ECO-CHRONICLE 231
ECO-CHRONICLE, Vol.3., No. 4. December 2008, pp: 231 - 237
ISSN:0973-4155
CHARACTERIZATION OF LEACHATE FROM MUNICIPAL SOLID WASTE (MSW) LANDFILL
Gunjan Bhalla 1, Arvind Kumar 1, Ajay Bansal 2
1 Department of Civil Engineering, Dr. B.R. Ambedkar, National Institute of Technology, Jalandhar-144011, Punjab, India.
2 Department of Chemical Engineering, Dr.B.R.Ambedkar National Institute of Technology, Jalandhar-144011, Punjab, India.
ABSTRACT The paper discusses the characteristics of leachate generated from municipal solid waste landfill site at Suchi Village, Distt. Jalandhar, Punjab. Leachate sample was collected and analyzed for various physico-chemical parameters to estimate its pollution potential. It has been found that leachate contains high concentrations of organic and inorganic constituents. Hence liners must be used at the landfill site as a remediation step to prevent groundwater contamination.
Key words: Leachate, Suchi Village, Organic and Inorganic constituents, Groundwater contamination.
INTRODUCTION segregation of solid waste into biodegradable waste, recyclable and others With the rapid industrialization and i.e., non-recyclable wastes are stored in population growth, the status of our colored bins (Green for biodegradable environment is degrading day by day. As the waste, blue for non-biodegradable waste limits of urbanization are extending to far and black for hazardous waste) at the flying areas in India, the problem of solid source of generation and properly treated, waste management is causing a great recycled and disposed to landfill areas. concern to our environment. Seeing the Solid waste management in India has scenario of increase in generation, always been considered a low priority area improper utilization and disposal of waste (Kansal, 2002). In India more than 90% of in the country, the Ministry of Environment the municipal solid waste is disposed off and Forest (MoEF) has developed “The by landfilling (Holmes, 1984). Today more Municipal Solid Waste (Management and than 45 million tones/year of solid waste is Handling) Rules, 2000”, which states that generated from the urban centres of India, Municipal Solid Waste (MSW) is commercial which are collected inefficiently, transported and residential wastes generated in a inadequately and disposed unscientifically municipal or notified areas in either solid or (TERI, 1998). The generation is expected to semi-solid form, excluding industrial rise to 125 million tones/ year by the year hazardous wastes but including treated bio- 2025 (Shaleen and Suneel, 2001).According medical wastes. These solid wastes are to Ministry of Urban Affairs, Govt. of India generally disposed off in a low lying area estimate, India is generating approximately called sanitary landfill area by the municipal 100,000 metric tones of solid waste authorities. These rules have specified everyday of which 90 % is dumped in the many compliance for the management of open place (The Expert Committee, Solid solid waste for the State Committee and Waste Management, 2000). In Delhi, the Pollution Board, which includes proper capital of India alone, more than 5000 232 ECO-CHRONICLE tonnes of Municipal Solid Waste (MSW) is 2000 Municipal waste (Management generated everyday and is expected to rise and Handling Rules). to 12750 tonnes per day by 2015 (Ahsan,1999). The MSW generated per day In Punjab, growth of population, in India’s other major cities are Mumbai- industrialization and urbanization has 6050 tonnes, Kolkata -3500 tonnes, resulted in generation of large volumes of Chennai-2500 tonnes, Bangalore-2000 solid waste. Most of the solid waste tonnes, Hyderabad- 1800-2000 tonnes, is presently disposed off on land and Lucknow-1500 tonnes and Ahmedabad- remains uncovered resulting in 1280 tonnes (The Expert Committee, Solid environmental pollution of surrounding Waste Management, 2000). areas. Increased accumulation of solid wastes is creating economic and Laws for Management of MSW environmental problems in the state, due to decreased availability of land for disposal. Prior to 1974 certain laws at regional and While municipal and industrial solid waste national level were there to punish the has attracted the attention of the authorities, offender for making nuisance in public yet there is lack of concern for some special places and pollution of water bodies. Even management of biomedical waste in 300-400 B.C. in Arthasastra of Kautilya generated primarily from hospitals and (Chanakya) provisions were there to punish other health care centers in the state. So offenders for making nuisance in public there is an urgent need to treat all wastes places but these were either ineffective or as resource material for recycling. Some not strictly enforced. Even the Environment for conversion to fertilizers or as source of Protection Act, 1986 was silent in solid waste energy and rest for land reclamation. management and the Govt. of India’s Population growth, rapid urbanization and consciousness is mostly after U.N. other development activities during the past declaration and declaration by some few decades have been responsible for developed countries. Laws pertaining to environment pollution and resources Solid Waste Management (SWM) since 1974 degradation. The rapid urbanization has are as enumerated below (Bisoyi, 2005). seriously aggravated the problem of municipal or domestic garbage disposal & Post independence period management. (Punjab State Council for Science and Technology (PSCST, 2005). 1974 Water (prevention and control of A large volume of domestic solid waste is pollution) Act -amended in 1978 and 1988. generated in both urban as well as rural 1981 Air (prevention and control of areas of Punjab. As per Punjab Pollution pollution) Act -amended in 1987. Control Board (PPCB, 2006), a total of 1986 Environment Protection Act 3034.65 tons per day of solid waste is being (umbrella act) even was silent in MSW generated in municipal areas including management. Cantonment boards. Table 1 shows 1989 Hazardous waste management generation of MSW in major cities of Punjab and handling rule. (PPCB, 2007). However, all municipal 1990 Govt. of India and Supreme Court bodies do not have adequate infrastructure instigated on the necessity of solid waste for handling the same. The life of existing management. landfill sites is also expected to be reduced 1998 Bio-medical waste (Management with increase in volume of waste and handling) rules amended in 2000. generation. The major waste is from class 1999 Recycled plastic manufactured I cities as more than half of the state’s urban and usage rules. population (58.39%) lives in these cities. 1999 Solid waste management in Further, out of total municipal solid waste Class-1 cities in India-guidelines by generation, 71% of waste is from the five Supreme Court of India. corporations (Ludhiana, Amritsar, ECO-CHRONICLE 233 Table: 1 Generation of MSW in major cities of Punjab
Corporation Population in lacs MSW in TPD Per capita per day generation in grams Patiala 3.23 180 560 Ludhiana 13.95 850 610 Jalandhar 8.5 350 450 Amritsar 9.75 450 460 Total 33.94 1830 2080 TPD: Tonnes per day Jalandhar, Patiala and Bathinda).The underlying groundwater aquifer or nearby Ludhiana alone generates 31 % of total surface water bodies (Chain and Dewalle, MSW generated in the state. 1976, Walker, 1969, Masters, 1998). The MSW exert specific environment and health As per PSCST (2005) report, the urban local impacts including spread of epidemics and bodies spend approximately Rs.500 to therefore, required to be properly managed Rs.1500 per ton on solid waste collection, and disposed. Municipal Solid Waste is, transportation, treatment and disposal. however, not being appropriately managed About 60-70% of this amount is spent on due to inadequate finances, inadequate collection, 20-30% on transportation and training of personnel, lack of performance, less than 5% on final disposal. However, monitoring, inadequate emphasis on infrastructure available with municipal preventive maintenance, etc. At present corporations for collection, transportation most of the solid waste is being disposed and disposal/management is limited and off in an unscientific manner. mostly less than the required level for proper handling of wastes. As a result, There are 12729 villages in Punjab waste is not collected from the entire city on according to 2001 census. In rural Punjab a daily basis and goes on accumulating at garbage, which includes household waste, primary dumping sites. cattle dung, agro waste, etc, is being In urban Punjab, municipal solid waste is managed by personal efforts of the generally dumped outside the houses, residents. The household waste, as well shopping centre, offices, streets, etc or at as cattle dung is generally collected outside some collection sites and is left for the house/ village at earmarked places for municipal authorities for taking it to a the whole year. The most part of the cattle common dumping ground. It is common to dung is made into dung cakes for use as find solid waste dumps near towns and fuel, the rest is collected for subsequent use cities. These dumps are mostly in in agricultural fields as manure. The depression or in open grounds. characteristic feature of rural solid waste is Widespread water, air and land pollution is that it is generally free from glass, metal or caused from these dumps. The dumping other non-biodegradable material. sites are not properly managed nor have Although this garbage is getting managed been planted with suitable plant species to year after year, still there is a lot of scope help in quick degradation of solid waste by and need for improvement. The garbage way of creating conducive for the growth of and dung pits create an unpleasant sight microorganism besides providing greenery. and odour if not covered properly and Appropriate post dumping practices are contribute to slush during rainy season. also seldom performed causing perpetual problem of air and water pollution. A number Table 2 and 3 shows the Physical and of incidents have been reported where solid Chemical composition of the Municipal waste leachates contaminated the Solid Waste (MSW) generated in Punjab surrounding soil and polluted the (PPCB, 2003). 234 ECO-CHRONICLE Table: 2 Physical Composition of MSW generated in Punjab
Category Item Percentage
Recyclable Paper, Plastic, Rags 3-5 Material Leather, Rubber, Synthetic 1-3 Glass, Ceramics 0.5-1 Metals 0.2-2 Compostable Food articles, Fodder, Dung, Night Soil, 40-60 Material Leaves, Organic Material Inert Material Ash, Dust, Sand, Building Material 20-50 Moisture 40-80 3 Density 250-500 kg/m Table: 3 Chemical Composition of MSW end tipping, side tipping and manual generated in Punjab unloading. Unload waste is tipped in conical piles and then spread out by bulldozers. No Item Percentage cover of any description is placed over the spread waste to inhabit the ingress of Nitrogen 0.56-0.71 surface water or to minimize litter blow and Phosphorus 0.52-0.82 odours or to reduce the presence of vermin Potassium 0.52-0.83 and insects. Rag pickers regularly set fire C/N 21-30 to waste to separate non-combustible Calorific value 800-1010 Kcal/Kg materials for recovery. Since, there are no specific arrangements to prevent flow of In the present study, the experimental work water into and out of landfill site, the diffusion is carried out to ascertain the composition of contaminants released during of leachate generated from municipal solid degradation of landfill wastes, may proceed waste dumping site at Suchi Village, district uninhibited. Jalandhar near National Highway No.1 with a view to estimate its pollution potential. MATERIALS AND METHODS Leachate sampling and analysis Study Location Leachate sample was collected during Jalandhar is a major city of Punjab with a rainy season. The landfill site was not population of more than 8 lakhs lying at equipped with a leachate collectors. latitude 31.33° N and longitude 75.58°E with Leachate sample was collected from the an average elevation of 229 m. At present base of solid waste heaps where the there are two designated municipal solid Leachate is drain out by gravity. To determine waste dumping sites available at Jalandhar. the quality of leachate, integrated samples Leachate sample for present study is were collected from randomly selected collected from municipal solid waste locations. The samples were collected in a dumping site at Suchi Village; district well- labeled clean bottles that were rinsed Jalandhar near National Highway No.1 out thrice prior to sample collection. spreads over 2 acres of low lying land area. This site is operational since 2004, receiving Analytical Work non-hazardous municipal waste. The site is non-engineered low lying open dump, Analytical methods were according to looks like a huge heap of waste up to a “Standard methods for examination of water height of 6–10 m. A variety of vehicles and wastewater” (APHA, 1998). The pH was delivers the waste to the site resulting in a measured by electronic pH meter (digital wide range of unloading procedures like pH meter 5652). (4500-H+.B of Standard ECO-CHRONICLE 235 Methods). Turbidity of a sample was Dissolved Oxygen (DO) was determined by measured by Nephelometer by using Azide modification of Winkler`s method. optical properties of light. (2130 .B of Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD)-The Standard Methods). Properly shaked method of winklers was used for estimating unfiltered sewage was used and estimated initial and final D.O. in the sample and BOD by gravimetry. (2540 .B of Standard was determined (5210-B of Standard Methods). Filtered sewage through methods). Amm. Nitrogen, Phosphate, Iron, whatman filter 44 enables to determine Total Lead, Chromium hexavalent & Cadmium Dissolved Solids (2540.C of Standard was estimated using UV-VIS Methods). Total Suspended Solids was Spectrophotometer. determined by the difference between total solids and total dissolved solids (TS-TDS). RESULTS AND DISCUSSION (2540.D of Standard Methods). Landfill that receives a mixture of municipal, Argentometric volumetric titration method in commercial, and mixed industrial waste, but the presence of Potassium chromate excludes significant amounts of provides reliable results of chloride (4500- concentrated specific chemical waste, Cl-.B of Standard Methods). Total Hardness landfill leachate may be characterized as a -EDTA titration method with presence of EBT water-based solution of four groups of indicated was adopted (NEERI, 1981). pollutants (dissolved organic matter, Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD)- refluxion inorganic macro components, heavy metals of sample followed by titration with FAS was and xenobiotic organic compounds adopted. (5220-C of Standard methods). (Christensen et. al., 1994).
Table 4 Physico-chemical characteristics of the leachate
Sr. Parameters Results Standards ( Mode of Disposal )* No. Inland Public Land surface sewers disposal water 1 Appearance Brownish - - - 2 Odour Sewage smell - - - 3 pH 10.3 5.5 to 9.0 5.5 to 9.0 5.5 to 9.0 4 TS mg/l 8600 - - - 5 SS mg/l 1800 100 600 200 6 TDS mg/l 6800 2100 2100 2100 7 Hardness mg/l 638 300 - - 8 Turbidity NTU 30 5 10 10
9 BOD0 (3 days at 809 30 350 100 27 C) max. (mg/l) 10 COD mg/l 1690 250 - - 11 Chloride mg/l 853 1000 1000 600 12 Amm Nitrogen mg/l 83 50 50 - 13 Phosphate mg/l 78 - - - 14 Iron mg/l 6.6 0.01 0.01 - 15 Lead mg/l 0.9 0.1 1.0 - 16 Chromium 1.5 2.0 2.0 - hexavalent mg/l 17 Cadmium mg/l 3.2 2.0 1.0 - * Municipal Solid Wastes (Management and Handling) Rules, 2000 236 ECO-CHRONICLE Leachate is the liquid residue resulting from APHA.,1998. Standard Methods for the various chemical, physical and Examination of Water and Wastewater.19th biological processes taking place within the edition, American Public Health Association, landfill. Landfill leachate is generated by American Water Works Association, Water excess rainwater percolating through the Environment Federation Publication, waste layers in a landfill. A combination of Washington, DC. physical, chemical, and microbial processes in the waste transfer pollutants Bagchi,A.,1989.Design, construction and from the waste material to the percolating monitoring of sanitary landfill. JohnWiley & water (Christensen and Kjeldsen, Sons, NY. 1989).Bagchi (1989) described typical contaminants present in landfill leachate. Bisoyi, L.K., 2005. Status of Solid Waste Similarly, Lee and Jones (1993b) described Management (SWM) in Puri Municipality, typical composition of municipal landfill Puri. Govt. of Orissa, pp: 91-95. leachate. The composition of landfill leachate, the amount generated and the Chain, E.E.K and Dewalle, F.B., 1976. extraction of potential pollutants from the Sanitary landfill leachates and their waste depend upon several factors, treatment, ASCE, Journal of Environmental including waste composition, degree of Engineering Division, 102(2), pp: 411- compaction, absorptive capacity of the 431. waste and waste age, the climate, levels of precipitation, Landfill temperature, size , Christensen, T.H. and Kjeldsen, P., 1989. geology, engineering and operational Basic biochemical processes in landfills. factors of the landfill (Leckie and Pacey, Chapter 2.1 in Sanitary Landfilling: Process, 1979; Kouzeli-Katsiri et al.,1999). Technology and Environmental Impact, Christensen, T.H., Cossu, R and Stegmann, The results of leachate analyzed for various R., Eds., Academic Press, London, UK, pp: physico-chemical characteristics and also 29. standards for the discharge of treated leachates on Inland surface water, Public Christensen, T.H., Kjeldsen, P., Albrechtsen, sewers and Land disposal were as shown H.J., Heron, G., Nielsen, P.H., Bjerg, P.L., and in Table 4. The results indicate that most of Holm, P.E., 1994. Attenuation of landfill parameters of leachate were beyond leachate pollutants in aquifers, Crit. Rev. permissible limits. Environ. Sci. Technol., (24), pp: 119.
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION Holmes John, R., 1984. Management of Solid Waste in Developing Countries, John It has been concluded that since leachate Wiley and Sons Limited. contains high concentrations of organic and inorganic constituents and heavy metals, Kansal, A .,2002. Solid Waste Management liners must be used at the dumping site. Strategies for India, Indian J. Env. Prot, 22(4), The presence of hand pumps near the pp: 444-448. landfill site to draw groundwater threatens to contaminate the groundwater, and Kouzeli-Katsari, A.,Bodogianni A.,Chritoulas immediate remediation steps should be D.,1999. Prediction of leachate quality from taken at landfill site. sanitary landfills, Journal of Environmental Division, ASCE,125 (EE10), pp: 950-957. REFERENCES Leckie, O.J, Pacey, J.G., 1979. Landfill Management with moisture control, J. of Ahsan Naved, 1999. Solid Waste Environmental Engineering Division, 105 Management Plan for Indian Mega Cities, (EE2), pp: 337-355. Indian J.Env. Prot., Vol.19, (2), pp: 90-95. ECO-CHRONICLE 237 Lee, G.F. and Jones-Lee, A., 1993b. Status report on Municipal Solid Waste Groundwater pollution by municipal landfills: (MSW) by Punjab Pollution Control Board Leachate composition, detection and water (PPCB, 2003; 2006; 2007), Patiala. quality significance, International Landfill Symposium, Sardinia, Italy, pp: 1093-1103. TERI, 1998. Looking Back to Think Ahead- Green India 2047, Tata Energy Research Masters G.M., 1998. Introduction to Institute, New Delhi, pp: 346. Environmental Engineering and Science, Prentice- Hall of India Private Limited, New The Expert Committee, 2000. Manual on Delhi. Municipal Solid Waste Management, The Expert Committee constituted by Ministry of MSW Rules, Municipal Solid Wastes Urban Development, Government of India. (Handling and Management) Rules, 2000. Walker, W.H.,1969.Illinois Ground water Ministry of Environment and Forests, pollution, Journal of American Water Works Gazette of India, 2000. Association, 61, pp: 31-40.
NEERI., 1981. Manual on water and Report on Solid Waste Management by wastewater analysis, Nagpur. pp: 57- 309. Punjab State Council for Science and Shaleen Singhal and Suneel Pandey, 2001. Technology (PSCST), Chandigarh in Solid Waste Management in India: Status collaboration with Punjab Pollution Control and future directions, TERI Information Board (PPCB), Patiala, www.punenvis. Monitor on Environmental Science, 6(1), pp: 1-4. nic.in/swmgmt_domestic.htm. 238 ECO-CHRONICLE
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ECO-CHRONICLE, Vol.3., No. 4. December 2008, pp: 239 - 247
ISSN:0973-4155
ECOLOGICAL IMPACT OF LULC DYNAMICS IN THE FORESTED LANDSCAPE OF THE BETLA NATIONAL PARK
Arabinda Sharma 1 and Nilanchal Patel 2
1 Agricultural and Food Engineering Department, Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur, West Bengal. 2 Remote Sensing Department, Birla Institute of Technology, Mesra, Ranchi, Jharakhand.
ABSTRACT Landscape modification and subsequent loss of forest continue to be the major factor affecting quality of wildlife habitat. The spatial pattern of Land Use and Land Cover (LULC) has a direct ecological implication on resource management and wildlife habitat quality. This paper attempts to quantify the spatial pattern of landscape using different pattern metrics and develops an approach for monitoring the influence of landscape dynamics on wildlife habitat quality over a period of one decade. Indian Remote Sensing (IRS) satellite data of the year 1990 and 2000 were used to generate thematic LULC maps though a hybrid classification method. Different landscape level metrics such as diversity, contagion, fractal dimension, fragmentation and connectivity were calculated using ArcInfo software and special computer program written in C language to characterize the change in landscape pattern. A compound Habitat Quality Index (HQI) was also developed through linear combination of calculated landscape metrics to quantify the habitat quality. The values of HQI were found to be 0.4051 and 0.3762 for the year 1990 and 2000 respectively. This indicated a deterioration of about 7.14% in habitat quality of the landscape dynamics over the study period. Despite of intense landscape dynamics only a marginal deteriorate was observed in forest habitat quality due to proper management practices taken by the forest officials to nullify negative effect of increased landscape dynamics. Keywords: Remote sensing, GIS, spatial pattern, landscape metric, habitat quality index
INTRODUCTION a variety of organisms that would not be evident from a land cover map otherwise. The world-wide loss of forest land and its The first step to understand the interplay degradation due to intense landscape between landscape patterns and ecological modification is one of the major reasons of processes is the description and loss of biodiversity. However, increasing quantification of spatial and temporal public interest in biological conservation pattern (Hargis et al., 1997). Consequently, and legislated requirements for resource conservation strategies should consider not impact assessments seek for evaluating only amounts of habitat to be retained, but wildlife habitat quality in response to land also their spatial configuration (Schumaker, management (Emlen and Pikitch, 1989). The 1996). growing intensity of land use dynamics and its spatial pattern influence the species Recent advances in the field of landscape populations by altering the quality of species ecology have included the development and habitat (Riiters et al., 2000). Landscape application of quantitative approaches to ecology hypothesizes that spatial characterize landscape condition and arrangement has ecological implications processes (Turner et al., 2001). Spatial and is important in assessing the status of pattern metrics provide quantitative 240 ECO-CHRONICLE descriptions of the spatial composition and climate of the area is monsoonal, receiving configurations of habitat or land use and an annual rainfall of 600-1100mm. The land cover (LULC) types. They can be used minimum and maximum temperatures of as useful indicators of the habitat quality, the area are 3 0 C and 45 0 Celsius ecosystem function, and the flow of energy respectively. The study area is dominated and materials within a landscape. by mixed tropical moist deciduous forest. Landscape metrics have been used to The study area is also home to large focus on colonization and extinction in a number of endangered flora and fauna with metapopulation (Mild´en et al., 2006), effect very rich biodiversity. of endogenous competition and resource distribution on community assembly Approach (Reineking et al., 2006), ecosystem/ landscape functioning or ecosystem/ The most common approach to characterize landscape services (Turner, 2005a), the landscape structure is to map the comparison of ecological quality across defined landscape classes (e.g., habitat landscape scale (Frohn, 1997). types) using digital classification of satellite imagery followed by delineation of patches Most of the wildlife resource planning for each landscape class. Patches are models put emphasis on developing defined as contiguous areas of distribution or abundance patterns of a homogenous landscape condition. We single species (Walker 1990). However, used IRS 1C LISS III imagery of 26.11.2000 there is a growing appreciation of the and IRS 1B LISS II imagery of 16.12.1990 to dynamic processes at the landscape scale create land use land cover (LULC) maps. that involves community perspective of The spatial resolution of LISS III and LISS II habitat and species diversity management are 36.5 m and 23.5m respectively. Survey (Zonneveld and Forman, 1990). At of India (SOI) toposheets 73 A/1 &73 A/5 of landscape scale, community or diversity scale 1:50000 were used as properties is comprised of a mosaic of land supplementary data in this study. types which has become the focus in habitat assessment studies. Hence, this paper was Preprocessing & LULC map generation aimed to examine the influences of landscape dynamics on forest habitat over Satellite images obtained from the two a period of ten years. The specific objectives satellites were preprocessed for their of this paper are: 1) to quantify the landscape geometric and radiometric behavior to characteristics of the study area using ensure their fidelity and to minimize various landscape metrics and 2) to uncertainty in the output LULC map from determine the impact of change in LULC the two images. Once the necessary pattern on the overall habitat quality of the corrections were applied to the images, landscape in a span of ten years i.e. 1990 Anderson level-I Land use land cover to 2000 through both pixel and patch based (LULC) map (Anderson et al., 1976) were approaches. prepared for the both year using digital classification. We assigned land cover MATERIALS AND METHODS classes to the image using a combination of supervised and unsupervised Study Area classification techniques. Initially, maps of 20 spectral clusters were generated using The work was conducted in the forested unsupervised classification (ISODATA) and landscapes of the Betla National Park, the spectral signatures of clusters were situated in Palamau district of the state of stored. Each spectral cluster was then Jharkhand, India. The study area is extended assigned a class name based on visual within the longitude of 840.13’E to 840.28’E interpretation of standard FCC image, and latitude of 230.80’N to 230.95’N. The ground truth data collected during field visit ECO-CHRONICLE 241 and comparing topographic maps. The Marginal-habitat refers to the habitat where signature of spectral classes that were species can survive, but might not falling in same thematic classes were adequately reproduce iv) Detrimental habitat merged and was later on used for is one which conceptually influences the generating final land use land cover map habitat of the species in negative manner v) through maximum likelihood algorithm of Nontraversible- habitat is that which is non supervised classification. In the present traversible and act as barrier vi) Inevasible- study seven thematic classes namely (1) habitat is one not currently occupied, but dense forest, (2) moderate forest, (3) open could if condition changes. Rules forest, (4) water body, (5) barren land, (6) suggested for classifying a cell into a habitat crop land and (7) settlement were identified. types is as follows: Since LISS II comes with 36m spatial resolution, LULC map year 2000 generated Rule 1: Detrimental cell reduces their using LISS III data was resampled from neighbor optimal cell to marginal. original 23.5m resolution to 36m resolution Rule 2: Marginal cells reduce their optimal for better comparison. neighbor cell to suboptimal. Rule-3: Suboptimal cells have damaging Characterizing Landscape Pattern edge effect on neighboring optimal cells. Rule-4: Marginal cells create edge effect in Both land use maps were then imported to neighboring suboptimal cell. ArcGIS domain through image to grid conversion for landscape analysis. The All the LULC types in the present study were Arcgrid file was also converted to ASCII categorized into one of the above habitat format for computing some landscape types based on the intensity of human activity metrics using computer program written in or disturbance level. The dense, moderate C. Landscape metric such as Diversity and open forests were categorized into (Shannon & Weaver, 1949), Contagion optimal, sub-optimal and marginal habitat (O’Neill et. al., 1988), Fractal Dimension type respectively. The water bodies and (Baker and Kai, 1992), Fragmentation barren land were considered as invasible (Civco et al, 2000), likeness index, habitat type while crop land and settlement Connectivity (Harris & Sanderson, 2002) were considered as detrimental habitat type. were selected in the present study to Thus, the number of pixel under each characterize the landscape. habitat type based on the above defined rule can be obtained as follows: Habitat Quality Assessment Number of optimal habitat pixels
= N 1 – C 13 – 2 (C 16 + C 17) - C 12 To model the habitat quality a simple model Number of optimal habitat pixels with edge has been adopted which is based on the effect = C12 Theory of Insular Biogeography (Harris & Number of sub-optimal habitat pixels
Sanderson, 2000). According to this theory = (N2 + C13 + C16 + C17) - (C26 + C27) – C23 habitat refers to those land cover types Number of sub-optimal habitat pixels = C23 acceptable to a particular species in a broad Number of marginal habitat pixels sense and a species utilizes various land = N3 + C16 + C17 +C26 + C27 cover differently. Cover types may be Number of invasible habitat pixels = N4 + N5 categorized into different habitat type based Number of detrimental habitat pixels = N6 + N7 on the degree of suitability for a group of species and spatial rule. The different Where, N1, N2, N3, N4, N5, N6 and N7 are the habitat types are i) Optimal- habitat is the total number of pixels of dense forest, prime habitat ii) Sub optimal- habitat is moderate forest, open forest, water, barren habitat, that is less than the optimal one, land, crop land, and settlement respectively. perhaps where reproductive and foraging While C13, C16, and C17 represent number of success are high but not optimal iii) adjacent pixels of dense forest with open 242 ECO-CHRONICLE forest, with cropland and with settlement task was to generate a good quality thematic respectively, and C26 and C27 represent the map showing the various landuse/land number of adjacent pixels of moderate cover present in the study area. To ensure forest with cropland and with settlement spectral and spatial homogeneity, required respectively. during temporal analysis of remote sensing Once each cell has been assigned with a data, necessary geometric and radiometric habitat type, the habitat quality of the correction of the satellite images were landscape can be quantified using the carried out. This along with hybrid following formula. classification approach helped us for
HQI = (“ wi * ni ) / N reducing the problem of spectral Where, N = total number of pixels of all overlapping of the various landuse classes. habitat types including detrimental. While, The overall classification accuracy was th ni and wi are number of pixels in i habitat found to be 85.4% for year 1990 while it was type and weight assigned to ith habitat type. 89.75% for the year 2000 respectively. Kappa The different habitat types were assigned coefficient was also found to be better for different ranging from zero for detrimental the year 2000 (0.86) than the year 1990 habitat to one for optimal habitat based on (0.81). The landscape composition for study their relative naturalness, relative period was described using area as well importance in providing shelter to wildlife as patch statistics of different thematic and disturbance intensity. The final habitat LULC classes (Table 2). assignment to each of the LULC classes and their corresponding weights are Forest classes are continuing to be the presented in Table 1. dominant land cover classes during the study period. Forest classes collective During calculation of number of pixels of a cover 17736.41 ha (50.49%) and 16198.96 habitat type, the rules of juxtaposition and ha (46.12%) in the year 2000 and 1990 edge effect which are described in detail in respectively. Thus, there is a net increase section 2.2.3 were kept in consideration. in the 1537.44 ha (4.38%) in total forest cover Temporal change in habitat suitability was in the span of ten year. Within the forest obtained by simple differencing of HQI classes, the aerial coverage is found to be obtained for year 1990 and 2000. in the order of dense forest > moderate dense > open forest. The aerial extent of RESULTS AND DISCUSSION dense forest is found to be decreased (4.94 %) while a gain of 2.26 % and 7.05 % has Preprocessing and Classification been observed for moderate and open forest respectively during the study period. Crop The reliability of any landscape analysis land is found be the single most dominant depends on the accuracy of thematic map land cover classes in study site due to being used for the calculation of various intensive agricultural activity practiced by the metrics. Thus, the initial step of the above clusters of villages adjacent to National
Table 1. Habitat types and weight assigned to each LULC types
Class Name Class Habitat type Weight assigned code Dense Forest 1 Optimal 1.00 (0.95 for cell with edge effect- C12) Moderate Forest 2 Sub-optimal 0.75 (0.70 for cell with edge effect -C23) Open Forest 3 Marginal 0.50 Water Bodies 4 Invasible 0.25 Barren land 5 Invasible 0.25 Crop land 6 Detrimental 0.00 Settlement 7 Detrimental 0.00 ECO-CHRONICLE 243 Table 2. Compositional Statistics of different LULC classes
LULC class IRS LISS III (2000) IRS LISS II (1990) No of Area % No of Area (Ha) % patch (Ha) patch Dense Forest 1803 6530.15 18.54 210 8264.07 23.53 Moderate Forest 3656 5768.37 16.42 766 4973.92 14.16 Open Forest 4946 5437.89 15.48 602 2960.97 08.43 Water 933 921.72 02.62 677 1661.73 04.73 Barren land 707 424.05 01.21 702 2641.51 07.52 Crop land 1671 13351.39 38.01 402 13797.99 39.28 Settlement 4670 2692.57 07.67 560 825.94 02.35
Table 3. Value of different Landscape metric for the studied period.
Metric LISS-III (2000) LISS-II (1990) Diversity 0.8791 (1.7496) 0.9688 (1.8853) Dominance 0.0933 0.1586 Contagion 0.2270 0.3019 fractal dimension 0.8359 (1.6719 ) 0.6377 (1.2755 ) fragmentation 0.4537 0.4410 Likeness index 0.1801 0.1443 Connectivity 0.4951 0.4026 Note: value in bracket shows the actual value computed for the metric which been scaled between 0 to 1. park. An area of about 13351.39 ha difference in the number of patches of (38.01%) and 13797.99 ha (39.28%) are different LULC class between the studied found under agricultural activity in the year years. In case of 2000, the number of 2000 and 1990 respective. Settlement patches is much higher as compared to occupies 7.67 % of the study site during 1990 for all LULC classes. This difference 2000 which more than three time its previous is not only due to fragmentation but also value (2.35 %) in the year 1990. But there is contributed by differences in the spatial little scope in the study site for such drastic resolution of the images used in the studied increase in settlement class. Hence, a which ultimately affected the patch possible chance of misclassification can delineation. not be ignored. It is also supported by confusion matrix of the two classified map. Changes in Landscape Pattern In case of 1990 LULC map, 16.67% training area for settlement has been misclassified The spatial pattern metrics express the as crop land and in 2000 a net of 2.6% of complexity and variability among the land water pixel are found to be included in classes occurring on a landscape and settlement. Similarly for water class, a successful description of pattern change is decrease of 2.11% has been observed a critical component of habitat analyses. The which may either be attributed to rainfall values of the different metrics are presented variability or low classification accuracy for in Table 3. water class in 1990 LULC map. The barren land which mostly comprising of degraded Shannon Diversity index is the measure of forest has been reclaimed and hence a the richness measured in terms of types or drastic decrease has been observed in the the variability and evenness measured in study period. There is a remarkable terms of the relative abundance of the 244 ECO-CHRONICLE species or land use classes. Dominance fractal dimension is greater for 2000 data measures the extent to which one or more as compared to 1990 data. Fractal classes dominate the landscape. The dimension combines the concept of the actual values of diversity indices were fragmentation and edge amount. The value scaled between 0-1 by dividing the actual of fractal dimension of a landscape varies value by the theoretical maximum value for according to the type of land use (O’Neill et sail number of classes. Diversity index for al., 1988). For example, forested area the 1990 data was found to be greater than (natural) tends to have more complex that of 2000 data. Since diversity is a positive shape and manifest high fractal dimension, indicator of the habitat quality and stability, while the agricultural land (man-made) it can be inferred that there is decrease in have simple shape and thus have a low the habitat quality in terms of diversity index. fractal dimension. There also appears to Theoretically, dominance is inversely be correlation between fractal dimension proportional to diversity i.e. if diversity is and the degree of human disturbances in more, then dominance will be less and vice- the landscape. Thus increased fractal versa. One of the important observations is dimension value indicates a decrease in that decrease in the diversity value caused prevailing disturbances and controlled proportionately high increase in the human activity in the landscape. From dominance of the study area which is conservation point of view, disturbance from certainly an indicator of degrading habitat the adjoining area has decreased and there quality. is an increase in habitat quality.
Contagion index indicates how the different During calculation of forest fragmentation land use classes are clumped together. The index, we counted the number of forest pixel contagion values for each time period is low within a window by excluding the water pixel indicating the presence of a large number from the landscape. Because, naturally of small patches. Since contagion is occurring water bodies are not the agent of inversely proportional to the fragmentation, fragmentation, at least when one’s aim is it can be inferred that there is a large degree to measure the human caused LULC of fragmentation in the landscape. Although, dynamics. Fragmentation increases 2000 data have more number of patches vulnerability towards external disturbances (large fragmentation) than 1990 data, it has and threatens the existence of patch survival contagion greater than the 1990 data. It can and associated biodiversity. It has negative be explained on the basis that the contagion influences on edge-sensitive interior index not only depends on the number of species and large carnivore like tiger. This adjacency value but how they are distributed last effect is the key starting point of many among the various class pair. Inspite of the further environmental degradation and large number of fragments the value of disturbances. The value of forest contagion was high due to equal distribution fragmentation index of 2000 data is greater LULC edges between all the class-pairs. than that of the 1990 data. The high forest The contagion value in pixel approach is fragmentation value for 2000 is also greater than the patch approach indicating supported by high patchiness in forest class that decrease in the size of the measuring in 2000 as compared to 1990 (Table 1). unit brings uniformity in the distribution of However, this may not be sole because of total adjacency. From the above discussion actual fragmentation but the exclusion of on the contagion value it can be concluded diagonally contiguous pixel in patch that contagion provides meaningful definition and difference in spatial resolution information regarding the fragmentation of of imagery being used in respective years. the landscape but in qualitative terms. Likeness is a quantitative metric for Fractal dimension is used to measure the measuring the quality of association patch shape complexities. The value of between habitat patches and is very much ECO-CHRONICLE 245 similar to Similarity index (McGarigal & likeness indices for forest-settlement and Marks, 1995). It is important for those for forest-cropland should be avoided species, which use specific ecotone because settlements and croplands are (transition zone between two different source of disturbance for wildlife. landuse classes or habitats) as their habitat. The greatest biodiversity is obtained where Connectivity metrics describe the spatial there is an optimal blend of patches and connectedness of a landscape degree of ecotone. When a landscape is linkage between the habitat patches. The characterized by large-sized patches, the patch based connectivity determined for both number and ecotone are expected to be low. the data sets 1990 and 2000 are 0.4026 In this landscape biodiversity will be low. In and 0.4951 respectively. The patch-based contrast, if the landscape is highly connectivity of 2000 data is greater than that fragmented the inner edge-sensitive of the 1990 data. It indicates an increase in species would suffer. Thus, a spatial the habitat quality in terms of connectivity. balance of a landscape by contrasting the number of forest openings with the number Changes in Habitat Quality of existing patches is required. Therefore, during the calculation of Likeness index Change pattern of the landscape either weights were assigned to a patch pair supports or inhibits survival of species. This according to their naturalness. High emphasizes the importance of examining likeness index between water and forest potential methods for analyzing landscape would provide very favorable situation for pattern. In the present study, we calculated the wildlife for their optimum survival. Habitat Quality Index (HQI) by treating each Moreover, the national park is marked by LULC classes as habitat type and the the absence of prominent grassland In such results are presented in Table 4. situations, the preys are more likely to be attracted by the open forest and shrubs for The number of pixels under each habitat their food since these would serve as the type was determined by rules and formula most favorable substitute for grassland. described methodology section. Table 4 Therefore, high likeness indices for dense- shows a decrease in value of HQI during moderate forest as well as dense-open the study period. The values of HQI are forest would be desirable. In contrast, 0.4051 and 0.3762 for the year 1990 and Table 4. Number of pixel under each habitat type, their weight and HQI for study period Habitat type Weight 2000 1990 (w) No of Pixel n*w No of Pixel n*w (n) (n) Optimal 1.00 12563 12563.00 51288 51288.00 Optimal * 0.95 37590 33831.00 12010 10809.00 Sub-optimal 0.75 19957 14967.75 29437 22077.75 Sub-optimal * 0.70 23122 16185.40 5944 4160.80 Marginal 0.50 43623 21811.50 26313 13156.50 Invasible 0.25 10384 2596.00 33204 8301.00 Detrimental 0.00 123796 0.00 112839 0.00 Total 271035 101954.65 271035 109793.05 HQI 0.3762 0.4051 Note: * indicates habitat type with edge effect 246 ECO-CHRONICLE 2000 respectively. Thus, there is about the landscape has undergone a moderate 7.14% decrease in the value HQI. This change in its spatial pattern and significant decrease in habitat quality is due composition. However, the actual impact on to decease in the number optimal habitat wildlife quality of the landscape is little due pixel and increase in number of detrimental to restoration and conservation pixel. The results obtained from habitat measurement taken by the forest authority quality indexing which show a decrease in which nullified the detrimental effect of overall habitat quality appeared to be landscape dynamics. Along with the contradictory with what we observed during attempted landscape analysis, other landscape pattern characterization which analysis such as terrain analysis and envisaged some favorable change in nearest neighbourhood along with more spatial pattern of the landscape. There may field data for supporting landscape analysis be several possible reasons for this can make the result more reliable. Moreover, contradiction. One possible reason is the successful application of landscape difficulty in finding the lower value of the analysis depends on the selection of simple linear weighing method below zero. pattern metric that best relate the ecological Hence, a negative weight cannot be process, metric sensitivity and their scale assigned to the detrimental habitat rather dependency for a particular study. detrimental pixels were eliminated by assigning them a zero weight. Another REFERENCES possible is that in HQI calculation, adjacencies among the non-forest LULC classes were not considered and their Anderson, J.R., Hardy, E.E., Roach J.T. and adjacencies with forest classes were Witmer, R.E., 1976. A Land Use and Land always considered as unfavorable situation Cover Classification System for Use with for assessment of habitat suitability. Remote Sensing Data, U. S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 964. U.S. Govt. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION Printing Office, Washington, D. C.
Natural resource planning and Baker, W. L. and Y. Cai., 1992. The .rle management is becoming increasingly programs for multiscale analysis of complex in the study site because of landscape structure using the GRASS escalating human activity in the in the geographical information system, landscape. Pattern change, a critical Landscape Ecology, 7, pp: 291-302. component of habitat analyses, resulting from landscape dynamics has direct Civco, D. L., Hurd, J. D., Hoffhine, E. and implication to resource management and Arnold, C. L., 2002. Quantifying and wildlife habitat assessment of the national describing urbanizing landscape in park. This paper provided an approach for Northeast United State, Photogrammetric monitoring the influence of landscape Engineering and Remote Sensing, 68 (10), dynamics on the habitat quality in and pp: 1083–1090. around the Betla National park. The results of the present study re-iterate the Frohn, R.C., 1997. Remote Sensing for usefulness of remote sensing and GIS in Landscape Ecology: New Metric Indicators determining the quality of the habitat through for Monitoring, Modeling, and Assessment quantitative landscape analysis. The habitat of Ecosystems, Lewis Publishers, Boca suitability of the landscape was found to be Raton, FL. moderate and the change in the habitat suitability of the landscape is less than 5%, Hargis, C. D., Bissonette, J. A. and David, J. which may be considered to be negligible. L., 1997. Understanding measures of Due to the effect of different driving forces, landscape pattern. In Wildlife and ECO-CHRONICLE 247 landscape ecology: effects of pattern and Riiters, K. H., Wickham, J. D., Vogelmann, scale (Ed. Bissonette, J. A). Springer-Verlag, J. E. and Jones, K. B., 2000. National land New York, pp: 231–261. cover pattern data, Ecology, pp: 81, 604.
Harris, L. D. and Sanderson, J., 2000. Schumaker, N. H., 1996. Using landscape Landscape ecology; A top down approach, indices to predict habitat connectivity, Lewis Publication, pp: 10-123. Ecology, 77, pp: 1210–1225.
O’ Neill, R.V., Krummel, J.R. and Gardner, Shannon, C. and Weaver, W., 1949. The R.H., 1988. Indices of landscape pattern, mathematical theory of communication. Landscape ecology, 1, pp: 153-162. Univ. Illinois Press, Urbana.
McGarigal, K. and Marks, B.J., 1995. Turner, M.G., 2005. Landscape ecology in FRAGSTATS: spatial pattern analysis North America: past, present, and future, program for quantifying landscape Ecology, 86, pp: 1967–1974. structure. Gen. Tech. Report PNW-GTR-351, USDA Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Turner, M. G., Gardner, R. H. and O’Neill, R. Research Station, Portland. V., 2001. Landscape Ecology in Theory and Practice, Springer-Verlag, New York. Milde´n, M., Mu¨nzbergova´, Z., Herben, T. and Ehrle´n, J., 2006. Metapopulation Walker, P.A., 1990. Modelling wildlife dynamics of a perennial plant, Succisa distributions using a geographic pratensis, in an agricultural landscape, information system: kangaroos in relation Ecological Modeling. 199, pp: 464–475. to climate, Journal of Biogeography, 17, pp: 279-289. Reineking, B., Veste, M., Wissel, C. and Huth, A., 2006. Environmental variability and Zonneveld, I.I. and Forman, R.T.T., 1990. allocation trade-offs maintain species Changing Landscapes: An Ecological diversity in a process-based model of Perspective, Springer-Verlag, New York, pp: succulent plant communities, Ecological 286-288. Modeling, 199, pp: 486–504. 248 ECO-CHRONICLE ECO-CHRONICLE (ISSN: 0973-4155) A Quarterly Journal of Environmental and Social Sciences Published by the Society for Environmental and Social Research
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ECO-CHRONICLE, Vol.3., No. 4. December 2008, pp: 249 - 252
ISSN:0973-4155
STATE OF MANGROVES IN VELLIKKEEL OF KANNUR Dt., KERALA
Sreeja, P. and K. M. Khaleel
P. G. Department of Botany and Research Centre, Sir Syed College, Taliparamba, Kannur District, Kerala.
ABSTRACT
The mangroves in three major sites (Vellikkeel - Chera, Padiyil Kadavu, Vellikkeel - Moolai) of Vellikkeel river was assessed and documented with respect to total area covered, diversity, population structure and threats to mangroves. The study was conducted in Nov.-Dec. 2008 using plot quadrant method. Ten plots were non- randomly distributed and eight major and three associated mangroves were found in the study area. The four dominant species were Kandelia candel (100%), Avicennia officinalis (80%), Sonneratia caseolaris (90%) and Excoecaria agallocha (80%). These species also had the highest important values at 87.47, 50.48, 21.94 and 43.10 respectively. Considering the small size of the mangrove stand, the diversity was relatively high compared to other areas in Kannur. However, continuous expansion of shrimp farms and development of various industries poses threat to the survival of these mangroves. Hence demarcation of the present mangrove area in Vellikkeel is needed. Key words: Mangrove, Vellikkeel.
INTRODUCTION floristic and faunal diversity. The Vellikkeel river, a continuation of Kuttikkol river which Mangroves represent a highly dynamic and joins with Payangady river at Dalil, supports fragile ecosystem. It occupies a large three mangrove rich sites ie. Vellikkeel – fraction of the tropical coastline, dominating Chera , Padiyil Kadavu and Vellikkeel the inter tidal zone of diverse environmental Moolai. Among these mangrove stand, 8 settings. The potential role of mangrove hectares were with closed canopy ecosystem as sinks for anthropogenic representing primary and secondary growth contaminants in tropical and sub tropical conditions dominated by true mangrove areas has been widely recognized. India species. This paper reports the status of has a total area of 4461 sq.km under mangroves in the wetlands of Vellikkeel river mangroves. Mohanan, 1997 combined in terms of total area covered, species remote sensing data and field observations composition and community structure. and reported that the extent of mangrove ecosystem in Kerala is about 4,200 ha. The MATERIALS AND METHODS higher population density in the Kerala coast has resulted tremendous pressure on the This study was conducted in the Northern natural ecosystem, which adversely affected part of Kerala. The geographical position is the growth of mangroves. On surface survey N- 12 0.217 and E - 75 21.012. The total thin mangrove patches were reported from area was found out by using Global Cochin estuary and some areas in North Positioning System (GPS). The area can be Malabar of Kerala. In Kannur, mangroves divided into three sites. are scattered in the area of Pappinisseri, Kunhimangalam, Thalasseri, Edakkad etc. Site 1 Vellikkeel – Chera (Naskar, K and Mandal, R 1999). These Site 2 Padiyil Kadavu mangroves have attracted attention for its Site 3 Vellikkeel – Moolai 250 ECO-CHRONICLE All mangrove species encountered were Site Specifications recorded at species level using Tomlinson (1986). To assess the community structure The major adjacent components which in terms of density, frequency and the researcher thought to be the major dominance, a total of 10 plots (10x10 m²) factors influencing the existence of were non- randomly established. In each mangroves in the localities were plot the species were identified, stems per identified. These include the residential species were counted and the girth of each area, weaver’s industrial societies, tree was measured at breast height agricultural field including shrimp farms approximately 1.3 m above the ground etc. Among them the growth of shrimp using a measuring tape. The number of farms seems to pose major threat to individuals per species was determined by mangroves. At the same time the non actual counts. The important value index (IVI) practice of kaipad (salty wetland) rice and the Shannon Weaver species index cultivation contributes the over growth of were measured. mangroves in these localities. Table 1 (a)
Vellikkeel - Chera - Site 1 Padiyil Kadavu - Site 2 No Species Pi log F RF RD RDO IVI F RF RD RDO IVI Pi log Pi Pi Acanthus 1 ilicifolius 50 11.3 9.8 0.013 21.11 -0.295 70 17.07 10.48 0.36 27.91 -0.1157
Achrostichum 2 aureum 60 13.6 16.46 0.005 30.1 -0.191 60 14.63 12.23 0.131 26.99 -0.137
Aegiceras 3 corniculatum 30 6.8 2.69 0.035 9.52 -0.061 10 2.43 3.49 0.73 6.65 -0.0819
Avicennia 4 officinalis 80 18.18 18.26 0.507 36.94 -0.149 90 21.95 27.97 0.56 50.48 -0.3579
Excoecaria 5 agallocha 80 18.18 24.8 0.123 43.1 -0.31 40 9.75 4.89 2.94 17.58 -0.127
Kandelia 6 candel 90 20.45 29.3 0.856 50.6 -0.379 ------
Rhizophora 7 mucronata ------90 21.95 22.02 88.3 132.3 -0.2686
Sonneratia 8 Caseolaris ------10 2.43 7.69 1.39 11.51 -0.2129
Pandanus - 9 20 4.5 2.09 0.066 6.65 ------tectorius 0.0209 Clerodendron 10 inerme ------40 9.75 11.18 0.42 21.35 -0.1242
Anona 11 palustris 30 6.8 2.39 0.219 9.48 -0.053 ------
H’ = - Pi log Pi = 1.4589 H’ = - Pi log Pi = 1.4252 F – Frequency, RF – Relative Frequency, RD – Relative Density, RDO – Relative Dominance, IVI – Important Value Index, H’ – Shannon Wiener’s Diversity Index. ECO-CHRONICLE 251 Table 1 (b) (Verbenaceae) and Anona palustris (Anonaceae ). Vellikkeel - Moolai - Site 3 The number of major species No Species found in Vellikkeel is lower F RF RD RDO IVI Pi log Pi compared to the recorded Acanthus number of species of 14 at 1 ilicifolius 70 13.46 6.44 0.024 19.92 -0.1705 Kunhimangalam ( CED 2005 ). Mangroves in the study area Achrostichum showed a typical zonation 2 60 11.53 4.63 0.007 16.14 -0.1134 aureum based on the entry of salt water. Aegiceras Species found in Padiyil Kadavu 3 corniculatum ------(seaward zone) were mainly Rhizophora mucronata and Avicennia Avicennia officinalis. Central 4 90 17.3 9.79 0.56 27.66 -0.291 officinalis part of Vellikkeel supports Excoecaria Kandelia candel and 5 agallocha 70 13.46 1.37 0.17 15.01 -0.029 Excoecaria agallocha. Vellikkeel Moolai zone ( Kandelia landward zone) contains 6 100 19.23 68.2 0.041 87.47 -1.147 candel Kandelia candel and Rhizophora Sonneratia caseolaris. Among 7 mucronata 40 7.69 7.69 0.116 15.49 -0.2129 all the mangrove species, Rhizophora mucronata has the Sonneratia highest basal area followed by 8 90 17.3 4.517 0.072 21.94 -0.1107 Caseolaris Avicennia officinalis. Kandelia Pandanus candel has the highest stem 9 tectorius ------density followed by Avicennia officinalis. The other species of Clerodendron mangroves were rather 10 ------inerme inconspicuous in terms of Anona basal area and stem number. 11 palustris ------In the site-1 Kandelia candel has the highest frequency H’ = - Pi log Pi = 2.0745 followed by Excoecaria agallocha and Avicennia officinalis. In site-2 Rhizophora RESULTS AND DISCUSSION mucronata and Avicennia officinalis occurred in nine plots. In site-3 Kandelia The total mangrove area is about 15 candel occurred in all the plots followed by hectares. The area composed eight true Sonneratia caseolaris and Acanthus mangrove species and three associates. ilicifolius. The relative dominance of all the This includes Acanthus ilicifolius species in the study area ranged between (Acanthaceae), Achrostichum aureum 0.006% to 88.3% . The relative density of (Pteridaceae), Aegiceras corniculatum the species ranged from 1.370-68.2 in all (Myrsinaceae), Avicennia officinalis the study sites. The dominance of (Verbenaceae), Excoecaria agallocha Rhizophora mucronata in the second site (Euphorbiaciae), Kandelia candel may be due to the muddy substrate that (Rhizophoraceae), Rhizophora mucronata favours its growth (Hogarth,1999). The (Rhizophoraceae), Sonneratia caseolaris Aegiceras corniculatum accounts for the (Sonneratiaceae) Pandanus tectorius lowest IVI value in the first and second sites. (Pandanaceae), Clerodendron inerme The Diversity Index of mangroves in 252 ECO-CHRONICLE Vellikkeel using the Shannon index was to the non practice of “kaipad” cultivation. 1.486 , 1.4201 and 2.075 respectively for Thus demarcation of the present mangrove the three sites. The diversity index signifies area in Vellikkeel is needed for its that the area is rich in species diversity conservation. (Table 1a & b). ACKNOWLEDGEMENT The mangroves in Vellikkeel are subjected to human disturbances. In fact, part of the The authors are thankful to P G Dept. of area had been already cleared and most of Botany and Research Centre , Sir Syed them destructed for construction purposes. College Taliparamba and KSCSTE for the A portion of the mangrove forest had been laboratory and financial support converted into shrimp farming land. respectively. Considering the small size of the mangrove stand, the diversity was relatively high REFERENCES compared to other areas in Kannur. However, continuous expansion of shrimp farms and development of various Hogarth, P. J., 1999. The Biology Of industries poses threat to the survival of Mangroves: Oxford university Press Inc. these mangroves. Improper waste disposal New York. (domestic, slaughter and industrial) and developmental activities may severely affect Tomlinson, P. B., 1986. The Botany of the stands of most of the mangrove species. Mangroves :Cambridge University Press, Hence demarcation of the present 413 pp. mangrove area in Vellikkeel is needed for its protection and conservation. C E D., 2003. Survey and Inventory of wetlands of Kerala for conservation and CONCLUSION sustainable management of Resources - Vol – 5. Based on the study, it was concluded that the area supports a rich diversity of Naskar, K and Mandal, R., 1999. Ecology mangroves representing eight true and Biodiversity of Indian Mangrove part I mangrove species. Improper waste and II Daya Publishing House,New Delhi disposal (domestic, slaughter and pp 131 – 167. industrial) and developmental activities may severely affect the stands of most of the Mohanan, C. N., 1997. Mangroves of mangrove species. On the other hand there Kerala. In: Balachandran Thampi, et al. is a rapid increase in the mangroves mainly (eds.) Natural Resources of Kerala. WWF, in the third site within the last ten years due Trivandrum. ECO-CHRONICLE 253
ECO-CHRONICLE, Vol.3., No. 4. December 2008, pp: 253 - 256
ISSN:0973-4155
AN ERGONOMIC ANALYSIS OF HAND TOOLS/FARM EQUIPMENTS IN HOMESTEADS OF KOLLAM DISTRICT, KERALA
Bini Sam
Kerala Agricultural University, Farming Systems Research Station, Sadanandapuram, Kottarakkara, Kerala
ABSTRACT
Farm mechanisation along with increased application of other inputs such as seeds, fertilizers, pesticides, insecticides etc. has enhanced the productivity and production on farms. But on the other hand it has also lead to increased discomfort, drudgery and injuries to the operators while carrying out different agricultural activities due to the inadvertent neglect of ergonomic principles. In order to identify the ergonomic problems encountered by the users during the operation of various agricultural tools/implements, a survey was conducted in the homesteads of Kollam district, Kerala, using prestructured questionnaire. The study shows that high rate of work, awkward work posture and design deficiencies of the hand tools result in many musculo-skeletal strain and injuries while carrying out different farming activities.
Key words: farm mechanisation, drudgery, ergonomic principles
INTRODUCTION farm equipments in specific situations prevailing in the homesteads of Kollam Homestead farms of Kerala are peculiar in district, Kerala. that they are very small farming units managed independently by different MATERIALS AND METHODS farmers. In spite of the progress in farm mechanization and irrespective of farmer For the study, stratified two stage random category (small, medium and large), hand sampling procedure was followed. Kollam tools are widely used in these farms for district consists of 70 panchayats, out of various field operations like sowing, hoeing, which 10% of panchayats were selected weeding etc. Various state agricultural randomly. From the homestead farmers of universities and other research institutes the selected panchayats, 10 farmers were had developed quite a large number of hand selected at random. The data was collected tools and agricultural equipments. Most of from the farmers with pretested schedules. the designers of agricultural equipments The data collected was analysed by using had concentrated on improving the appropriate statistical techniques. efficiency and durability, but none of them gave due importance to the operators A comprehensive survey questionnaire was comfort and treated operator as an other thus prepared and information was part of a man-machine system. No reports gathered from the farmers. The are available regarding the ergonomic questionnaire was designed to obtain data problems in agriculture in the homesteads related to total land holding pattern, of Kerala. Hence this study is designed to cropping pattern, hand tools/ farm assess the ergonomic problems faced by implements currently in use, drudgery the users during the operation of hand tools/ involved in the operation of hand tools/ farm 254 ECO-CHRONICLE implements, type and cause of accidents drudgery followed by “too much” drudgery in the operation of hand tools/ farm (33%) and some drudgery (24%). Nag et. implements and nature of injury/illness and al., (1980) and Nag and Chatterjee (1981) the body parts affected while using the suggested that the work levels for 8 hourly equipments. activities for men and women should not exceed 35% and 28% of one’s aerobic RESULTS AND DISCUSSION capacity, respectively. To avoid accumulation of fatigue, it is obvious to Spade was the tool used by majority of formulate work-rest sequence in farmers. It was mainly used for seedbed accordance with the types of physical preparation, which involves selective field activities performed. tasks such as breaking up a hard surface, breaking down the ploughed surface and The pains expressed by the farmers in inter-row soil preparation to grow crops. A different parts of the body while operating sickle is the most common weeding/ the hand tools are shown in Tables 2 & 3. harvesting tool used by the farmers and it consists of a curved blade attached to a About 79% of farmers suffered from back wooden handle, however, with a variety of pain while 50% of farmers suffered from designs. The sickle ergonomics, blade shoulder pain followed by pain in hands geometry, blade serration and material, (43%), waist (36%) and leg (14%) during handle shape and size and mechanics of digging operation. Similarly for weeding operation have their effects on work operation, around 75% of farmers felt back performance. pain followed by waist pain (50%) and pain in shoulders and hands (42 % each). The About 46% of the total farmers were of the back pain was mainly due to the stooping / opinion that the hand tool requires a lot of bending posture adopted by the farmers force for its operation (Table 1). Farmers during the operation of hand tools. In dry (25%) expressed that “too much” force was lands, workers remove weeds by sitting on required for some operation. According to the ground with one or two legs flexed at De and Sen,1986, the severity of seedbed knee, whereas in the watered land, the preparing activities, like ploughing, hoeing, workers stoop to remove weeds. Each way bund trimming vary from moderate to of doing the weeding tasks exerts postural extremely heavy, which are primarily been stress. Since the hand hoe and spade done by the men - folks. designs have been evolved through local practices, there are lots of variations in Table 1. Force required in the operation of technical specifications. tool / equipment Sl. Classification of Percent Wounds / abrasion / corns etc., were other No. force response common health hazards faced by the farmers. Most of the farmers reported that 1 Too much 25 handle of the tools was not satisfactory. 2 A lot 46 Farmers also faced frequent breakdown of 3 Some 31 parts like handle and edge of tools during 4 No 0 work. Since operation of hand tools involves a lot of drudgery, modification is necessary Majority of farmers opined that it is difficult from ergonomic point of view such as angle to operate the hand tools, especially hand of blade with handle, length of handle and hoe and spade, continuously for more than total weight of the tool. 2 hours. Some farmers felt spade as a hazardous tool causing leg injury. Around Drudgery / health hazard involved in spraying 41% of farmers responded that the operation is shown in Table 4. The main operation of the hand tools involves a lot of function of spraying is to atomize the spray ECO-CHRONICLE 255 Table 2. Pain in different parts of body bare hands. Improper handling of due to digging operation pesticides, spraying without wearing personal protective equipments etc. led to Sl. Parts of body Per cent many sprayer related accidents. The health No. expressed pain and safety concerns demand institutional measures for comprehensive training on 1 Back 79 pesticide safety, dress code, emergency 2 Waist 36 assistance in case of exposure etc. The 3 Shoulder 50 implementation feasibility of precautionary 4 Hands 43 measures requires to be examined, since it is a difficult behaviour to enforce in the 5 Legs 14 tropical areas where protective wears add Table 3. Pain in different parts of body due to the heat stress of the wearer ( Nag and to weeding operation Nag, 2004).
Sl. Parts of Per cent expressed The survey reported that 30 % of all injuries No. body pain were caused by ‘striking by’ or ‘striking against’ the tool followed by cut (25 %) due 1 Back 75 to the improper handling of tools. The 2 Waist 50 percentage distribution of the nature of injury 3 Shoulder 42 indicates that cuts followed by lacerations, 4 Hands 42 sprains and strains are the most frequent injuries in using hand tools. Study also Table 4. Drudgery / health hazard involved showed that fingers and limbs were the in spraying operation most injured parts of the body. The high rate of work, awkward work posture and design Sl. Parts of body Per cent response deficiencies of the hand tools result in No. cumulative musculo-skeletal strain and injuries. The sickle related injuries mostly 1 Skin irritation 50 occurred while harvesting hard-stem crops. 2 Eye irritation 33 3 Dizziness 80 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION 4 Bitterness in 16 mouth On the basis of survey, it may be concluded fluid into small droplets and eject the same that there exists a lot of drudgery / health to give uniform deposit on the target. The risk in various agricultural operations. There sprayer equipments were manually is much scope for ergonomic intervention operated, like the hand compression for reducing drudgery in different agricultural sprayer, lever operated knapsack sprayer operations by making design modifications and rocker sprayer. Around 60 % of farmers in various equipment/machines and hand expressed dizziness and 50 % of farmers tools. The physical strain and fatigue might felt skin irritation while applying pesticides, result in accidents and injuries, and followed by eye irritation (33%) and therefore, the work levels that may be bitterness in mouth (16 %). The sprayer maintained daily on a regular basis should operators experience fatigue mainly due to be optimized. It is also noticed that most of carrying of the sprayer load as well as the body pains caused in performing the continuous lever operation. The pesticide agricultural operations was due to postural applicators, mixers and loaders are at risk discomfort as in digging with spade/hand of exposure to toxic chemicals. It is not hoe, manual weeding etc. Improper uncommon that the farmers broadcast handling of pesticides, spraying without pesticides or prepare pesticide solution with wearing personal protective equipment, etc. 256 ECO-CHRONICLE led to many sprayer related accidents. The evaluation of ploughing process of paddy health and safety concerns demand cultivation in india, J. Human Ergology, 15, institutional measures for comprehensive pp: 103 - 112. training on pesticide safety, dress code, emergency assistance in case of exposure Nag, P.K. and Chatterjee, S.K., 1981. etc. Periodic trainings need to be conducted Physiological reactions of female workers in proper and safe operation of sprayers in Indian agricultural work, Human factors, and equipments. Personnel protective 23, pp: 607 - 614. equipment like hand gloves and masks should be used by the operators to avoid Nag and Nag, P.K., 2004. Drudgery, hand injuries and dust hazard. Extension accidents and injuries in Agriculture, leaflets/publicity materials for proper and Industrial Health, 42(2), pp:149-162. safe use of various machines need to be prepared and circulated on a wider scale. Nag, P.K., Sebastian, N.C., Malvankar, M.G.,1980. Effective heatload on agricultural REFERENCES workers during summer season, Ind J Med De, A. and Sen, R.N., 1986. Ergonomic Res, 72, pp: 408–15. ECO-CHRONICLE 257
ECO-CHRONICLE, Vol.3., No. 4. December 2008, pp: 257 - 264
ISSN:0973-4155
BIOCHEMICAL CHANGES IN CERTAIN PLANTS SPECIES UNDER AUTOMOBILE EXHAUST POLLUTION
Sarala Thambavani, D.1 and Syed Ali Fatima Lathif 2 1 Department of Chemistry, Sri Meenakshi Government College, Madurai - 625002, Tamilnadu. 2 Vinayaka Mission University, Salem, Tamilnadu.
ABSTRACT
Biomonitoring experiments were conducted to evaluate air pollution due to automobile exhaust on the vegetation along the roads of Madurai city, TamilNadu. The plant species selected for the present study included, Thespesia sp., Morinda tinctoria, Tectona grandis, Polyalthia longifolia and Ficus religiosa. Estimation of Chlorophyll, Total soluble sugar, Protein and Aminoacids were carried out to study the impact of air pollutants. The present study on these plants revealed that vegetation on roadside was much affected by vehicular emission. Significant variation in these contents was observed. It is inferred that plants can be used as indicators of urban air pollution and there is urgent need to protect these from air pollution.
Key words: Biomonitoring, Bioindicators, Chlorophyll content, Total soluble sugar, Protein and Aminoacid.
INTRODUCTION
Sulphur dioxide (SO2) and Volatile Organic The increase in world population is Compounds (VOC).These pollutants have generating industrialization, urbanization varying degrees of harmful effect. and of course modernization. People say that these are the criterias for the Vegetation plays the role of major sink of development of any nation but on the atmospheric gases and dust containing a contrary, these are also the contributors for fair amount of highly toxic heavy metal the disastrous effects causing to nature and particles. Air pollution may affect plant environment. In developed countries, the tissues either directly or indirectly, but the situation is somewhat out of control but in tolerant plants possess strong defense the developing countries the situation can mechanisms which enable them to survive be handled as there is still time for them. in critical conditions. Plants are to suffer a As industrialization and urbanization is lot from the automobile exhaust pollution increasing, the percentage of smoke, dust because they cannot move from the source and ash are increasing in the ambient air of pollution. For this reason it is likely that and the natural environment is deteriorating. plants exposed to such pollution show many abnormalities in their general appearance With the continuous multifold increase in which are termed as “visible injury” in vehicular population, emissions are giving literature. Actually these visible injuries on rise to an alarming rate of air pollution and plants to a greater extend reflect the consequently deterioration of air quality. The physiological changes which occur due to main primary air pollutants emitted from the impact of pollutants. These motor vehicles include Oxides of nitrogen physiological changes may be regarded as
(NOx), Carbon monoxide (CO), Respirable “hidden injury”. These plants are able to suspended particulate matter (RSPM/PM10), avoid these senescing symptoms and can 258 ECO-CHRONICLE live a normal way. In this paper, an attempt has also emerged as an important center has been made to study the effect of for textiles and engineering industries. The vehicular emission on the biochemical sampling stations were selected keeping parameters of some plants species. in view the important zone and the nature of activity. A total of two sampling stations, MATERIALS AND METHODS consisting of residential and traffic intersections were chosen for the present Madurai has an area of 52 square km (now study. The description of sampling station extended up to 130 square km) and is is given in Table 1. located at 9.93° North 78.12° East. The average elevation is 101 meters above Mean Two sampling stations have been selected Sea Level. The climate is dry and hot, with to study the impact of air pollution on rains during October to December. vegetation, which include high traffic volume Temperature during the summer reaches and residential area that is mixed use to maximum of 40.00C and minimum of areas. South gate is purely a residential 26.3 0C, where as during winter the area, having less traffic. Periyar bus stand temperature reaches to a maximum of is commercial area with heavy traffic load. 29.6 0C and a minimum of 18.0 0C.The average annual rainfall is 85cm (850mm). Experimental Material Selection of sampling station The field plants, which were selected for the study were: Madurai consists of a large mixed use 1. Thespesia sp. 2. Morinda Tinctoria area, having high traffic column and also a 3. Tectona grandis 4. Polyalthia longifolia very fast growing center for tourism. The city and 5. Ficus religiosa Sampling stations in Madurai city
Table 1 Description of sampling station in Madurai city Sampling station Nature of activity
South gate area of Madurai Residential area
Periyar bus stand of Madurai Major traffic of heavy vehicles. Most busy traffic junction. (Commercial cum traffic area) ECO-CHRONICLE 259 Preliminary survey of the Madurai Road side analysed by following the methods of Arnon showed that these plants are in highest 1949.Total soluble sugar by phenol frequency and density. Hence these were sulphuric acid method Dubois et al., selected for the present study. 1951.Protein by Lowry et al., (1951)and free amino acids by Moore and Stein 1948. Collection of leaf samples Results were recorded.
Sampling of leaf material is an important RESULTS AND DISCUSSION step in any air pollution studies. In the present study, leaf samples from the two In the present study, in order to obtain the sampling stations such as South gate and information on the type, intensity and the Periyar bus stand were collected both at 12 cause of vegetation damage, five different Noon and at 6.00 PM. The samples plant species and two locations were collected both in afternoon and evening is studied at two different times. expected to express phantom variation in physiological and biochemical parameters. Estimation of chlorophyll, total soluble This might not be a true expression by the sugar, protein and aminoacids were carried plant against air pollution. Because the out for monitoring automobile exhaust metabolic activity would be more (up to pollution impact on plants. The five selected noon) when the plants exposed to light after species Thespesia sp, M.tinctoria, Tectona a long dark period. The leaf samples were grandis, P.longifolia and F.religiosa were collected accordingly by giving six hours collected at random from the edges of both interval between two samples, so that the sites of roads of Periyar bus stand and comparison on effect of pollution on leaf South gate area of Madurai city, TamilNadu. samples would be reliable. 500 grams of The roads of Periyar bus stand are having a leaf samples were collected from the two high traffic volume of at least 50 to 70 sampling sites and at two different times motorized vehicles per minute.The same (12 Noon and 6.00 PM) and were then species are collected from south gate area subjected to analysis. of Madurai, a residential area.
Determination of different parameters: The leaves collected from the polluted area Chlorophyll content in the leaf samples were and the residential area were put in for
Table 2. Biochemical Indicators of different species at different bioindicator stations
Species Station / Sites Chlorophyll Total Protein Amino Acid content Soluble (mg/g) (mg/g) (mg/g) Sugar (mg/g) Control area 0.98 2.27 0.95 181.5 Thespesia sp. Polluted site 0.36 0.72 0.87 194.7 Control area 0.33 2.11 1.63 136.95 M.tinctoria Polluted site 0.32 1.64 1.33 107.25 Control area 0.25 2.08 0.84 136.95 T. grandis Polluted site 0.50 2.58 1.46 186.45 Control area 0.35 1.54 0.75 75.9 P. longifolia Polluted site 0.52 2.19 1.38 174.9 Control area 0.21 1.75 0.78 107.4 F. religiosa Polluted site 0.50 2.19 0.99 141.9 260 ECO-CHRONICLE estimation of certain vital parameters like Thespesia, M.tinctoria, Tectona Grandis, chlorophyll (mg/g), total soluble sugar (mg/ P.longifolia and F.religiosa are collected at g), protein (mg/g) and aminoacids (mg/g). random from the edges of both sites of These parameters showed significant roads of Periyar bus stand and South gate variation under polluted environment, area of Madurai city, TamilNadu. The roads indicating the potentiality of plants to be used of Periyar bus stand are having a high traffic as bioindicators of air pollution. volume of atleast 50 to 70 motorized vehicles per minute. The same species are RESULTS AND DISCUSSION collected from south gate area of Madurai, a residential area. In the present study, air pollutant from the automobile exhaust emission shows wide The leaves collected from the polluted area spread damage to the plants. In order to that is high traffic volume area and a obtain the information on the type, intensity residential area are put in for estimation of and the cause of vegetation damage in five certain vital biochemical parameters like different plant species are studied at two chlorophyll content(mg/g), the total soluble different time and at the polluted and the sugar(mg/g), protein (mg/g) and unpolluted sites. aminoacids (mg/g). These biochemical The chlorophyll content, the total soluble parameters shows significant variation sugar, protein and aminoacids are used as under polluted environment. Hence, these parameters for monitoring automobile plant species can be graded as exhaust pollution impact on biochemical bioindicators of air pollution. changes of plants. The five selected species
Variation in Chlorophyll content (Figure 1) and Total Soluble Sugar content (Figure 2) of five different plant species from different Bioindicator stations
100 Figure 1 50
0
-50 Thespesia Morinda Tectona Polyalthia Ficus Religiosa Tinctori Grandis Longifolia -100 Percent variation Percent
-150 Chlorophyll content
30 Figure 2 20 10 0 -10 -20 Thespesia Morinda Tectona Polyalthia Ficus
Percent variation Percent Tinctori Grandis Longifolia Religiosa -30 -40 -50
Total Soluble Sugar ECO-CHRONICLE 261 Variation in Protein content (Figure 3) and Amino Acid content (Figure 4) of five different plant species from different Bioindicator stations
Figure 3 40
20
0
-20 Thespesia Morinda Tectona Polyalthia Ficus -40 Tinctori Grandis Longifolia Religiosa
Percent variation Percent -60
-80
-100
Protein Figure 4 40 20 0 -20
-40 Thespesia Morinda Tectona Polyalthia Ficus -60 Tinctori Grandis Longifolia Religiosa
Percent variation Percent -80 -100 -120 -140
Aminoacid
The Chlorophyll content of plants studied stomata and cause partial denaturation of exhibited significant variation with respect the chloroplast and decreases pigment to stations. Thespesia sp. exhibited 63.27% contents in the leaf cells. But F. religiosia, P. reduction in chlorophyll content at the longifolia and Tectona grandis showed an polluted site. M. tinctoria showed 3.03% enhancement in the chlorophyll content at reduction at the polluted site compared to the polluted site. This may be due to the the residential area. Thespesia sp. showed leaf arrangement, type of leaf and the total significant reduction compared to M. leaf area of a plant which promote maximum tinctoria, T. grandis, P. longifolia and F. utilization of light available. The leaves of religiosa exhibited an increasing trend of these plants oriented at acute angles to the chlorophyll at the polluted site. Maximum general direction of illumination are found gain of 138.10% of chlorophyll was shown towards the crown. Apart from the small by F. religiosa followed by Tectona grandis amount of light which they reflect and (100%) and P. longifolia (48.57%) at the transmit gaps between them allow a good polluted site. A considerable loss in total deal of light to pass directly to leaves below. chlorophyll in the leaves of plants such as Underneath are shade-leaves oriented at Thespesia sp. and M. tinctoria exposed to right angles to the general direction of the automobile exhaust pollution supports illumination and arranged in a fashion, the argument that the chlorophyll is the which ensures maximum interception of the primary site of attack by air pollutants such light. as oxides of carbon, oxides of nitrogen, oxides of sulphur and suspended The total soluble sugar content in the leaves particulate matter. The air pollutants make of Thespesia at the unpolluted and the their entry into the tissues through the polluted sites are 1.72 mg/g and 2.27 mg/g 262 ECO-CHRONICLE respectively. The maximum reduction (24.23 content of Thespesia and M. tinctoria at the %) in total soluble sugar is observed in polluted site might be due to the enhanced Thespesia at the polluted site. M. tinctoria rate of protein denaturation which is also showed 22.27 % loss at the polluted site. supported by the findings of Prasad and Tectona grandis, P. longifolia and F. religiosa Inamdar (1990). Constantinidou and exhibited increasing trend of total soluble Kozlowski(1979) found enhanced protein sugar at the polluted site. P. longifolia (42.21 denaturation and breakdown of existing %) showed the maximum followed by F. protein to aminoacid as the main causes of religiosa (25.14%) and Tectona grandis reduction in protein content. Thespesia and (24.03 %). Thespesia sp. and M. tinctoria M. tinctoria showed significant reduction in showed significant loss of total soluble chlorophyll content. It implies that the rate sugar and also reduction in chlorophyll of photosynthesis of these two plants is in content for these two species at the polluted the decreasing trend at the polluted site. site. Total soluble sugar is an important The decreasing trend of photosynthesis is source of energy for all living organisms. due to the diminished light and the dark Plants manufacture this organic substance reactions in the leaves. The rate of during photosynthesis and breakdown photosynthesis is proportional to the during respiration. The concentration of formation of total soluble sugar and plant soluble sugars is indicative of the protein. The loss of chlorophyll at the physiological activity of a plant and it polluted site decreased the total soluble determines the sensitivity of plants to air sugar and protein content of these two pollution. Reduction in soluble sugar plants but Tectona grandis, P. longifolia and content in polluted sites can be attributed to F. religiosa have the increase of chlorophyll increased respiration and decreased content at the polluted site which enhanced carbon dioxide fixation due to chlorophyll total soluble sugar and protein content. deterioration. Davison and Barnes (1986) mentioned that pollutants like oxides of It is noted that the free aminoacid exhibited sulphur (SO2), oxides of nitrogen (NO2) and an increasing trend at the polluted site for hydrogen sulphide under hardening Thespesia sp., Tectona grandis, P. longifolia conditions can cause more depletion of and F. religiosa. M. tinctoria showed a soluble sugars in the leaves of plants grown reduction in aminoacid content at the in polluted area. The reaction of sulfite with polluted site. P. longifolia showed the aldehydes and ketones of carbohydrates maximum increase (130.43%) of can also cause reduction in carbohydrate aminoacid at the polluted site followed by content. Tectona grandis (36.15 %) and F. religiosa (32.12%) and Thespesia sp. (7.27%). All Protein content of Thespesia showed 8.42% the four species showed increased free reduction at the polluted site. The protein aminoacids at the polluted site but it varied content of M. tinctoria at the polluted and the with the air pollution load. Plants from unpolluted sites were 1.33 mg/g and 1.63 polluted site (Periyar bus stand) exhibited mg/g respectively. Maximum reduction maximum increase of free aminoacids as (18.41 %) in protein content is exhibited at compared to southgate area. More free the polluted site by M. tinctoria followed by aminoacids at polluted site (Periyar bus Thespesia. Increase in protein content was stand) may be due to more nitrate reductase noticed in Tectona grandis, P. longifolia and activity or may also be due to more protein F. religiosa. Maximum increase in protein denaturation at the polluted site. Nitrate content is exhibited by P. longifolia (84%) reductase is a metalloflavoprotein inducible followed by Tectona grandis (73.81%) and enzyme which catalyses the reduction of F. religiosa (26.92%). Reduction in protein nitrate to nitrite. It acts as a rate limiting step ECO-CHRONICLE 263 and regulatory enzyme in the pathway NO3 affected much by air pollution. Hence, the
NO2 NH4 aminoacids and its activity photosynthetic activity of Tectona grandis, often controls the overall assimilation rate P. longifolia and F. religiosa are in the of nitrate. There are two distinct pools for increasing trend at the polluted site. Data nitrate in plant tissues that is storage and on ambient pollutant concentrations do not metabolic pools. Only nitrate of the allow direct conclusions to be drawn on metabolic pool functions as a substrate for potential impacts on plants and the NR and contributes to organic nitrogen. In environment. Evidence of effects can only the present investigation air pollution load be provided by using plants itself as dependent increase in NR activity may be monitors. These types of plant bioindicators due to the more availability of nitrate in the integrate the effects of all environmental metabolic pool of the plants at more polluted factors including interactions with other site. The source of nitrate may be the oxides pollutants or climatic conditions. This of nitrogen (NOX), as a pollutant in the permits the risk of complex pollutant atmosphere. Zeevaart (1974) found mixtures and chronic effects occurring even induction of nitrate reductase activity in below threshold values to be assessed. plants by atmospheric NO2. Therefore use of plants, as indicators is inexpensive and easy technique. Merely by CONCLUSION analysing the present parameters, an early diagnosis of the extent of pollution can be Thespesia sp. and M. tinctoria showed done in the absence of visible injury. significant reduction in chlorophyll, total soluble sugar and protein content at the REFERENCES polluted site. Thespesia sp. showed an increasing trend and M. tinctoria showed Arnon, D. I., 1949. Enzymes in isolated decreasing trend of free aminoacids at the chloroplast poly phenol oxidase in Beta polluted site. Tectona grandis, P. longifolia vulgaris, Plant physiology 24: pp:1-15. and F. religiosa showed the maximum enhancement of chlorophyll content, total Constantinidou, H. A. and Kozlowski, T. T., soluble sugar, protein and aminoacids at 1979. Effect of SO and O on Ulmus the polluted site. Thespesia sp. and M. 2 3 americana seedling 1. visible injury and tinctoria experienced the air pollution load growth 2. carbohydrate,proteins and lipids. and found to be more sensitive towards the Can. J. Bot. 57, pp: 107-184. automobile pollution. Tectona grandis, P. longifolia and F. religiosa showed resistance Davison, A. W. and Barnes, J.D., 1986. towards the air pollution load. The Effects of winter stress on pollutant physiological disturbances due to air responses In: How are the effects of air pollution change the biochemical status of pollutants on agricultural crops influenced the plants. Thespesia is a shrub and the by the interaction with other limiting factors height of M. tinctoria is only 5 to 10 meters. CEC Brussels. pp: 16-32. The impact of automobile emission is experienced more by these species. Hence, Dubios, Gilles, M.K., Hamiltion, J.K., Rebers, the photosynthetic activity of Thespesia sp. P. A. and Smith, F., 1951. A colorimetirc and M. tinctoria are in the decreasing trend method for the determination of sugars. at the polluted site. Thus these two species Nature: pp:167. are sensitive towards automobile pollution. The height of Tectona grandis, P. longifolia Jayaraman, J., laboratory manual in and F. Religiosa is ranging from 25 to 30 biochemistry. pp: 107-110. meters. These three species are not 264 ECO-CHRONICLE Palanivel, P P., analytical biochemistry and gram(Vigna mungo) Proc. Indian Acad. Sci. separation Techniques. pp:55-57. (Plant sci.) 100(6), pp:435-443.
Prasad, M.S.V. and Inamdar, J A., 1990. Zeevaart, A.J., 1974. Induction of nitrate
Effect of cement kiln dust pollution on black reductase by NO2 Acta. Bot. Neerl 23, pp:345-346. ECO-CHRONICLE 265
ECO-CHRONICLE, Vol.3., No. 4. December 2008, pp: 265 - 267
ISSN:0973-4155
A STUDY ON SOME INDIGENOUS PLANTS WITH ANTI DIABETIC POTENTIAL OF NILAMEL GRAMA PANCHAYATH IN KOLLAM DISTRICT, KERALA STATE
Venugopal, S. and Mahesh Kumar, M. R. P.G. Department of Botany, N.S.S.College, Pandalam, Pathanamthitta District, Kerala.
ABSTRACT
The present paper is a study of some important locally available plants with antidiabetic potential of Nilamel grama panchayath in Kollam District, Kerala State. The result of field survey revealed that 25 dominant plants belonging to 21 families have antidiabetic potential which are most used as folk remedy. Keywords: Diabetis, indigenous plants
INTRODUCTION MATERIALS AND METHODS The plants are being used from ancient times to maintain health, to treat diseases The study involved extensive field survey for and regain the healthy state of mind and medicinal plants and interviews. Data were body. The herbal treatments are generally collected from native informants who were harmless, beneficial and have curative Nattu vaidhyas (Aurvedic medical effects. Besides, it offers conventional practitioners), sidhas and common people, treatments, giving safe and natural who have a say regarding therapeutic value remedies for various ailments. The WHO of plants. Data were collected almost from recognizes that traditional medicinal plants every ward of Nilamel grama panchayath, have curing properties of many diseases Chadayamangalam block in Kollam district. and there fore research should be stepped This paper describes only most important up. In recent years many efforts were locally available plants which are used recorded. The ethno medicinal uses of medicinally. plants from various countries have received the attention of scientists (Brahman and RESULT AND DISCUSSION Saxena, 1989, Jain, 1981and Karthikeyani, 2003). In the present study 25 dominant anti diabetic plants most useful as folk remedy Diabetis is a heterogeneous metabolic was described. These plants belonging to disorder, characterized by altered 21 families. carbohydrate, fat and protein metabolism (Devlin, 1997). According to the The information about these plants pharmaceutical research; natural products collected from local community was are potential source of many drug confirmed by referring the important works developments (Marles and Farnsworth, pertaining to Indian medicinal plants 1995). According to common people, many (Warrier, et al, 1996), Medicinal plants (Jain local plants have anti diabetic potentialities. , 1968) and Indigenous drugs of India (Dey, So we made an attempt to investigate most 1973; Singh et al., 2002; Pandey and Khan, common and locally available plants with 2005). The purpose of the present paper is anti diabetic potential. not to prescribe remedies for diabetics but 266 ECO-CHRONICLE Table. List of some important plants with anti diabetic potential
Sl. Botanical name Local name Family Plant part Habit No. (Malayalam) used 1 Achyranthes aspera Kadaladi Amaranthaceae Whole plant An erect, branch L. shrub up to 1 meter height 2 Andrographis Kiriyath Acanthaceae Leaves An erect branched paniculata (Burm. f.) annual herb with 0.3 Wall. ex Nees to 0.9 meter in height 3 Adathoda vasica L. Adalodakam Acanthaceae Whole plant An erect shrub with 3 meter in height 4 Aegle marmelos (L.) Kuvalam Rutaceae Leaves Medium sized Corr. deciduous tree with up to 8 meter height 5 Anacardium Parankimavu Anacardiaceae Whole plant A small tree with occidentale L. unlimited growth 6 Azadirachta indica Veppu Meliaceae Whole plant A medium sized tree A. Juss. with 15 – 20 m in height 7 Boerhaavia diffusa Thazhuthama Nyctaginaceae Leaves A perennial diffuse L. herb with procumbent branches 8 Cassia fistula L. Kanikonna Leguminosae Whole plant A small deciduous tree with 8 – 15 m in height 9 Cephalandra indica Koval Cucubitaceae Whole A perennial tendril Wight & Arn.) Naud. plants climber 10 Cantharanthus Savamnari Apocynaceae Whole plant An erect herbaceous roseus L. annual plant
11 Eclipta alba (L.) Kayyonni Asteraceae Leaves An erect prostrate Hassak. annual plant 12 Emblica officinalis Kattunelli Euphorbiaceae Fruits Small tree Gaertn. 13 Tinospora cordifolia Amrutu Menispermaceae Whole plant A large climber with (Willad.) Miers succulent stem 14 Terminalia bellirica Thanni Combretaceae Bark, Fruit Large tree (Gaertn.) Roxb. 15 Ocimum sanctum L. Thulasi Lamiaceae Whole plant Small shrub
16 Tamarindus indica Puli Leguminose Fruit Large tree L. 17 Gymnema silvestre Chakarakolli Asclepiadceae Slender Climber R.Br. twig and leaves 18 Mangifera indica L. Mavu Anacardiaceae Fruit, bark, Perennial tree Gum, leaves 19 Murraya koenigi L. Kariveppu Rutaceae Leaf Small tree Spr. 20 Scoparia dulcis L. Kalluruki Scophulariaceae Whole plant small herb 21 Zizyphus jujube Mill. Thodali Rhamnaceae Leaves Weak stemmed plant 22 Ficus bengalensis Peral Moraceae Seed Medium tree L. 23 Tragia involucrata Kodithuva Euphorbiaceae Whole plant Herb L. 24 Pterocarpus Venga Fabaceae Whole plant large tree marsupium Roxb. 25 Dioscoria alata L. Kachil Dioscoriaceae Tuber Climber ECO-CHRONICLE 267 to document the uses and also draw the Jain, S.K., 1981. Glimpses of Indian Ethno attention of plant researchers and botany (Ed.) Oxford and IBH Publishing co, pharmacologist for future line of research. New Delh
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT Karthikeyani, T.P., 2003 . Ethnobotanical studies among Yanandis of Sathyavedu Authors are thanking to HOD, Department Mandal, Chittor District, Andhra Pradesh of Botany, N.S.S. College, Nilamel, Kollam Plant Archive 3(1): 21 -27. Dist, Kerala for providing facilities to carry out the study. Singh, A.K., Raghubanshi, A.S., J.S. Singh, 2002. Medical Ethanobotany of tribals of REFERENCES Sonaghati of Sonbhadra distt, U.P., Journal of Ethnopharmacology, 81:31 -41. Brahman, M. and H.O. Saxena, 1989. Ethnobotany of Gandhamaradan Hills – Marles, R.J. and N.R. Farnsworth, 1995. some noteworthy, medicinal uses. Int. Cont. Plant to patient an ethnomedicinal Rec. Adv. Med. Arom. Spice Crops, New approach Phytomedicine. 2:137 - 189. Delhi. (Abst.) Pandey, A. and A.A. Khan, 2005. Study of Dey, K.L., 1973. Indigenous drugs of India. ethnomedicinal importance of plants Parma Primelane, Chronica Botanica, New conserved by tribals of panna distt. Plant Delhi. Archives, 5 (2): 565 -568.
Devlin, M.T., 1997. Text book of Bio chem., Warrier, P.K.,Nambiar, V.P.K. and Wileyliss, Inc,NewYork, 4 Edn, 287. Ramankutty, C. 1996. Indian Medicinal Plants Vol.1 and 11, Orient Longman Ltd, Jain, S.K., 1968. Medicinal plants, National Madras. Book trust, New Delhi. 268 ECO-CHRONICLE
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ECO-CHRONICLE, Vol.3., No. 4. December 2008, pp: 269 - 274
ISSN:0973-4155
LANDUSE / LANDCOVER MAPPING OF MARUDAIYAR BASIN, TAMIL NADU USING REMOTE SENSING DATA
Balaselvakumar, S.1 Kumaraswamy, K.2 and Jawahar Raj, N.3
1 Department of Geography, Periyar E.V.R. College, Tiruchirappalli, Tamil Nadu 2 Department of Geography, Bharathidasan University, Tiruchirappalli, Tamil Nadu 3 Department of Geology, National College, Triuchirappalli, Tamil Nadu
ABSTRACT
IAn attempt has been carried out to map the landuse and landcover categories of Marudaiyar basin, using remote sensing data. The total area of the basin is 625 sq. km. and it is located in the central part of Tamil Nadu. Landuse / landcover maps were generated and the areas were categorized into built-upland, agricultural land, forest, waste lands and water bodies on the basis of NRSA classification. Agricultural and wastelands were dominant in the present study, which were about 427 sq. km. (68.28%) and 136.82 sq. km. (21.88%) respectively. The significance of such a study in the formulation of management plans / development plans is also discussed.
Keywords: Land use, Land cover, Remote sensing, Interpretation, NRSA
INTRODUCTION technology has the capabilities to overcome the shortcomings of the conventional Land is the most important natural resource, methods. It makes a major technological which embodies soil, water and associated breakthrough in the method of acquiring plants and animals constituting total information on land resources, agriculture, ecosystem. The growing population and forestry, ocean resources and other studies human activities are increasingly putting (NRSA, 1989; Rao, 1991). The present study pressure on the limited land and soil describes the various land use / land cover resources for food, energy and several other categories of the basin. needs (Mulder, 1979; Shai, 1980). Comprehensive information on the spatial Study Area distribution of land use / land cover categories and the pattern of their change The study area, a sub-basin of Cauvery, is is a prerequisite for planning, utilization and located in the central part of Tamil Nadu and management of the natural resources is bounded by Chinnar basin on the north (Anderson James, 1979; Luong, 1993). Nandhiyar basin on the south, Pachamalai Hence, a study of this sort is crucial in hill on the west and Coleroon River on the formulating the management and east. It extends from 11002’ to 11015’ North development plans. latitude and 78048’ to 79015’ East longitude (Fig. 1). It covers an area of 625 sq. km. The The information on land use / land cover average annual rainfall of the basin ranges patterns, their spatial distribution and from 750 to 1000 mm. The area is changes over a time scale are perquisite composed of a series of plains, valley for making development plans (Cautam bottoms, undulating uplands and broken and Narayan, 1982 & 1985; Dhinwa et. al., chains of Eastern – Ghats viz., Pachamalai 1992; Ibrahim and Loulou, 1994). Remote hills. The average height of Pachamalai hill sensing, the latest advancement in space is 100 m, but few of its peak rise above 1020 270 ECO-CHRONICLE m above MSL. The elevation of the basin dark bluish green tone in the core and bluish ranges from 250-400 meters. tone on the periphery. They have a typical coarse and molted texture. These areas are The study area is extremely covered by also associated with network of canals, sedimentary rocks, especially calcareous roads, and railway lines. Apart from the rocks (limestone, gypsecous sandstone, settlement, these were also identified with calcareous sandstone etc,). Alluvium, their typical size. deposited by the Marudaiyar basin is found to occur in the downstream area especially In the study area, two major settlements in areas were the river joins with the were distributed, one (Perambalur) in the Coleroon River. Lineaments are mostly northwestern part and the other in the central found in the north-south direction. The (Ariyalur) part. Few smaller settlements, formation of anticlines and synclines are which represent the minor towns, were also mostly identified in Perambalur block. mapped and these include Siruvachur, Alluvium and black soils are mostly Perali, Mattur, Rettipalayam etc. In the basin occupied in the entire basin. The southern the build-up land account for an area of parts of the study are mostly occupied by 10.42 sq. km., which is 1.66% of the basin black soil. area (Table 1).
MATERIALS AND METHODS Agricultural land These are the lands mainly used for farming The study has made use of various primary and for production of food and other and secondary data. These include Survey commercial and horticultural crops. With the of India (SOI) topographic maps (58I/16 and help of satellite data, it is possible to identify 58M/04 on 1:50,000 scale) and IRS LISS – the various agricultural lands upto level II. III Geocoded data of 1:50,000 scale for July The various categories of the agricultural 2006. The Indian Remote Sensing Satellite lands identified in the study area are (IRS) data were visually interpreted by using described in detail. the image interpretation elements such as tone, texture, shape, pattern, association etc. a. Crop land Adequate field checks were made before These include all the agricultural areas and ascertaining / finalization of the thematic these could be identified by their maps. characteristic red tone, regular shape of the agricultural fields, association with water RESULTS AND DISCUSSION bodies, etc., The crop lands are found well distributed throughout the foot hill zones and Analysis of Landuse / Landcover by plain regions of the study area. The kharif Remote Sensing Data crops (paddy, groundnut and crop) are cultivated in the months of June, July and The various land use categories were August. It is interesting to note that such identified and demarcated (Fig 2) using IRS crops are totally distributed in the northern - IC LISS III geocoded data, based on the part of the region. The rabi crops, mostly image interpretation elements. They are paddy, cholam, cumbu and maize are described as below. cultivated in the months of October, November and December. Both the crops Built – up land are spatially distributed all over the study The built-up land refers to areas of human area and cover an area of 391.38 sq. km. habitation developed for non-agricultural (62.62%). uses like building, industrial structure, transport and communication network, and b. Fallow land utilities in association with agriculture. These are the lands, which remain vacant These features can be identified with their without crop. These were identified by their ECO-CHRONICLE 271
Figure 1.
Figure 2. 272 ECO-CHRONICLE Table 1. Land Use and Land Cover Classification of Marudaiyar Basin
Sl. Level I Level II Area in Percentage of No. Sq. km. Basin area
1 Built up land Built up land 10.42 1.66 2 Agricultural land Crop land 391.38 62.62 Fallow land 27.43 4.38 Plantations 8.00 1.28 3 Forest Dense & Open forest 1.83 0.3 Degraded forest 11.73 1.87 4 Waste lands Land with scrub 37.10 5.93 Land without scrub 6.51 1.04 Barren rocky 93.21 14.91 5 Water bodies River/ stream / lake/ 37.02 6.01 Reservoir/ tank/ canal dark greenish tone, smaller size, regular In the study area, the various forest classes, shape and medium texture. In the study their distribution and their characteristics area, such fallow lands are to be found in are described in the following sections. the central and southeastern portions. In the basin, fallow land occupies 27.43 sq. a. Dense & Open forest km., which is about 4.38% of the basin. Dense forests have the characteristic of dark red tone, smooth texture and irregular c. Plantations shape on the satellite images. In the study These include areas where crops such as area, such dense forest areas are found in paddy, coconut, banana, etc. are cultivated. the west and northwestern areas viz, Such areas were identified form their dark Naranamangalam and it, surrounding red tone, smooth texture and association regions. These forests are found confined with the foot hill of study area. In the study to the higher and medium altitudinal areas. area, such plantations are found in the areas of Sillakkudi, Papananchery and Open forests are found in the west and Reddipalayam and Vikvamangalam areas northwestern part of the study area. It is of the basin, which lie in the south and south associated with the areas of dense forest. eastern portion of the study area. Such dense & open forests cover an area Approximately the plantation-cropped areas of about 1.83 sq. km (.30%). occupy about 8.00 sq. km (1.28%). b. Degraded forest Forest The forests of this category cover an area of Forest, which comprises of thick and dense 11.73 sq.km, occupying 1.87%. The scrubs, canopy of tall trees are differentiated by their bushes and smaller trees are predominant red to dark red tone and varying sizes. They in the forest. Taller trees are limited. In show irregular shape and smooth texture. remotely sensed data, such forests were These forest areas are found on west, identified by yellow tone. These forests are northwest tracts. It is found on the hill slope found in lower altitudes of the hill areas and of Naranamangalam, Siruvachur and the found associated with other forests. plain region of Chittali, Sirukanpur, Kottarai, Poyyur and Reddipalayam. Based on the Wastelands tonal and textural variations, the forests of Land, which in its present state does not or the study area were divided into three only possesses limited ability to support categories such as dense, open and vegetation, is called wasteland (Dudley degraded. Stamp 1954). Ravinous, rock, mining, stony ECO-CHRONICLE 273 and active depositional features are appeared black in tone in the satellite included in this category. In the study area, imagery. The shallow water and deep water there are three categories of wastelands, features appear in light blue to dark blue in which could be easily identifiable from the colour. In the study area, a number of tanks satellite image. are evenly placed all over the basin, except southeastern portion. The lakes and tanks a. Land with scrub can be delineated from the imagery. These include the uplands or high grounds with scrub. These lands are subjected to Some of the tanks are covered by energy degradation or erosion and consist mainly plants, scrubs and bushes. They appear of thorny bushes. Such areas were identified as light red in tone. The area under water from their yellowish tone and their body in the basin covered 37.02 sq. km association with uplands, and their irregular (6.01%). A few reservoirs are also found in shapes. These areas are found near the northwestern hilly area and in Ariyalur, Kilamattur, Rengasumudhiram, southeastern parts of the study area. Nochikulam and their surroundings. The total area under this category is about 37.10 CONCLUSION sq. km. (5.93%). The land use categories of the study area b. Land without scrub were mapped with the help of IRS data. The These land area is also found associated land use categories were demarcated viz. with higher topography and are formed by built-up lands, agricultural lands, forests, degradation or erosion. It could be identified wastelands and water bodies. The built-up in the satellite data from its light yellow tone, lands include towns and villages/ minor and its association with the higher altitudes. towns. The total area covered under this The absence of vegetation distinguishes land use category is about 11.00 sq. km. this category form the earlier described one. (Table. 1). In area under agriculture, it was In the northern part of Kalpadi, Alambadi and possible to identify the croplands, fallow Naranamangalam, such areas are found lands and plantations. Agricultural areas to occur. This category occupies 6.51 sq. were found well distributed throughout the km. (1.04%). study area for the reason that most of the people are engaged in agriculture activities. c. Barren rocky The total area covered by this land use These are rocky exposures of varying category is about 427 sq.km, out of 625 sq. lithology, often barren and devoid of soil km. of the basin. The forests of the study cover and vegetation. They occur amidst hill area are confined to the hill slopes of forests as openings or scattered as isolated Naranmanagalam, Siruvachur, Chittali, exposures or loose fragments of boulders Sirukanpur, Kottarai, Poyyur and or as sheet rocks on uplands and plains. In Redipalayam. The forests occupy about the study area, these lands appeared as 13.56 sq. km. brownish in colour and they are irregular in shape. These barren rocky, stony and Wasteland categories, such as land with / ravenous and mining wastes are found in without scrubs and barren rocky, stony, surroundings of the hilly regions. The barren mining and ravinous areas were rocky areas cover 93.21 sq. km. (14.91%). demarcated. The land with / without scrub were found near Naranamangalam, Water bodies Rengasumudiram, Kalpadi and Alambadi areas, while the barren rock areas were Both man-made and natural water features, found in the vicinity of the hilly areas. It covered with water, are included in this occupies an area of 136.82 sq. km. of the category. i.e. rivers / streams, lakes, tanks study area. In the water body category, and reservoirs. The water features features such as rivers / streams, tanks and 274 ECO-CHRONICLE reservoirs were delineated. In the study area, using GIS”, Journal of the Indian Society of several streams / rivers representing the Remote sensing, pp. 237-250. Krumbapalayam, Panangur, Kalpadi, Sattanur and Sirukanpur etc. were identified. Ibrahim, H. and Loulou, A.R., 1994. “Remote The tanks were found well distributed Sensing Application to Land use/ Land cover throughout the study area, except in the in Syria. Proc. Of the 15Asian Conference of central area where they were less. A few Remote Sensing, Vol.2, Bangalore. reservoirs were also identified in the northwestern hills of the study area, its cover Luong, P.T., 1993. “The Detection of Land about 37.02 sq. km. The mapping of Use / Land Cover Changes using Remote landuse / landcover is useful for present sensing and GIS in Vietnam”, Asian Pacific status of landuse analysis, planning and Remote sensing Journal, pp. 63-66. decision-making process. Mulder, J., 1979. “Integrating Water REFERENCES Resource and Land use Planning”, Logan, Anderson James, R., 1979. “Land Use and Utah Water Research Laboratory, Utah State Land Cover Changes: A Frame Work for University. Monitoring”, Journal of Research, United States Geological Survey (USGS), 5(2), pp. National Remote Sensing Agency, 1989. 143-153. “Manual of Nation wide Land Use / Land Cover Mapping using satellite imagery, Part Cautam, N. C. and L.R.A. Narayan, 1982. – I, NRSA, Hyderabad. “Suggested National Land Use and Land Cover Classification System for India using Pathak, R.C. and J.M. Kate., 1988. “Land Remote Sensing Techniques, Pink Use Mapping by Air photo Techniques, Publishing House, Mathura. Journal of Indian Society of Remote Sensing, pp. 47-52. Cautam, N.C. and L.R.A. Narayan, 1985. “Land Use and Land Cover Mapping and Rao, D.P., 1991. “IRS IA Application for Land Change Detection in Tripura using Land sat Use / Land Cover Mapping in India”, Current Satellite Data”, Journal of Indian Society of Science, pp. 153-167. Remote Sensing, pp. 517-528. Shai, B., 1980. “Land Use Survey of Idukki Dhinwa, P. S., Pathak, S. K., Sastry, S. V. C., District” - Technical Report Prepared Jointly Rao, M., Majumdar, K. L., Chotani, M. L., by the Kerala State Land Use Board, Singh, J. P. and Sinha, R. L., 1992. “Land Trivandrum and Space Application Centre, Use Change Analysis of Bharatpur District Ahemedabad, p109. ECO-CHRONICLE 275
ECO-CHRONICLE, Vol.3., No. 4. December 2008, pp: 275 - 282
ISSN:0973-4155
PHYSIOLOGICAL AND BIOCHEMICAL STRESSES OF COIR COLOURING INDUSTRIAL EFFLUENTS (RODAMINE – B) ON VILLORITA CYPRINOIDES.
Arun, A. U.*
Department of Marine Biology, Microbiology and Biochemistry, School of Marine Sciences, Cochin University of Science and Technology, Cochin, Kerala.
* Present Address: Department of Zoology, St. Peter’s College, Kolenchery, Kerala.
ABSTRACT
Very low concentration of coir colouring effluent is toxic to clam Villorita cyprinoides as the Lc 50 was found to be 0.089 % (range 0.0835 to 0.0992). Even at low concentrations of effluent (0.04 % and 0.08 %) after 10 hr of dosing, consumption of oxygen was higher than the control in the initial phase (0 – 10 minutes) of exposure in freshwater. After 100 hr of exposure, clams exposed to all three concentrations (0.04 %, 0.08% and 0.12 %) of effluent showed a sharp decrease in oxygen consumption with increase in duration when they are exposed to freshwater. In 100 hr dosing experiment there was a significant difference between periods (P<0.01) and concentrations (P<0.01). In all groups of 500 hour dosed organisms (0.04 %, 0.08 % and 0.12 % of effluents), there was a significant increase in the rate of oxygen consumption during second phase (10 - 20 minutes) and showed the minimum during last phase (20 - 30 minutes). In different groups of dosed organisms (0.04 %, 0.08 % and 0.12 % of effluent), there was a significant increase in the accumulation of lipid in the tissues compared to the control during 10 hour, 100 hour and 500-hour exposure. There was no significant difference between periods, but a significant difference between concentrations (P<0.001) are striking. The acute toxicity of this effluent on this species are quite invoking in view of the fact that the shellfishery of Cochin backwater has drastically declined over last two decades. The depletion of shellfishery at this rate is expected to upset the ecological balance of this vulnerable ecosystem and eradication of the species.
Key words: Rhodamine-B, Coir colouring effluents, LC50, Oxygen uptake, Lipid storage.
INTRODUCTION chemical processes comes from oxidation of high energy phosphate molecules, which Villorita cyprinoides is a typical deposit in turn, is dependent on the consumption of feeding bivalve and occupies a position low oxygen during respiration. Hence the in the food chain. They (Plate.1) mainly feed respiratory rate clearly represents the on finely dispersed organic matter from the metabolic activity of the organism. surrounding water by ciliary action, which Knowledge regarding the limits of serve both respiratory and feeding functions. respiratory function is important for Clams, like other bivalves, close their shell understanding the physiological adaptation valves and keep isolated during of a species. The rates of oxygen unfavourable conditions as their first consumption by aquatic organisms vary with response (Bayne, 1973a and b). different stress conditions, induced by natural or anthropogenic action. Hence Cellular metabolism in any organism is studies on respiratory metabolism may dependent on its inherent capacity to convert provide an idea of the physiological simple compounds into complex forms for condition of an organism. Mainly two types cellular functions. The energy for these of responses to stress can be defined (i) 276 ECO-CHRONICLE Acute or short term response, occurring studies focus on effects or responses of immediately after exposure of an animal to organisms with continuous exposure to a stress (ii) Stabilized or long term response toxicant or stressors. Majority of cases of on prolonged exposure to stress over days, anthropogenic contamination of aquatic weeks or months. Studies of short term systems occur by episodic discharges of responses is relatively important, as they pollutants with in a short duration. This is may indicate the sequence of events especially true in the case of effluents, where leading to the stabilization of the metabolic the day-to-day input of the pollutant is within rate and adaptive behaviour of the organism. regulatory guidelines, but occasionally there is a release that well exceeds permitted Significance of the study limits. Usually, the 96 hr LC 50 values are used to fix sub-lethal concentration of any Aquatic pollution generally refers to pollutant. Acute toxicity study becomes an deleterious changes in the Physiological integral part of any laboratory based study and chemical properties of water to one that to understand sub-lethal effects of any is dangerous to the survival of organisms. toxicant with reference to the metabolic The effects of water pollution are not only activity of an organism. devastating to people but also to aquatic bio-resources, including shell fishes and Rhodamine B (Plate 2) (Cosmetic finfishes. There are two basic forms of water Ingredient Solvent Red 49) is used as a dye pollution; (1) changes in the types and for imparting colour to coir, silk, cotton, amounts of materials introduced into water, wool, nylon, paper, etc. The molecular and (2) alterations in the physical formula of Rhodamine-B is characteristics of water. Agriculture activities, C28H31ClN2O3, with a molecular weight industrial activities handling of petroleum of 479.02. It is chemically known as 9-(2- products, landfills, sanitary sewers, storm Carboxyphenyl)-3,6-bis(Diethylamino) sewers, construction activities etc. can Xanthylium Chloride and Synonyms is pollute the aquatic environment. Of these, Tetraethyl Rhodamine Hydrochloride; D&C wastewater from industries is a major Red no. 19, C.I. Food Red 15, C.I. Basic source of water pollution, as they usually Violet 10; C.I.# 45170. Rhodamine B also contain specific and readily identifiable has been used as a tracer in water pollution chemical compounds. In fact, a number of studies (Cesark, 1970, in IARC, 1987). Until large and medium-sized industries the late 1980’s, the FDA certified encircling Cochin Estuary do not have Rhodamine B stearate (D&C Red No. 19) adequate effluent treatment facilities, and as a color additive in cosmetics and drugs they discharge effluents directly in to the (IARC, 1987), but this certification was backwater without any treatment. Some of eventually revoked (CTFA, 1991). The these include paper mills, distilleries, systemic toxicology of Rhodamine B has refineries, leather processing industries, been studied for acute, subchronic (IARC, coir industries, fertilizer industries, textile 1987), and chronic effects (Bio/Dynamics, industries etc. Among these, coir colouring 1981b). It is established that Rhodamine B industries are of major concern in the has toxic properties besides being coastal belt of Cochin Estuary. identified as a carcinogen, as it is completely soluble in water (Formulabs, 1988). One of the most important aspects of However, its persistence in the environment toxicology is the relationship between or its toxicity to nontarget terrestrial and exposure concentrations, duration of aquatic species has not been well studied. exposure, and the response of organism to It is the main component of red dye, widely the medium. LC 50 stands for the used for impregnating colour to coir concentration of a material require to kill products. This also forms the major one-half of the animal population tested in component of the effluent from many coir a specified amount of time. Laboratory factories. It is estimated that about 200 ECO-CHRONICLE 277 minor and major coir dying industries, the absorption peek of dye mixture was located in the upper reaches of Cochin nearly 600 nm. Basic characteristics of the backwaters, discharge a significant amount effluents are given in Table.1. of effluents containing Rodamine-B into the Table 1. estuary. Evaluation of the physiological and biochemical impact of this pollutant is a Colour Red major requisite in order to find the reason Particle size 50 – 60 µm Dissolved Oxygen 1.48 mg/l for the depletion of clam fishery in the H estuary. The present study is a pioneering P 1.7 effort to assess the toxic effect of coir Lethal toxicity study (LC 50) colouring effluent (Rhodamine ) to the biota of the estuarine area. The laboratory conditioned clams of size (25 ± 4 mm) were sorted out using Vernier MATERIALS AND METHODS Callipers. Ten clams were exposed to 5 l of Maintenance of test animals in the laboratory test solutions in fiberglass tubs of 10 l capacity with Perspex lids. The test In the laboratory, the collected individuals solutions were changed every 24 hour, were maintained in plastic tubs of 200 litre never aerated and but fed with chlorella capacity, containing constantly aerated during the experiment. Valve gaping beyond freshwater and fed with the algae Chlorella 5 mm and /or inability of the clams to close for a period of 24-36 hr before the the valves under mechanical stimulation commencement of the experiment. Animals were chosen as the indices of death. The used for the experiment have a shell length LC 50 levels and their 95 % confidence level of about 25± 4 mm. All the experiments were were calculated using probit analysis. conducted under normal laboratory conditions. Sub-lethal toxicity studies
Experiments with effluents The concentrations of the pollutants used for the sub-lethal study were computed from The effluent selected for the study was the 96 h LC experiments. Animals were collected from the coir colouring factory 50 exposed to three different doses of dye situated near Cherthala, south of Cochin, effluent, 1) high doses (3/ of LC or 0.12 % Kerala. Samples were collected from the 2 50 of effluent dilution) for a period of 10 hr, 100 factory 1-2 days before the commencement hr and 500 hr, (2) moderate doses (LC of the experiments. The dye is normally 50 concentration or 0.08 % of effluent dilution) prepared by mixing 70gm of Rhodamine-B, for a period of 10 hr, 100 hr and 500 hr and small quantities of orange & yellow dyes, (3) low doses (1/ of LC concentration or and 250 ml H SO and 500 l boiled water. 2 50 2 4 0.04 % of effluent dilution) for a period of 10 50 Kg of coir ropes were immersed in the hr, 100 hr and 500 hr. Test solutions were boiling mixture. After one and half hours, the never aerated but regular feeding was coir ropes were taken out and a new set carried out before renewing the water each was dipped for colouring. Nearly 300 Kg of day. Clams were exposed to the solution ropes were thus coloured using 500 litres containing dye effluent in fiberglass tubs of of dye mixture. After completing the work, 5 litre capacity. After the exposure period, these effluents were discharged in to the clams were subjected to oxygen near by water body. Even though there were consumption and lipid estimation. some minor differences in the preparation of dye mixture, the principal components in Estimation of Oxygen uptake the mixture were the same. It is to be noted that the absorption maximum for Modified Micro Winkler method (Strickland Rhodamine – B and effluents are different and Parson 1968) was followed for the (Fig.1 and 2). The absorption peek of pure estimation of oxygen consumption. Rhodamine – B was about 540 nm whereas Introduced a healthy aquatic animal to a 278 ECO-CHRONICLE Fig. . Structure of the dye
Fig. . Absorption spectrum of Rhodamine - B
Plate Coir dye effluent
Fig. . Absorbance spectrum of effluent 0.7 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3
absorbance 0.2 0.1 0 -0.1200 300 400 500 600 700 wave length
Plate . Villorita ciprinoides Plate . Villorita ciprinoides ECO-CHRONICLE 279 measured volume of fresh water and poured 30 min) the consumption of oxygen an even layer of liquid paraffin wax over the decreased in clams exposed to 0.04 % and water to prevent further dissolution of 0..08% effluent concentrations, but in 0.12 atmospheric oxygen to it. Dozed clams (0.04 % no such trend was noticed. Average %, 0.08% and 0.12% effluents) were placed oxygen consumption rate in control was -1 -1, in two litre conical flask with one litre 0.3418 mg O2.hr .wbwt in 0.04 % it was -1 -1 freshwater and dissolved oxygen was 0.1805 mg O2.hr .wbwt , in 0.08 % it was -1 -1 measured at 10, 20 and 30 minutes 0.2236 mg O2.hr .wbwt and in 0.12 % it -1 -1 intervals. Difference between the dissolved was 0.0319 mg O2.hr .wbwt . oxygen concentrations of first and second gives the oxygen consumption of that After 100 hr of exposure, clams exposed to organism during that time interval. all the 3 concentrations of effluents showed a sharp decrease in oxygen consumption Lipid estimation with increase in duration. As compared to The method of Barnes and Blackstock control, clams exposed to all concentrations (1973) was used to estimate lipid levels. showed sharp decrease in the consumption After exposing the clams in different of oxygen after initial 10 minutes (Graph.2). concentrations of effluents, the clams were Average oxygen consumption in control was -1 -1 cut open and wet tissues were taken out, 0.6066 mg O2.hr .wbwt , in 0.04 % of - weighed, extracted with chloroform – effluent dilution it was 0.1868 mg O2.hr 1 -1 - methanol mixture and the tissue extract was .wbwt , in 0.08 % it was 0.095 mg O2.hr 1 -1 treated with sulphuric acid, phosphoric acid .wbwt and in 0.12 %, it was 0.1868 mg -1 -1 and vanillin. The optical density of the red- O2.hr .wbwt . There is significant difference coloured complex was measured at 520 nm. between periods (P<0.01) and between concentrations (P<0.01). Statistical analysis. In 500 hour dosed organisms of 0.08 % Two way ANOVA was used to analyse the and 0.12 % of effluent concentrations there correlations of oxygen consumption and was a significant increase in oxygen lipid accumulation. Probit analysis was consumption rate during second phase (10 used to determine the LC and confidence 50 - 20 minutes), and it decreased during next limit. 10 minutes to the minimum towards the last RESULTS phase (20 – 30 minutes)(Grah.3). Average oxygen consumption showed that in control LC 50 -1 -1 it was 0.4824 mg O2.hr .wbwt , in 0.04 % it -1 -1 Initial dosing experiments showed that was .4313 mg O2.hr .wbwt , in 0.08 % it was -1 -1 these effluents were highly toxic to the 0.4348 mg O2.hr .wbwt and in 0.12 % it -1 -1 organism. Up to 4 % of the effluent dilution, was 0.3614 mg O2.hr .wbwt all the clams died within 48 hours of exposure. Experiments were carried out Lipid in dozed organisms with lower concentration to find out the LC In all groups of dosed organisms (0.04 %, 50 of the effluent. From the Probit analysis 0.08 % and 0.12 % of effluent dilution) there Lc 50 was found to be 0.089 % (range was an increase in the amount of lipid in 0.0835 to 0.0992). the tissue, compared with the control during Respiration in dosed organisms 10 hour, 100 hour and 500 hour exposure to effluent. In 0.04 %, 0.08% and 0.12 % After 10 hr of dosing, organisms exposed dilution of effluents, there was an increase to 0.04 % and 0.08 % of effluent had higher in the concentration of lipid in all dosed rate of consumption of oxygen than that of organism up to 100 hr with respect to control control in the first 10 minutes (Graph.1). As (Graph.4,5, &6). Compared to 10 hr dosed the time progressed (ie., after 20 min and organism, 100 hour dosed organism 280 ECO-CHRONICLE Graph.1 Graph.2
RateRate of respiration- of respiration- 10 10Hour Hour RateRate of of respiration respiration - 100 Hour 0.4 0.4 0.8 0.35 0.8 0.35 0.3 0.6 0.3 0.25 0.6 0.25 0.4
0.2 wt. wt 0.4 wt. wt 0.20.15 /hr/gm wet body wet /hr/gm /hr/gm wetbody /hr/gm 2 0.152 0.2 /hr/gm wet/hr/gm body
/hr/gm wetbody /hr/gm 0.1 2 2 0.2 0.10.05 mg O mg
mgO 0 0.05 0 O mg mgO 0 control 0.04 per. 0.08 per. 0.12 per. 0 control 0.04 per. 0.08 per. 0.12 per. controleffluent0.04 dosage(percentage)per. 0.08 per. 0.12 per. control 0.04effluet per. dosage(percentage)0.08 per. 0.12 per. effluent dosage(percentage) effluet dosage(percentage) Graph.3Graph.3 Graph.4
Rate ofRate respiration-500 of respiration-500 Hour Hour ConcentrationConcentration or or lipid lipid - - 10 10 HourHour 0.260.26 0.6 0.6 0.2550.255 0.5 0.5 0.250.25 0.4 0.4 0.2450.245 0.3 0.3 0.240.24 0.2 0.2 0.2350.235 mg/ 1mgtissue mg/ 0.1 0.1 tissue 1mg mg/ 0.230.23 mg O/hr/gm wet bodywet mgO/hr/gm wt
0 body wet wt O/hr/gm mg 0 0.2250.225 controlcontrol0.04 per.0.04 per.0.08 per.0.08 per.0.120.12 per. per. ControlControl .04%.04% effl effl .08%.08% effleffl .12%.12% effleffl Effluent dosage ( percentage) Effluent dosage ( percentage) effluenteffluent concentration concentration (percentage)(percentage) Graph.6 Graph.5 Concentration of lipid - 100 Hour Concentration of lipid - 500 Hour 0.27 Concentration of lipid - 100 Hour Concentration of lipid - 500 Hour 0.27 0.2 0.26 0.2 0.25 0.26 0.15 0.24 0.25 0.15 0.24 0.1 0.23 0.1 0.23 0.22 0.05 mg/1mg of tissue 0.22 0.05
0.21 mg/1mg of tissue mg /1 mg of tissue of /1 mg mg
0.21 0 tissue of /1 mg mg Control .04% effl .08 % effl .12 % effl 0 Control .04% effl .08 % effl .12 % effl Control .04% effl .08 % effl .12 % effl efflunet concentration (percentage) Control .04% effl .08 % effl .12 % effl efflunet concentration (percentage) effluenteffluent concentration(percentage) concentration(percentage) showed higher level of lipid. In the case of considerable interest in the study of control organisms, as the time of exposure nutritional, respiratory or excretory activities increased, the lipid accumulation in the of these animals. LC 50 value for the dye tissue decreased. There was no significant effluent was found to be 0.089 %. The difference between periods, but between physico-chemical nature of the dye in paper concentrations there was significant mill effluent showed the presence of high difference (P<0.001). The 10 hr and 100 hr amounts of solids, BOD, COD, sodium, gave significantly higher values than 500 hr. magnesium, calcium, chloride, ammonium, nitrogen, sulphate and absence of DO, DISCUSSION probably causing an osmotic imbalance in the aquatic organisms (prawns) which lead It is of value in studying the effects of water to early mortality ( Rahul Kundu et al., 1989). pollution on commercially important Another significant reason for the low LC50 shellfish. The amount of water that passes (0.089 %) may be the change in the toxicant over the gills of lamellibranchs is of during the process of coir colouring, ie., the ECO-CHRONICLE 281 absorption peak of dye is at 550 nm and Malachite green. that of the effluent is at 600 nm. This shift in absorption spectrum revealed that the It is well known that bivalves are able to Rodamine – B might have changed into new withstand periods of lack of oxygen through substance during the process of coir shell closure (Davanport, 1984). The colouration. According to Shakthivel (1989) change over from aerobic to anaerobic
96 hour LC 50 values of textile mill effluents respiration in bivalves normally occurs (Dye) were 10.8 % and 8.4% for Cyprinus when the oxygen tension of the mantle cavity carpio and Thilapia mossambicus falls leading to closure of valves in response respectively. Very low LC 50 in clams (0.0893 to environmental stress. Bivalves are called %) observed in this study show that facultative anaerobes, capable of surviving organisms are highly sensitive to the dye, during oxygen stress condition and and hence, a strict regulation of these activating non-oxidative metabolism in its effluents into the backwaters is warranted. absence(Hochachka, 1985). In this organism under anoxic conditions, organic Rate of oxygen consumption has been used substrates instead of oxygen, act as the as a valuable tool to study the sublethal acceptors of electrons (Karnaukhov, 1917). effects of pollutants (Prabhudeva and According to Hochchka and Somero (1973) Menon, 1986; Mohanan et al., 1986). It offers these substances can be fatty acids. It is a useful method to assess stress since it well established that some components of is an index of energy expenditure to meet lipids such as vitamin K, E and â- the demands of environmental alteration. carotenoids are known to act as electron In this study, as the concentration of the dye acceptors and antioxidants. In the present increased, the rate of consumption of oxygen study, it is observed that as the also decreased. Similar observations have concentration of effluent increased, the been reported by Mathew (1990) in Donax accumulation of lipids also increased ie., incarnates under heavy metal stress (Hg there is a positive correlation between and Cu). Brown and Newell (1972) effluent concentration and lipid. According concluded that the reduction in respiration to Murugesan and Haniffa (1994) there was in Mytilus in the presence of copper was an accumulation of lipid in tissues when due to suppression in the ciliary activity and Macropodus cupanus (Cuvier) was exposed clogging of gills by the particles present in to textile mill effluents. Total cholesterol level the dye effluent ( 50 to 60 µm). Consumption of blood increased significantly at all the of oxygen for dosed organisms (0.04%, 0.08 concentrations of malachite green in % and 0.12 %) were always less than that respect to all the time intervals (Srivastava of control. Similar results were obtained by et al., 1995 b). Baby (1987) in Perna indica dosed with heavy metals. At low concentration (0.04 %), It is found that coir colouring effluent is as the period of dosage increased (10 hr, highly toxic to the aquatic organisms even 100hr and 500 hr), consumption of oxygen at very low concentration, which leads to the also increased. In all categories of dosages mortality of the species. It is also noted that (0.04 %, 0.08 % and 0.12 %) after 10 hour of the place where the discharge of the dye exposure of toxicant, there was a sudden effluent is taking place (small canals or decrease in the oxygen consumption water bodies) is devoid of aquatic compared to control, due to metabolic organisms especially the benthic species inhibitions during early dosage period. evincing that these effluent receiving areas Hawkins et al.(1986) made this observation remain biologically deserted. in Perna indica, when it is has subjected to salinity stress. According to Srivastava et al. REFERENCES (1995a) disturbances in carbohydrate Baby. K.V., 1987. Combined toxicity of Heavy metabolism and respiration have been metals and Petroleum Hydrocarbons on observed in catfish after exposed to Selected Marine Organisms. Ph.D. Thesis, 282 ECO-CHRONICLE Cochin University of Science and IARC: http://www.iarc.fr/ Technology, Cochin, India. Karnaukhov, V.N. 1917. Dessertaion. Barnes, H. and J. Blackstock., 1973. Institute of Biophysics. Acad. U.S.S.R. Estimation of lipids in marine animals and Pushchino, U.S.S.R. Russia. tissues: Detailed Investigation of the sulphophosphovanillin method for total Mathew Philip., 1990. Sub-lethal effects of lipids. J. Exp. Mar. Biol. Ecol., 12: 103 - 118. heavy metals on Perna indica (Kuriakose and Nair) and Donax incarnates Gmelin. Bayne, B.L., 1973a. Physiological changes Ph.D Thesis submitted to the Cochin University of Science And Technology. in Mytilus edulis L- induced by temperature and nutritive stress. J. Mar. Biol. Ass. U.K. Mohan, C.V., Gupta,T.R.C., Shetty,H.P.C. and 53: 39 - 58. Menon,N.R. 1986. Combined toxicity of Mercury and cadmium to the tropical green Bayne, B.L., 1973b. The response of three mussel Perna viridis. Dis.Aquat.org.,2:65-72. species of bivalve mollusk to declining oxygen tension at reduced salinity. Comp. Murugesan, A.G. and Haniffa, M.A., 1994. Biochem. Phy. 45: 793 - 806. Influence of textile mill effluent on food utilization of the freshwater fish Macropodus Bio/Dynamics, INC.1981 b. Life time feeding capanus. Environ. Ecol.,12 (1) :195 - 198. study of glyphosphate (Roundup Technical). Project No. 77-2012 for Monsanto Co., St. Prabhudeva, K.N. and Menon, N.R. 1986. Louis, M.O.EPA Accession Nos. 246617 and Oxygen consumption under copper and zinc 246621. (Cited in U.S.E.P.A .1992 a). stress in Perna viridis. Fish. Technol., 23 (1): 24-26. Brown, B. and Newell, R.C., 1972.The effect of copper and zinc on the metabolism of Prabhudeva, K.N. and Menon, N.R. 1986. Mytilus edulis. Mar. Biol.,16:108 -118. Oxygen consumption under copper and zinc stress in Perna viridis.Fish.Technol., 23(1): Cesark, F.F., 1970 Xanthene dyes In Kirk 24-26. R.E, Othenner DF (eds.) – Encyclopedia of Chemical Tech.2ed.Vol.22, New York, John Rahul- Kundu., Prasad, V.V.S., Mansuri, A.P., Wiley and Sons.P.434,436. 1989. Studied the toxicity of diluteddyeing and printing industry effluent to a penaeid CTFA : http://www.ctfa.org/ prawn, Parapenaoepsis sculptilis(Hellen). Acta-hydrochem.-hydrobiol,17(1) ; 87-93. Davenport,J. and Redpath,K.J.1984. Copper and the mussel Mytiilus edulis L. Sakthivel, M., 1989 . Toxic effects of tannery in: Toxins, Drugs and Pollution in Marine and textile mill effluents on the fishes Animals. Bolis,L., Zadunaisky, J. and Gills, Cyprinus carpio and Oreochromis R. (ed.), Springer-Verlag, Berlin.176-189. mossambicus. Environ. Ecol. 7 (3); 685 - 689. Formulabs. 1988. http:// ww.turnerdesigns.com/t2/doc/appnotes/ Srivastava, A.K., Sinha, R., Singh,N.D., Roy, 998-511.html. D. and Srivastava,S.J. 1995b. Malachite green induced changes in carbohydrate Hawkins,A.J.S., Bayne,B.L.,Menon,N.R. and metabolism and blood cholesterol levels Damodaran,R. 1986. The mussels Perna in the freshwater catfish Heteropneustes viridis and Perna indica has transplantable fossilis. Acta.Hydrobiol.37(2),113 – 119. indicators of pollution: comparison of their metabolic response to reductions of both Srivastava, S.J., Sing,N.J., Srivastava, A.K oxygen tension and salinity.: National and Sinha,R. 1995a. Acute toxicity of seminar on mussel watch, 1:51-62. malachite green and its effect on certain blood parameters of a cat fish, Hochachka,P.W.1985. Theorms of Heteropneustes fossilis. Aquat. Toxicol. 31, Environmental adaptations. C.M.F.R.I., 241-247. Special publication No.26, Cochin, India: 153. Strickland, J.D.H. and Parsons, T.R., 1968. Hochachka,P.W.and Somero, G.N.1973. A manual of seawater analysis. Bull No.167 Strategies of Biochemical adaption. W.B. (Fishery Research Board Canada). Saunders. Philadelphia.358. ECO-CHRONICLE 283
ECO-CHRONICLE, Vol.3., No. 4. December 2008, pp: 283 - 290
ISSN:0973-4155
REMOTE SENSING AND GIS TECHNIQUES FOR EVALUATION OF GROUNDWATER QUALITY INDEX IN MALATTAR SUB- WATERSHED, GUDIYATTAM BLOCK, VELLORE DISTRICT, TAMIL NADU
Amutha, R 1., Porchelvan, P 1. and Poovalinga Ganesh, B 2.
VIT University, Vellore, Tamil Nadu. PRIST University, Tanjore, Tamil Nadu
ABSTRACT
The present study is an attempt to monitor the ground water quality in relation to land use / land cover and interpolated maps using remote sensing and GIS techniques for Malattar sub- watershed, Gudiyattam Block, Vellore District, Tamil Nadu, India. Thematic maps such as land use and land cover for the study area were prepared by using visual interpretation and supervised classification techniques with base map of SOI toposheets and IRS P6 LISS IV data on 1:50,000 scale using Arc GIS 9.1 and ERDAS 8.6 software. The study area constitutes different land use / land cover. 31% of the area is occupied by agricultural land, 11% area of cropland, 9% area of fallow and harvested land, 37% area covers forest land, and remaining 12% of the area occupied by others such as water bodies hills, settlements, uplands with scrub and tanks. Physico-chemical analysis data for the groundwater samples were collected by grid pattern method at predetermined 34 locations formed as non spatial database for the study. A relationship between land use / land cover and mechanism of controlling ground water chemistry were determined by Gibbs plot and concentration of major cations and anions in the ground water were vary spatially and temporally identified by the Piper plot. From this analysis, majority of the ground water samples were in the CaCl type and mixed
CaMgCl type and in the anion triangle field samples were in the SO4 and Cl which leads acidity characters to the ground water. Also, alkaline earth mineral of Ca and Mg exceeded the alkali minerals of Na and K and strong acids Cl and SO4 exceeded week acids HCO3. WQI for the study area results shows that the area has poor water quality and treatment necessarily requires in existing unconfined aquifer regions. Keywords: Ground water quality, WQI, Land use / Land cover, remote sensing & GIS.
INTRODUCTION tremendous increase in the demand for fresh water due to rapid growth of population Ground water is an integral component of and the accelerated pace of industrialization the natural cycle. It occurs as an aquifer (Tiwari and Nayak, 2002.) Further, the layer within a consolidated geological groundwater and the pollutants that it may substratum. The main sources of ground carry, move with such a low velocity, that it water recharge are precipitation and stream may take considerable time for the flow (influent seepage) while those of contaminants to move away from the source ground water discharge are effluent of pollution, and degradation in the seepage into streams, lakes, springs, groundwater quality may remain undetected evaporation and pumping (Gupta, 1991). for years. Once the groundwater is Groundwater quality study has a special contaminated, its quality cannot be restored significance and needs great attention of by stopping the pollutants from the source all concerned since it is a major alternate (Purandara and Varadajan, 2003). The source of domestic, industrial and drinking quality of ground water is equally important water supply and irrigation all over the world. as that of quantity. Remote sensing and GIS In the last few decades, there has been a are effective tools for water quality and land 284 ECO-CHRONICLE Figure 1. Study area of the Malattar Sub-watershed with code
TAMIL NADU
INDIA
VELLORE BLOCK
Figure 2. Landuse / land cover of the Malattar Sub-watershed ECO-CHRONICLE 285 cover mapping and are essential for in general, Geology of the study area monitoring and modeling environmental predominantly constitutes the fissile changes (Skidmore et.al, 1997). Water hornblende biotite gneiss, alluviam (recent) Quality Index (WQI) was developed by the and dykes. Major lineaments are found in National Sanitation Foundation (NSF) in the central part of the area and flowing 1970 (Brown et.al., 1970) and was through NW to SE and W to E. developed to provide a standardized method for comparing water quality. The MATERIALS AND METHODS present study is an attempt to monitor the ground water quality in relation to land use Survey of India toposheet was used to / land cover and interpolated maps using delineate the Malattar Sub-watershed remote sensing and GIS techniques for boundary and IRS P6 LISS IV satellite data Malattar sub- watershed, Gudiyattam Block, to map the distribution of current land Vellore District, Tamil Nadu, India. Gibbs use\land cover with the aid of ARC GIS 9.1 plot, Piper’s diagram and Water Quality and ERDAS Imagine 8.6 software. Thirty Index (WQI), were worked out to assess the four water samples were collected during general hydro geochemical characteristics the pre-monsoon period from both bore of groundwater in addition to chemical wells and open wells in the study area and analysis to evaluate its suitability for drinking analyzed for 14 major physicochemical purposes. parameters such as pH, EC, Cl, HCO3, CO3,
SO4, NO3, F, Na, K, Mg, Ca, Fe and TDS. STUDY AREA Highly temperature depended physical parameters such as pH and electrical The study area is Malattar sub-watershed a conductivity were determined in the field at major tributary of Palar River. The area lies the time of sample collection. Gibbs and between north latitude 78º39’ to 79º56’ and Piper diagram were plotted with these east longitude from 12º48’ to 12º56’. It covers chemical parameters to identify the an geographical area of 163Sq.Km and chemistry of ground water and falls on part of Survey of India toposheets of concentrations of major cations and anions 57L/9 and 57L/13 (Figure 1). by using Rock Works (V.7.11.26) software. Water Quality Index (WQI) was computed Malattar River originates in the hilly regions according to B.I.S standards to identify the of Venkatagrikotta in Andra Pradesh and water quality distributions in this region with flows through Niakeneri forest of Palamanar 10 parameters as given in table1. Thaluk. This river confluences Palar river, 5 Km east of Ambur near Sathampakkam SPATIAL DATA BASE village on the left side and flows through Pernampet block of Vellore District. The Malattar sub-watershed boundary with main tributaries of Malattar Rivers are, watershed code, land use / land cover, Duggammaeru, Dandapaner venke, geology, geomorphology maps are spatial Gittargunta venka, Batavenka, Gooddar data base for the study. The area constitutes venka, Garisala venka and Kattar River. The different land use / land cover. 31% of the watershed experiences tropical monsoon area is occupied by agricultural land, 11% climate with normal temperature, humidity area of cropland, 9% area of fallow and and evaporation throughout the year. The harvested land, 37% area covers forest land, monsoon season in the watershed is from and remaining 12% of the area occupied by June to December. The annual rainfall is others such as water bodies hills, about 517.44 mm. The rainfall occurrence settlements, uplands with scrub and tanks during October and November is heavy (Figure 2). Geology of the study area is resulting in significant amount of runoff predominantly constituted by the fissile occurrences in the watershed. The rainfall hornblende biotite gneiss, alluvium (recent) station is at Modikuppam near Gudiyattam, and dykes. Major interconnected 286 ECO-CHRONICLE Figure 3. Gibbs plot for pre-monsoon
100000
10000
1000 TDS
100
10
1 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.01.00.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
(Na+K)/Na+K+Ca (Cl/Cl+HCO3)
Figure 4. Piper Plot Figure 5. WQI spatial interpolation map of the Malattar Sub watershed
1 – CaHCO3 Type Figure4. Piper Plot 2 – NaCl Type 3 – Mixed CaNaHCO3 4 – Mixed CaMgCl 5 – CaCl Type 5 6 – NaHCO3 Type
4
1 2
3
6 ECO-CHRONICLE 287 lineaments are found in the central part and quality rating qpH can be calculated from western part of the area, which is flowing the relation through NW to SE and W to E. qpH = 100[(VpH ~7.0)/1.5] —— (3) Geomorphology of the area dominantly where VpH is the observed value of pH and constitutes pediments deep, shallow, flood the symbol “~” means simply the algebraic plain, structural hill and bazada. These difference between VpH and 7.0. Finally, the geological and geomorphological features WQI can be calculated by taking the are directly controlling the occurrences of weighted arithmetic mean of the quality aquifer regions and ground water chemical rating qi, thus, characters. WQI = [(qi Wi)/Wi] —— (4) where both the summations are taken from NON SPATIAL DATA BASE i =1 to i = 34 (the total no. of parameters considered). Determination of WQI The main objective of Water Quality Index is Table1. BIS Standards for water quality to turn complex water quality data into parameters with their unit weights information that is understandable and usable to the public. Water Quality Index Parameter (Pi) BIS Std. Unit based on some very important parameters (Si) weight (wi) can provide a simple indicator of water = K/Si quality. It gives the public a general idea of pH 6.5–8.5 0.004 the possible problems with water in a Total hardness 300 0.003 particular region (Shankar and Latha (TH) 2+ Sanjeev, 2008). This paper attempts to Calcium (Ca ) 75 0.013 evaluate the water quality indices from the viewpoint of suitability of water for human Magnesium2+ 30 0.033 (Mg ) consumption. The 10 parameters chosen - for the present study and their standards Chloride (Cl ) 250 0.004 recommended by the BIS are shown in table - Nitrate (NO3 ) 45 0.022 1. The method of computing WQI has been 2- briefly discussed here. In the first place, the Sulphate (SO4 ) 200 0.006 more harmful a given pollutant of water, the TDS 500 0.002 - smaller in magnitude is its standard for Fluoride (F ) 1 1 drinking water. So the unit weight Wi for the 2+ Iron (Fe ) 0.3 3.33 ith parameter Pi is assumed to be inversely proportional to its recommended standard ? wi 4.417 Si (i = 1, 2, . . . , n) and n = no. of parameters considered = 14 in the present case). RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Thus, Wi = K/Si ——- (1) where the constant of proportionality K has The sampling of groundwater samples been assumed to be equal to unity for the were carried out based on the grid pattern sake of simplicity. These unit weights, Wi, method, to cover all the land use and land for the 10 water quality parameters used cover features of the study area. The ground here are shown in the last column of Table water samples were alkaline in nature and 1, where pH has been assigned the same low EC values were noted during the pre- weight as chloride. The quality rating qi for monsoon season ranging from 45µs/cm to the ith parameter P is given, for all other 71µs/cm with an average value of 63.38µs/ parameters except pH, by the relation: cm. Total dissolved solids were observed qi =100 (Vi/Si) ——(2) in the permissible limit ranges from 423mg/ where Vi is the observed value of the ith l to 674mg/l with an average value of parameter, and S is its recommended 577.9mg/l. HCO3 represents the major sum standard for drinking water. For pH, the of alkalinity and exhibits very less values 288 ECO-CHRONICLE from 7 to 15 at pH between 6 to8. Anions domestic activities and dry climates. SO4 were in the increasing order of was higher than the desirable limit and falls
Cl>SO4>No3>HCO3>F. Cl was higher in pre- within the acceptable limit in pre-monsoon monsoon season indicating leaching from season indicating breaking of organic the upper soil layers due to industrial and substances from topsoil / water (Miller 1979,
Table2. Results of physico-chemical analysis of groundwater samples
Sl. Parameter (Pi) pH TH Ca Mg Cl NO3 SO4 TDS F Fe Sub WQI = No. index ?qiwi/? (qiwi) wi
1 Ithampattu 6.7 231.31 35 35 245 15 213 595 0.1 0.2 183.27 41.49
2 Sathampakkam 7.5 185.80 25 30 256 16 238 599 0.05 0.1 155.50 35.20
3 Bavarthampattai 7 198.27 30 30 226 14 267 614 0.05 0.1 122.11 27.65
4 Kothakuppam 6.5 173.33 20 30 289 15 245 624 0.05 0.1 122.13 27.65
5 Machampatu 6 157.12 30 20 234 13 245 584 0.05 0.1 132.22 29.93
6 Kailasagiri 6.5 165.22 25 25 256 14 234 588 0.05 0.2 177.01 40.08
7 Nariyampattu 6 210.74 35 30 234 16 245 601 0.1 0.1 127.52 28.87
8 Melkothakuppam 5.5 173.33 20 30 267 17 256 636 0.1 0.1 160.80 36.40
9 Melmurugai 6.5 173.33 20 30 278 18 267 644 0.1 0.1 171.74 38.88
10 Rajakoil 6 119.71 15 20 245 19 234 554 0.1 0.1 148.29 33.57
11 Sendathur 5.8 173.33 20 30 235 12 267 603 0.03 0.2 208.94 47.30
12 Kothamarikuppam 6 177.69 30 25 287 13 269 669 0.2 0.1 136.88 30.99
13 Karkur 6.5 210.74 35 30 279 14 256 651 0.1 0.1 127.41 28.85
14 Pallalakuppam 6.7 140.29 15 25 245 15 249 590 0.2 0.1 136.34 30.87
15 Balur 6.5 155.88 13 30 213 13 245 540 0.4 0.2 212.24 48.05
16 Kembasumuthiram 6 188.92 18 35 216 14 267 582 0.4 0.5 601.68 136.22
17 Melpatti 6.5 170.09 22 28 256 15 234 590 0.4 0.5 600.85 136.03
18 Chembedu 6 208.24 34 30 234 16 215 566 0.4 0.5 601.39 136.15
19 Pangarishikuppam 5.8 202.51 35 28 145 17 287 551 0.4 0.5 601.35 136.15
20 Valathur 5.9 210.62 30 33 287 18 267 674 0.05 0.5 567.06 128.38
21 Varathapalayam 6 177.69 30 25 214 14 256 584 0.05 0.5 565.74 128.08
22 Kilpatti 6.5 188.29 26 30 189 12 123 423 0.05 0.5 565.50 128.03
23 Redimakuppam 6 228.82 34 35 245 14 154 530 0.05 0.5 566.69 128.30
24 M.V.Kuppam 6.7 230.57 38 33 198 16 134 460 0.03 0.5 564.28 127.75
25 chokarasihikuppam 6.7 218.85 30 35 177 13 198 497 0.06 0.5 567.38 128.45
26 Gudanaragam 6.5 160.86 15 30 190 15 138 433 0.06 0.5 566.48 128.25
27 Melathur 5.5 193.91 20 35 278 16 234 607 0.06 0.5 567.96 128.59
28 pattu 6 144.65 25 20 287 17 234 611 0.06 0.5 566.28 128.20
29 Singlepadi 6 116.59 22 15 256 14 145 484 0.04 0.5 563.14 127.49
30 Sithathour 6 167.72 26 25 278 16 257 627 0.07 0.5 567.88 128.57
31 Kulidhagai 6.5 119.21 28 12 257 14 269 603 0.02 0.5 561.20 127.05
32 Bojanapuram 6.7 148.89 30 18 225 12 217 534 0.02 0.5 561.54 127.13
33 Ulli 6.5 144.65 25 20 247 10 218 562 0.02 0.5 561.67 127.16
34 Ananganullure 6.5 185.80 25 30 245 9 287 640 0.01 0.5 562.00 127.24 ?WQI 87.91 ECO-CHRONICLE 289
Craig and Anderson, 1979). Nitrate and Cl and SO4 exceeds week acids HCO3. fluoride were within the permissible limit in These various water types are generally a pre-monsoon indicating leaching of fluoride result of hydro geochemical process rich rocks and organic substances from occuring in the subsurface system. weathered soil. In case of cations, Ca and Mg was higher in pre-monsoon, indicating A simple and all can quickly understanding the weathering from primary mineral and viewed spatially about water quality in sources such as fissile hornblende biotite their own region by computing water quality gneiss and dykes. Ca ranges from 13mg/l index with integration of GIS. Water quality to 38mg/l and Mg ranges from 12mg/l to index was computed according to the above 35mg/l. sodium is the most abundant alkali given equation (Eq-1 to Eq-4) with use of metal which is highly mobile and soluble in Bureau of Indian standards (BIS) for the ground water and it ranges from 10mg/l to purpose of drinking water supply 25mg/l with an average value of 17.53mg/l. requirements. Here, 34 samples were This indicates that the highest soluble rocks collected in and around Malattar sub- are in the upper part of ground water. watershed and analyzed for the essential Potassium was also lesser in ground water parameters presented in table 2. According due to its higher solubility (Herman Bouwer, to Water Quality Index classification, 1978) and it ranges from 7mg/l to 15mg/l. drinking water quality ranges from very poor The dominance of cations were in the order to excellent if values ranges from 0 – 25 of Ca>Mg>Na>K>Fe. High mobile and and 90 – 100 respectively. If WQI < 100 it is solubility of cations of Fe concentration is fit for human consumption and is unfit for higher in amount and its ranges from drinking without treatment if its WQI > 100. 0.1mg/l to 0.5mg/l. Moreover, the larger the value of WQI, the more polluted the water concerned. From Gibbs (1970) proposed a method for Table 2, WQI ranges from a minimum value identifying relationship between water of 27.66 to maximum of 136.21 with an composition and mechanism controlling average of 87.92. First, this implies that the chemistry of ground water. (Na+K)/ ground water of Malattar sub-watershed, Na+K+Ca Vs TDS plot shows that the water Gudiyattam block needs some treatment to samples were falls within the rock make it fit for human consumption. Secondly dominance and Cl/Cl+HCO3 Vs TDS shows samples from well no 1 to 15 represents that samples falls outside the plot as shown poor water quality and from 16 to 34 in figure.3. It could be by external influences represents the need for treatment before on ground water by industrial effluents and consumption. Average value of WQI for the anthropogenic factors. Thus the major whole region is 87.92 implies that the quality ground water chemistry results were of ground water is good. A better spatial influenced by the underlying rock characters view from local to global either in 2D or 3D than the precipitation and evaporation. and know the quality of ground water immediately for the any area can be The geochemical evolution of ground water identified easily by interpolation method with can be understood by plotting the the help of GIS as shown in figure5. From concentration of major cations and anions the interpolation map, the ground water in the Piper Trilinear diagram (Figure4). quality shows more or less good in villages Majority of the ground water samples were named Redimakuppam(23), M.V. Kuppam in the CaCl type and mixed CaMgCl type (24), Chokarasohikuppam(25), Melpatti and in anion triangle field samples were in (17), Valathur(20), Kilpatti(22) and the SO 4 and Cl which leads acidity Pangarisihuppam (19). The western part of characters to the ground water. The plot and the area shows medium to poor/fair quality chemical analysis shows that an alkaline of ground water and treatments necessarily earth mineral of Ca and Mg exceeds the requires in the eastern part of area. An alkali minerals of Na and K and strong acids interpolated convex curve trend in the 290 ECO-CHRONICLE Eastern part indicates good quality of the REFERENCES ground water and in the NW side indicates moderate to good quality. However these Brown Robert, M., McClelland Nina, I., two demarked location falls nearby alluvial Deininger Rolf, A. and Tozer Ronald, G., plains and lineaments density where 1970. A water quality index - do we dare? moderately high with intersected to each Water and Sewage Works. October. pp: 339- others. It clearly indicates that the ground 343. water quality is controlled by geological structures and land use practices. The Craig, E. and Anderson, M.P., 1979. The result of the interpolation map was effects of urbanization of ground water correlated with current satellite data. Quality, A case study of Ground water, Vol.17, Evidences proved that the center and NW pp: 456-562. part agricultural land has developed well in these two areas and water is in good quality. Gibbs, R.J., 1970. Mechanisms controlling As a futuristic assessment ground water in world’s water chemistry, Science 170, these areas need to be protected and 1088-1090. conserved it from the other influences and also points out the need for constructing Gupta, Ravi P. 1991. Remote sensing the check dams wherever possible. Geology, Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelburg, New york. CONCLUSION Herman Bouwer, 1978. Ground water The study which addresses the simple quality; Ground water hydrology, McGraw- mathematical method to compute and Hill Kogakusha Ltd., 339-375. understand the water quality in the study regions which is applicable to allover the Miller, G.T., 1979. Living in the Environment, area but its purely depends on the number Wadsworth Publishing Company, of chemical parameters is involved and Belmond, California, pp.470. availability of data’s for the certain periods. Moreover, it is reliable method and can Purandara, B.K. and Varadarajan, N., 2003. easily predict the quality of the ground water Impacts on groundwater quality by at present status. In this study 34 samples urbanization, J. Indian Water Resources were collected according to the importance Soc.23, 107. of geological, geomorphological, land use / land cover and WQI analyzed results that Shankar and Latha Sanjeev, 2008. the minimum value of 27.66 to maximum of Assessment of Water Quality Index for the 136.21 of poor to excellent respectively with Groundwaters of an Industrial Area In an average value of 87.92. Besides well Bangalore, India. Environmental number 1 to 15 represents poor water Engineering Science, Volume 25, Number quality and well number from 16 to 34 6, 2008 © Mary Ann Liebert, Inc. represents the need for treatment. From the study, results were concluded that land use Skidmore, A.K., Witske Bijer, Karin Schmidt, is mainly controlled the ground water quality Lalit Kumar, K., 1997. Use of Remote and also other factors such as rock sensing and GIS for sustainable land dominance, geological structures, soil management. ITC Journal. 1997, 3 (4), 302-315. cover, runoff by stream surface flow and others. Thus the drinking water in this area Tiwari, T.N. and Nayak, S., 2002. Water are need to be treated with reverse osmosis Quality Index for the Groundwater of process or ion exchange process before Sambalpur Town. In D. Prasad Tripathy and supplying human consumption as well as B. Bhushan Dhar, Eds. Environmental properly manage and maintain the at Pollution Research. New Delhi: A.P.H Pub. present water bodies. Corp., pp. 971. ECO-CHRONICLE 291
ECO-CHRONICLE, Vol.3., No. 4. December 2008, pp: 291 - 294
VEGETATION MAPPING OF CHIMMONY WILDLIFE SANCTUARY
Menon, A.R.R. and Suraj, M.A.*
Kerala Forest Research Institute, Peechi, Thrissur, Kerala. *Department of Botany, Sree Narayana College, Alathur, Palakkad, Kerala.
ABSTRACT
Large scaled forest cover maps are essential for the management of the Sanctuaries. Vegetation map of Chimmony Wildlife Sanctuary was prepared using 1:15,000 Black& White Aerial Photographs. Standard photo interpretation techniques were adopted for the land cover classification and mapping. The final mapping scale is of 1:25,000 aiming to the forest managers for better sanctuary management. Overall mapping accuracy was found to be 89%.
Key Words: Aerial photo-interpretation, Vegetation mapping.
INTRODUCTION in vegetation mapping and monitoring the changes in natural resources (Deekshitalu Management of forest resources of our and George Joseph, 1991). Remotely country is carried out through forest maps, sensed information can be gathered from which are also called as Working Plan airborne platforms such as, airplanes or Maps/ Stock Maps/ Management Plan Maps, space bound platforms such as satellites. etc., and are prepared at 10-15 years A picture/ imagery taken from air or space interval. Forest maps are prepared to give contain more information of a larger area basic information about the forest types, than the picture taken from the ground blanks, cultivation patches, plantations, etc. (Howard and Lanly, 1975). It incorporates At present the information needed for the two major sub fields; data acquisition from working plan is conveniently obtained sensor systems such as, cameras or through ground-based surveys, which are multispectral scanner and data analysis by beset with inherent limitations. There is qualitative methods (eg: photo- considerable time lag between their interpretation) or quantitative methods (eg: preparation and utilization. However, with computer based decision making). the advent of remote sensing data products like aerial photographs and satellite The structural information and land cover imageries, rapid progress is possible in the maps are essential for the management of map production and the maps produced Wildlife sanctuaries, National Parks and are also accurate and detailed (Doyle, Biosphere reserves. In the present study, 1973). When monitoring forest areas, an attempt is made to map Chimmony ground based investigations tend to be Wildlife Sanctuary using 1:15,000 scaled labor intensive, slow, expensive and data Aerial photographs. collection in remote and inaccessible areas may be almost impossible. Remote Study area Sensing in combination with ground-based studies have proved to be an effective tool Chimmony Wildlife Sanctuary is located 292 ECO-CHRONICLE between 10o 24’ to 10o 29’ N Lat and 76o aerial photographs. Three density classes 25’ to 76o 30’ E Long. and is situated in the were identified for Evergreen forests (E1-5- Mukundapuram taluk, Chalakudy forest 20% density; E2-21-40%; E3->41%) and division of Thrissur district of Kerala state. moist-deciduous forest (MD1-5-20% density; MD2-21-40%; MD3->41%) METHODOLOGY respectively. Man made forests include teak plantation and mixed teak plantation. In the Aerial photographs were procured from mixed plantations, in addition to Teak, National Remote Sensing Agency (NRSA), Bombax malabaricum trees were also Hyderabad. observed. In addition to these, two scrub classes (open and dense), grass lands and The aerial photographs procured from rocky area were identified (Fig: 1). NRSA were checked for flight defects printing or development defects, side and DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION lateral overlaps, gap if any and scale, photographs of requisite quality only were The vegetation map prepared by remote accepted. Reconnaissance survey was sensing, GIS and GPS techniques was the conducted with aerial photographs and first of its kind for the Chimmony Wildlife maps. During the field trips, ground Sanctuary. As such, it is a pioneering effort features were correlated with photographic to map the vegetation in a systematic images with the help of pocket stereoscope manner. (Sabins, 1978). In the map prepared from 1:15,000 aerial On the basis of information collected during photographs, 13 land cover classes were reconnaissance, a photo interpretation key identified. Moist-deciduous and Evergreen was prepared (Tomar, 1968), and was used forests (Champian and Seth, 1968) were for delineation of land cover classes and further sub divided in to 3 density classes mapping. Survey of India Toposheets 58 B/ based on canopy density. The total area 7 and 58 B/11 of 1:50,000 scale; 58 B/7 NE covered by the sanctuary is 85.067sq.km. of 1: 25,000 scale, working plan of and the total forested area in the sanctuary Chalakudi Forest Division and is 66.24 sq.km. Management plan of Chimmony Wildlife Sanctuary were used as ancillary data for REFERENCES the present study. The aerial photographs were visually interpreted using the photo- Champion, H.G. and Seth, S.K., 1968. interpretation key. After the completion of Revised Survey of Forest Types of India, photo-interpretation, the interpreted details Govt, of India Publications. were transferred to base maps using optical pantograph. Scale and tilt corrections were Deekshitalu, B.L.and George Joseph, 1991. made, wherever necessary. A base map Science of Remote Sensing. Current was prepared from Survey of India Science, 61 (3& 4): P. 129-135. toposheets. The area estimation of different land cover classes in the aerial photomap Doyle, F.J., 1973.Can satellite photography was carried out using planex - 5000 digital contributes to topographic mapping. In Holz, planimeter. GIS and GPS technology were K.R (Ed.). Remote Sensing of the used for mapping and accuracy evaluation. Environment - The Survellit Saw Houghton, Boston, U.S.A. OBSERVATIONAND RESULTS Howard, J.A. and Lanly, J.P., 1975. Remote Thirteen land cover classes were identified sensing for tropical forest surveys. in the maps prepared from Black and White Unasylva, 27(2): P. 32-37. ECO-CHRONICLE 293
Table 1. Interpretation key for land cover mapping using pan-chromatic aerial photographs No Covertype Tone Texture Pattern Remarks
1. Evergreen forest Black Fine Smooth - 2. Semi evergreen forest Black Medium Smooth - 3. Moist deciduous forest Dark grey Medium Coarse - 4. Scrub open Grayish white Medium Medium - 5. Scrub dense Dark grey Medium Coarse - 6. Sub tropical hill forest Deep black Fine Smooth - 7. Grass land White Fine Smooth - 8. Regeneration Light grey Fine Smooth Distinct crown shape 9. Teak plantations Light grey Medium Coarse - 10. Tribal settlements Yellow white Coarse - Distinct appearance 11. Exposed rock Light grey Rough - - 12. Water body Dark black Fine - - 294 ECO-CHRONICLE Sabins, F.F. 1978. Remote Sensing interpretation in Tropical Forests (Southern Principles and interpretation. Freeman& Co., Zone, Kerala and Madras) UNSF/GOI/FAO/ San Francisco. 426p. PROJECT/IND/100/4. Preinvestment Survey of Forest Resources. Tomar, M.S. 1968. Manual of photo- ECO-CHRONICLE 295
ECO-CHRONICLE, Vol.3., No. 4. December 2008, pp: 295 - 300
ISSN:0973-4155
ASSESSEMENT OF GROUNDWATER QUANTITY IN NOYYAL RIVER BASIN USING GIS
Brema, J. and Prince Arulraj, G.
School of Civil Engineering, Karunya University, Karunya Nagar, Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu.
ABSTRACT
Noyyal river basin is a water starved basin with reference to surface water. The main occupation of people associated with the basin is agriculture. As the surface water system is poorly maintained, groundwater is utilized for irrigation and domestic purposes. Hence it is imperative to study the present scenario of groundwater in the basin to avoid over exploitation.
The objective of this study is to assess the groundwater potential in Noyyal river basin using a GIS based model. Ten years of water level data covering 21 blocks of the basin have been used for the study. The estimated groundwater quantity has been correlated with the groundwater level and rainfall data. Attribute database was integrated with spatial location map using ArcGis 9.1 and maps showing the spatial distribution of water quantity were prepared. Using these maps, the quantity of water available in the aquifer has been estimated using the changes in the water level before and after monsoon, thickness of various layers in the aquifer and the corresponding specific yield values. Correlation analysis has been carried out and it was found that that there is good correlation between the groundwater recharge, rainfall and waterlevel.
Keywords: Water level, groundwater quantity, recharge, premonsoon, postmonsoon.
INTRODUCTION quantity using Geographic Information System (GIS). Groundwater is one of the most important natural resource required for domestic, Literature review agricultural and industrial purposes. The resource can be optimally used only if its Many earlier attempts were carried out in quantity is assessed with reasonable this direction. Ashok Kumar et al., (1999) degree of accuracy. Over the years, analyzed the fluctuations in the water level increasing population, industrialization, using Digital Basement Terrain Model urbanization and expansion in agriculture (DBTM). The study indicated that remotely etc. have resulted in unscientific exploitation sensed lineaments are important for of groundwater resulting in water crisis. Over groundwater exploration and it can be exploitation of groundwater leads to ascertained using DBTM. Ashok Kumar and deterioration of groundwater quality, which Savita Tomar (1998) assessed the makes the water unfit for domestic, irrigation groundwater resources using and industrial purposes. It has been Hydrogeomorphological and Geophysical observed that lack of simple methods of surveys. Hydrogeomorphological units groundwater estimation has lead to were delineated using images and the layer mishandling of the resource. Thus resistivity was analyzed using electrical assessment of groundwater is essential to resistivity method. Narasimha Prasad maintain a proper balance between its (2003) carried out a study on pattern of quantity and usage. This article presents a water level fluctuations, hydro geological method for estimation of groundwater properties of the rocks and groundwater 296 ECO-CHRONICLE assessment using the parameters such as of 3550 sq.km. The basin lies between the drainage, base flow and rainfall. Jayakumar latitudes 10o53’1.06" N to 11o21’57"N and and Ramasamy., (1996) made an attempt longitudes 76o37’49"E to 78o12’55.06"E.The to understand the geology and basin has a length of about 175 km from geomorphology, which control the west to east with an average width of 25 occurrence of groundwater in Attur valley and km. The River basin consists of three sub concluded that deformational features have basins namely Vanathaangarai, Upper a major control over groundwater Noyyal and Lower Noyyal. The basin falls movement. Palanivel and Ramasamy within Coimbatore, Erode and Karur districts (2000) carried out a study to demonstrate of Tamilnadu. The western periphery of the the concept of hardrock aquifer modeling basin is the western ghats which has an using permeability, storage co-efficient, average altitude of 2200 meters (7220 feet) waterlevel data and lithology details, using above mean sea level .The average overlaying technique. Palanivel and elevation of the terrain of the basin in the Ramasamy (2002) carried out a study to western part near the foot of the hills is about evaluate the relationship between the folded 450 meters and it slopes towards east .The structures and the groundwater movement average gradient of the basin is about 2.5 in a test site south of Cauvery and meters per kilo meter(1 in 400). The soil concluded that folded structures have type in Noyyal basin varies from shallow red appreciable control over groundwater flow. non calcareous soils to very deep grey calcareous ones. The rainfall in the basin Study Area is influenced by north-east monsoon and also by pre-monsoon showers and south- Noyyal river is a tributary to the river Cauvery west monsoon. The flow in the system is and the basin is situated in the western part active only during the monsoon periods and of the state. The basin has an aerial extent during the rest of the period, it is found to be
Fig.1. Noyyal River Basin
Fig.2. Location of observation wells ECO-CHRONICLE 297 dry. There are 18 raingauge stations in and layers was calculated. For the purpose of around the basin. The average annual estimation of groundwater, the entire basin rainfall in the basin is 714 mm. The study was divided into cells of size 300m x 300m. area is shown in Fig.1. Each cell was assumed to consist of eight vertical layers mentioned in Table 1. If any MATERIALS AND METHODS layer is not available in the cell, the thickness of that layer is given as zero. Rainfall and ground water quantity analysis was carried out to find the relationship The groundwater stored in each cell of the between rainfall and recharge in the study aquifer was calculated by multiplying the area, over a period of ten years spanning depth of water in each layer and the specific between 1995 to 2005. Pre and post yield of each layer. Thus the groundwater monsoon groundwater table depth was stored in the basin was calculated using analyzed to study the changes in the formula given below: groundwater level over the period. Water n 8 level data from 30 locations have been used GW = a i l ij S ij …….(1) for the study. Water level data have been i1 j1 th th collected from State Ground and Surface Where, lij is the j layer of the i cell in the Water Resources data centre, Chennai. The aquifer and Sij is the specific yield value for locations of the observation wells are the corresponding cell in the layer, ai is the shown in Fig.2. area of the ith cell in m2 and GW is the total groundwater available in the aquifer in Mm3. Water level data before and after monsoon The quantity of groundwater available in the has been assigned in the respective spatial aquifer was estimated before and after the locations using the software ArcGis 9.0 and Southwest and Northeast monsoons. Water level contour maps were prepared using the spatial analyst tool of ArcGis 9.0 The annual groundwater potential of the software. The lithology details of the aquifer basin has been found from: collected from the borehole data, by the GWP = Water available in the basin after Surface and Groundwater Resources Data monsoon – Water available in the basin Centre, Tharamani, Chennai were used for before monsoon + Water utilized during the the study. The thickness of various layers of period. the aquifer such as topsoil, valleyfill, weathered zone etc., were given as attribute RESULTS AND DISCUSSION data at various locations throughout the aquifer. The specific yield values for various Quantity of Groundwater layers shown in Table.1 were also included in the attribute table. Using the water table The Water levels below the ground level level data, the depth of water in the various observed during the months of April to July and August to December were considered Table 1. Values of Specific Yield during the analysis. These months correspond to the period of Southwest and Sl. Aquifer layer Specific Northeast monsoons respectively in the No. Yield region. A raster map of the quantity of groundwater available in each cell has been 1. Top soil 0.068 prepared using ArcGis 9.0 software based 2. Valley fill 0.00015 on the groundwater table level, thickness of various layers in the aquifer and specific 3. Highly weathered 0.042 yield values and the map is shown in Fig.3. 4. Weatheredzone zone 0.032 Using the map, the total groundwater 5. Partially weathered 0.03 available in the basin during a particular zone 6. Fractured zone 0.03 period can be calculated using equation (1). 7. Jointed rock 0.025 Table 2 shows the groundwater potential estimated using the model during the 8. Partially Jointed rock 0.002 Northeast and Southwest monsoon. 298 ECO-CHRONICLE The groundwater recharges in the basin comparatively more. The values of the during both the monsoon periods have estimated groundwater recharge and other been calculated from the premonsoon and details are given in Table 3. postmonsoon groundwater potential and groundwater utilized for irrigation. The It is inferred from the table that the recharge irrigation water requirement for the whole during the southwest monsoon was found basin has been calculated using the details to be least for the year 2000 and the rainfall such as crop water requirement, cropping was also found to be the least. It can be pattern and crop seasons. The water seen from Table.3 that the recharge during requirement for irrigation for a period of one the northeast monsoon was the least for year was found to be 902 Mm3. The irrigation the year 2002 since the rainfall value during water requirement has been distributed as the northeast monsoon is the least for that 35% during the southwest monsoon and year. 65% during northeast monsoon. The percentage of distribution is taken as 65% Groundwater level fluctuation during northeast monsoon as the time duration between northeast and The fluctuations of the groundwater table of consecutive southwest monsoon is the study area before and after monsoon
Table 2. Groundwater Available in Mm3
Year Northeast monsoon Southwest monsoon Premonsoon Postmonsoon Premonsoon Postmonsoon 1995 4778 5067 4587 5054 1996 4586 4847 4669 5005 1997 4964 4836 4873 4892 1998 4777 4937 4587 4835 1999 4852 4707 4544 5067 2000 4764 4723 4645 4583 2001 4414 4339 4464 4663 2002 4559 4357 4253 4432 2003 4609 4505 4516 4463 2004 4405 4893 4369 4474 2005 4778 4976 4587 5020
Fig.3. Groundwater Quantity in the Aquifer ECO-CHRONICLE 299 were analyzed using the data available for between groundwater table level fluctuation the 30 locations over the study area. The and groundwater recharge was found to be average water level in the basin was 0.956. The correlation coefficient between calculated from these data. Fig.4. shows groundwater recharge and cumulative the variation in water table level before and average rainfall of the basin during the after North-East monsoon during the study northeast monsoon period was found to be 0.87. period. It is observed that the maximum increase in water table level was found to The variation in the Groundwater recharge be 3.16m during the year 2004. The average corresponding to water table fluctuation and increase in the water level of the basin average rainfall during southwest monsoon ranges from 3.16m to 0.7m. season is shown in Fig.7. The correlation coefficient between groundwater table Fig.5. shows the variation in water table fluctuation and groundwater recharge was level before and after Southwest monsoon found to be 0.88. The correlation coefficient during the study period. It is observed that between groundwater recharge and there is a considerable increase in water cumulative average rainfall during the table level of 2.27m during the year 1995. monsoon period was found to be 0.899. The basin’s average increase in the water level fluctuations range from 2.27m to 1.0m. CONCLUSION
The variation in the Groundwater recharge A GIS based methodology has been corresponding to water table fluctuation and developed for the estimation of groundwater average rainfall during northeast monsoon potential in Noyyal river basin aquifer. Since season is shown in Fig.6. The graph shows the spatial variation of rainfall and the spatial that with increase in water table fluctuation variation of the aquifer have been and rainfall, there is increase in considered for the estimation of groundwater recharge also. The correlation groundwater potential, the results of the
Table.3. Estimated values of groundwater recharge in Mm3
3 Year Cumulative Rainfall in Water Table Recharge in Mm Total mm fluctuation in m Recharge South North South North South North west east west east west east monsoon monsoon monsoon monsoon monsoon monsoon 1995 568.8 458.3 2.18 2.13 782.7 875.3 1658
1996 484.9 448.6 1.95 2.19 651.7 847.3 1499 1997 234.3 259.7 1.17 1.40 334.7 458.3 793
1998 297.8 438.9 1.91 2.00 563.7 746.3 1310
1999 450.0 271.3 2.27 1.36 838.7 441.3 1280 2000 192.4 287.6 1.23 1.60 253.7 545.3 799 2001 281.9 289.9 1.00 1.48 514.7 511.3 1026
2002 266.4 122.6 1.69 0.70 494.7 384.3 879
2003 228.7 263.6 1.21 1.48 262.7 482.3 745
2004 212.5 421.2 1.42 3.16 420.7 1074.3 1495
2005 251.4 469.2 2.11 2.15 748.7 784.3 1533 300 ECO-CHRONICLE model can be considered reliable. and groundwater recharge is found to be Correlation between the rainfall and the good. groundwater potential, as well as the correlation between the water table and the REFERENCES groundwater potential have been found. The correlation between the rainfall, water table Ashok Kumar, Savita Tomar and Lal Bihari Prasad,1999. Analysis of Fig. 4. Fractures Inferred from DBTM and
1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 Groundwater Remotely Sensed data for 0 0 level variation before and after Groundwater Development in N-E monsoon -5 -5 Godavari Sub-Watershed, Giridh, Bihar, Journal of Indian Society of -10 -10 waterlevel after Remote Sensing, Vol.27 No.2,pp: monsoon 105 -114. -15 -15 waterlevel before monsoon Ashok kumar and Savita -20 -20 Tomar,1998. Groundwater Assessment through hydrogeo Fig. 5. morphological and Geophysical
1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 Groundwater survey – A case study in Godavari 0 level variation Sub-Watershed, Giridh, Bihar, before and after S-W Journal of Indian Society of Remote -5 monsoon Sensing, Vol. 26 No.4, pp: 177 - 183. -10 waterlevel before monsoon Narasimha Prasad, N.B., 2003. -15 Waterlevel after monsoon Assessment of Groundwater -20 Resource in Nileshwar River Basin, Journal of Applied Hydrology, Fig. 6. Groundwater Table Fluctuation, average monsoon Vol. XVI No.3, pp: 52 – 60. rainfall and groundwater recharge during N - E monsoon Jayakumar, R. and Ramasamy, S.M., 1996. Groundwater targeting in hard rock terrains through geomorphic mapping: A case study, Asian Pacific Remote Sensing and GIS Journal, Vol. 8, No. 2, pp:17- 23.
Palanivel, K. and Ramasamy, S. M., 2002. Functions of Groundwater flow in folded aquifer systems, Western ghats region: using Fig. 7. Groundwater Table Fluctuation, average monsoon remote sensing and GIS, rainfall and groundwater recharge during S - W monsoon Proceedings of “IT enabled Spatial data Services”, Bharthidasan University, Tiruchirapalli, pp:205- 207.
Palanivel, K. and Ramasamy, S.M., 2000. GIS and hardrock aquifer function modeling in western ghats, Proceedings of “Geomatics 2000”, P.S.G College of Technology, Coimbatore, pp: 221-225. ECO-CHRONICLE 301
ECO-CHRONICLE, Vol.3., No. 4. December 2008, pp: 301 - 307
ISSN:0973-4155
FINANCIAL PERFORMANCE OF WOMEN MICRO ENTERPRISES IN THE ERA OF GLOBALISATION
Ramanunny, M. and Lalitha, N.
Department of Rural Development, Gandhigram Rural University, Dindigul, Tamilnadu.
ABSTRACT
The last one decade witnessed substantial growth in the number of women micro enterprises all throughout the country. The chances offered by globalization were one of the reasons for creating new opportunities in the market for the entrepreneurs to venture in. But globalization also posed challenges to the micro enterprises, especially those run by women. Infusion of technology, backing of marketing infrastructure etc. are the major strengths of global players which are causing serious threat to the existence of micro enterprises. A study was conducted in Thrissur District, Kerala, to analyze the performance of women micro enterprises during the last four years to assess the impact of globalization.
Key words: Financial viability, Kudumbashree, Women Micro Enterprises.
BACKGROUND was done to evaluate the financial viability of micro enterprises run by women in the Globalization is the process of integration era of globalization. of all the economies of the world so that there is free movement of goods, services, MATERIALS AND METHODS technology and capital, including labour, across national boundaries. Globalization The study was conducted with the objective is said to have contributed heavily to bring of assessing the financial viability of micro- about vast changes in the lives of people enterprises run by women in Thrissur especially women. As part of these changes, District of Kerala State. Thrissur District was women who are ready to make use of new chosen because of the centrality of location opportunities have entered the traditional and presence of maximum number of male bastions of entrepreneurship. It is women micro enterprises registered with reckoned that those who are averse to District Industries Centre and change will suffer badly because of the Kudumbashree. shifting nature of agriculture, increasing competition in industry and the shrinking of Sample traditional employment avenues. However, with the enterprises started by women, The study design is descriptive. Multi stage worries remain as to whether these stratified random sampling is used for enterprises will be able to face the selection of sample. The micro enterprises challenges posed by technological are categorized into urban, rural, individual, changes and stiff competition, especially traditional, innovative etc. Samples were from global players. It is possible that many drawn from District Industries Centre, of the new micro enterprises might perish Poverty Eradication cell of District Panchayat due to the competition. Hence this study and State Poverty Eradication Mission 302 ECO-CHRONICLE (Kudumbashree). This comprised of field functionality. To identify emerging women entrepreneurs involved in business opportunities, participatory rural production, manufacturing, trading and appraisal is conducted with entrepreneurs, servicing type of enterprises. From a representatives of NGOs and the line population of 2342 enterprises run by department functionaries. women, those having existence of 3 or more years were included. There were 810 such After finalizing the research design and enterprises which were divided into 16 sub interview schedule, data were collected groups. Using random number tables, 127 through personal interviews with the were selected which formed the population entrepreneurs. Prior to data collection all for this study. The details are shown in Table 1. relevant secondary information were collected with regard to the number of Of the 127 units, 8 were excluded. Coconut agencies, institutions working for women palm climbing is attempted mainly by men. entrepreneurs, type of assistance rendered Even though subsidy was paid to the by various agencies and the circulars and women entrepreneur, the unit was run by guidelines issued by Ministry of Industries, her spouse. After their marriages, 2 Government of India, State Directorate of entrepreneurs migrated to a nearby district Industries, Department of Local Self leading to the closure of the units. Two Government Institutions, Kudumbashree, entrepreneurs registered both in DIC and NABARD and RBI. Kudumbashree which resulted in duplication of data. One of the units started Data analysis after registration became defunct and one The responses for each item in the interview unit has not started. The details showing schedule were scored and recorded the list of enterprises which were excluded electronically. Statistical analysis was done are shown in Table 2. using Mstat C, a software . The raw scores were converted into indices. The statistical Thus a total of 119 units, of which 75 tests done included frequency, percentage, manufacturing, 1 assembling, 6 analysis of variance, correlation coefficients processing, 7 job work, 3 repair and and multiple regressions. Case studies maintenance and 27 service enterprises – were also prepared to record the progress were contacted for the purpose of or success of the entrepreneurs. investigation. RESULTS Data collection Only 33% of units studied were found to be profitable and 67% of units had incurred The entrepreneurs selected for the study losses. Due to loss, 12 % of units had been constitute the primary source of data. shut down and 55% of units were still Information about the working of the unit, functional (Table-3A & B). reason for the starting of unit, source of finance etc constitute primary data. The Over 4 years, the number of profitable units information recorded in the books and had increased from 11% to 33% (Table-4). registers of the unit and recorded by the Of these, 17% were manufacturing units, various promotional agencies such as DIC, 8.4% were service sector units, 4.2% job District Panchayat etc along with the works, 1.6% processing, 0.8 % assembling instructions issued by government and and 0.8% repair and maintenance unit. banks constitute secondary data. For data collection, 2 different types of interview Of the loss making units, it was found that schedules, one for individual and the other 69% of units were in the manufacturing for group enterprises were prepared. The sector. However, of the profit making units, schedules were pre-tested and difficult only 51% of units were in the manufacturing items were removed leading to improved sector. ECO-CHRONICLE 303 Table 1. Categorization of entreprises selected for About 80% of the units were self study. employment units and less than 20% are utilizing either family or hired labour. Sl. Category Total No. Bank loans constituted the major 1 Rural Individual Traditional Product 38 source of capital followed by 2 Rural Individual Traditional Service 14 government subsidies and 3 Rural Group Traditional Product 4 revolving fund from local governments. Only in less than 5% 4 Rural Group Traditional Service 1 of cases did a second infusion of 5 Rural Individual Innovative Product 21 funds happen. 6 Rural Individual Innovative Service 8 As mentioned earlier, 67% of units 7 Rural Group Innovative Product 2 had not reached a break even 8 Rural Group Innovative Service 2 stage. Even though 55% of units 9 Urban Individual Traditional Product 8 were incurring losses, their 10 Urban Individual Traditional Service 3 promoters/entrepreneurs were still receiving their salaries. In 11 Urban Group Traditional Product 6 other words, they were just 12 Urban Group Traditional Service 4 managing the businesses without 13 Urban Individual Innovative Product 5 making a profit but were offering 14 Urban Individual Innovative Service 4 employment to the entrepreneurs. 15 Urban Group Innovative Product 1 The majority of the respondents 16 Urban Group Innovative Service 6 showed signs of empowerment. Total 127 The selection of activity, management and conflict resolution helped them to improve Table 2. List of enterprises whose details are not their decision making skills. Most available of them are of the opinion that Sl. Reason No. women should concentrate on No. of business matters and contribute Units to the family income along with men. No. of units ceased working due to 1 marriage of entrepreneur 2 No. of units started but not working DISCUSSION 2 now 1 No. of units registered but not started This study looked at the impact of 3 working 1 globalization on the success or otherwise of women’s micro 4 No. of units run by men 1 enterprises in Kerala. The micro 5 No. of units that could not be found out 1 enterprises were spread across a No. of units selected because of variety of markets including some 6 duplication of data 2 niche markets. Most of the successful ones were those which It was found that 92% of enterprises were selling managed to find themselves in their products in the local market and only 4.2% of niche sectors. The discovery of units were exploiting the potential outside the local such markets depended on the market. The dependence of 2.5% of units on educational qualifications, family government departmental purchases was regarded backgrounds and socio economic as a major threat for their existence (Table-6). profiles of the entrepreneurs. 304 ECO-CHRONICLE Table 3. A. Classification of profit making entreprises Proprietary Partnership Co- Informal Total operative Association / SHG / NHG
a Manufacturing 15 4 - 1 20 b Assembling - - - 1 1 c Processing - - 1 1 2 d Job Work 5 - - - 5 Repair & e 1 - - - 1 Maintenance f Service 6 - - 4 10 Total 27 4 1 7 39
Table 3. B. Classification of entreprises working on loss Proprietary Partnership Co- Informal Total operative Association / SHG / NHG a Manufacturing 35 3 1 7 46 b Processing 3 - - 1 4 d Job Work 1 - 1 - 2 c Repair & 1 - 1 - 2 Maintenance d Service 8 - - 4 12 Total 48 3 3 12 66
Therefore, it has to be concluded that become saturated. Women’s enterprises entrepreneurship remains a difficult area start off with many weaknesses and a to train people in. As far as women’s combination of strategies might have to be entrepreneurship is concerned, there is a used in order to taste success. lack of good models to guide them. One of the findings in this study was that When successful enterprises are studied it nearly 70% of the loss-making units were is seen that they have developed enterprise- in the manufacturing sector. However, only specific strategies rather than followed a 50 % of the profit-making units were in that general model leading to difficulties in sector. This suggests that close attention generalizing from successful models. needs to be paid to various aspects of this sector which decide the profitability of micro Against the background of globalization, the enterprises. For sales to increase, the need realities of the marketplace are that is to tap into markets beyond the local ones. consumer needs are often created which For this to happen, micro enterprises have are then met through businesses. Often, by to compete with far bigger players and also the time others recognize the same with the micro units of that area. This opportunities, the markets would have requires infusion of capital as well as ECO-CHRONICLE 305 Table 4. List of entreprises working on profit along with the year Sl. Name of Unit Year No 2004 2005 2006 2007 -05 -06 -07 -08 1 Aiswarya Herbal Beauty Parlour Profit Profit 2 Hexogon Corrugated Profit Profit Profit Profit 3 Kannampuzha Engineering Works Profit Profit Profit Profit 4 Kerashree Profit Loss Profit 5 Krishna Printers Profit Profit Profit Profit 6 M.M.V Product Profit Profit Profit 7 Mahalakshmi Garments Profit Profit Profit Profit 8 Neighbours Profit Profit Profit Profit 9 New Sathya Garments Profit Profit Profit Profit 10 Nishinas Collections Profit 11 St.Thomas Mosquito Umbrella Profit Profit 12 Swagat Forging Process Profit 13 Vijayasree Catering Profit Profit Profit 14 Bagyavathy Handlooms Profit 15 Bhavana Jewellery Die Works Profit Profit Profit Profit 16 Classic Brassiers Profit Profit Profit Profit 17 Infinne Inner Garments Profit Profit 18 Mails India Profit 19 Parakudiyil Hollow Bricks Profit 20 PLY Max Profit 21 Rubber Land Profit Profit Profit Profit 22 Santhwanam Profit Profit Profit 23 Shelfy Electronics Profit Profit Profit Profit 24 Sirosauthi Natural Herbal Oil Profit 25 Sneha Garments Profit 26 Venu's Concrete Furniture Works Profit 27 Winsome Apparels Profit Profit Profit Profit 28 Champion Industries Profit Profit Profit 29 Favourite Food Products Profit Profit Profit 30 Gurukripa Profit Profit Loss Profit 31 Nisari Industries Profit Profit Profit 32 Shari Binu (Lakshmi Garments) Profit 33 Sneha Deepam Food Products Profit 34 Tasty Canteen & Catering Unit Profit 35 Akshaya Centre Profit Profit 36 Akshaya Tailoring Centre Profit 37 Clean Kerala Loss Loss Loss Profit 38 Lalitha Industries Profit Profit Profit Profit 39 Thejas Garments & Tailors Profit Profit 306 ECO-CHRONICLE Table 5. Classification of entreprises on Theorizing about entrepreneurship, the basis of markets Entrepreneurship theory and practice, 16(2), PP 13-22.
a Local Market 109 David, L. Birch, 1987. Job creation in America. Free Press, New York. b Marketed Outside The State 4 Desai Vasant, 1991. Entrepreneurial c Export 2 Development, Vol.1, Himalaya Publishing B-B Arrangements / Sold to House, Mumbai. d 1 Mother Unit Depending on Government / e 3 Government of India, 2007. Report on Department Purchase conditions of work and promotion of lively Total 119 hoods in organized sector, NCEUS, New Delhi. improvements in technology. However, we Institute of Small Enterprise and found that less than 5 % of the units had Development, 2008. India Micro, Small and brought in additional capital after the initial Medium Enterprises – Report, ISED, Kochi. outlay. Also, in most cases, the surplus generated was not ploughed back into the Jan Tinbergen, 1967. Development same ventures. planning, translated from the Dutch by N.D. Smith, World University Library, London. Another finding was that successful enterprises led to the establishment of Jaya, S. Anand, 2002. Self Help Groups in similar but rival units leading to an increase empowering women, case study of selected in local competition. SHGs and NHGs, Rainbow Publishers,Noida,U.P. CONCLUSION Lalitha, N. and Nagarajan, B.S., 2002. Self It is clear that there is no single remedy that Help Groups in Rural Development- can sort out the problems faced by women Dominant Publishers and Distributers, New entrepreneurs. But a comprehensive Delhi, Page 230. strategy involving all stake holders including the family members of the entrepreneurs is Mathew, P.M., 2007. Social Enterprise under required to ensure the sustenance of such globalization - International Institute of enterprises. Society should see the corporate social responsibility, Nottingham. problems of entrepreneurs as their own and help to evolve strategies which are Mridul Eapen, 2003. “Rural Industrialization comprehensive, holistic and futuristic. in Kerala: Re examining the issue of Rural Growth Linkages”, International Seminar REFERENCES held in January 2003, Dept. of Applied Economics, CUSAT Page 33-34. Barreto Humberto, 1960. The Entrepreneur in micro economic theory-Disappearance Mukesh Gupta, 2006 . Theory of and explanation- Routledge, London, New entrepreneurship, Raj Publishing House, York. Jaipur.
Brochi, W.G. 1978. The village entrepreneur. Purushotham, P., 2006. National Study on Cambridge Harvard University Press. SGSY: A process study centre for self employment and Rural Enterprises, NIRD. Bygrave, W.D. and Hofer, C.F., 1991. Hyderabad, Page 132. ECO-CHRONICLE 307 Rabindra, N. Kanungo (Ed), 1998. Takshak, Renu., 1990. Credit procurement Entrepreneurship and innovation – Models and utilization by women entrepreneurs. for Development – Sage Publications, New M.Sc. thesis submitted to Haryana Delhi. Agricultural University, Hisar.
Sreeramulu, G., 2006. Empowerment of Vineetha Menon, P.R., Gopinathan Nair, Nair women through Self Help Group – Kalpaz K.N., (Eds), 2005. Alleviating Poverty, Case Publication, New Delhi. studies of Local Level Linkages and Processes in the Developing World. Swain, C.B. and Tucker, W.R., 1973. The Rainbow Publishers, Noida, UP. effective entrepreneurs. General Learning Press, New Jersey. 308 ECO-CHRONICLE ECO-CHRONICLE (ISSN: 0973 - 4155)
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