Explorations in the Glacier Regions of the Selkirk Range, , in 1888 Author(s): W. Spotswood Green Source: Proceedings of the Royal Geographical Society and Monthly Record of Geography, New Monthly Series, Vol. 11, No. 3 (Mar., 1889), pp. 153-170 Published by: Wiley on behalf of The Royal Geographical Society (with the Institute of British Geographers) Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/1801355 . Accessed: 12/06/2014 20:28

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Explorations in the Glaeier "Regions of the SeTkirk Range, British Columbia, in 1888. By Eev. W. Spotswood Green, m.a. (Read at the Evening Meeting,February 11th, 1889.) Map, p. 196. Travellers by any of the great lines of railway crossing the American continent cannot fail to be struck by the contrast when, after passing over hundreds of miles of rolling prairie, with a horizon line like that of the ocean, they gain the first sight of the Eocky Mountains. On none of the routes to the westward is this contrast so pronounced as on the Canadian Pacific Bailway. For 900 miles west of Winnipeg stretch the great plains; their rolling billowy downs clothed for the most part in the yellow prairie grass, and often gay with flowers. Near Calgary the purple snow-tipped rampart comes into view to the westward, and as we penetrate through the foot hills, where prairie flats and mountain ruggedness seem for a few miles to be struggling for the mastery, we come suddenly on great bare cliffs with strata tilted at high angles in huge slabs, and at once recognise the singular appropriateness of the " " name Eocky as applied to this range of mountains par excellence. The prairie slopes gently upwards to the westward, so that when we reach the foot hills we are already 3500 feet above the sea. Following the Bow river for a considerable distance, the railway ascends, with no severe gradient, and reaches the Hector Pass (5190 feet), gaining the last 1600 feet in 100 miles. Then comes the most critical bit of the whole line, the plunge towards the Columbia. In addition to our own engine, a huge locomotive, weighing 117 tons, lets us down the gradient of one in 22^, with the greatest caution, to Field Station, whence we go on our way, following the Wapta river. For miles we seem to be racing the wild torrent, as it roars and foams through its canon, till at last, issuing from a rugged mountain gate, we enter the smiling valley of the Columbia. Before us the Selkirk range rises to snow-clad peaks, with lower slopes completely covered with heavy forest. The highest peaks are not yet visible, and the dark-green pine forest is the feature which strikes us most. Following the Columbia for about 20 miles to the northward, the line enters the Selkirks by the valley of the Beaver river. Up steep gradients, though not so steep as those in the Eockies, we enter the grand defile between Mounts McDonald and Tupper, whose great, bare, snow-seamed crags almost overhang the track, and so reach Eogers' Pass, 900 feet lower than the pass across the Eockies, and then, down by the valley of the Illecellewaet, the Columbia is once more reached. Making a second crossing of that river, the line ascends the Gold Eange, and so, through the grand canons of the Thomson and Fraser rivers, goes on its way to the Pacific.

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In a general way, all these ranges are grouped under the name Eocky Mountains, that being a convenient term for all this cor? dillera region which forms the backbone of the American continent; but, on tbe route I have sketched, tbe term Eocky Mountains is reserved for tbe range wbicb, broken and twisted as it may be, forms the waterparting of the continent. This great divide we crossed at Hector Pass. The Selkirk range to the westward is entirely bounded by the great bend of tbe Columbia and its tributary, the Kootenie, and the drainage of all its glaciers finds its way into the Columbia in some part or other of its course. The depression partly occupied by the Kootenie and Columbia is, however, much longer than tbe Selkirk range, and extends as a very remarkable physical feature for 600 miles north and south, parallel to the Eockies. The course of these rivers from their upper waters, divided by only 1^ miles of flat land, through which a canal is now being cut, to where, after courses in opposite directions of over 700 miles, they at last unite, is an interesting study on any map of tbe district, and when investigated in detail on the spot, is suggestive of many questions regarding their past history The Columbia for tbe first 170 miles of its course flows northward, while the Kootenie turns southward; but, according to Dr. Dawson, who has examined the drift deposits in the valley, there is abundant evidence in favour of the belief that in glacial times the drainage of the valley was altogether to the southward?boulders have been transported, and the early rivers formed fans of detritus in that direction. It seems, therefore, tbat some downward movement of the land to tbe northward must have taken place, which gave the Columbia its determination in that direction. I ascended the Columbia to Lake Windermere, for tbe sake of seeing the Selkirk range to its termination in the Kootenie Valley, and of gaining some idea of the tributaries coming from tbe Selkirk Glaciers, and was much interested in the bench and terrace formations, which record the old levels occupied by both lakes and rivers, in the upper portion of the valley. As we ascended the Columbia, deep sunk in its trough-shaped valley, the contrast between the Selkirk range and the Eockies, to which I have already referred, was most marked. The Selkirk range on our right rose in gentle slopes and tiers of foot-hills ricbly clad in pine forests, and cleft by far-reaching valleys, that of the Spillamachene river being the most important; while to tbe left the Eockies towered up from almost barren benches of white silt, with a sparse sprinkling of Douglas firs, in great bare precipices of pinkish-white limestone to rugged mountain forms at once. No large tributary joins the Columbia from that direction for 80 miles, only brooks half lost in the shingle brought down by spring torrents. The Kootenie-Columbia river system is so important a factor in tbe delineation of the district, that it had first claim on our attention.

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The Kocky Mountain range needs a few words more. If we look at a section of the range from the prairie to the Columbia Valley, as shown in the Eeport of the Geological Survey of Canada, we see that it consists of a series of sedimentary rocks referred to the cretaceous, carboniferous, Devonian, and Cambrian formations; and though the strata are much contorted and overturned, the newer rocks belong to the eastward, while the older rocks crop out to the westward portion of the section. The mountain forms have been determined to a great extent by the lie of the strata. We have the fine castellated form of cleft horizontal strata, that of vertical strata; and, near Banff, every traveller must be struck by the great curved-strata mountains, with their round, sloping backs and steep, scarped faces, more curious than beautiful. The peaks near the Hector Pass are probably as high as any in the range north of the United States boundary?Mount Lefroy and his neighbours rising 11,600 feet above the sea. The heights given for Mounts Hooker and Brown, near the Athabasca Pass, 17,000 and 16,000 feet, are no doubt exaggerated. From the high peaks of the Selkirks I could scan the Bockies for at least 200 miles, and from the arete of Sir Donald, what appeared to me to be the highest group of peaks, bore about due east. Mr. McArthur, the Government Surveyor, at present engaged on the survey of the Bockies, expressed to me his opinion, that though his work has not as yet carried him so far, he has reached points where such high mountains must have been visible if they existed. I was not able to see as much of the glaciers in the Bockies as I should have wished; one at the head of the charming Lake Louise, at the foot of Mount Lefroy, I visited on our homeward journey in September. This glacier was formed almost entirely by avalanches falling from the hanging glaciers above. One of these occupied a bench, about a thousand feet up, on the vertical cliffs of Mount Lefroy, and during the day and night I was camped there alone, my companion having missed me in the forest; avalanches fell continually, waking the echoes with the roar of thunder. Strangely enough they seemed to fall more frequently between two and five o'clock a.m. than at any other time. The atmosphere, already obscured to such an extent by smoke from the burning forests, that distant views were rarely obtained, and photography was impossible, became charged with clouds, and the weather, hitherto so beautiful, broke with thunder, lightning, and heavy rain. The most remarkable glacier, hitherto discovered on the Bockies, is situated to the north of Hector Pass, and extends on a rocky bench capping in some places the watershed and surrounding the rugged peaks rising like islands from its midst, as a continuous snow-field for about 30 miles. Mr. McArthur called my attention to it in the first instance and from near Laggan I was able to see a portion of it distinctly. Like the hanging glaciers on Mount Lefroy it sends its ice down by avalanches, forming glaciers remanies in the neighbouring valleys.

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From what I have already said, it will be gathered that the Eockies are being carefully surveyed, topographically and geologically. Not so- the Selkirks. This, however, is not strange, for with such vast areas to be surveyed, it is not to be wondered at that the department should for the present, have set them aside. The Selkirks are also much more difficult to travel than the Eockies. In the Eockies a pack-horse can be taken almost anywhere, the forests being comparatively open. In the Selkirks horses are practically useless, the timbered slopes being nearly inaccessible, on account of the rank vegetation. Since the opening of the Canadian Pacific Eailwayin 1886, travellers have always been struck with the beauty of the Selkirk scenery, but though some excellent photographs have been taken from the railway track, it was difficult to obtain any succinct account of the glaciers, valleys, or mountain peaks. There was no published map of these ranges; so, acting on the suggestion of Prof. Macoun, of Ottawa, I determined to go out and explore these glacier regions of the Selkirks, so far as was possible in the time at my disposal, and give some pre? liminary account of them, which might instigate and be useful to others who may have fuller opportunities. The Council of the Eoyal Geo? graphical Society considered that such a report and map as I might be able to construct, would be of sufficient interest and value to justify them in assisting me, by the loan of instruments and a grant in aid of my journey. Mr. Van Horne, president of the C.P.E. Co., offered a free pass on their line, and the managers of the Anchor Line Steamship Company were kind enough to grant us return saloon passages in their splendid liner, the City of Rome, for single fare. On June 28th, my cousin, the Eev. Henry Swanzy, and I sailed from Queenstown. He had been with me on glacier expeditions in Switzerland, and he had crossed the Selkirk range in 1884, before the railway was made. Our kit was somewhat extensive. Besides our ordinary luggage we took with us three tents, blankets, &c.; three photographic cameras (two half-plate, and one a Stirn's patent detective); three ice-axes, rifles, rope, and the set of surveying instruments kindly lent by your Society. On reaching New York we proceeded without delay to Ottawa, where we had the good fortune to meet Major Deville, the Surveyor-General, and in the officeof the Survey he showed me all the maps which might be use? ful, and gave me much valuable information. A MS. map of the line of railway through the Selkirks, on a scale of two miles to an inch, was the most helpful, so I made a tracing of it; and as he said I might trust it so far as the railway was concerned, 1 have used it as a basis for my map. Some of the peaks in sight from the railway were located, and their heights, trigonometrically obtained by Mr. Otto Klotz, assistant Govern? ment surveyor, were set down, but there was no attempt at detaii. On arriving in the Selkirks, we put up at the Glacier Hotel, which is built on the plan of a Swiss chalet. Since all trains halt here for

This content downloaded from 194.29.185.109 on Thu, 12 Jun 2014 20:28:26 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions SELKIRK RANGE,BRITISH COLUMBIA,IN 1888. 157 dinner, it is well provided, and we were most hospitably treated and well cared for in every way. Within an easy afternoon's stroll is the end of the great glacier, the chief source of the Illecellewaet river. Being in full view from the railway, it is one of the sights of tbe Selkirks, and is already paid due honour in the guide-book. As we look at it from the railway, tbe fine peak of Sir Donald (10,645 feet high) stands like a great obelisk of rock to tbe left, and on tbe opposite side of the glacier there is a pointed forest-clad ridge separating the glacier valley from a branch valley running up into the mountains for about four miles, abounding in beautiful scenery, and headed by the Asulkan glacier. To fix the positions of tbe neighbouring peaks, and map out tbe Illecellewaet glacier and tbe snow-field from which it descends, was the first work I took in hand. There was great difficulty in finding any place level enough for a base line, but at last I succeeded in measuring a line of 660 yards, on tbe top of tbe snow sbeds, on tbe side of tbe valley opposite tbe botel. From this I fixed a point near the hotel, and my fourth station was tbe summit of tbe ridge separating ibe Illecelle? waet glacier from tbat of tbe Asulkan glacier to which I have already referred. Working on in this manner, I made in all twenty-two plane- table stations, measured four base lines, and from other points took bearings with a prismatic compass. Besides sketching panoramas, we pkotographed tbe views from most of our stations, took observations of barometer and thermometer, and from these data I have constructed the map which accompanies this paper. One element at least is wanting, viz. elevations of points which we did not reach. I had a sextant with me for this purpose, but on our very first expedition, with a pack-horse, the animal was seized witb a sudden paroxysm of buck jumping, kicked tbe packs off,rolled on them, smashed tbe sextant to bits, and broke a valuable thermometer belonging to your Society, but a box of photo? graphic plates fortunately escaped. From tbat time forward I never again trusted our instruments to tbe mercy of a horse. Having acquired some idea of the region round the hotel and tbe neighbouring glaciers, I was anxious to gain some commanding point, whence we might see what lay beyond tbe upper snow-field. Sir Donald looked very difficult, but our first long expedition landed us on a little peak on his southern sboulder. From the main peak, which rose 600 feet above us, we were hopelessly cut offby a cleft 200 feet deep. But from tbe point we reached we had one of tbe most interesting views it is possible to imagine. Now, for tbe first time, we saw what tbe glacier regions of the Selkirks really meant. From the base of the peak we were on, the great snow-field extended for over 10 miles. Beyond it to the southward, and away in an unending series, far as eye could reach, rose range after range of snowy peaks with glaciers in the hollows: peaks and glaciers were simply innumerable. Looking westward and northward a similar prospect presented itself.

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Bearing south-west of us a big ridge rose beyond two intervening moun? tain ranges. It seemed to us the highest of all, and on my plane-table sheet I designated it provisionally the Big Grat. The face towards us was a black precipice, but the aretes to right and left rose gradually from snowy ridges which seemed accessible, so I formed a hope that we might some day reach its summit. How to reach its foot was then to us a mystery, but we did in due time, and with less difficulty than we expected, reach the valley above which it rose, and set up the plane- table on its highest crest. Another group of mountains beyond the great snow-field also attracted our attention. Difficulty as to the transport of provisions pre? vented our attempting any of its peaks, but we ascended a portion of a fine glacier in its midst. This group I have named the Dawson range, after one whose name will always be connected with the geology of the American continent.* The peaks in view seemed very uniform as to height, a great number rising to the level of 10,000 feet, and few, if any, reaching 11,000. This I judged from comparison with those the heights of which have been ascertained. They varied much as to form. Sir Donald, some of the lower peaks of the same chain, also some distant summits which I sketched, are bare rock peaks, with glaciers in the hollows beneath, other mountains looked like the Titlis as viewed from the Bigi. The peaks do not rise so high above the general level of the glacier firns as to be comparable with the higher ranges of the Swiss Alps. They resemble more some of the ranges of the Tyrol. The grand forest-clad valleys of the Selkirks can, however, scarcely be surpassed for beauty. The St. Gothard Valley, and the ranges between it and the Bernese Oberland, including the Bhone Glacier, will afford the best comparison I can think of, but the views obtained from the Canadian Pacific Bailway are grander than anything visible from the St. Gothard. Turning from the snowy regions and looking eastward, an entirely different prospect presented itself. Down below great rock precipices, which, as we sat on our peak, we seemed to overhang, 5000 feet below our feet the Beaver Creek wound its way through green scrub and dark pine forest, like a silver thread. Beyond it a range of hills rose, which in form differed so completely from anything I ever before saw, that I must try and describe them as accurately as possible. They rose from Beaver Creek, first in slopes of detritus, covered with scrub and forest to about * The extent of our surveydepended almost entirelyon the distance to whichwe wereable to carryprovisions. This meant that we were never able to be morethan a week away from the railway. "Whitemen in America cannot be counted on for " packing"; the blanketsand provisionsthey require renderthe extraamount they can carryof no value. The Indians are the men to look to,but in the Selkirks thereare no Indians resident. One familyof Sushwap Indians hunt in theseranges, and downalong " " the line towardsKamloops packers of this tribe mightbe engaged who could carry 70 lb. packs, and requirecomparatively little for their own comfort.

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1000 feet; then came vertical precipices for 1000 feet more; the top was in general outline a level grass-covered plateau; and beyond, another nearly parallel valley, drained by a fork of Beaver Creek, defined the plateau at an equal breadth of about half a mile, and about five miles long. At right angles to the precipices overhanging the valleys, a number of low ridges cut the plateau across from side to side ; I counted seven of them. They were nearly equidistant, and the ground between dipped in a gentle even curve. If a strip of cloth was laid loosely on the rungs of a ladder laid down flat, a capital representation would be formed of the surface of these plateaux. On the northern side of these ridges an even line of snow lay unmelted, marking their outline with even greater precision. Beyond the forks of Beaver Creek these plateaux continued, but with much less regularity, and I afterwards heard that they are known to hunters and prospectors as the Prairie Hills, and tbat it is possible to ride over them for dozens of miles without difficulty; the approach to them, however, is in every case up steep, forest-clad mountain sides. So far as I could see, the lie of the strata had nothing to say to the formation of these ridges; and the only explanation I can think of, in the absence of closer examination is, that being in parallel lines point- ing towards the snowy range, they are markings of glaciers which moved eastward, towards the Columbia Valley from the high central range, in glacial times, and that since the passing away of the protecting ice, Beaver Creek has sculptured out its valley at right angles to the former drainage lines. From what I saw on this excursion up the ridge of Sir Donald, I came to the conclusion that our next expedition must be to cross the great snow-field and obtain some knowledge of the valleys beyond. Now came a great difficulty; it was almost impossible to get the help of men to act as porters. After much negociation, two respectable young men, working as navvies on the railway, volunteered to come. So, packing up a tent and provisions enough for about a week, we started up the eastern side of the glacier, under the cliffs of Sir Donald, and camped the first night on a rock which I have called the Perley Eock. This lay above the snow-line, so we had to carry up loads of firewood from the upper limit of dwarf gnarled timber. At daybreak next morning, making a sledge of the tent-poles, and packing all our goods on it, we harnessed ourselves and set offup the gentle swells of snow towards the summit ridge. The snow was crisp and the sledge worked admirably, and in little more than two hours we were on the watershed. Here the glacier field was almost level for about two miles, so I took the opportunity of measuring a new base-line of 660 yards, and spent nearly two hours making observations; the barometer read 21*5; thermometer in shade, 44?. Having par taken of breakfast, we started along the ridge, descending gradually to the south-

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ward. Now we saw that a glacier poured down into Beaver Creek to the east, and to the south-west another descended into tbe valley between us and the Dawson range. On reaching a point where the descent to this valley became more abrupt, I determined to leave the sledge here, while my cousin and I descended to explore the way ahead. Having arranged a signal which sbould mean tbat our companions sbould follow us down tbe slope with the sledge, we roped up and sped quickly downwards. The sledge soon became a dim speck, and then it was out of sight. Crevasses became more numerous, so we had to go cautiously. Threading our way through big seracs, in an hour from the time we left tbe sledge we reached a point whence we could see rigbfc down into the valley. In its bottom a fine glacier wound its sinuous course till lost to sight beyond a bend. Grand precipices flanked it on either hand, and piles of avalanche snow lay half covering the crevasses, wbicb were in a regular network over its entire surface. Cautiously we crossed a few snow bridges, but it became too evident that this was no road for the sledge. Had we been by ourselves, and unencumbered, I feel certain we could have got down, if not through tbe ice-fall, at least by retracing our steps, making' a detour of about a mile, and keeping close under tbe cliffs of the Dawson range. The glacier below was in the worst possible condition, just enough loose snow on its surface to make it into a whole series of pitfalls. So, after admiring the savage wildness of a scene on which I suppose our eyes were the first to look, we retraced our steps, and turned our backs on what I have called the Geikie Glacier, and our sledge was reached in due course after a weary plod up hill. As the day was passing, we had to turn our attention to finding some way of getting down to a camping ground. The two young men said they were parched with thirst and should get water, so leaving the sledge, and taking provisions for a meal, we set offto a rock peak overlooking Beaver Creek; here we melted snow on the hot rocks, ate our dinner, and inspected the great precipice from end to end. An enormous, heavy ice cornice overhung its entire length, from which avalanches fell into tbe valley below. The view over the Prairie Hills was exquisite, and to the Eockies, 60 miles distant, but we could find no way down; and as we did not see our way to camping in tbe snow, and no rock was available, there was nothing for it but to sledge back to Perly Eock, and try to reach it before dark. Tbe sun had softened the surface, so that though the slope was in our favour it was a heavy pull, and only by a series of spurts at the end was I able to get all hands to pull together. Thunder was now growling, and before we could get our supper cooked a fierce storm broke upon us. We buddled into the tent, and so prevented it frombeing blown offinto space; the silvery shafts of ligbtning blazed around, tbe rain came down in torrents, and tbe night we spent was not one of the pleasantest experiences of my life. The two young men said tbat they bad had enough of it, and that nothing would

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induce them to spend another night out. The descent to the hotel was made tho next day in teeming rain. We had secured a fine set of photo? graphs, sketches, and observations, and we had acquired a knowledge of the district which formed the foundation of all our future work. The valley we had looked into was unknown. Mr. Hume, assistant manager of the hotel, who had made some excursions with Messrs. Topham in last spring, believed it must be the valley which opened at the Loop. To test the accuracy of that supposition was our next excursion. For the next three weeks Mr. Swanzy and I worked on without any help. During that time we proved that the Loop Valley was not the one we had looked into from the great snow-field. Next we ascended the glacier leading to what I have called the Asulkan Pass,* on account of the great number of wild goats we met with, and so reached the valley of the Geikie Glacier once more. Then by means of double packs we managed to convey our camp to the head of the Loop Valley. From this camp, which was our headquarters for five days, we thoroughly explored the fine glaciers around . We crossed two passes, and in a day of 18 hours' hard work, with plane- table and photographic apparatus packed on our shoulders, we made the ascent of the highest peak (10,622 feet). This involved an ascent from our camp, over wholly unknown ground, of 6500 feet. After these expeditions we went by invitation to visit Mr. Corbin's mines at Illecellewaet, about 15 miles down the line to the westward. He kindly lent horses, and we rode up an excellent zigzag mule path over the mountain to the north of the line, crossing a pass 4000 feet above the track, and were able to take most important observations from an entirely new point of view of the group of mountains we had been working at. Crossing the mountain range, we descended into the North Fork of the Illecellewaet river, and got views of the glacier sources of its streams. Two thousand feet below the pass we reached the mining camp ; a single tent built on a little stage of pine logs, there being no level spot on which it could stand. Tho mines consisted of a few levels driven into the mountain side; heaps of rich argentiferous galena, in quartz, were built up at the entrance of the shafts. On this excursion we were fortunate to fall in with Mr, B. Macord, " known better as Mountaineer Ben "; he had served when a lad on the United States Boundary Expedition, and in the Bocky Mountain Rangers during BiePs rebellion. We arranged with him to return with us to Glacier House, and we had his valuable aid in our expedition over the shoulder of Mount Macdonald with a pack horse to Beaver Creek was a (this desperate struggle through tangled forest, and fully de? monstrated the difficulties of "packing" through the Selkirks. On three occasions the horse had the narrowest escape possible of being * Asulkanm the Sushwap Indian name furthe wild goat. No. III.?Makch 1889.] M

This content downloaded from 194.29.185.109 on Thu, 12 Jun 2014 20:28:26 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions 162 EXPLORATIONSIN THE GLACIER REGIONS OF THE killed, and the poor beast had once to go for thirty-six hours on a stretch without food, except the few biscuits we could spare), and immediately after our return thence, in an excursion of four days' duration over the Asulkan Pass down into the unknown valley, and on to the Dawson Glacier. The descent to the Geikie Glacier, down steep cliffs planed by snow slides, was not easy, but he proved himself to be quite equal to an average Swiss guide on the rocks, and knew so much about the trees and prospecting in general that he was a most agreeable companion. It would be impossible, without trespassing too much on your time, to go into details of our journeys. So I shall try and give a more general sketch of the chief features of the range. I have marked the main line of watershed of the Selkirk range on my map, and reference to it will show that it runs through Mount Cheops, Eoger's Pass, the Sir Donald range, and then cutting across the great Illecellewaet firn, continues its course along the peaks of the Dawson range. To the westward of this line there is a complexity of glacier-clad ranges, many peaks rising quite as high as those on the watershed; the valleys tending in a south-westerly course to the Columbia. To the eastward of the Divide, a great change comes over the aspect of the region. The Prairie Hills I have described above, and all the ranges between them and the Columbia, in its eastern portion, have a smooth rounded out? line, forming a strong contrast to the ranges on the other side of the Divide. There seem to be no glaciers, the ranges not being high enough for their formation. Among the higher ranges an immense number of small glaciers lie in the hollows, and two extensive snowfields are to be found within the limits of my map. One of these, being the source of the best known glacier in the whole region, on account of its being so clearly visible from the railway, I have called the great Illecellewaet firn, after the river of which it is the true source. This icefield, probably 500 feet thick, to the southward extends down into a valley as the Geikie Glacier, and to the eastward, having been joined by ice-streams coming from the Dawson range, it pours into Beaver Creek valley as the Deville Glacier. All these glaciers show evidence of shrinking. An immense moraine exists in the valley below the Illecellewaet Glacier, where in ancient times it was met by an extension of the Asulkan Glacier. Some of the blocks of quartzite in the moraine are of huge dimensions, one I measured being 50 feet long, 24 feet thick, and 33 feet high. Another isolated boulder farther down the valley, not far from the Glacier Hotel, measured 91 by 40 by 44 feet. The Illecellewaet Glacier descends little the Ehone the ice is abruptly into the valley resembling a Glacier; much broken, and it is too steep to walk on, so visitors have to rest at clean content with exploring the ice cave, and looking the beautiful matter. The snout of the ice, unpolluted by any morainic present

This content downloaded from 194.29.185.109 on Thu, 12 Jun 2014 20:28:26 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions SELKIRK RANGE,BRITISH COLUMBIA,IN 1888. 163 glacier looks as if it were advancing, for it bas overturned some bushes near its north-eastern corner. This, however, may be only a lateral shifting of its course, but to test it I tarred a number of boulders along its lower edge, within a few inches of the ice, and trust that some tourists may be interested in examining these marks when a year has elapsed, and communicating the result of their observations.* One day, having obtained the loan of a large 1J inch auger, we ascended the south-western moraine, and, by cutting a number of steps with our axes, traversed a portion of the ice, and set up poles in a straight line for about one-third of the entire width of the glacier. The holes we bored were about 15-18 inches deep. As we were away from our headquarters on distant expeditions, thirteen days elapsed before we were again able to examine the poles. In that time tbe ice bad melted a vertical foot over its whole surface. The poles had fallen down, but owing to the peculiar shape of the auger holes we were able to find the true positions and set up the poles again. Observations showed that the pole nearest the moraine had moved 5 feet, the next one 7 feet, and so on, by calculation we estimated that the centre of the ice had moved along 20 feet in the thirteen days. The Geikie Glacier, about 4 miles long and 1000 yards wide, is a much more interesting ice stream. Sheltered from the sun's rays by high cliffs, it flows along a level valley, so tbat one can walk across its lower portion in various directions without trouble. As it descends from the firn, it is much broken; then its surface becomes level, but witb numerous trans- verse crevasses. Flowing round a bend, longitudinal fissures are set up, crossing the others, and forming such a multitude of seracs that the surface presents an appearance more like some basaltic formation with the columns pulled asunder than anything else I can think of. This beautiful structure gives place to tbe frozen waves of a mer de glace, and tbe glacier terminates in longitudinal and slightly radiating depressions and crevasses. The lateral moraines are quite discernible down tbe sides of tbe valleys for a considerable distance below tbe termination of the glacier. There- is no medial moraine, and the Dawson Glacier, witb medial moraines, just stops short of being a tributary. Tbe other great snow-field to which I have alluded above, tbe Yan Horne Glacier, forms tbe source of tbe soutb-eastern fork of the main river of this valley. I was unable to visit it, and could only study it from a distance. As the valley with this fine river, formed from tbe streams of numerous glaciers, has no doubt some name near its mouth, I have refrained from naming it till it has been further explored. The week after we entered it for tbe first time, some prospectors * I had somedifficulty in gettingthe tar,and the hottle the superintendentof the line kindlysent to me fromDonald was only sufficientto make thirteenmarks in all. M 2

This content downloaded from 194.29.185.109 on Thu, 12 Jun 2014 20:28:26 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions 164 EXPLORATIONSIN THE GLACIER REGIONS OF THE entered it by ascending Flat Creek and crossing a low pass. I have heard that they called it Fish Creek, but as this name has been so frequently applied I do not wish to endorse it. From the summit of Mount Bonney I could see this river for about 20 miles of its course, and I incline to the belief that it finds its way to the Upper Arrow lake on the Columbia. All the rivers in the Selkirks are rushing torrents, blocked in many cases by fallen logs. One lakelet alone occurred within the region of our wanderings, and as that is close to Glacier House, it will, when a path is cut to it, form an interesting excursion for tourists. The level of perpetual snow in these mountains may be put down at about 7000 feet, and the upper limit of the forest at 6000 feet. Bed snow, caused by the presence of Protococcus nivalis, is of frequent occur? rence, and in July the surface layer was alive with myriads of little insects, so that when we wished to eat snow, we invariably scraped the surface offfirst. The long continuance of settled weather was evidently the cause of the extraordinary development of the pitted and ridged appearance which I have been able to illustrate in many of our photographs. Ere we left the Selkirks, the surface of the snow was everywhere discoloured by the soot from forest fires. British Columbia and Washington territory stand unrivalled for the grandeur of their pine forests. The forests of the Selkirks consist * principally of Douglas fir, cedar, f spruce, J hemlock,? and balsam.|] Boughly speaking, I have enumerated them with regard to elevation; the balsams, resembling our silver firs, as a rule, being nearest to the snow-line. They all attain huge dimensions, cedars eight feet in diameter being frequently met with, and they often grow so close together that I could not pass between their trunks. Fires have made havoc with these forests from time immemorial; lightning and spon? taneous combustion, caused by friction, have no doubt done their work; the Indians are known to have burned the forests for the purpose of producing a good crop of berries on the undergrowth in the ensuing year. It is much to be feared that the fate of the most useful portion of these forests, that near the railway, is now sealed; for the destruction wrought by sparks from the engine, and by neglected camp-fires, is of too constant occurrence for even the wonderful recuperative powers of the vegetation in these regions to stand against it. When the trees first catch fire, the flames run wildly through their tops and lighter branches. The smouldering away of the trunks is an after proeess, and often takes a long time. Sometimes the fires are extinguished by rain before this proeess is complete, so that in the midst of the living forest, numbers of gaunt charred trunks stand up as monu- * PseudotsugaDouglasii. f Thuyagigantea. % Picea Albaand Engelmanni. ? TsugaMertensiana. \\Abies suhalpina.

This content downloaded from 194.29.185.109 on Thu, 12 Jun 2014 20:28:26 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions SELKIRK RANGE,BRITISH COLUMBIA,IN 1888. 165 ments of fires that occurred years ago. These rot slowly, and usually fall after heavy rains?there being never any wind in these valleys, except an occasional blast accompanying a thunderstorm. Beneath the living trees thousands of prostrate trunks lie piled in every conceivable position, and in every stage of decay. These are to a * certain extent over-grown by rhododendrons and blueberry f bushes, and, in the damper parts of the forest, by the devil's club J?a plant beautiful to look at, with large bright-green palmate leaves and tufts of coral-red berries, but whose thorns, if they penetrate the flesh, produce festering sores. Picture yourself, then, with a 40-pound pack on your back, creeping along a slippery, fallen trunk, fending off the devil's club with an ice axe, wriggling under fallen trees, or eight feet from the ground on the top of them, and you will have some idea of what travel in the Selkirks means. This kind of place is bad enough in day light, but it is just a good degree worse at 10 p.m., and no moon- light. One day in a forest such as I have described my cousin and I gained a distance of one-and-a-half miles in seven hours* work. We had, however, double packs; when we had carried one pack on a little way we had to go back for the other. One piece of advice I have for any one who may wish to penetrate these valleys, where no trail exists. Always be under way at daybreak, and stick to the river bed. You will probably make fair progress, but in the afternoon the river will be swollen by the melting snow, and then you will be forced into the forest. Whenever the forest has been smashed down by snow slides, and invariably at the head of every valley, the worst obstruction to travel of all exists, viz. the alder scrub.? We would seek to avoid this at any cost, and make a wide detour to get into the tall timber rather than have to scramble through it. The alder stems, about two inches thick, form a dense jungle, and as they grow parallel to the ground, owing to having been pressed down by snow when young, you must continually keep scrambling over a selection of them, and at the same time bend low enough to get under the next branch above: not being able to get your foot to the ground, you slip on the branches, and, do what you can, often tumble over in a helpless manner. Things are slightly better when your course is down a declivity parallel with the direction of the branches, for then you slide along gaily, checking your speed by hanging from the branches as they pass. In many places one comes on a rank growth of the striking Veratrum viride, with its broad, succulent leaves, and when the boulders hidden by it are not very bad, there is a good lead so long as it lasts. Ferns are abundant. But what about the berries ? All I can say is that such a profusion of palatable fruit I never met with. I have picked pine- * B. alhiflorum. f VacciniumMyrtillus, &c. \ Fatsij,horrida. ? Ahiusvirescens.

This content downloaded from 194.29.185.109 on Thu, 12 Jun 2014 20:28:26 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions 166 EXPLORATIONSIN THE GLACIER REGIONS OF THE apples on the margin of tbe Pitch Lake in Trinidad, and gathered many other fruits of the tropics, but give me what you can only get in the Eocky Mountains?a bowl of blueberries squasbed with sugar, and what gives zest to the luxury, a hard day's work over, the fragrant smell of tbe cedar-wood camp fire, and tbe sun setting in golden splendour on a panorama of ice-clad peaks. Besides blueberries of two species, one better tban tbe other, there are raspberries in profusion,* tbimble berries, and black currants, wbicb, by-the-way, grow on goose- berry bushes. " " We pass from tbe forest regions to the heights above, alps we would call them in Switzerland. In the Selkirks, as yet, tbe brown chalets are missing, and our ear fails to catch the clang of the cow- bells, but the flowers are there in rich profusion. When in tbe high Alps of New Zealand, I bad to acknowledge tbat tbe alpine flora was far inferior, in colour at least, to that of Switzerland. Not so in tbe Selkirks. Were it not tbat tbe blue star of tbe gen tian is missing, I would say tbat we bad more colour in America. The most conspicuous of these Alpine plants is Castilleia miniata ; its scarlet blossoms giving a marvellous brigbtness to tbe mountain slopes, and to tbe older portions of tbe glacier moraines which were perfect gardens of flowers. Tbe nearest approach to Edelweiss which we found is Antennaria carpathica. The highest point at which we met witb Alpine plants was on tbe southern slopes of Eoss Pass, 8500 feet above tbe sea. We made the ascent of this pass from tbe north, first up a glacier and then up a steep snow couioir overhung by a cornice. We seemed to be far above all vegetation, but on reaching the col, we found the slopes facing tbe south rich in Alpine flowers, Dryas octopetala, Silene acaulis, and Eaplopappus Brandegeii being tbe most abundant; below these slopes on either side of the pass lay tbe region of perpetual ice. Professor Macoun of Ottawa bas kindly named for me tbe plants I collected, and I sbould like much to linger on this subject, but must say a few words on tbe animals to be found in these regions. Bears of at least three species wander in tbe valleys of the Selkirks, the black, the cinnamon, and tbe silver-tip as the variety of grizzly is called. They are very numerous, almost every day we came upon their tracks; but they are so sby, and the cover is so dense, tbat we never got a shot at one. Mountain goats in tbe more unfreqaented valleys are numerous, and so little used to man tbat on one occasion, when we were at break- fast, one of them walked right into our camp and stood inspecting us at ^q yards' distance; only for tbe red glow of tbe sun, rising through smoke of forest fires, I might have had his photograph. Cariboo are to be found in tbe lower ranges, but we never met any. The beaps of boulders above the forest region form a refuge for a variety of animals?tbe hoary marmot, measuring about 3 feet long, *Rubusvillosus, and otherspecies.

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being the commonest and most useful from a commissariat point of view. This creature gives a loud shrill whistle; so weird does it sound in these solitudes, that it returns to one's ears as an inseparable memory of the Selkirk valleys. The Sewellel is a strange beast; it too lives beneath the boulder heaps, and it has the most wonderful fancy for collecting flowers. One day when we were ascending a " glacier moraine my cousin said to me, Some one has been here before." " I said, Impossible!" but was utterly puzzled by finding a bouquet of flowers plucked, with their stems neatly together, just as though some child had laid them down. Soon afterwards we found similar bouquets at the burrows of these animals. What their particular object in collecting flowers is, it is difficult to understand: making hay for winter use I have seen suggested. Mountain rats, chipnunks, little chief hares, and other creatures are also common in these regions, rendering caches of provisions useless, unless tinned meats alone are hidden. My Alpine rope was nibbled up into little bits in one night, and on another occasion, some beast gnawed a hole through the tent while we were asleep, and ate the bread which I was using for a pillow. A skin I hung up to dry on the tent rope vanished, and the scampering of little feet up and down the outside of the tent, commenced every night the moment we retired to rest. Birds are decidedly scarce ; grouse of at least three species are the most frequent, and are an important help to the commissariat. The " last animal I shall name is the mosquito. In July it was a terror," in August it had vanished from the higher levels. The geological structure of a range like the Selkirks is no easy study. I made a considerable number of notes on the subject, and Prof. Bonney kindly examined the rocks which I collected. But the foldings and contortions of the strata are so complicated that I can only state a few broad facts, which may prove some help to those who follow. I have already alluded to the glacial features of the country. Earlier than the formations of this period, we seem in the central range to meet with no rocks later than paleeozoic. In the higher ranges greenish quartzites and micaceous schists are the commonest rocks. The sum? mit of Mount Bonney and the southern and south-western aretes of Sir Donald consist of a beautiful white, smooth, quartzite speckled in " the former case, with deep brown spots, probably iron or manganese oxides." Associated with these harder rocks are a number of remarkable silky-looking schists (phylites of Prof. Bonney), the result of great squeezing in the movements which upheaved the ranges. Boughly speaking then, the configuration of this district, with its complexity of valleys, is due to the disintegration and denudation of the softer schists and the permanence of the harder quartzites in mountain ridges. With regard to age, the rocks range from true Archaean to late pal8eozoio> possibly a little later.

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The older rocks within the area covered by my map occur in Mount MacDonald and the higher peaks to the southward. Newer rocks are found in the range from Eoss Pass to the Illecellewaet Valley, also down low in the bed of the Dawson Glacier and the low ridge between the great Illecellewaet Glacier and the Asulkan Valley. At Corbin's Pass we have moved further from the watershed, and about 2000 feet below the pass to the northward, a dark rock occurs with curious markings, which Prof. Bonney, and Mr. J. E. Marr consider to be caused by mineral deposits in what are probably the casts of Graptolites, and that probably the rock is of Ordovician (older Silurian) age. The presence of very old schists and gneisses would seem, then, to show that though the range called the Eockies on the Canadian Pacific * Eailway route, is the water parting, the Selkirks are geologically the true continuation of the Eocky Mountains of Montana, and the back bone of the continent. The minerals occurring in many places through the Selkirks, have given rise to great hopes for the future of the country. We met with no gold, but we found in several places galena, which, in the Selkirks is often rich in silver. Traces of copper and iron ores were widespread. With a few words on the climate I must conclude these notes. The fluctuations of the barometer at Glacier House never reached half an inch. The temperature at noon ranged from 50? to 85?. The average minimum temperature was about 40?, on one night only did it drop to 31?. On the peaks the wind was often strong, but in the valleys almost perpetual calm prevailed. The only wind experienced was the blast accompanying a thunderstorm, or the breeze caused by the descent of cool air from the snowy heights. This was very local; on the glaciers the downward blast was sometimes very strong, and the temperature low down on the glacier, lower than that at the summit, but at a little distance from the ice the breeze was scarcely felt, except in the evening, when it chilled the valley very quickly, after the sun had set. The south- west wind brought fine weather. Heavy rain came with the east wind. Eain fell on nine days out of forty, on which observations were reeorded by Mr. Swanzy. Three days only were really wet. Snow fell once at heights above 9000 feet, and once there was hail; we experienced four heavy thunderstorms. The weather on the whole was superb, there being no clouds in the sky for periods of nine or ten days' duration. We were told, however, that the month of June had been very wet. In winter there is a very heavy snowfall in the Selkirks, but owing to the immense extent of shedding, the trains run with great regularity all the year round. In February the "Chinook" winds begin to blow, resembling in many respects the Fohn winds of Switzerland and the hot " The ancientcrystalline rocks form no part of this portionof the RockyMoun- " tains. (' GeologicalSurvey of Canada/ preliminaryreport Rocky Mountains. p. 20b.).

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winds of the Oanterbury Plains in New Zealand; the snow melts quickly under their influence, and great snow slides take place. But having wandered beyond tbe limits of my own experiences, I must bring these notes to a close, and hope they may be of use to those wbo will visit this region of rushing streams, towering forests, rugged peaks, and fine glaciers, all of which combine to make it one of the most lovely districts on the surface of our planet.

Afterthe paper, Sir Charles Tupper said he was extremelyglad to be able to add a few words to the very interestingand instructivelecture. In passing over the line of the Canadian PacificRailway he saw scenerywhich was unsurpassedin any part of the world. Of coursehe had hut a very slight knowledgeof the veryinteresting section of the range which Mr. Greenhad described,and at his time of life,and considering the obvious perils attendingthe attempt,he would have to be contentedwith the very vivid descriptiongiven in the paper, and could not hope ever to see the places which had been passed over with so much courage,zeal, intelligence,and knowledge of the suhject by Mr. Green. He quite eoincided in the opinion that the journey over the far surpassed in interestthat over either the NorthernPacific or the Union and CentralPacific. He had travelledover all three. The Great Humboldt Desert was in the formof a V, with the apex to the north. In passing over the Union and Central the travellerpassed the base of the desert, whichwas of a veryuninteresting character. The NorthernPacific line passedacross the cone at a much higherelevation, but a very considerableportion of the country was bleak and desolate. The Canadian Pacific avoided that, because the line was beyondthe apex of the cone; and it would be difficultto imaginescenery of a more interestingcharacter than was met with fromthe time the railway entered the Kicking Horse Pass to the terminusat the Pacific Ocean. He had no doubt that thoroughinvestigation of that sectionwould resultin the discovery,not only of the rich silver-minesof which the lecturerhad seen something,but also of gold-mines and othervaluable minerals. Captain Wharton, r.n. (Hydrographerto the Admiralty),said he was in the Eocky Mountains last year, and met Mr. Green at the Glacier House. His stay therewas very short,but he saw enough to enable him to appreciatethe greatvalue of the workMr. Green had done. That portionof the Eocky Mountainswas almost unknown, and quite unmapped. It was true that the Canadian Pacific Eailway traversedit at one part,but the mass of the mountains had never been mapped or visited by any human beings. He believed that the Indians never penetratedinto the Selkirks. Botanists and geologistshad great cause to thank Mr. Greenfor the excellent map he had produced. There was a terribledestruction of the forests going on. The travelleroften saw columnsof smokewhich obliterated the landscape. In his own short trip across he saw two forestsof magnificenttimber, worth any amount of money,in full blaze; and he believed that was unpreventible. Some? times the fireswere caused by cinders fromthe engines,and at othertimes by men, prospectorsof mineralsand others,carelessly leaving pipes alight; and when once those resinoustrees caugbt fire,they burned with extraordinaryfury, eating the rootsof the treesout, and therebyloosening the soil. The mountainswere extremely steep,so that the soil was easily washed offwhen unprotectedby vegetation,and it was very doubtfulwhether the forestsso destroyedwould ever again flourish,and any one who wanted to see the Canadian Pacific line in its gloryshould go there very shortly,because a great deal of its beauty would soon be spoiled.

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Mr. Topham said he visited the Selkirks last spring,and again in the autumn, and he could bear his testimonyto the great accuracyof Mr. Green'ssketches. Few places that he had ever visited were more beautifulthan the Selkirks,and he hoped to go thereagain. He wentout therewith the intentionof climbingMount Sir Donald, but did not succeed. In the spring he could not, and in the autumn his party was not sufficientlystrong to attempt it. He agreed with the last speaker that if any- body wanted to see the Selkirks,the soonerhe went the better. The scenerywas sufferingalready fromthe forestfires, caused partlyby the railway, partlyby the carelessnessof travellingparties. Mr. Freshfield said that ProfessorBonney and Mr. Dent, the Presidentof the Alpine Club, had hoped to have been presentat the meeting,but both were unavoid- ably prevented. Mr. Green had hardly done full justice to his scientificwork. Several of the valleys that he had mapped out had never beforebeen shownon any map, and Mr. Green had, he thought,often resisted going to the tops of peaks in orderthat he mightget to moreplaces where he could take his plane-table. Special thanks were due to any traveller who broughthome such admirablephotographic illustrations. Mr. Green's pictures gave a very good impressionof the sceneryof the ,which seemed to resemblethat of the Tyrol. The glaciers were about on the same scale as those in the Central Tyrol, the peaks being,as there,steep relatively to the valleys, but stumpyrelatively to the glacier basins. " We sometimesheard a good deal of the big things" in the United States. The otherday hehad had a seriesof photographsof theglaciers there sent him, and he was glad to find,in glaciersat least, the States were far behind Switzerland. Gompared with those of the Alps, the icefieldsfigured were as PrimroseHill is to Mont Blanc. He had, therefore,he confessed,on hearing Mr. Green's account, felt a momentary apprehensionlest the temptingdescription of the Selkirk glaciers should lead the Americans to wish to annex a range so well providedwith a commoditythey are poor in. But he was glad to be remindedthat within theirown territories,if not in the States, the Americans now possess noble glaciers, for Mr. Topham would shortlyreport to the Society that in Alaska he had found glacierswhich, if not the most extensivein the world, were certainlyfar greaterthan any in Europe, and the most accessible of theirsize. A vote of thanks to Mr. Green concludedthe meeting.

GEOGRAPHICAL NOTES.

The Exploration of the Upper Salwin and Lu Rivers.?Lieut. Vans Agnew has undertaken a journey to the Upper Salwin and South- eastern Tibet, with the object of attempting the solution of the problem of the course of the Lu river?whether to the Irawadi or to the Salwin? propounded by General J. T. Walker in his paper read to the Society on the 25th April, 1887. The Council of the Society has sanctioned a con? tribution of 1001. towards the expenses of this expedition. Lieut. Vans Agnew leaves India for the Salwin in the course of the present month. The Russian Expedition to Thibet.?It is announced that the ex? pedition, which under the leadership of General Prejevalsky was on its way to Thibet when it was brought to a stand by the untimely death of the leader in November last, is not to be abandoned. A fresh start is to

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