19]. Pourzargar, M. R., et al. (2021). "The Contribution of "Street" Component in the Process of Modernization and the Development of Tehran Case Study: The Lalehzar Street." Bagh-E Nazar 17(91): 5-18. [20]. Ricardo Villar-Uribe, J. (2021). "Public transport modernization in the urban periphery: is the end of informal transport? Case study: overhead cable system "TransMiCable" in Ciudad Bolivar district, Bogota - Colombia." Urbe-Revista Brasileira De Gestao Urbana 13. [21]. Romero Sanchez, S. (2021). "A Forgotten History of Colombian Architecture: Rural Housing and Modernization during the Liberal Republic." Dearq(29): 28-39.

M.S. Newsletter 22 March 2021

[22]. Sivakumar, V. (2021). "Approaches Towards Tannery Modernization and Up-Gradation: Leather Industry 4.0: Multi-Disciplinary Approach." Journal of the American Leather Chemists Association 116(2): 69-74. [23]. Slade, G., et al. (2021). "The Limits of Authoritarian Modernisation: Zero Tolerance Policing in Kazakhstan." Europe-Asia Studies 73(1): 178-199. [24]. Sorace, C. (2021). "Mobilizing for Development: The Modernization of Rural East Asia." Perspectives on Politics 19(1): 304-306. [25]. Thi, T. T. M., et al. (2021). "Complex Modernization: The Value of Children and Social Transformation in Contemporary Vietnam." Child Indicators Research 14(2): 511-536. [26]. Tian, Y., et al. (2020). "Heterogeneity and regional differences in ecosystem services responses driven by the "Three Modernizations"." Land Degradation & Development. [27]. Trubitsyn, D. V. (2020). "Institutions, individuals, and social relations in the modernization process." Voprosy Ekonomiki(12): 125-140. [28]. Velez, E., et al. (2021). "Religious iconography modernization in an entrepreneurship model." Grafica-Journal of Graphic Design 9(17): 47-55. [29]. Xiang, W. (2021). "Research on inheritance and innovation in the course of dragon boat modernization transformation." Basic & Clinical Pharmacology & Toxicology 128: 118-118. [30]. Yu, D.-j., et al. (2020). "Evaluation of reservoir management modernization under the concept of coordinated development." Water Supply 20(8): 3697-3706. [31]. Zheng, X., et al. (2021). "Influence of midsummer drainage and agricultural modernization on the survival of Zhangixalus arboreus tadpoles in Japanese paddy fields." Environmental science and pollution research international.

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M.S. Newsletter 23 March 2021

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